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 Journal Of Contemporary Urban Affairs
2018, Volume 2, Number 1, pages 45– 54

Evaluating energy consumption in terms of climatic

factors: A case study of Karakol residential
apartments, Famagusta, North Cyprus
*Dr. ROKHSANEH RAHBARIANYAZD1, Dr. LAYLA RASWOL2
1&2 Department of Architecture, Nawroz University, Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
E mail: rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com E mail: layla.raswol@uod.ac

A R T I C L E I N F O:
Article history:
Received 23 July 2017
Accepted 23 August 2017
Available online 23 August
2017
Keywords:
Residential Apartments;
Energy Consumption;
Climatic Factors;
Famagusta.
This work is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution
NonCommercial - NoDerivs 4.0.
"CC-BY-NC-ND"
ABSTRACT
Throughout the past few decades, research has demonstrated that climatic factors are
some of the most important issues to be considered in respect of energy consumption
in buildings. Climatic factors, therefore, directly influence the economic sector. In
order to study the impact of climatic factors in Karakol residential buildings in terms
of energy consumption, an evaluation of the studies (literature survey) effected in
relevant climates, and the analysis of the existing buildings according to these studies
is essential. This represents the aim of this research and the other is to present design
strategies for minimizing the negative impact of climatic factors on energy demand in
these buildings. To approach the research objectives, the climate of the region was
initially investigated. In an attempt to evaluate some of the current housing in the
Karakol district of Famagusta in terms of the climatic factors, three types of residential
apartments were identified and evaluated through observation, interview, and also by
the distribution and complication of qualitative and statistical questionnaires to and by
-
the occupants of the apartments. In this paper, basic climatic problems, as a result of
which lead to increased energy consumption in residential apartments in respect of
heating and cooling were identified and reported.
JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS (2018) 2(1), 45-54.
https://doi.org/10.25034/ijcua.2018.3658

www.ijcua.com
Copyright © 2017 Journal Of Contemporary Urban Affairs. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction for occupants in buildings necessitate the need

to control the climatic factors of the building.
In most societies such as United States (EIA1, 1999)
and also India (Indraganti, 2010) the use of
energy in residential buildings for heating and *Corresponding Author:
Department of Architecture, Nawroz University, Duhok,
cooling which provides thermal comfort, is one
Kurdistan Region, Iraq
of the highest consuming sector. Providing
E-mail address: rokhsaneh.rahbarianyazd@gmail.com
comfortable and adequate working conditions

1
Energy Information Administration
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018
For instance, the issues of temperature control,
humidity, lighting and ventilation require the
utilization of energy. On the other hand,
successful energy conservation is achieved by
aiming for the least possible energy consumption
and this will be achieved through the support
and awareness of both the architect and the
resident (Landsberg & Stewart, 1980, p.3-5).
As is demonstrated by the research, energy
consumption can be influenced by climatic
factors such as temperature, winds, moisture or
precipitation and many other factors, so these
factors equally and directly have influence on
the economic sector and present a major
problem in residential apartment buildings,
which are generally chosen by people with
lower incomes, who wish to have less expensive
housing, but who, in fact, because of
inappropriate design features and up paying out
more than in necessary for energy consumption.
Buildings are comprised of two parts: the interior
and the exterior surfaces (roof, external walls,
glazing, and floor). Climatic factors impact on
the exterior surface of buildings and the energy
transmission because of the difference
temperature and also surface transmission
coefficient will be done by these exterior
surfaces (Landsberg & Stewart 1980, P.16-20). In
the US between the years 1973–1984, the sudden
increase in energy costs attracted the attention
of architects to the issue of energy management
in buildings. As a result of this awareness and
focus, the energy efficiency of buildings greatly
improved in respect of improving the design and
functioning of windows, roof and wall insulation,
and heating and cooling systems, etc.
(Galloway, 2004, p.182).
As a result using appropriate materials in external
walls and design methods for the existing
climatic condition factors is essential. A literature
survey on the residential buildings in the relevant
climatic condition was carried out to identify
typical designs developed in respect of climate.
The construction of buildings as per climatic
factors is an excellent case for addressing the
issue of energy consumption efficiency.
2. Methodology
Qualitative and qualitative approach methods
have been used in this research and the
techniques applied are those of personal
observation, in depth interviews, administered
qualitative and statistical questionnaires with
closed-end questions, review of related
literature, and internet sources.
In general the most significant important factors
that impact on energy consumption are:
location and climate data of the building,
orientation of the building, installed materials,
building design and the selecting of the
technical systems (Leskovar, & Premrov, 2011).
This study attempts to survey some of these items
due to literature review and as aforementioned
three residential apartments have been
identified in the Karakol district which is shown in
figure 2. Analyzes have been done through
interviews and questionnaire with the occupants
of the Karakol district.
3. Climate zone survey
The district of Karakol in Famagusta has a
transition climate, which lies between a
composite and a hot, humid climate, however
because of proximity to the sea it is called hot-
humid climate (Özdeniz and Hançer, 2005;
Hançer, 2005).
4. Literature survey of the relevant climate on
buildings
In order to evaluate the impact of climatic
factors on residential buildings in Karakol_ in
terms of energy consumption, it is necessary to
survey_ the literature review and analyze the
buildings in this area.
4.1 Orientation
Oktay’s (2002) evaluation of the vernacular
housing in Northern Cyprus, which were adapted
for the hot and humid climate, offered useful
suggestions such as orienting living spaces
towards the south using light colors on the
external walls and roofs in order to reflect the
sunshine, using a narrow plan with opposite
windows in order to create cross-ventilation and
thus creating and designing more sustainable
conditions for new buildings.
According to Givoni (1994) creating cross
ventilation in buildings with two openings in
different walls (one of which is facing to the wind
direction) for all the rooms in a hot-humid climate
is very useful. Providing these openings for each
room in buildings especially apartment buildings,
but ensuring the free flow of air between all
rooms in the buildings is essential.
Aksugur (1996) study examined four cities in
Cyprus with four different climates, he and also
Thomas (2002, p. 156-158) in his book made some
recommendations for minimizing the energy
usage in buildings in a hot-humid climate.
Buildings in this climate would be oriented with
Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Dr. Layla Raswol 46
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018
the longest sides toward north and south with
openings for ventilation and they would also
have walls to provide shade and external
opening by using wide eaves and deep
verandas. The ventilation of roof space for
minimizing the high solar radiation was also
included in their recommendations.
Hot and humid climates usually require air
conditioning in order to provide thermal comfort.
This process requires energy. Energy
performance in buildings refers to the ability of a
building to function with minimum energy
utilization. This thermal comfort could be
improved by creating sufficient microclimate
strategies in the surrounding area of the buildings
(Zain, Taib, & Shah Baki, 2007).
Acceptable air speed depends on the
environment temperature and humidity. At a
temperature below 33e°c, an increase in air
speed will decrease the heat sensation (Givoni,
1998, p.17). According to the data for
Famagusta’s climate (Aksugur, 1996) which is
shown in figure 1, the air speed process will make
the residential spaces in Karakol comfortable.
Figure 1. Average minimum and maximum temperatures for
Famagusta over the year (retrieved from url1, 01thapril, 2015).
4.2 Materials
4.2.1 Roof and floor
The Ozdeniz & Hançer (2005) Study examined 14
different types of roof construction, which is used
in the hot-humid climate of Cyprus in terms of
energy loss and gain. The sloped timber roof with
ventilated attic space and inner thermal
insulation materials proved to be the best choice
for this climate to avoid building up heat in
summer.
For the hot and humid climate minimizing the
conductive heat gain in the summer (Aksugur ,
1996) by using a ventilated double roof with
aluminum foil which is attached above the
ceiling is essential (Eco-housing mainstreaming,
2009, p.14; Dinsev & Mohd, 2004). In this respect,
the roofs with thermal insulation performed the
most efficiently.
Coch’s (1998) study investigated several
typologies of the vernacular dwelling depending
on the climate. One such evaluation was carried
out in a hot and humid climate. In this climate
the roofs are broken constructed so that the
hotter air is held at the top along with and an
opening for circulating the air in order to avoid_
overheating. These steep slopes_ also provide
useful drainage for the frequent rains. The floors
are raised to better receive the breezes and are
permeable to the air, so in this way the-
ventilation facility of the whole envelope of the
house is complete.
4.2.2 Windows
Windows and other glazed areas are weak in
respect of the transfer of unwanted heat. The
resistance of the glazing material, the number of
glazed panels, the air spaces between, and the
design and detail of the frame affect the
insulation value of the glazing unit. (Watson &
Labs, 1983, p.171).
Windows, as a significant part of a building’s
external surface can heat spaces through the
glass: the best glass_ is transparent so that the
light can reflect the heat. The best reduction of
glassing in solar gain is Tri-pane-plate (30%
reduction of solar gain) compared with plate
glass, double pane-ordinary and double pane-
plate (Landsberg & Stewart, 1980, p.30-31;
Galloway, 2004, p.21).
Aksugur’s (1996) suggestion for hot climates was
double-glazing with wooden frames or aluminum
frames with thermal break type.
The thermal quality of different types of glass
varies; low E double glazing is the standard type
and triple glazing is more commonly used for
residential buildings. However the perfect
glazing systems are those that can react flexibly
to the changing incoming radiation quantities
and interior conditions by using a movable louvre
between the panes of the double or triple
glazing units (Hegger et al., 2008 p. 91-97).
4.2.3 Shading
The outcomes of the shading study (Aksugur,
1996; Galloway, 2004, p.19-25) shows that rooms
with windows which are located on the south
side of a building become hot in summer. In
order to combat this problem a permanent
awing could attached to the building for shade.
Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Dr. Layla Raswol 47
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018

4.2.4 External walls the occupants were interviewed to obtain their

opinion about their energy usage and its cost.
Hot climates such as Cyprus are excellent for
These apartments were analyzed in respect of
providing passive solar heating (Lapithis, 2004)
their orientations, their spatial arrangements,
but a balance is required between heating and
their dimensions, surface finishes, construction
cooling in order to prevent overheating and
materials used, and types of glazing.
discomfort in summer. In order to achieve this
elements of such a dwelling are double- paned A statistical questionnaire survey was
glass on the south side where the living spaces administered to 100 inhabitants in various
are located, the use of mass material such as apartments within the Karakol district. The
concrete, brick and stone for storing up the sun’s questionnaires were completed by the
energy as thermal mass, using windows and respondents within a specified period and
doors or maybe fans for convicting the heat collected. Out of 100 questionnaires 80 were
throughout the house. (North Carolina retrieved from the respondents.
Department of Commerce, 1999, p.5-6; Givoni,
Therefore, this data analysis will make use of 80
1992). Thermal mass just stores the heat and
questionnaires. The data contained in the
does not work as an insulating material (Eco-
questionnaires was used to guide the researcher
housing Mainstreaming, 2009, p.3).
in his findings and to support accurate results.
4.2.5 Insulation
5. Data Collection, Sample Size, and Analysis
Thermal insulation in buildings not only reduces
Random sampling techniques were adopted for
the need for air-conditioning, but also reduces
this study, in the form of three apartments with
the annual energy cost. In all climates walls and
two, four and six division of floors (Figure 2) and
roofs must be insulated in order to reduce the
the occupants were interviewed to obtain their
heat transmission. Moisture has negative effects
opinion about their energy usage and its cost.
on the insulating efficiency of material (Smith,
These apartments were analyzed in respect of
2005, p.69). Due to the negative impact of
their orientations, their spatial arrangements,
moisture on thermal insulation over time it must
their dimensions, surface finishes, construction
be controlled in buildings with the use of
materials used, and types of glazing.
ventilation or other means (Al-Homoud, 2005).
A statistical questionnaire survey was
Roofs provide the main heating for living spaces
administered to 100 inhabitants in various
as a result of radiation. In order to reduce
apartments within the Karakol district. The
overheating in summer the roof must be
questionnaires were completed by the
protected by the appropriate insulation to
respondents within a specified period and
provide the desired U-value (thermal
collected. Out of 100 questionnaires 80 were
conductivity) (Eco-housing Mainstreaming,
retrieved from the respondents.
2009, p.18).
Therefore, this data analysis will make use of 80
Data Collection, Sample Size, and Analysis
questionnaires. The data contained in the
Random sampling techniques were adopted for questionnaires was used to guide the researcher
this study, in the form of three apartments with in his findings and to support accurate results.
two, four and six division of floors (Figure 2) and

Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Dr. Layla Raswol 48

 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018

5.1 Evaluation of three residential apartments

Figure 2. Position of three residential apartment in Karakol area for surveying (Retrieved from URL 2, 13thmarch, 2016), and also
plans of three sample apartments; from left to right. Uzun apartment Merkez, Uzun apartment 10, Muçize apartment (drawn by
author).

5.1.1. Orientation area and with the same number of occupants

Table 1 demonstrates the features of selective
units in Uzun apartment 10 and Muçize
apartments (Figure 3 & 4).
An analysis of the electric bills over a 4 month
period (January, February, March, April) and by
conducting personal interviews with the
occupants of the buildings within the –same
showed that the occupants located on the
North and North-East sides of these buildings
consumed more energy, than the occupants or
users on the South and South- East side of the
building. This means, of course, that they pay
more for their energy in winter. In addition,
photographs of the exteriors were also
recorded, as shown in Figure 3 &4.

Table 1. Feature of selective units (area, orientation and also number in household).

Area m2 Number in Orientation of the Position of living

household units room in each unit
Block A, Unit 1 150 3 North North-West
Block A, Unit 2 150 3 South South-West
Block B, Unit 1 60 2 North-East East
Block B, Unit 2 60 2 South-East East
Block B, Unit 3 80 3 North-West West
Block B, Unit 4 80 3 South-West West

Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Dr. Layla Raswol 49

 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018

Figure 3. From right to left. North, South and East facade of Figure 4. From left to right. West, North, South façade of the
the Uzun apartment 10 (research’s field study, taken by Muçize apartment (research’s field study, taken by author,
author, 2016). 2016).

5.1.2 Ventilation
By analyzing the selective plan of Karakol windows so the air cannot circulate in the
buildings, it was observed that the space especially in living room and during
prevailing wind in summer, which comes the summer the space becomes
from the South cannot reach some of the overheated and the occupants are
units, therefore these buildings become required use the air conditioning during
overheated in summer. As is shown in Figure May and June, when it should not normally
5 block C, unit 1 does not have opposite be necessary to do so.

Figure 5. Movement of wind in block C, & block B.

5.2 Evaluation of Karakol residential apartments Glazing Types

5.2.1 Glazing type
From the research study as indicated in the pie
5% 5% Single glass
chart (Figure 6), it was observed that 75% of the 15%
glazed units in the Karakol district are single 75% Double glass
glazing; this drastically increases the energy Reflective glass
consumption as energy escapes from the space
during heating or cooling (Landsberg & Stewart Tinted glasses
1980, p.31). This factor will increase the cost and
monthly energy consumption of these buildings.
Figure 6. The above pie chart shows the different glazing
types in Karakol residential buildings.

Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Dr. Layla Raswol 50

 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018
5.2.2 External wall material
As it shown in figure 7, the research indicated
that most of the external wall materials [about
45%] in these buildings are composed of brick. It
was also established that there was no isolation
in the walls of the building, which considerably
increases the energy usage.
Figure 7. The above bar chart illustrates the external wall
building material in the Karakol residential buildings.
From the perspective of embodied energy,
brick provide good thermal mass, but it must be
well insulated in order to avoid moisture
collecting especially at the intersection point
between the windows and the walls and in
order to prevent heat transfer (Eco-housing
Mainstreaming, 2009, p.3). In the research study
it was also noted that the total energy
consumption is primarily dependent on the
conductivity value of the insulating materials in
the walls.
5.2.3 Wall thickness
Figure 8 illustrates the effect of wall thickness on
the energy consumption of these buildings. It
was observed from the survey that all the
buildings wall thicknesses are about 25 cm
(60%). It was also noted that the walls are not
insulated and, therefore will not, store or retain
energy in the external or internal spaces of these
buildings following heating or cooling.
“Moisture in a building component always
increases the transmission because the thermal
conductivity of water is 0.6 W/MK. Normally
present in the air in the form of water vapor, it
infiltrates the insulation and owing to the
temperature difference can condense there,
which reduce the insulating effect and frost
damage. So insulating materials should be
protecting against moisture” (Hegger, et al.,
2008, p.149).
Exetrnal wall thickness
5% 2.5% 2.5% Less than 20 cm
10%
20 cm
60% 25 cm
30 cm
More than 30 cm
Figure 8. The above pie chart illustrates the external wall
thickness in the Karakol residential buildings.
This indicates that wall thickness has little impact
on the annual energy consumption. This
suggests that building designers should focus on
alternative strategies, some of which are
contained in this research study, to achieve
more significant reductions in the total energy
consumption. Furthermore, incorporating
thicker walls in the initial building design and
planning stages would seem more appropriate
than the saving in running cost due to the
reduction in the overall energy use.
5.3 Height of buildings
The most significant things that the researcher
observed about the buildings in the Karakol
district is that in some of the buildings due to their
poor orientation, height and distance between
them only some parts of these buildings receive
direct sun at noon, whilst others receive it during
the morning and/or evening. Furthermore, and
also as a result of dividing the building plan into
four or more, only one side of the buildings gets
the best wind for thermal comfort, which leads
to a reduction of energy consumption in
summer.
5.4 Shading
The researcher also observed that most of the
buildings do not have any shading devices or
awnings on the south façade and,
consequently, the sun’s rays enter these
buildings directly at certain times in summer. As
a result of this the apartments become too hot
for the occupants and the air conditioning is
required for cooling purposes which results in an
increase in the energy costs.
5.5 Construction details
It was also discovered that the intersection
points (window-wall, ceiling-wall) were
influenced by moisture, which also leads to
increases in heat transmission.
Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Dr. Layla Raswol 51
 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY URBAN AFFAIRS, 2(1), 45-54 / 2018
5.6 Roof construction
The researcher also noted that the flat roof
construction of these buildings, which also have
no attic space, more readily permits the direct
entry of the sun’s rays into the building, which, in
summer, creates an overheated living space,
which is not at all appropriate for this hot-humid
climate.
5.7 Building regulation
From the research carried out and as a result of
an interview conducted with two professional
architects who study environmental control and
climatic design in Famagusta, it was established
that there are no specific buildings regulations,
codes or guidelines in this city in respect of
building controls.
6. Conclusions
As a result, more than half of the energy
consumption in the Karakol residential
apartments is used for heating and cooling. It
may be concluded from this research that the
level of the consumption of the energy in this
area is due to inappropriate design planning,
such as the inordinate division of the floors in the
apartments, which created the unfavorable
orientation of some of the units. And also the use
of improper, inappropriate building materials
along with the lack of insulation, which,
consequently, leads to increased energy
demands and costs. Therefore, it is necessary to
adapt the residential buildings in this area in
order to minimize the passive, negative impacts
of climatic factors on energy demand for
heating and cooling.
From this study the research established that the
planning and design process of residential
apartments in a hot-humid climate, to ensure
reduce energy consumption- should include a
number of important factors. They are as follows:
1- In designing plans for residential apartments
it is important to divide the floor in a way
which permits the units to have both a north
and south orientation, in order to achieve
cross ventilation in summer and to have
access to the sun’s rays in winter.
2- If it is not possible to have cross ventilation in
the apartments, the inclusion of a solar
chimney is a good alternative method of
circulating the air on all the floors on hot
days (Eco-housing Mainstreaming, 2009,
p.23).
3- In hot climates, thermal insulation should be
used in the walls. Some of the suggested wall
insulation types are mineral wool slabs,
expanded/extruded polystyrene, or
aerated concrete blocks (Eco-housing
Mainstreaming, 2009, p.20).
4- Using awning on the south side of buildings
in order to prevent the direct penetration of
the sun’s rays in summer.
5- Using sloped timber roofs with attic space
and also thermal insulation materials under
the roofs to insulate against the direct entry
of the sun’s rays, thus avoiding overheating
in summer (Ozdeniz & Hançer, 2005).
6- Using double or triple glazing with wooden
frames and paying attention to the junction
points between the window frames and the
walls in these buildings is also essential.
In conclusion, therefore, if these suggested
solutions are not incorporated by architects and
construction companies in the design and
planning of buildings in hot-humid climates in
order to reduce the negative impact of such
climates on buildings, it is necessary and
important to introduce and establish building
regulations or codes for both designers and
building constructors to follow in order to
produce buildings and living space appropriate
for the hot-humid climate, as in the Karakol
district of Northern Cyprus.
Acknowledgments
This research did not receive any specific grant
from funding agencies in the public,
commercial, or non-for-profit sectors.
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from
Dr. Rokhsaneh Rahbarianyazd, Dr. Layla Raswol 54
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
artist, the decorator, the paper mills’ agent, and, last of all, the printer and the
binder. This was not the way the old-time printers had planned their books.
With all their mechanical limitations, they had followed architectural lines kept
consistent and harmonious because controlled by a single mind, while the
finished volume of the eighteen-nineties was a composite production of many
minds, with no architectural plan. No wonder that the volumes manufactured,
even in the most famous Presses, failed to compare with those produced in
Venice by Jenson and Aldus four centuries earlier!
When I succeeded John Wilson as head of the University Press in 1895, I
determined to carry out the resolution I had formed four years earlier, while
sitting in on the Eugene Field conference, of following the example of the
early master-printers so far as this could be done amidst modern conditions.
Some of my publisher friends were partially convinced by my contention that
if the printer properly fulfilled his function he must know how to express his
clients’ mental conception of the physical attributes of prospective volumes in
terms of type, paper, presswork, and binding better than they could do it
themselves. The Kelmscott publications, which appeared at this time, were of
great value in emphasizing my contention, for William Morris placed printing
back among the fine arts after it had lapsed into a trade.
I had no idea, when I presented my plan, of persuading my friends to
produce typographical monuments. No demand has ever existed for volumes
of this type adequate to the excessive cost involved by the perfection of
materials, the accuracy of editorial detail, the supreme excellence of
typography and presswork, and the glory of the binding. Sweynheim and
Pannartz, Gutenberg’s successors, were ruined by their experiments in Greek;
the Aldine Press in Venice was saved only by the intervention of Jean Grolier;
Henri Étienne was ruined by his famous Thesaurus, and Christophe Plantin
would have been bankrupted by his Polyglot Bible had he not retrieved his
fortunes by later and meaner publications. Nor was I unmindful of similar
examples that might have been cited from more modern efforts, made by
ambitious publishers and printers.
What I wanted to do was to build low-cost volumes upon the same
principles as de luxe editions, eliminating the expensive materials but retaining
the harmony and consistency that come from designing the book from an
architectural standpoint. It adds little to the expense to select a type that
properly expresses the thought which the author wishes to convey; or to have
the presses touch the letters into the paper in such a way as to become a part
of it, without that heavy impression which makes the reverse side appear like
an example of Braille; or to find a paper (even made by machine!) soft to the
feel and grateful to the eye, on which the page is placed with well-considered
margins; or to use illustrations or decorations, if warranted at all, in such a way
as to assist the imagination of the reader rather than to divert him from the
text; to plan a title page which, like the door to a house, invites the reader to
open it and proceed, its type lines carefully balanced with the blank; or to bind
(even in cloth!) with trig squares and with design or lettering in keeping with
the printing inside.
By degrees the publishers began to realize that this could be done, and
when once established, the idea of treating the making of books as a
manufacturing problem instead of as a series of contracts with different
concerns, no one of which knew what the others were doing, found favor. The
authors also preferred it, for their literary children now went forth to the
world in more becoming dress. Thus serving in the capacity of book architect
and typographical advisor, instead of merely as a contrasting printer, these
years have been lived in a veritable Kingdom of Books, in company with
interesting people,—authors and artists as well as publishers,—in a delightfully
intimate way because I have been permitted to be a part of the great
adventure.

During these years I have seen dramatic changes. Wages were somewhat
advanced between 1891 and the outbreak of the World War, but even at this
latter date the cost of manufacturing books was less than half of what it is now.
This is the great problem which publishers have to face today. When the cost
of everything doubled after the World War, the public accepted the necessity
of paying twice the price for a theater ticket as a matter of course; but when
the retail price of books was advanced in proportion to the cost of
manufacture, there was a great outcry among buyers that authors, publishers,
and booksellers were opportunists, demanding an unwarranted profit. As a
matter of fact, the novel which used to sell at $1.35 per copy should now sell
at $2.50 if the increased costs were properly apportioned. The publisher today
is forced to decline many promising first novels because the small margin of
profit demands a comparatively large first edition.
 Unless a publisher can sell 5,000 copies as a minimum it is impossible for
him to make any profit upon a novel. Taking this as a basis, and a novel as
containing 320 pages, suppose we see how the $2.00 retail price distributes
itself. The cost of manufacture, including the typesetting, electrotype plates,
cover design, jacket, brass dies, presswork, paper, and binding, amounts to 42
cents per copy (in England, about 37 cents). The publisher’s cost of running
his office, which he calls “overhead,” is 36 cents per copy. The minimum
royalty received by an author is 10 per cent. of the retail price, which would
give him 20 cents. This makes a total cost of 98 cents a copy, without
advertising. But a book must be advertised.
Every fifty dollars spent in advertising on a five thousand edition adds a
cent to the publisher’s cost. The free copies distributed for press reviews
represent no trifling item. A thousand dollars is not a large amount to be spent
for advertising, and this means 20 cents a copy on a 5000 edition, making a
total cost of $1.18 per copy and reducing the publisher’s profit to 2 cents, since
he sells a two-dollar book to the retail bookseller for $1.20. The bookseller
figures that his cost of doing business is one-third the amount of his sales, or,
on a two-dollar book, 67 cents. This then shows a net profit to the retail
bookseller of 13 cents, to the publisher of 2 cents, and to the author of 20
cents a copy.
Beyond this, there is an additional expense to both bookseller and
publisher which the buyer of books is likely to overlook. It is impossible to
know just when the demand for a book will cease, and this means that the
publisher and the bookseller are frequently left with copies on hand which
have to be disposed of at a price below cost. This is an expense that has to be
included in the book business just as much as in handling fruit, flowers, or
other perishable goods.
When a publisher is able to figure on a large demand for the first edition,
he can cut down the cost of manufacture materially; but, on the other hand,
this is at least partially offset by the fact that authors whose books warrant
large first editions demand considerably more than 10 per cent. royalty, and
the advertising item on a big seller runs into large figures.

I wish I might say that I had seen a dramatic change in the methods
employed in the retail bookstores! There still exists, with a few notable
exceptions, the same lack of realization that familiarity with the goods one has
to sell is as necessary in merchandizing books as with any other commodity.
Salesmen in many otherwise well-organized retail bookstores are still painfully
ignorant of their proper functions and indifferent to the legitimate
requirements of their prospective customers.
Some years ago, when one of my novels was having its run, I happened to
be in New York at a time when a friend was sailing for Europe. He had
announced his intention of purchasing a copy of my book to read on the
steamer, and I asked him to permit me to send it to him with the author’s
compliments. Lest any reader be astonished to learn that an author ever buys a
copy of his own book, let me record the fact that except for the twelve which
form a part of his contract with the publisher, he pays cash for every copy he
gives away. Mark Twain dedicated the first edition of The Jumping Frog to “John
Smith.” In the second edition he omitted the dedication, explaining that in
dedicating the volume as he did, he had felt sure that at least all the John
Smiths would buy books. To his consternation he found that they all expected
complimentary copies, and he was hoist by his own petard!
With the idea of carrying out my promise to my friend, I stepped into one
of the largest bookstores in New York, and approached a clerk, asking him for
the book by title. My pride was somewhat hurt to find that even the name was
entirely unfamiliar to him. He ran over various volumes upon the counter, and
then turned to me, saying, “We don’t carry that book, but we have several
others here which I am sure you would like better.”
“Undoubtedly you have,” I agreed with him; “but that is beside the point. I
am the author of the book I asked for, and I wish to secure a copy to give to a
friend. I am surprised that a store like this does not carry it.”
Leaning nonchalantly on a large, circular pile of books near him, the clerk
took upon himself the education of the author.
“It would require a store much larger than this to carry every book that is
published, wouldn’t it?” he asked cheerfully. “Of course each author naturally
thinks his book should have the place of honor on the bookstalls, but we have
to be governed by the demand.”
It was humiliating to learn the real reason why this house failed to carry
my book. I had to say something to explain my presumption even in assuming
that I might find it there, so in my confusion I stammered,
 “But I understood from the publishers that the book was selling very
well.”
“Oh, yes,” the clerk replied indulgently; “they have to say that to their
authors to keep them satisfied!”
With the matter thus definitely settled, nothing remained but to make my
escape as gracefully as circumstances would permit. As I started to leave, the
clerk resumed his standing position, and my eye happened to rest on the pile
of perhaps two hundred books upon which he had been half-reclining. The
jacket was strikingly familiar. Turning to the clerk I said severely,
“Would you mind glancing at that pile of books from which you have just
risen?”
“Oh!” he exclaimed, smiling and handing me a copy, “that is the very book
we were looking for, isn’t it?”
It seemed my opportunity to become the educator, and I seized it.
“Young man,” I said, “if you would discontinue the practice of letting my
books support you, and sell a few copies so that they might support me, it
would be a whole lot better for both of us.”
“Ha, ha!” he laughed, graciously pleased with my sally; “that’s a good line,
isn’t it? I really must read your book!”

The old-time publisher is passing, and the author is largely to blame. I have
seen the close association—in many cases the profound friendship—between
author and publisher broken by the commercialism fostered by some literary
agents and completed by competitive bids made by one publishing house to
beguile a popular author away from another. There was a time when a writer
was proud to be classified as a “Macmillan,” or a “Harper” author. He felt
himself a part of the publisher’s organization, and had no hesitation in taking
his literary problems to the editorial advisor of the house whose imprint
appeared upon the title pages of his volumes. A celebrated Boston authoress
once found herself absolutely at a standstill on a partially completed novel. She
confided her dilemma to her publisher, who immediately sent one of his
editorial staff to the rescue. They spent two weeks working together over the
 The Bodoni Letter (bottom) compared with the Didot Letter (top)

Fletcher’s idea of an appointment was something to be kept if or when

convenient, yet he never seemed to offend any one. He did nothing he did not
wish to do, and his methods of extricating himself from unwelcome
responsibilities always amused rather than annoyed. “If you don’t want to do a
thing very badly,” he confided to me on one such occasion, “do it very badly.”
 HORACE FLETCHER IN 1915

On board the Canopic Fletcher was surrounded by an admiring and

interested group. General Leonard Wood was on his way to study colonial
government abroad before taking up his first administration as Governor of
the Philippines. On his staff was General Hugh Lennox Scott, who later
succeeded General Wood as Chief of Staff of the United States Army. The
conversations and discussions in the smokeroom each evening after dinner
were illuminating and fascinating. General Wood had but recently completed
his work as Governor of Cuba, and he talked freely of his experiences there,
while General Scott was full of reminiscences of his extraordinary adventures
with the Indians. He later played an important part in bringing peace to the
Philippines.
 It was at one of these four-cornered sessions in the smokeroom that we
first learned of Fletcher’s ambition to revolutionize the world in its methods of
eating. That he would actually accomplish this no one of us believed, but the
fact remains. The smokeroom steward was serving the coffee, inquiring of
each one how many lumps of sugar he required. Fletcher, to our amazement,
called for five! It was a grand-stand play in a way, but he secured his audience
as completely as do the tambourines and the singing of the Salvation Army.
“Why are you surprised?” he demanded with seeming innocence. “I am
simply taking a coffee liqueur, in which there is less sugar now than there is in
your chartreuse or benedictine. But I am mixing it with the saliva, which is
more than you are doing. The sugar, as you take it, becomes acid in the
stomach and retards digestion; by my method, it is changed into grape sugar,
which is easily assimilated.”
“To insalivate one’s liquor,” he explained to us, “gives one the most
exquisite pleasure imaginable, but it is a terrific test of quality. It brings out the
richness of flavor, which is lost when one gulps the wine down. Did you ever
notice the way a tea-taster sips his tea?”
As he talked he exposed the ignorance of the entire group on physiological
matters to an embarrassing extent, clinching his remarks by asking General
Wood the question,
“Would you engage as chauffeur for your automobile a man who knew as
little about his motor as you know about your own human engine?”
No one ever loved a practical joke better than Horace Fletcher. I was a
guest at a dinner he once gave at the Graduates’ Club in New Haven. Among
the others present were President Hadley of Yale, John Hays Hammond,
Walter Camp, and Professor Lounsbury. There was considerable curiosity and
some speculation concerning what would constitute a Fletcher dinner. At the
proper time we were shown into a private room, where the table was set with
the severest simplicity. Instead of china, white crockery was used, and the chief
table decorations were three large crockery pitchers filled with ice water. At
each plate was a crockery saucer, containing a shredded-wheat biscuit. It was
amusing to glance around and note the expressions of dismay upon the faces
of the guests. Their worst apprehensions were being confirmed! Just as we
were well seated, the headwaiter came to the door and announced that by
mistake we had been shown into the wrong room, whereupon Fletcher, with
an inimitable twinkle in his eye, led the way into another private dining room,
where we sat down to one of the most sumptuous repasts I have ever enjoyed.
Today, twenty years after his campaign, it is almost forgotten that the
American breakfast was at that time a heavy meal. Horace Fletcher
revolutionized the practice of eating, and interjected the word fletcherize into
the English language. As a disciple of Fletcher Sir Thomas Barlow, physician-
in-chief to King Edward VII, persuaded royalty to set the style by cutting
down the formal dinner from three hours to an hour and a half, with a
corresponding relief to the digestive apparatus of the guests. In Belgium,
during the World War, working with Herbert Hoover, Fletcher taught the
impoverished people how to sustain themselves upon meager rations. Among
his admirers and devoted friends were such profound thinkers as William
James who, in response to a letter from him, wrote, “Your excessive reaction
to the stimulus of my grateful approval makes you remind me of those rich
soils which, when you tickle them with a straw, smile with a harvest”; and
Henry James, who closes a letter: “Come and bring with you plenary
absolution to the thankless subject who yet dares light the lamp of gratitude to
you at each day’s end of his life.”

My acquaintance with Henry James came through my close association

with the late Sir Sidney Lee, the Shakesperian authority, and Horace Fletcher.
“Don’t be surprised if he is brusque or uncivil,” Sir Sidney whispered to
me just before I met him at dinner; “one can never tell how he is going to act.”
As a matter of fact, I found Henry James a most genial and enjoyable
dinner companion, and never, during the few later occasions when I had the
pleasure of being with him, did he display those characteristics of ill humor
and brusqueness which have been attributed to him. It may not be generally
known that all his life—until he met Horace Fletcher—he suffered torments
from chronic indigestion, or that it was in Fletcherism that he found his first
relief. In a typically involved Jamesian letter to his brother William he writes
(February, 1909):
It is impossible save in a long talk to make you understand how the blessed
Fletcherism—so extra blessed—lulled me, charmed me, beguiled me, from the first
into the convenience of not having to drag myself out into eternal walking. One must