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Published on 18 August 2016 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782628873-FP001
The Future is Tiny

Nanotechnology

View Online
View Online
Nanotechnology
The Future is Tiny
Michael Berger
Nanowerk LLC, Berlin, Germany
Email: michael@nanowerk.com
Published on 18 August 2016 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782628873-FP001 View Online
Print ISBN: 978-1-78262-526-1

PDF eISBN: 978-1-78262-887-3
EPUB eISBN: 978-1-78262-888-0
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
© Michael Berger 2016
All rights reserved
Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for
private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may
not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior
permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright owner, or in
the case of reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the
appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning
reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of
Chemistry at the address printed on this page.
The RSC is not responsible for individual opinions expressed in this work.
The authors have sought to locate owners of all reproduced material not in their
own possession and trust that no copyrights have been inadvertently infringed.
Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry,

Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road,
Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK
Registered Charity Number 207890
Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books
Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY, UK
Preface
This book is a collection of essays about researchers involved in all facets of

nanotechnologies. Nanoscience and nanotechnology research are truly mul-
tidisciplinary and international efforts, covering a wide range of scientific
disciplines such as medicine, materials sciences, chemistry, biology and bio-
technology, physics and electronics.
Each of the following stories is based on a scientific paper that has been
published in a peer-reviewed journal. Although each story revolves around
one or two scientists who were interviewed for this book, many, if not most,
of the scientific accomplishments covered here are the result of collaborative
efforts by several scientists and research groups, often from different organi-
zations and from different countries.
These stories take you on a journey of scientific discovery into a world so
small that it is not open to our direct experience. While our five senses are
doing a reasonably good job at representing the world around us on a mac-
ro-scale, we have no existing intuitive representation of the nanoworld, ruled
by laws entirely foreign to our experience. This is where molecules mingle to
create proteins; where you wouldn't recognize water as a liquid; and where
minute morphological changes would reveal how much “solid” things such
as the ground or houses are constantly vibrating and moving.
You will catch a glimpse of how diverse, wide-ranging and intriguing this
research field is and what kind of amazing and exciting materials and appli-
cations nanotechnologies have in store for us.
We will showcase 176 very specific research projects that are taking place
in laboratories around the world and you will meet the scientists who devel-
oped the theories, conducted the experiments, and built the new materials
and devices that each will take us one tiny step further into our nanotechnol-
ogy-influenced future.
Nanotechnology: The Future is Tiny

By Michael Berger
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
v
View Online
vi Preface
Some stories are more like an introduction to nanotechnology, some are
about understanding current developments, and some are advanced tech-
nical discussions of leading edge research. Reading this book will shatter
the monolithic term “nanotechnology” into the myriad of facets that it
really is.
Major technology shifts don't happen overnight; and rarely are they the
result of a single breakthrough discovery. Nowhere is this more true than for
the vast set of capabilities that we have come to simply call nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology is not an industry; nor is it a single technology or a single
field of research. What we call nanotechnology consists of sets of enabling
technologies applicable to many traditional industries (therefore it is more
appropriate to speak of nanotechnologies in the plural).
Rather than standing on the shoulders of a few intellectual giants, nano-
technologies get created by tens of thousands of researchers and scientists
working on minute and sometimes arcane aspects of their fields of expertise
in a multitude of areas; they come from different science backgrounds; live
in different parts of the world; work for different organizations (government
labs, industry labs, universities, private research facilities) and follow their
own set of rules – get papers reviewed and published; achieve scientific rec-
ognition from their peers; struggle to get funding for new ideas; look to make
that breakthrough discovery that leads to the ultimate résumé item, a Nobel
prize; get pushed by their funders to secure patent rights and commercialize
new discoveries.
The collection of stories in this book is barely scratching the surface of the
vast and growing body of research that leads us into the nanotechnology age.
The selection presented here is not meant to rank some labs and scientists
higher than others, nor to imply that the work introduced in this book is
more important or valuable than the vastly larger body of work that is not cov-
ered. The intention is to give the interested reader an idea of the incredibly
diverse aspects that make up nanotechnology research and development –
the results of which will bring about a new era of industrial and medical
technologies.
The development of nanotechnologies is not based on a few big and bold
discoveries or inventions. Rather it is a painstakingly slow journey of gradual
development, a result of which will be some truly revolutionary products and
applications.
Michael Berger
Contents
Chapter 1 Generating Energy Becomes Personal 1
1.1 F orget Batteries, Let a T-Shirt Power Your

Smartphone 2
1.1.1 Self-Powered Smartwear 2
1.1.2 Cotton T-Shirts As Batteries 4
1.1.3 Graphene Yarns Turn Textiles into
Supercapacitors 5
1.1.4 Silky Substrate Makes Flexible Solar Cells
Biocompatible 6
1.1.5 Folding Origami Batteries 8
1.1.6 Towards Self-Powered Electronic Papers 9
1.1.7 Light-Driven Bioelectronic Implants
Don’t Need Batteries 11
1.1.8 A Stretchable Far-Field Communication
Antenna for Wearable Electronics 13
1.1.9 Reversibly Bistable Materials Could
Revolutionize Flexible Electronics 14
1.1.10 Nanogenerators for Large-Scale Energy
Harvesting 16
1.2 A Much More Sophisticated Way to Tap into the
Sun’s Energy 18
1.2.1 Solar Cell Textiles 18
1.2.2 Complete Solar Cells Printed by Inkjet 20
1.2.3 Solar Paint Paves the Way for Low-Cost
Photovoltaics 21
1.2.4 Paper Solar Cells 23
1.2.5 Recharging Wearable Textile Battery by
Sunlight 24
References 27

By Michael Berger
vii
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viii Contents
Chapter 2 No More Rigid Boxes—Fully Flexible and Transparent
Electronics 28
2.1 U ltra-Stretchable Silicon 29

2.2 Rewritable, Transferable and Flexible Sticker-Type
Organic Memory 30
2.3 Roll-to-Roll Production of Carbon Nanotube-Based
Supercapacitors 31
2.4 Foldable Capacitive Touch Pad Printed with
Nanowire Ink 33
2.5 Computer Memory Printed on Paper 34
2.6 Nanopaper Transistors 36
2.7 Approaching the Limits of Transparency and
Conductivity with Nanomaterials 37
2.8 Adaptive Electronics for Implants 38
2.9 Integrating Nanoelectronic Devices onto Living
Plants and Insects 40
2.10 Nanoelectronics on Textiles, Paper, Wood and
Stone 42
References 43
Chapter 3 Nanofabrication 44
3.1 Fabricating Complex Micro- and Nanostructures 44

3.1.1 Assembling Nanoparticles into 3D Structures
with Microdroplets 45
3.1.2 A Design Guide to Self-Assemble
Nanoparticles into Exotic Superstructures 47
3.1.3 3D Nanopatterning with Memory-Based,
Sequential Wrinkling 49
3.1.4 Spraying Light—the Fabrication of
Light-Emitting 3D Objects 51
3.1.5 Microfabrication Inspired by LEGO™ 52
3.1.6 Atomic Calligraphy 54
3.1.7 Complex Assemblies Based on Micelle-Like
Nanostructures 56
3.1.8 Precise Manipulation of Single Nanoparticles
with E-Beam Tweezers 57
3.1.9 Trapping Individual Metal Nanoparticles
in Air 59
3.1.10 Plant Viruses Assist with Building Nanoscale
Devices 61
3.1.11 Sculpting 3D Silicon Structures at the Single
Nanometer Scale 62
3.1.12 Probing the Resolution Limits of
Electron-Beam Lithography 64
3.1.13 Foldable Glass 65
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Contents ix
3.1.14 P lasmonic Biofoam Beats Conventional
Plasmonic Surfaces 67
3.1.15 Nanotechnology in a Bubble 69
3.1.16 Self-Assembly Machines—A Vision for the
Future of Manufacturing 70
3.2 Nanotechnology and 3D Printing 72

3.2.1 Getting Closer to 3D Nanoprinting 72
3.2.2 The Emergence of 3D-Printed
Nanostructures 74
3.2.3 Printing in Three Dimensions with Graphene 75
3.2.4 Fully 3D-Printed Quantum Dot LEDs to Fit
a Contact Lens 76
3.2.5 3D-Printed Programmable Release Capsules 79
3.2.6 Embedded 3D-Printing for Soft Robotics
Fabrication 81
References 83
Chapter 4 The Future is Flat—Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials 85
4.1 Graphene 86
4.1.1 New Synthesis Method for Graphene Using
Agricultural Waste 87
4.1.2 Inkjet Printing of Graphene 88
4.1.3 Graphene from Fingerprints 90
4.1.4 Graphene Laminate Drastically Changes
Heat Conduction of Plastic Materials 91
4.1.5 Graphene Quantum Dot Band-Aids Disinfect
Wounds 94
4.1.6 A Nanomotor that Mimics an Internal
Combustion Engine 95
4.1.7 The Most Effective Material for EMI Shielding 96
4.1.8 Eavesdropping on Cells with Graphene
Transistors 98
4.1.9 Graphene Beats Polymer Coatings in
Preventing Microbially-Induced Corrosion 101
4.1.10 Janus Separator: A New Opportunity to
Improve Lithium–Sulfur Batteries 103
4.2 Beyond Graphene 105
4.2.1 MAX Phases Get Two-Dimensional as Well 106
4.2.2 Transistor Made from All-2D Materials 108
4.2.3 Novel Mono-Elemental Semiconductors:
Arsenene and Antimonene Join 2D Family 109
4.2.4 Vanadium Disulfide—A Monolayer Material
for Li-Ion Batteries 111
4.2.5 Chemically Enhanced 2D Material Makes
Excellent Tunable Nanoscale Light Source 112
References 114
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x Contents
Chapter 5 The Medicine Man of the Future is Tiny 115
5.1 Honey, I Swallowed the Doctor 116

5.1.1 Magnetic Nanovoyagers in Human Blood 116
5.1.2 Microrobots to Deliver Drugs on Demand 118
5.1.3 First Demonstration of Micromotor

Operation in a Living Organism 120
5.1.4 Multiplexed Planar Array Analysis from
Within a Living Cell 121
5.1.5 Self-Powered Micropumps Respond to
Glucose Levels 123
5.1.6 Sneaking Drugs into Cancer Cells 124
5.1.7 Nanoparticle-Corked Nanotubes as Drug
Delivery Vehicles 126
5.1.8 Plasmonic Nanocrystals for Combined
Photothermal and Photodynamic Cancer
Therapies 128
5.1.9 Remotely Activating Biological Materials
with Nanocomposites 130
5.1.10 Pre-Coating Nanoparticles to Better Deal
with Protein Coronas 132
5.2 Sensors and Nanoprobes for Everything—Down to
Single Molecules 134
5.2.1 A Quick and Simple Blood Test to Detect
Early-Stage Cancer 134
5.2.2 Nanoparticles Allow Simple Monitoring of
Circulating Cancer Cells 138
5.2.3 Multiplexing Biosensors on a Chip for
Human Metabolite Detection 139
5.2.4 Multimodal Biosensor Integrates Optical,
Electrical, and Mechanical Signals 141
5.2.5 Detecting Damaged DNA with Solid-State
Nanopores 142
5.2.6 Wearable Graphene Strain Sensors Monitor
Human Vital Signs 144
5.2.7 Biosensor Detects Biomarkers for
Parkinson’s Disease 146
5.2.8 Breath Nanosensors for Diagnosis of
Diabetes 147
5.2.9 Ultrafast Sensor Monitors You While You
Speak 151
5.2.10 Detecting Flu Viruses in Exhaled Breath 152
5.2.11 Nanosensor for Advanced Cancer
Biomarker Detection 154
5.2.12 Optical Detection of Epigenetic Marks 156
5.2.13 Nanosensor Tattoo on Teeth Monitors
Bacteria in Your Mouth 158
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Contents xi
5.2.14 T racking Nanomedicines Inside the Body 159
5.2.15 Measuring Femtoscale Displacement for
Photoacoustic Spectroscopy 161
5.2.16 Reduced Graphene Oxide Platform
Shows Extreme Sensitivity to Circulating
Tumor Cells 163

5.3 Analyzing and Manipulating Single Cells Becomes
Possible 165
5.3.1 Untethered Active Microgripper for
Single-Cell Analysis 165
5.3.2 New Technique Precisely Determines
Nanoparticle Uptake into Individual Cells 166
5.3.3 Optical Sensor Detects Single Cancer
Cells 168
5.3.4 Catch and Release of Individual
Cancer Cells 169
5.3.5 Sensing of Single Malaria-Infected Red
Blood Cells 171
5.3.6 Novel Mechanobiological Tool for
Probing the Inner Workings of a Cell 173
5.3.7 Snail-Inspired Nanosensor Detects and
Maps mRNA in Living Cells 175
5.3.8 Silicon Chips Inserted into Living Cells Can
Feel the Pressure 176
5.3.9 Direct Observation of How Nanoparticles
Interact with the Nucleus of a Cancer Cell 179
5.3.10 A Precise Nanothermometer for Intracellular
Temperature Mapping 180
5.3.11 Direct Observation of Drug Release from
Carbon Nanotubes in Living Cells 182
5.3.12 Functionalizing Living Cells 184
5.4 A Glimpse at the Numerous Benefits that
Nanomedicine Has in Store for Us 186
5.4.1 High-Tech Band-Aids 186
5.4.2 Surface-Modified Nanocellulose Hydrogels
for Wound Dressing 188
5.4.3 Curcumin Nanoparticles as Innovative
Antimicrobial and Wound Healing Agents 190
5.4.4 Multifunctional RNA Nanoparticles to
Combat Cancer and Viral Infections 192
5.4.5 Replacing Antibiotics with Graphene-Based
Photothermal Agents 194
5.4.6 Nanotechnology Against Acne 196
5.4.7 Biofunctionalized Silk Nanofibers Repair
the Optic Nerve 198
5.4.8 Move Over Chips—Here Come
Multifunctional Labs on a Single Fiber 200
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xii Contents
5.4.9 N anoparticles Accelerate and Improve
Healing of Burn Wounds 203
5.4.10 A Nanoparticle-Based Alternative to Viagra 204
5.4.11 Light-Triggered Local Anesthesia 206
5.4.12 Toward Next-Generation Nanomedicines
for Cancer Therapy 207

References 209
Chapter 6 A Foray into the Multifaceted World of

Nanotechnologies 212
6.1 N
anorobotics—Motors and Machines at the
Nanoscale 213
6.1.1 A Nanorobotics Platform for
Nanomanufacturing 213
6.1.2 Graphene-Based Biomimetic Soft Robotics
Platform 215
6.1.3 How to Switch a Nanomachine On and Off 217
6.1.4 Understanding Springs at the Nanoscale 219
6.1.5 Fast Molecular Cargo Transport by Diffusion 220
6.1.6 Micro- and Nanomotors Powered Solely
by Water 222
6.1.7 Self-Propelled Microrockets Detect
Dangerous Bacteria 224
6.1.8 Repair Nanobots on Damage Patrol 227
6.2 Inspired by Nature, the Greatest Nanotechnologist
of All 228
6.2.1 Smart Materials Become “Alive” with Living
Bacteria in Supramolecular Assemblies 228
6.2.2 From Squid Protein to Bioelectronic
Applications 230
6.2.3 An Octopus Might Point the Way to Stealth
Coatings 232
6.2.4 Battery Parts Grown on a Rice Field 233
6.2.5 Turning Trash into Treasure—Bioinspired
Colorimetric Assays 235
6.2.6 Flesh-Eating Fungus Produces Cancer-
Fighting Nanoparticles 237
6.2.7 Upconverting Synthetic Leaf Takes Its Cues
from Nature 238
6.2.8 Replicating Nacre Through Nanomimetics 239
6.3 DNA Nanotechnology 241
6.3.1 DNA-Templated Nanoantenna Captures and
Emits Light One Photon at a Time 242
6.3.2 DNA Nanopyramids Detect and Combat
Bacterial Infections 244
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Contents xiii
6.3.3 3
D-Printed “Smart Glue” Leverages DNA
Assembly at the Macroscale 246
6.3.4 DNA Origami Nanorobot with a Switchable
Flap 248
6.3.5 Fuzzy and Boolean Logic Gates Based on
DNA Nanotechnology 250

6.4 Sensors for Everything, Everywhere 252
6.4.1 Cheap Paper-Based Gas Sensors 252
6.4.2 Plasmonic Smart Dust to Probe Chemical
Reactions 253
6.4.3 A Human-Like Nanobioelectronic Tongue 256
6.4.4 Electronic Sensing with Your Fingertips 258
6.4.5 Electronic Skin Takes Your Temperature 260
6.4.6 Nanocurve-Based Sensor Reads Facial
Expressions 262
6.4.7 Selective Gas Sensing with Pristine
Graphene 263
6.4.8 Detecting Single Nanoparticles and Viruses
with a Smartphone 265
6.4.9 Smartphone Nano-Biosensors for Early
Detection of Tuberculosis 266
6.4.10 One-Step Detection of Pathogens and Viruses
with High Sensitivity 268
6.4.11 A Nanosensor for One-Step Detection of
Bisphenol A 269
6.4.12 Optical Sensor Platform Based on
Nanopaper 271
6.4.13 Ultrahigh-Resolution Digital Image Sensor
Achieves Pixel Size of 50 Nanometers 272
6.5 Metamaterials 274
6.5.1 Topological Transitions in Metamaterials
for More Efficient Solar Cells, Sensors,
and LEDs 274
6.5.2 New Cloaking Material Hides Objects
Otherwise Visible to the Human Eye 276
6.5.3 The Thinnest Possible Invisibility Cloak 277
6.5.4 Novel Nanosphere Lithography to Fabricate
Tunable Plasmonic Metasurfaces 279
6.6 Nanotechnology Research Knows No
Boundaries 281
6.6.1 Superlubricity 281
6.6.2 Microfluidics Without Channels and
Troughs 283
6.6.3 Truly Blond—Hair As a Nanoreactor to
Synthesize Gold Nanoparticles 285
6.6.4 A Virus-Sized Laser 286
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xiv Contents
6.6.5 H
igh-Resolution Holograms with
Nanoscale Pixels 288
6.6.6 Exploring the Complexity of
Nanomaterial/Neural Interfaces 289
6.6.7 Skin-Inspired Haptic Memory Devices 292
6.6.8 Light-Emitting Nanofibers Shine the Way

for Optoelectronic Textiles 294
6.6.9 Protecting Satellite Electronics with
Reinforced Carbon Nanotube Films 295
6.6.10 A Nanoscale Color Filter 297
6.6.11 Self-Healing Hybrid Gel System 299
6.6.12 Nanowire Structures Lead to White-Light
and AC-Operated LEDs 301
6.6.13 Spiders Inspire Better Adhesives for
High-Humidity Environments 303
6.6.14 Studying Phase Transformations of a
Single Nanoparticle at the Atomic Level 305
References 308
Chapter 7 Nanotechnology to the Rescue—Environmental

Applications 312
7.1 A
Simple Test Kit for the Detection of
Nanoparticles 312
7.2 Low-Cost Nanotechnology Water Filter 315
7.3 Carbon Nanotube Ponytail Cleanser 316
7.4 Just Shake It! A Simple Way to Remove
Nanomaterial Pollutants from Water 319
7.5 The Challenge of Testing Nanomaterial
Ecotoxicity in Aquatic Environments 321
7.6 Water Quality Testing with Artificial
“Microfish” 323
7.7 Microscale Garbage Trucks 324
7.7.1 About Fenton Reactions 326
7.8 Nanomaterials that Capture Nerve Agents 327
7.9 Replacing Chemical Disinfectants with
Engineered Water Nanostructures 329
7.10 Nanotechnology Could Make Battery Recycling
Economically Attractive 330
7.11 Bioinspired Nanofur Reduces Underwater
Drag of Marine Vessels 332
7.12 Risk-Ranking Tool for Nanomaterials 334
References 336
Subject Index 337

Published on 18 August 2016 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782628873-00001
Chapter 1
Generating Energy Becomes

Personal
In the not-too-distant future, the way we generate energy will change dra-
matically. This shift will not just mean the ongoing transition from fossil
fuels to renewables; it will also concern the way our day-to-day gadgets are
powered. There still will be large-scale power plants to provide energy for
industry, infrastructure and households, but some part of power generation
will become decentralized all the way to its point of use: down to a personal
level where gadgets, textiles—even implants—will generate their own power.
There is an almost infinite number of mechanical energy sources all around
us—basically, anything that moves can be harvested for energy. These envi-
ronmental energy sources can be very large, like wave power in the oceans,
or very small, like rain drops or biomechanical energy from the heartbeat,
breathing, and blood flow. Engineering at the nanoscale allows researchers
to find more and more ways to tap into these pretty much limitless sources
of energy and to make energy harvesting and storage much more efficient.
If current research is an indicator, form and shape of future electronics will
go far beyond very small and ultra-thin devices and wearable, flexible com-
puters. Not only will these devices be embedded in textile substrates but an
electronics device or system could ultimately become the fabric itself. Elec-
tronic textiles (“e-textiles”) will allow the design and production of a new gen-
eration of garments with fully integrated sensors and electronic functions.
Such e-textiles will have the revolutionary ability to sense, act, store, emit,
and move—think biomedical monitoring functions or new man–machine
interfaces—while ideally leveraging an existing low-cost textile manufactur-
ing infrastructure.

By Michael Berger
1
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2 Chapter 1
All these wearable and potentially textile-embedded electronics will
require power; and it wouldn't make sense to have to plug your sleek flexible
sleeve display into a bulky lithium-ion battery brick. Researchers are there-
fore pushing the development of wearable energy storage. Especially super-
capacitors with a cable-type architecture could lead to flexible energy storage
devices that can achieve a subversive technology to open up a path for radical
design innovations.
1.1 orget Batteries, Let a T-Shirt Power Your

F
Smartphone
The continued miniaturization of portable electronics is increasingly chal-
lenged by the reliance on conventional battery technology. More powerful
processors and displays require more power. However, ever-sleeker form
factors require this increased power to come from shrinking battery sizes.
Micro- and even nanoscale devices will become widely used in health moni-
toring; infrastructure and environmental monitoring; internet of things; and
of course defense technologies. In these application areas, battery design
will have to go way beyond today's typical lithium-ion batteries. Rather
than relying on stored power, nanodevices will make use of novel—also
nanoscale—power sources. Self-powered technology based on piezoelectric
nanogenerators aims at powering nanodevices and nanosystems using the
energy harvested from the environment in which these systems operate. This
offers a completely new approach for harvesting mechanical energy using
organic and inorganic materials.
1.1.1 Self-Powered Smartwear

Nano-sized generators that possess piezoelectric properties—meaning that
they accumulate an electric charge when mechanical stress is applied to
them—allow them to convert into electricity the energy created through
mechanical stress, stretches and twists of fabrics. Such energy-scavenging
textiles could eventually lead to wearable “smart” clothes that can power
integrated electronics and sensors through ordinary body movements.
Already, researchers have demonstrated a new type of fully flexible, very
robust and wearable triboelectric nanogenerator (WTNG) with high power-
generating performance and mechanical robustness.
The scientists applied a bottom-up nanostructuring approach where they
used a silver-coated textile and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS, a silicon-based
organic polymer) nanopatterns based on zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorod arrays as
active triboelectric materials.
The nanopatterning was achieved by coating PDMS directly over vertical
ZnO nanorods grown on the silver-coated textile substrate.
“This nanopatterning promotes the triboelectrification effect by increasing
the effective contact area and friction for high electrical output power and very
View Online
Generating Energy Becomes Personal 3

high mechanical robustness by bottom-up nanostructuring between textile and
nanostructure,” explains Sang-Woo Kim, a professor in the School of Advanced
Materials Science and Engineering at Sungkyunkwan University in Korea.
Kim, together with collaborators from Sungkyunkwan University and the
Australian Institute for Innovative Materials, successfully demonstrated the
self-powered operation of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), a liquid-crystal dis-

play (LCD) and a keyless vehicle entry system only with the output power of
their WTNG without any help of external power sources.
This triboelectric power is generated when mechanical stress creates
an electrical charge, which is much larger than the power generated from
textile-based piezoelectric power generators reported before. This stress
can arise through stretching or twisting the textile.
When integrated into clothing, the WTNG relies on its triboelectric prop-
erty to produce an electrical charge when pressed, and could potentially
allow users to power mobile electronics such as smart watches simply by
moving or walking around.
In previous work,1 Kim and his team already have reported fully trans-
parent, flexible, and stretchable nanogenerators but they were not robust
enough as wearable devices.
By contrast, the researchers tested a four-layer-stacked WTNG over 12 000
cycles and found no significant differences in the output voltages they
measured.
With the previous devices, the problem was the very weak adhesion
between textile and nanostructures, which caused mechanical durability
issues. In this subsequent work, the researchers overcame these durability
problems by bottom-up nanostructuring using ZnO nanorods and PDMS
nanopattern coating.
“Triboelectric generation is one of the promising new energy harvest-
ing methods with extremely high output voltage and efficiency, low cost,
high versatility and simplicity in structural design and fabrication, sta-
bility and robustness, as well as environmental friend,” concludes Kim.
“We have been looking to find new materials for huge triboelectrifica-
tion effects which have never been reported before. Furthermore, there
is a need for developing highly efficient power management systems to
effectively store electric power generated from triboelectric nanogenera-
tors into textile-based energy storage platforms such as textile batteries or
supercapacitors.”
Featured scientists: The Sang-Woo Kim Group (http://nesel.skku.edu/

index.html)
Organization: School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering,
Sungkyunkwan University (Republic of Korea)
Relevant publications: W. Seung, M. Gupta, K. Lee, K. Shin, J. Lee and T. Kim
et al., Nanopatterned Textile-Based Wearable Triboelectric Nanogenera-
tor, ACS Nano, 2015, 9(4), 3501, DOI: 10.1021/nn507221f
View Online
Generating Energy Becomes Personal 15

impact budget—which takes into account the impact force imparting an
impulse on the silicon fabric during the mechanical deformation of the
substrate.
“We investigated the mechanical and electronic aspects of flexible, inor-
ganic field-effect transistors physically supported by a mechanically bistable
metallic substrate,” Prof. Muhammad Mustafa Hussain summarizes the

effort. “Our work combines basic and applied studies with findings that are
supported by experimental data—semiconductor device analysis, scanning
electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray, and high-speed imaging—and
theoretical discussion: impulse-momentum theory and approximation, and
prediction of the kinetic energy losses and magnitude of impulsive forces
with respect to impact speeds.”
“This is the first demonstration and discussion of the effectiveness of a
reversibly bistable material for free-form electronics,” says Nasir Alfaraj, a
PhD student in Hussain's group. “The material we used to form the bistable
substrate is a porous iron-carbon metal alloy, which is inexpensive and
commonly used in the fabrication of commercially available cycling safety
wristbands and a variety of ankle bracelets for orthopedic health care. This
motivated us to work with a low-cost, commonly available material and
extend its functionality through the integration of logic and control compo-
nents in order to create practical flexible display devices.”
To fabricate their device, the team attached a flexible silicon-based metal-
oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) on a mechanically
flexible and optically semitransparent porous silicon onto a metallic
bracelet.
This material platform has two stable and reversible mechanical states:
stretched and rolled. Surface, cross-sectional, and elemental composition
nanoscale examinations of the thin metallic structure, along with electrical
measurements of the transistors, show that the distribution of nanopores
throughout the structure allows the metal alloy to internally absorb strain
energy and hence achieve flexibility. Nevertheless, the transistor devices
on the thin silicon fabric maintained their integrity after accumulating an
impulsive force budget about 300 times higher than the force that average
adults experience as a result of their weight.
This work could have a significant impact on the electronics industry and
open the door to commercializing flexible, large electronic devices. Revers-
ibly bistable flexible transistors can be used in a variety of applications,
including optoelectronic devices in which LEDs are controlled by reversibly
bistable flexible transistors. As such transistors can handle high drive cur-
rents, they can be used to realize foldable display devices.
The researchers note that reversibly bistable electronics can also aid in
the development of practical orthopedic tools and technologies that employ
electronic devices required to handle high physical force loads.
As a next step, the team plans to design and demonstrate a naturally flexi-
ble and reversibly bistable polymer to be integrated with state-of-the-art logic
and radio-frequency electronic devices.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER); and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
SI-NGAN-FU,
SINGAN FU, The Chinese Imperial Court at.

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).
SIRDAR, Egyptian.

EGYPT: A. D. 1885-1896; and 1897-1898.
SLAVERY: A. D. 1885.
Emancipation in Cuba.

CUBA: A. D. 1868-1885.
New anti-slavery law in Egypt.

EGYPT: A. D. 1895.
Abolition in Madagascar.

MADAGASCAR: A. D. 1894-1896.
SLAVERY: SLAVERY: A. D. 1897.

Abolished in Zanzibar.
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (ZANZIBAR).
Compulsory labor in Rhodesia.

SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY):
A. D. 1897 (JANUARY).
Subjugation of Fulah slave raiders in Nupé and Ilorin.

AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (NIGERIA).
Forced labor in Congo State.

CONGO FREE STATE: A. D. 1899.
SLESWICK:
Complaints of German treatment.

GERMANY: A. D. 1899.
SMOKELESS POWDERS, Invention of.

SCIENCE, RECENT: CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
SOCIAL DEMOCRACY, Encyclical Letter of Pope Leo XIII. on.

PAPACY: A. D. 1901.
SOCIALIST PARTIES.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1897, and after;
BELGIUM: A. D. 1894-1895;
FRANCE: A. D. 1896 (APRIL-MAY), and 1900 (JANUARY);
GERMANY: A. D. 1894-1895, and 1897 (JULY);
ITALY: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-MAY);
SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1894-1898;
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER),

and 1900 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
SOKOTO.

NIGERIA: A. D. 1882-1899.
SOLOMON ISLANDS, The:

Definite division between Great Britain and Germany.

SAMOAN ISLANDS.
SOMALIS, Rising of, in Jubaland.

BRITISH EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE: A. D. 1900.
SOUDAN.
SUDAN.
"SOUND MONEY" DEMOCRATS.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER).
{456}
----------SOUTH AFRICA: Start--------
SOUTH AFRICA: Cape Colony: A. D. 1881-1888.

Organization of the "Afrikander Bund."
The "Afrikander Bund" or National Party was formed in Cape

Colony in 1881, but held its first Congress, or convention, in
1888, at which meeting the following platform, or formal
statement of objects, was adopted:
"1. The Afrikander National party acknowledge the guidance of

Providence in the affairs both of lands and peoples.
2. They include, under the guidance of Providence, the

formation of a pure nationality and the preparation of our
people for the establishment of a 'United South Africa.'
3. To this they consider belong:
(a) The establishment of a firm union between all the

different European nationalities in South Africa, and
(b) The promotion of South Africa's independence.
4. They consider that the union mentioned in Article 3 (a)

depends upon the clear and plain understanding of each other's
general interest in politics, agriculture, stock-breeding,
trade, and industry, and the acknowledgment of everyone's
special rights in the matter of religion, education, and
language; so that all national jealousy between the different
elements of the people may be removed, and room be made for an
unmistakable South African national sentiment.
5. To the advancement of the independence mentioned in

Article 3 (b) belong:
(a) That the sentiment of national self-respect and of

patriotism toward South Africa should above all be
developed and exhibited in schools, and in families, and in
the public press.
(b) That a system of voting should be applied which not

only acknowledges the right of numbers, but also that of
ownership and the development of intelligence, and that is
opposed, as far as possible, to bribery and compulsion at
the poll.
(c) That our agriculture, stock-breeding, commerce, and

industries should be supported in every lawful manner, such
as by a conclusive law as regards masters and servants, and
also by the appointment of a prudent and advantageous
system of Protection.
(d) That the South African Colonies and States, either each
for itself or in conjunction with one another, shall
regulate their own native affairs, employing thereto the
forces of the land by means of a satisfactory burgher law;
and
(e) That outside interference with the domestic concerns of

South Africa shall be opposed.
6. While they acknowledge the existing Governments holding

rule in South Africa, and intend faithfully to fulfil their
obligations in regard to the same, they consider that the duty
rests upon those Governments to advance the interests of South
Africa in the spirit of the foregoing articles; and whilst, on
the one side, they watch against any unnecessary or frivolous
interference with the domestic or other private matters of the
burgher, against any direct meddling with the spiritual
development of the nation, and against laws which might hinder
the free influence of the Gospel upon the national life, on
the other hand they should accomplish all the positive duties
of a good Government, among which must be reckoned:
(a) In all their actions to take account of the Christian

character of the people.
(b) The maintenance of freedom of religion for everyone, so

long as the public order and honor are not injured thereby.
(c) The acknowledgment and expression of religious, social,

and bodily needs of the people, in the observance of the
present weekly day of rest.
(d) The application of an equal and judicious system of

taxation.
(e) The bringing into practice of an impartial and, as far

as possible, economical administration of justice.
(f) The watching over the public honor, and against the
adulteration of the necessaries of life, and the defiling
of ground, water, or air, as well as against the spreading
of infectious diseases.
7. In order to secure the influence of these principles, they

stand forward as an independent party, and accept the
cooperation of other parties only if the same can be obtained
with the uninjured maintenance of these principles.
SOUTH AFRICA: The Transvaal: A. D. 1884-1894.
The restored independence of the Boers and their
dissatisfaction with its terms.
Frustration of their desire for extended territory.
The London Convention of 1884.
After the British-Boer War of 1880-81

(see, in volume 4, SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881),
which had been caused by an arbitrary annexation of the
Transvaal State to the dominions of the British crown, the
sense of justice in Mr. Gladstone led him to restore to the
Transvaal Boers (by the Convention or Treaty of Pretoria,
1881) their right of internal self-government, with a
reservation of "the suzerainty of Her Majesty," supposably
relative to nothing but foreign affairs. The Boers were not
satisfied with that concession, and began at once to strive
for the complete independence they had previously possessed,
under a Convention agreed upon and signed at Sand River, 1852,
which guaranteed (quoting its precise terms) "in the fullest
manner, on the part of the British Government, to the emigrant
farmers (boers) beyond the Vaal River, the right to manage
their own affairs and to govern themselves, without any
interference on the part of Her Majesty the Queen's
Government." To regain that status of complete independence
became the first object of the Boers. They went far towards
success in this endeavor, as early as 1884, when the British
Colonial Secretary, Lord Derby, was induced to agree to a new
Convention with the South African Republic (as it was then
styled) which superseded the Convention of 1881. The terms of
the later instrument are given below. The second aim of the
Boers appears to have been the widening of their territory, by
advances, in the first instance, southward into Zululand and
westward into Bechuanaland. In the former movement they had
success; in the latter they were thwarted. English
missionaries complained of their treatment of the natives, and
stirred up the British government to take the Bechuana tribes
under its protection. Their eastern frontier they succeeded,
after long controversies with Great Britain, in stretching
beyond Swaziland, but they were not allowed to push it to the
sea. Northward, they would provably have gone far, had it not
been for the appearance, at this time, of Mr. Cecil Rhodes,
who came upon the scene of South African politics with
imperial ambitions, with great energies and capabilities, with
few apparent hesitations, and with a vast fortune acquired in the
Kimberley diamond mines. He organized the British South Africa
Company, under a royal charter, got some settlers into the
country north of the Limpopo and set up a government there, in
1890, just in time, it appears, to forestall the Boers
See, in volume 4,
SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893.
{457}
Of the effect of the two conventions, of 1881 and 1884, on the

relations of the British government to the South African
Republic, the following is an English view, by a well-known
publicist: "In the Treaty of Pretoria, bearing date the 5th of
April, 1881, it is stated that Great Britain guarantees
'complete self-government, subject to the Suzerainty of Her
Majesty, to the inhabitants of the Transvaal.' … Article 15
declares that 'the Resident will report to the High
Commissioner, as representative of the Suzerain, as to the
working and observance of the provisions of this Convention.'
… On the 31st of March, 1881, Lord Kimberley, who was then
Secretary of State for the Colonies, used these words in the
House of Lords with reference to the terms of the Convention,
upon which the Treaty of Pretoria was afterwards based: 'I
believe the word Suzerainty expresses very correctly the
relation which we intend to exist between this country and the
Transvaal. Our intention is that the Transvaal shall have
independent power as regards its internal government; and we
shall only reserve certain powers to be exercised by the
Queen. … With respect to our control over the relations of the
Transvaal with foreign Powers, … it is quite clear there ought
to be, as regards foreign relations, only one Government in
South Africa; that there ought to be no communication with
foreign Powers upon any subject except through the
representatives of the Queen.'
"On the 25th of June, 1881, Mr. Gladstone, while defending in

the House of Commons an assertion he had made during the
Midlothian Campaign about the blood-guiltiness of the war with
the Transvaal, referred to our Suzerainty in the following
words; 'I apprehend that the term which has been adopted, the
Suzerainty of the Queen, is intended to signify that certain
portions of Sovereignty are reserved. … What are these
portions of Sovereignty? The portions of Sovereignty we desire
to reserve are, first, the relations between the Transvaal
community and foreign governments, the whole care of the
foreign relations of the Boers. The whole of these relations
will remain in the hands of the Queen.'
"From these quotations it is obvious that when we agreed to

restore the independence of the Transvaal, the British public
were led to believe, both by the then Premier and the then
Colonial Minister, that this restoration left the control of
all relations between the Transvaal and foreign Powers
absolutely and entirely in the hands of Her Majesty's
Government. … It is possible, or even probable, that at the
time the Treaty of Pretoria was concluded, Mr. Gladstone, or
at any rate several of his colleagues, imagined that our
Suzerainty would really be made effective. But, when once the
treaty had been signed and sealed, and the South African
Republic had been granted absolute internal independence, it
became evident that our Suzerainty could only be rendered
efficacious, as against the sullen resistance of the Boers, by
the exercise of force—that is, by the threat of war in the
event of Boer non-compliance with the demands of the Suzerain
Power. …
"For the first two years which succeeded our surrender the
Boers were too much occupied in the reorganisation of the
Republic to trouble themselves greatly about their relations
to the Suzerain Power. … Disputes were mainly connected with
the treatment of the native chiefs, residing either within, or
on the borders of, the territory of the Republic, who
asserted, with or without reason, that they were the objects
of Boer hostility on account of the support they had given to
the British authorities during the period of British rule.
"In May 1883 Mr. Gladstone stated in Parliament, in answer to

certain protests about the proceedings of the Boers, that the
British Government had decided to send a Commissioner to the
Transvaal to investigate the working of the Convention
concluded at Pretoria in 1881. This intention, however, was
not carried out owing to the opposition of the South African
Republic. In lieu of the despatch of a British Commissioner to
the Transvaal, it was suggested at Pretoria that a Boer
deputation should be sent to London. The suggestion, as usual,
was accepted; and thereupon the Africander Bond in the Cape
Colony forwarded a petition to the Queen, praying Her Majesty
to entertain favourably the proposals of the Boer delegates
for the modification of the Treaty of Pretoria. The
deputation, consisting of President Kruger and Messieurs Du
Toit and Smit, arrived in London in October, and submitted to
the late Lord Derby, who had succeeded Lord Kimberley as
Minister for the Colonies, a statement of the modifications
they were instructed to demand. The memorandum in question
distinctly declared that the alleged impracticability of the
Treaty of Pretoria related, amongst other matters, 'to the
extent of the Suzerain rights reserved to Her Majesty by
Articles 2 and 18 of the Treaty of Pretoria, and to the vague
and indefinite terms in which the powers reserved to Her
Majesty's Government by the Convention are indicated.'
"To this memorandum Lord Derby replied, on the 20th of

November, 1883, admitting that 'expediency of substituting a
new agreement for that of 1881 might be matter for discussion,
but asking for information, in what sense it is wished that in
such new agreement some connection with England should be
maintained, and, if it is the desire of the Transvaal people
that their State should hereafter stand in any special
relation to this country, what is the form of connection which
is proposed?' In reply to this request the Boer delegates
answered as follows in the somewhat evasive fashion: 'In the
new agreement any connection by which we are now bound to
England should not be broken; but that the relation of a
dependency "publici juris" in which our country now stands to
the British Crown be replaced by that of two contractive
Powers.'
"The above documents were submitted to the Governor of Cape

Colony, the then Sir Hercules Robinson. Characteristically
enough, Sir Hercules recommended the surrender of our
Suzerainty on the ground that 'The Transvaal burghers
obviously do not intend to observe any condition in it (the
Convention of 1881) distasteful to themselves, which Her
Majesty's Government are not prepared to insist on, if
necessary, by the employment of force. Her Majesty's
Government, I understand, do not feel justified in proceeding
to this extremity; and no provision, therefore, of the
Convention which is not agreeable to the Transvaal will be
carried out.'
{458}
"A few days later the delegates submitted a draft treaty, in

which the following clause stands first: 'It is agreed that
Her Britannic Majesty recognises and guarantees by this treaty
the full independence of the South African Republic, with the
right to manage its own affairs according to its own laws,
without any interference on the part of the British
Government; it being understood that this system of
non-interference is binding on both parties.' To the letter
enclosing this draft treaty Lord Derby replied that the
proposed treaty was 'neither in form nor in substance such as
Her Majesty's Government could adopt.' Meanwhile the
discussion between the British Government and the Boer
delegates seems to have turned mainly upon the extension of
the territories of the Transvaal and the relations between the
Republic and the native chiefs, subjects which had only an
indirect bearing on the question of Suzerainty. It was only on
the 25th of January, 1884, that the Colonial Office wrote to
the delegates stating that if a certain compromise with regard
to the frontier line were accepted, the British Government
would be prepared 'to proceed at once with the consideration
of the other proposals for the modification of the Treaty of
Pretoria.' The delegates replied on the next day virtually
accepting the proposed frontier compromise, and requested the
British Government to proceed at once with the substitution of
a new Convention. … The draft treaty was signed on the 27th of
February, 1884. …
"The Convention of London did not repeat the preamble of the

original Convention in which the words 'subject to the
Suzerainty of Her Majesty' are to be found. Nor is the word
Suzerainty mentioned in the Convention of 1884, which declares
that the articles contained therein, if endorsed by the
Volksraad, 'shall be substituted for those of the Convention
of 1881.' No formal withdrawal, however, of the Queen's
Suzerainty is to be found in the Convention of 1884. On the
contrary, it is distinctly affirmed in Article 4 of the
modified Convention that 'the South African Republic will
conclude no treaty or engagement with any State or nation,
other than the Orange Free State, until the same has been
approved by Her Majesty the Queen.'"
Edward Dicey,
British Suzerainty in the Transvaal
(Nineteenth Century, October, 1897).
In its preamble, the Convention of 1884 recites that—"Whereas
the Government of the Transvaal State, through its Delegates,
consisting of [Kruger, Du Toit and Smit], have represented
that the Convention signed at Pretoria on the 3rd day of
August, 1881, and ratified by the Volksraad of the said State
on the 25th of October, 1881, contains certain provisions
which are inconvenient, and imposes burdens and obligations
from which the said State is desirous to be relieved, and that
the south-western boundaries fixed by the said Convention
should be amended with a view to promote the peace and good
order of the said State, … now, therefore, Her Majesty has
been pleased to direct," &c.—substituting the articles of a
new Convention for those signed and ratified in 1881.
Article I. of the new Convention describes the lines of

boundary as amended. Article II. binds the two governments,
respectively, to guard said boundaries against all
trespassing. Article III. provides for the reception and
protection, at Pretoria, of a resident British officer, "to
discharge functions analogous to those of a consular officer."
Article IV. reads as follows: "The South African Republic will

conclude no Treaty or engagement with any State or nation
other than the Orange Free State, nor with any native tribe to
the eastward or westward of the Republic, until the same has been
approved by Her Majesty the Queen. Such approval shall be
considered to have been granted if Her Majesty's Government
shall not, within six months after receiving a copy of such
Treaty (which shall be delivered to them immediately upon its
completion), have notified that the conclusion of such Treaty
is in conflict with the interests of Great Britain, or of any
of Her Majesty's possessions in South Africa."
Articles V. and VI. relate to public debts. Article VII.

guarantees the non-molestation of persons in the South African
Republic who "remained loyal to Her Majesty during the late
hostilities." Article VIII. is a declaration against slavery
in the Republic. Article IX. is in language as follows: "There
will continue to be complete freedom of religion and
protection from molestation for all denominations, provided
the same be not inconsistent with morality and good order; and
no disability shall attach to any person in regard to rights
of property by reason of the religious opinions which he
holds." Article X. relates to graves of British soldiers; XI.
to former grants of land which the present arrangement of
boundary places outside of the Republic; XII. to the
independence of the Swazis; XIII. to non-discrimination in
import duties on both sides.
Articles XIV. and XV. read thus: Article XIV. "All persons,
other than natives, conforming themselves to the laws of the
South African Republic, (a) will have full liberty, with their
families, to enter, travel or reside in any part of the South
African Republic; (b) they will be entitled to hire or possess
houses, manufactories, warehouses, shops and premises; (c)
they may carry on their commerce either in person or by any
agents whom they may think fit to employ; (d) they will not be
subject, in respect of their persons or property, or in
respect of their commerce or industry, to any taxes, whether
general or local, other than those which are or may be imposed
upon citizens of the said Republic." Article XV. "All persons,
other than natives, who establish their domicile in the
Transvaal between the 12th day of April, 1877, and the 8th day
of August, 1881, and who within twelve months after such last
mentioned date have had their names registered by the British
resident, shall be exempt from all compulsory military service
whatever." Article XVI. provides for a future extradition
treaty; XVII. for the payment of debts in the same currency in
which they were contracted; XVIII. establishes the validity of
certain land grants; XIX. secures certain rights to the
natives; XX. nullifies the Convention if not ratified by the
Volksraad within six months from the date of its
signature—February 27, 1884.
{459}
With considerable reluctance, the Convention was ratified by

the Volksraad of the South African Republic in the following
terms: "The Volksraad having considered the new Convention
concluded between its deputation and the British Government at
London on 27th February 1884, as likewise the negotiations
between the contracting parties, which resulted in the said
Convention, approves of the standpoint taken by its deputation
that a settlement based upon the principle of the Sand River
Convention can alone fully satisfy the burghers of the
Republic. It also shares the objections set forth by the
deputation against the Convention of Pretoria, as likewise
their objections against the Convention of London on the
following points:
1st.
The settlement of the boundary, especially on the western
border of the Republic, in which the deputation eventually
acquiesced only under the express conditions with which the
Raad agree.
2nd.
The right of veto reserved to the British Crown upon treaties
to be concluded by the Republic with foreign powers; and
3rd.
The settlement of the debt.
Seeing, however, that in the said Convention of London

considerable advantages are secured to the Republic,
especially in the restoration of the country's independence,
Resolves, With acknowledgment of the generosity of Her
Britannic Majesty, to ratify, as it hereby does, the said
Convention of London."
Selected Official Documents of the South African
Republic and Great Britain
(Supplement to the Annals of the American Academy
of Political and Social Science, July, 1900).
Also in:
State Papers, British and Foreign, volume 75.
SOUTH AFRICA: The Transvaal: A. D. 1885-1890.

The gold discoveries on the Rand and the influx
of Uitlanders (Outlanders or Foreigners).
"It was not until 1884 that England heard of the presence of
gold in South Africa. A man named Fred Stuben, who had spent
several years in the country, spread such marvellous reports
of the underground wealth of the Transvaal that only a short
time elapsed before hundreds of prospectors and miners left
England for South Africa. When the first prospectors
discovered auriferous veins of wonderful quality on a farm
called Sterkfontein, the gold boom had its birth. It required
the lapse of only a short time for the news to reach Europe,
America, and Australia, and immediately thereafter that vast
and widely scattered army of men and women which constantly
awaits the announcement of new discoveries of gold was set in
motion toward the Randt [the Witwatersrand or
Whitewatersridge]. … In December, 1885, the first stamp mill
was erected for the purpose of crushing the gneiss rock in
which the gold lay hidden. This enterprise marks the real
beginning of the gold fields of the Randt, which now yield one
third of the world's total product of the precious metal. The
advent of thousands of foreigners was a boon to the Boers, who
owned the large farms on which the auriferous veins were
located. Options on farms that were of little value a short
time before were sold at incredible figures, and the prices
paid for small claims would have purchased farms of thousands
of acres two years before. In July, 1886, the Government
opened nine farms to the miners, and all have since become the
best properties on the Randt. … On the Randt the California
scenes of '49 were being re-enacted. Tents and houses of sheet
iron were erected with picturesque lack of beauty and
uniformity, and during the latter part of 1886 the community
had reached such proportions that the Government marked off a
township and called it Johannesburg. The Government, which
owned the greater part of the land, held three sales of
building lots, or 'stands,' as they are called in the
Transvaal, and realized more than $300,000 from the sales. …
Millions were secured in England and Europe for the
development of the mines, and the individual miner sold his
claims to companies with unlimited capital. The incredibly
large dividends that were realized by some of the investors
led to too heavy investments in the Stock Exchange in 1889,
and a panic resulted. Investors lost thousands of pounds, and
for several months the future of the gold fields appeared to
be most gloomy. The opening of the railway to Johannesburg and
the re-establishment of stock values caused a renewal of
confidence, and the growth and development of the Randt was
imbued with renewed vigour. Owing to the Boers' lack of
training and consequent inability to share in the development
of the gold fields, the new industry remained almost entirely
in the hands of the newcomers, the Uitlanders [so called in
the language of the Boers], and two totally different
communities were created in the republic. The Uitlanders, who,
in 1890, numbered about 100,000, lived almost exclusively in
Johannesburg and the suburbs along the Randt. The Boers,
having disposed of their farms and lands on the Randt, were
obliged to occupy the other parts of the republic, where they
could follow their pastoral and agricultural pursuits. The
natural contempt which the Englishmen, who composed the
majority of the Uitlander population, always have for persons
and races not their intellectual or social equals, soon
created a gulf between the Boers and the newcomers."
H. C. Hillegas,
Oom Paul's People,
chapter 3
(with permission of D. Appleton & Co., copyright, 1899).
As the influx of newcomers increased and advanced, "the Boers

realized that the world and civilisation were once more upon
them. In spite of all the opposition that patriarchal
prejudice could muster, railways usurped the place of the slow
moving ox-waggon, and in the heart of their solitude a city
had arisen; while to the north and to the east between them
and the sea were drawn the thin red lines of British boundary.
… A primitive pastoral people, they found themselves isolated,
surrounded—'shut in a kraal for ever,' as Kruger is reported
to have said,—while the stranger was growing in wealth and
numbers within their gates. Expansion of territory, once the
dream of the Transvaal Boers, as their incursions into
Bechuanaland, into Zululand, and the attempted trek into
Rhodesia, all testify, was becoming daily less practicable.
One thing remained,—to accept their isolation and strengthen
it. Wealth, population, a position among the new States of the
world had been brought to them, almost in spite of themselves,
by the newcomer, the stranger, the Uitlander. What was to be
the attitude towards him politically? Materially he had made
the State—he developed its resources, paid nine-tenths of its
revenue. Would he be a strength or a weakness as a citizen—as
a member of the body politic? Let us consider this new element
in a new State—how was it constituted, what were its component
parts? Was it the right material for a new State to
assimilate?
{460}
Cosmopolitan to a degree—recruited from all the corners of the
earth—there was in it a strong South African element,
consisting of young colonists from the Cape Colony and
Natal—members of families well known in South Africa—and many
of them old schoolfellows or in some other way known to each
other. Then the British contingent, self-reliant, full of
enterprise and energy—Americans, for the most part skilled
engineers, miners and mechanics—French, Germans, and
Hollanders. A band of emigrants, of adventurers, and
constituted, as I think all emigrants are, of two great
classes—the one who, lacking neither ability nor courage, are
filled with an ambition, characteristic particularly of the
British race, to raise their status in the world, who find the
conditions of their native environment too arduous, the
competition too keen, to offer them much prospect, and who
seek a new and more rapidly developing country elsewhere; and
another, a smaller class who sometimes through misfortune,
sometimes through their own fault, or perhaps through both,
have failed elsewhere.
"Adventurers all, one must admit; but it is the adventurers of

the world who have founded States and Kingdoms. Such a class
as this has been assimilated by the United States and absorbed
into their huge fabric, of which to-day they form a huge and
substantial portion. What should the Transvaal Boers have done
with this new element so full of enterprise and vigour? This
had been for the last ten years the great question for them to
solve. … Enfranchisement, participation in the political life
of the State by the Uitlander,—this means, they said, a
transference of all political power from our hands to those of
men whom we do not trust. 'I have taken a man into my coach,'
said President Kruger, 'and as a passenger he is welcome; but
now he says, Give me the reins; and that I cannot do, for I
know not where he will drive me.' To the Boer it is all or
nothing; he knows no mean, no compromise. Yet in that very
mean lies the vital spirit of republicanism. What is the
position of the Boers in the Cape Colony? Are they without
their share, their influence, their Africander bond in the
political affairs of the country? And so it is throughout the
world today,—in the United States, in England, in France, in
the British Colonies, wherever the individual thrives and the
State is prosperous—the compromise of divided political power
among all classes, all factions, is the great guarantee of
their well being. … That the enfranchisement of the Uitlander
would mean a complete transference of political power into his
hands involves two assumptions: the first is that the
Uitlanders would form a united body in politics; the second is
that their representatives would dominate the Volksraad. The
most superficial acquaintance with the action of the
inhabitants of the Witwatersrand district on any public matter
will serve to refute the first of these. … The second of these
assumptions—though it is continually put forward—almost
answers itself. The number of representatives from the
Uitlander districts under any scheme of redistribution of
seats which the Boer could reasonably be expected to make
would fall considerably short of those returned from the Boer
constituencies. Such was the attitude of the Boers on this
vital question which led to the Reform Movement of 1895; and I
have stated what I believe to be the injustice of it as
regards the Uitlanders and the unwisdom of it in the true
interests of the Boers."
A. P. Hillier,
Raid and Reform,
pages 24-29 (London: Macmillan & Co.).
SOUTH AFRICA:
Portuguese Possessions: A. D. 1891.
Delagoa Bay Railway question.

DELAGOA BAY ARBITRATION.
SOUTH AFRICA:
The Transvaal: A. D. 1894.
Estimated population.
In October, 1894, the British agent at Pretoria, J. A. de Wet,

estimated the population of the Transvaal (on the basis of a
census taken in 1890) as follows:
"Transvaalers and Orange Free Staters, 70,861:
British subjects, 62,509:

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Nanotechnology the future is tiny 1st

The Tiny House Handbook 1st Edition Charlie Wing

Nanotechnology in Biology and Medicine Research

Advances in Nanotechnology and the Environmental

All in: Why Sustainability Is the Future of Business

The Bacteria Book: The Big World of Really Tiny

Tiny House Designing, Building, & Living 1st Edition

The Big Questions What is New Zealand s Future Dame

The Book of Beautiful Questions Warren Berger

The Future is Tiny

Print ISBN: 978-1-78262-526-1

© Michael Berger 2016

All rights reserved

Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry,

Registered Charity Number 207890

Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books

This book is a collection of essays about researchers involved in all facets of

Nanotechnology: The Future is Tiny

Chapter 1 Generating Energy Becomes Personal 1

1.1 F orget Batteries, Let a T-Shirt Power Your

Nanotechnology: The Future is Tiny

2.1 U ltra-Stretchable Silicon 29

3.1 Fabricating Complex Micro- and Nanostructures 44

3.2 Nanotechnology and 3D Printing 72

Chapter 4 The Future is Flat—Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials 85

5.1 Honey, I Swallowed the Doctor 116

5.1.3 First Demonstration of Micromotor

Tumor Cells 163

for Cancer Therapy 207

Chapter 6 A Foray into the Multifaceted World of

DNA Nanotechnology 250

6.6.8 Light-Emitting Nanofibers Shine the Way

Chapter 7 Nanotechnology to the Rescue—Environmental

Subject Index 337

Generating Energy Becomes

Nanotechnology: The Future is Tiny

1.1  orget Batteries, Let a T-Shirt Power Your

1.1.1 Self-Powered Smartwear

Generating Energy Becomes Personal 3

self-powered operation of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), a liquid-crystal dis-

Featured scientists: The Sang-Woo Kim Group (http://nesel.skku.edu/

Generating Energy Becomes Personal 15

metallic substrate,” Prof. Muhammad Mustafa Hussain summarizes the

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

SLAVERY: SLAVERY: A. D. 1897.

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

SMOKELESS POWDERS, Invention of.

See (in this volume)

SOCIAL DEMOCRACY, Encyclical Letter of Pope Leo XIII. on.

See (in this volume)

See (in this volume)

FRANCE: A. D. 1896 (APRIL-MAY), and 1900 (JANUARY);

GERMANY: A. D. 1894-1895, and 1897 (JULY);

ITALY: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-MAY);

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1896 (JUNE-NOVEMBER),

See (in this volume)

Chapter 1 Generating Energy Becomes Personal 1

1.1 F orget Batteries, Let a T-Shirt Power Your

2.1 U ltra-Stretchable Silicon 29

3.1 Fabricating Complex Micro- and Nanostructures 44

3.2 Nanotechnology and 3D Printing 72

Chapter 4 The Future is Flat—Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials 85

5.1 Honey, I Swallowed the Doctor 116

5.1.3 First Demonstration of Micromotor

Tumor Cells 163

for Cancer Therapy 207

Chapter 6 A Foray into the Multifaceted World of

DNA Nanotechnology 250

6.6.8 Light-Emitting Nanofibers Shine the Way

Chapter 7 Nanotechnology to the Rescue—Environmental

Subject Index 337

1.1 orget Batteries, Let a T-Shirt Power Your

1.1.1 Self-Powered Smartwear