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Importance of the Bleed System on the Overall Air Intake Performance

Conference Paper · July 2011

DOI: 10.2514/6.2011-5759

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 Importance of the Bleed System on the Overall Air
Intake Performance
Christoph Bauer∗, Guido Kurth†
Bayern Chemie, Aschau am Inn, Germany

The objective of this paper is to investigate the sensitivity of the AI characteristic on

the design of the bleed system based on wind tunnel tests and CFD calculations. The char-
acteristic of an air intake (AI) can be regarded as one of the key parameters of the overall
performance of a ram jet (RJ) propulsion sub-system (PSS). Apart from providing the
oxidizer mass and limiting the maximum pressure within the ram combustor (RC), which
has direct impact on the achievable thrust, a well designed AI also gives the opportunity
to reduce the drag of the system significantly.
An AI characteristic is highly dependent on the flight conditions, the free stream Mach
number M0 , the angle of attack α, the side slip angle β and the ambient pressure p0 and
temperature T0 defined by the flight altitude. Due to the fact that modern missile systems
do not allow an optimization to one specific operational point, one of the most critical chal-
lenges during the design of an AI is to find a good compromise for the overall performance
of the PSS. On the one hand the PSS should deliver enough thrust to accelerate at low
altitudes and low Mach numbers, on the other hand the stability margin (SM) of the AI
should enable the system to operate at high altitudes.1
Besides the design of the compression ramps which define the Mach numbers at which
the shocks will enter the air duct, the bleed system (BS) has a main impact on the char-
acteristic of the AI performance.

Nomenclature
A area
Acaptured air intake capture area
D drag
M Mach number
R specific gas constant
SM stability margin
m mass
p pressure
u velocity
α angle of attack
β side slip angle
γ ratio of specific heats
ε dimensionless mass flow ratio
η pressure recovery
ν Prandtl-Meyer function
ρ density
Subscript
0 free stream conditions
2 end of divergent diffusor
LSP last stable point of the air intake characteristic
∗ R&D Engineer, Department T3R, P.O. Box 1131, D-84544 Aschau am Inn, Germany
† TechnicalDirector of Bayern Chemie, P.O. Box 1131, D-84544 Aschau am Inn, Germany

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OP operational point on the air intake characteristic
t total

I. Introduction
The performance of an AI can be expressed by the four parameters:

• Air mass ratio ε

• Total pressure recovery η
• AI Drag D
• Stability margin SM

The air mass ratio ε, which represents the dimensionless captured air mass flow and the dimensionless
total pressure recovery at the end of the diffusor η are commonly given by a ε-η-diagram for the specific
conditions, M , α and β, see figure 6(a).

ṁ2 ṁ2
ε= = (1)
ṁtheo Acaptured · u0 · ρ0
pt2
η= (2)
pt0

The operational point of the characteristic is dependent on the conditions within the RC, namely the
overall fuel and air mass flow and the temperature within the RC after combustion, which determines the
total pressure the AI has to deliver.
Under the assumption of critical nozzle flow, the total pressure can be calculated to:

pt,RC · Anozzle (pt2 − ∆pt ) · Anozzle

(ṁf uel + ṁair ) = = (3)
c∗ c∗
v
R · Tt
u
c∗ = u  (4)
u
γ+1
 γ−1
t 2
γ · γ+1
 
v
R · Tt,RC 1 
 u
pt2 =( ṁ + ṁ ) γ+1 ·
u  + ∆pt (5)
 f uel air u
t   γ−1 Anozzle 
2
γ · γ+1

If the fuel mass flow rate to the RC combustor is increased, which, depended on the on the stoichiometric
ratio results in a higher combustion temperature, the total pressure, delivered by the AI has to increase,
according to equation 5, or the air mass flow has to be reduced.
The last stable point (LSP) is defined as the last ε-η-combination which can be represented by a stable
shock system. A further throttling of the AI will result in buzzing of the AI, high frequency pressure
oscillations. The latter can be classified into so-called Ferri or Dailey-buzzing, which will not be covered in
detail in this paper. But it has to be emphasized that it is absolutely mandatory to avoid buzzing during
operation as the high frequency pressure oscillations can cause a malfunction of the complete system.
The margin between the operational point and the LSP is defined as the stability margin SM. Due to
uncertainties in the exact flight conditions and the exact fuel mass flow rate, a minimum stability margin
SMmin for the operation of the AI has to be defined to guarantee stable conditions.

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 ( ηεLSP
LSP
)
SM = 1 − > SMmin (6)
( ηεOP
OP
)

The drag of an AI can be subcategorized into its four components, see figure 1:

• the spillage drag Dspillage

• the cowl drag Dcowl
• the bleed drag Dbleed
• and the drag due to friction Df riction

Z
Dspillage = (pstreamline − p0 )dAstreamline,x (7)
Z
Dcowl = (pcowl − p0 )dAcowl,x (8)

Dbleed = ṁbleed · (u0 − ubleedexit,x ) (9)

Based on these definitions, the objective during

the design of an AI is to increase the mass flow ra-
tio ε and the total pressure recovery η of the right
hand part of the characteristic while simultaneously
reducing the mass flow ratio of the last stable point
εLSP to improve the stability behavior of the AI.
An increase of the total pressure recovery by 1%
can result in a thrust increase between 1% and 2%,
combined with a reduction of the specific fuel con-
sumption of up to 1%.2
As already mentioned, a tailoring of the AI char-
acteristic can either be done by adjusting the geo-
Figure 1. Main components of a supersonic AI
metrical design of the compression ramps or by mod-
ifying the bleed-system (BS). Within this paper, the
impact of the bleed design on the overall performance will be described. The objective is to give a better
understanding of the flow structure inside the air duct under different conditions.

II. The Bleed System

II.A. The Design of a Bleed System
The main components of a supersonic AI with external compression without a BS are the already mentioned
compression ramps, the cowl lip and a subsonic diffusor, see figure 2. The compression ramps decelerate
the flow and increase the static pressure by deflecting the free stream via oblique shocks which establish
at the beginning of each wedge. The most simple form of a supersonic AI is the so called Pitot-AI which
realizes the deceleration and the increase of the static pressure via a normal shock. Due to the fact that
the total pressure loss across the shock is a function of the normal Mach number upstream of the shock, for
free stream Mach numbers above M = 1.6,3 a system of several oblique shocks is used to minimize the total
pressure losses.

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 At the cowl lip the air stream is finally separated
into the air flow entering the air duct and the spillage
mass flow. In order to minimize the cowl drag, the
inclination of the internal cowl wall is less than the
total inclination of the last wedge. In consequence,
either an additional oblique or a detached shock up-
stream of the lip will establish, dependent on the
Mach number. Under the assumption of an oblique
lip shock, the supersonic air entering the duct is ac-
celerated by the divergent diffusor. The location of
the final shock in the area of the divergent diffu-
Figure 2. Main components of a supersonic AI
sor is set in such a way that the total pressure loss
across the terminating shock matches the required
total pressure within the RC.
A bleed system is an additional duct which separates the entropy rich boundary layer flow from the air
mass to the RC. Therefore, a BS consists of an opening in the normal air duct, the bleed-inlet, a plenum
and a bleed-exit. The focus of this paper will be on the design of the bleed-inlet.
The design of the opening section can vary in two ways: Firstly the opening can be staggered, for example
a defined number of holes at a certain part of the wall, a so-called perforated surface. In alternative the
opening can be defined as a complete slot, a so-called flush slot. If the opening of the inlet is planar to the
wall, the static pressure is the driving force for the bleed-mass flow. If the downstream edge of the inlet is
facing forward into the duct, the bleed-mass flow is driven by the dynamic pressure. In this case the inlet is
called a ram scoop, see figure 3.

(a) Perforated Surface (b) Flush Slot (c) Ram Scoop

Figure 3. Different inlet design for bleed systems2

II.B. The Objective of a Bleed System

The boundary layer establishing on the compression ramp causes two problems. The first one is that the
entropy rich layer is reducing the overall achievable total pressure at the end of the diffusor. This reduction
is on the one hand directly caused by the viscous effects, total pressure losses within the boundary layer,
and on the other hand by additional mixing losses.
The other problem is the so-called shock induced flow separation. Caused by a sudden pressure rise via
a normal or oblique shock, the velocity gradient normal to the wall can reach negative values which would
result in flow separation. This may lead to an additional oblique shock caused by the deflection of the flow
in consequence of the recirculation area.
Figure 4 shows on the one hand the critical pressure ratio p2 /p1 , for turbulent and laminar flow as a
function of the upstream Mach number M1 , for which flow separation is likely to occur, and on the other
hand the pressure rise across a normal shock. It can be seen that even for turbulent boundary layer flow a

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separation of the boundary layer flow is likely if the Mach number upstream of the shock is above M > 1.25.
Under subcritical conditions, the terminating shock located upstream of the cowl lip, a BS with a staggered
inlet, located in the area in which the normal shock will establish, can reduce the risk of shock induced
separation.
Figure 5 shows the characteristics of three iden-
tical AI configurations for two different Mach num-
bers. The black and the blue curves show the char-
acteristics of an AI with an additional BS whereas
the red curves represent a configuration in which
the bleed-inlet is closed. For both Mach numbers
the characteristics are plotted relatively to the max-
imum theoretical total pressure recovery and the
maximum supercritical mass flow ratio given by a
simplified 2D analysis.
These graphs show very well the impact of a
BS on the overall AI performance. First of all, it
can be seen that the total pressure recovery of the
configurations with BS reaches approximately 98%
(M0 = 2.2) respectively 96% (M0 = 2.7) of the
theoretical value while the configuration without a
Figure 4. Critical pressure ratio 2 BS only achieves 88% (M0 = 2.2) respectively 87%
(M0 = 2.7). This gives the indication that the BS
is capable to separate the complete boundary layer,
while the remaining total pressure losses are caused by other effects, like 3D effects due to the finite width
of the AI or viscous effects downstream of the BS. Due to the fact that both configurations are identical
except for the size of the bleed-inlet, the higher total pressure recovery has to be caused by the separation
of the boundary layer.

(a) M0 = 2.2 (b) M0 = 2.7

Figure 5. AI characteristics with and without BS

Besides the effect that a BS can reduce the total pressure losses caused by the entropy rich boundary
layer, figure 5 also illustrates a second effect of the bleed system, the reduction of the mass flow ratio. First
of all, it can be seen that the supercritical mass flow ratio does not achieve the theoretical value based on 2D
calculations. Due to the fact that the 2D calculations take into account the spillage mass flow the relative
mass flow ratio of the configuration without a BS εrel,N oBleed should be one. The additional mass flow loss
ε3D is caused by the finite width of the AI and the fact that the 2D calculation does not take into account
the forebody.
Considering the bleed mass flow ratio, the AI characteristic has to be at least divided into three main
parts, see figure 6, which shows an AI characteristic (red) with the corresponding static pressure history at

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the end of the divergent diffusor (blue) and corresponding Schlieren pictures which show the shock structure
in the area of the compression ramps and at the bleed-exit.

(a) Characteristic (b) Static pressure profile

(c) <1 (Super) (d) 1-2 (e) 2-3 (f) 5-6 (g) >7 (Buzz)

Figure 6. AI characteristic with corresponding static pressure history and Schlieren pictures

An idealized characteristic of an AI without BS can simply be classified into a supercritical branch with
constant mass flow ratio and a subcritical branch with constant total pressure recovery. Both parts are
separated by the so-called critical point, when the terminating shock is located at the cowl lip. For an AI
with BS the classification of the characteristic is more complex. The supercritical branch is comparable
to the one of an idealized AI. The terminating shock is positioned downstream of the bleed-inlet, thus the
bleed mass flow is not affected and therefore constant. If the terminating shock moves upstream at one
point the shock will reach the bleed-inlet and therefore increase the mass flow through the BS. This will
lead to a higher total pressure recovery due to the reduced boundary layer. In addition, the mass flow ratio
ε will be reduced by the higher bleed mass flow which is confirmed by the stronger shock at the bleed-exit
between, figure 6(c) to figure 6(e). If the static pressure at the end of the diffusor is further increased, one
operational point exists, at which the AI can not deliver the required total pressure or can not further reduce
the mass flow by exhausting more mass through the bleed system. In consequence, a detached shock wave
will establish to increase the spillage mass flow, see figure 6(f). This effect becomes obvious either in the
static pressure history or the resulting characteristic by a sudden unsteadiness between point 4 and point 5.
A further throttling of the AI results in a reduction of the mass flow ratio. Therefore, the terminating shock
is moving upstream to increase the spillage mass flow. This movement of the terminating shock might result
in a flow separation on the compression ramps which in consequence can lead to a Dailey-buzzing. It is also
possible that the slip line, caused by the interaction of the terminating shock with an oblique shock enters
the air duct, which can result in Ferri -buzzing, see figure 6(g).
Based on figure 6 it can be seen how the shape of an AI characteristic can be influenced by a BS. Based
on the fact that the thrust of a RJ is highly dependent on the achievable total pressure and the corresponding
air mass flow delivered by the AI the design parameters for a supersonic AI under consideration of the SM
can be addressed as followed:

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 • Increase of the achievable total pressure pressure recovery by dumping the entropy rich boundary layer
• Reduce the risk of shock induced flow separation by diminishing the boundary layer thickness to
improve the stable behavior of the AI
• Minimize the mass flow ratio of the LSP by concurrent high supercritical mass flow to enhance the
maximum fuel mass flow and RC temperature with respect to SMmin

III. Impact of the Bleed-Design on the Performance

III.A. Low Mach Numbers
Figure 7 shows the comparison of two identical AI configurations with different bleed inlets. In comparison
to the AI configuration of the red graph, the inlet of the configuration represented by the blue graph is
reduced to 62%. In addition, the results of several CFD calculations for both configurations are plotted.
The two most obvious results are that on the one hand, the complete subcritical branch, when the
terminating shock is being located upstream of the cowl lip, and some part of the characteristic where the
shock is located in the vicinity of the bleed-inlet, the characteristics are identical. On the other hand, the
mass flow ratio of the configuration with the reduced bleed inlet is higher for the complete supercritical
branch.
Under supercritical conditions the flow in the area of the bleed-inlet is supersonic. This means that
the mass flow into the BS is determined by the deflection of the flow via a Prandtl-Meyer -expansion. The
deflection angle is defined by the Mach number before and after the expansion, while the Mach number after
the expansion wave is given via the ratio of the static pressure before and after the expansion.

r r 
γ+1 γ−1 p
ν(M ) = arctan 2
· (M − 1) − arctan( M 2 − 1) (10)
γ−1 γ+1

ν(M2 ) = Θ + ν(M1 ) (11)

v "
u     1−γ # !
u γ − 1 p2
γ
2
M2 = t 1+ · M12 · −1 (12)
2 p1 γ−1

Due to the fact that the bleed exit is fixed for

both configurations, the pressure inside the bleed-
plenum pbleed,plenum increases with increasing bleed
mass flow ṁbleed . The static pressure at the bleed
exit pbleed,exit is determined by the strength of the
oblique shock. The latter is caused by the deflection
of the free stream due to the bleed-mass flow. There-
fore, a sole increase of the bleed inlet will not lead
to a directly proportional increase of the bleed mass
flow. A fraction of the bleed increase will be com-
pensated by the reduced deflection into the bleed-
system, caused by the higher plenum pressure.
The investigated configuration indicates a non-
proportionally high increase of the bleed mass flow.
This can be explained by the interaction of the ex-
pansion wave with an additional shock. Due to the
pressure rise across the oblique shock, the deflection Figure 7. Comparison of two AI configurations at M0 = 2.2
angle downstream of the shock is increased. In con-
sequence, the mass flow through the bleed ṁbleed is nonproportionally higher than the increase of the bleed
inlet. On the contrary, in the configuration with the reduced bleed inlet size, the bleed-mass flow is not

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affected by the additional oblique shock, see figure 8. This figure also shows that the deflection caused by
the Prandtl-Meyer -expansion is significantly stronger for the configuration with reduced bleed-inlet size due
to the lower static pressure in the plenum.

(a) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - A) (b) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - A)

Figure 8. Mach distribution at M0 = 2.2 under supercritical conditions

The same effect can be seen at a lower Mach number, see figure 9. Due to the reduced free stream
Mach number, M0 = 2.1, the oblique shocks are stronger, and therefore the position in which the oblique
shocks, induced by the axial deflection of the flow at the cowl surface, hit the side of the bleed-inlet is
moved upstream. That is why the bleed mass flow of both configurations is affected by this shock, which in
consequence leads to a more proportional bleed mass flow increase.
Beginning at the supercritical branch, the loca-
tion of the terminating shock is at one point so close
to the downstream edge of the bleed-inlet that the
pressure rise across the shock forces the flow into
the bleed plenum. The mass flow into the BS can
be categorized into a fraction caused by the expan-
sion wave and a fraction that results from the pres-
sure rise across the terminating shock. Caused by
the fact that mass flow with a high static pressure is
streaming into the bleed plenum, the static pressure
inside pbleed,plenum is rising instantaneously, while
the pressure at the bleed exit pbleed,exit is growing
continuously, see figure 11. Due to the increased
plenum pressure the deflection by the expansion
wave will be reduced and the ratio, bleed mass flow
caused by expansion to bleed mass flow due to ter-
Figure 9. Comparison of two AI configurations at M0 = 2.1 minating shock, ṁ
bleed,expansion /ṁbleed,shock will be
reduced.
As already mentioned, from a specific operational point on, the characteristics are identical. Therefore,
the size of the bleed-inlet has no impact on the bleed mass flow. Figure 10 shows both the continuous
Mach distribution and a distinction between sub- (blue) and supersonic flow (red) for some points of the
characteristic defined in figure 7. It can be seen that up to this operational point the flow at the bleed exit
is subsonic. But a further throttling results in choked conditions at the bleed exit and the bleed mass flow
is only determined by the plenum pressure. In addition, it can be seen that the shock structure upstream of
the bleed-inlet is different but the bleed-mass flow is identical.

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(a) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - B) (b) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - C) (c) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - F)

(d) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - B) (e) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - C) (f) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - F)

(g) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - B) (h) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - C) (i) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - D)

(j) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - B) (k) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - C) (l) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - D)

Figure 10. Mach distribution at M0 = 2.2

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 (a) Time dependent profile (b) Corresponding characteristic

Figure 11. Pressure profile within the Bleed System

III.B. High Mach Numbers

At high Mach numbers the sensitivity of the bleed mass flow on the size of the bleed inlet is not as significant
as for low Mach numbers. Whereas for M0 = 2.2 the difference between the supercritical mass flow ratio
εbleed,inlet=63% − εbleed,inlet=100% is around 0.03, for M0 = 2.7 the difference is reduced to 0.01. At M0 = 3.0,
the supercritical mass flow ratio of both configurations is even identical.
The root cause for this reduced sensitivity is
the angle of the lip shock: at low Mach numbers,
the shock angle β is larger, so that the position,
in which the shock hits the opposite surface is up-
stream of the bleed-inlet. In consequence, the static
pressure, which has high impact on the deflection by
the expansion wave, see equation 10 to equation 12
is higher than the ambient static pressure. In case of
M0 = 3.0, the lip shock is so weak that the flow can
expand to nearly ambient conditions due to the ax-
ial acceleration without interference with this shock
up to the bleed-inlet.
Therefore, the static pressure difference between
the bleed-plenum and the flow inside the air duct is
so small that nearly no air mass is exhausted via the
bleed. The reason why the measured supercritical
Figure 12. Comparison of two AI configurations at M0 = 2.7 mass flow ratio does not reach the theoretical value

is the already mentioned 3D effect.

Analogue to low Mach numbers, for M0 = 2.7 there is one point on the characteristic after which shape is
identical for both bleed-inlet configurations. In this case, the identical behavior of the two AI configurations
is not caused by the choked bleed-exit.
As already mentioned, the pressure difference between plenum and air duct is very small, as a result
of the axial acceleration of the air. An increase of the plenum pressure caused by the terminating shock
positioning itself at the downstream edge of the bleed-inlet will cause an additional oblique shock at the
upstream edge of the bleed-inlet, see figure 13(b). With increasing static pressure in the plenum this shock
leads to a recirculation area from which the bleed mass flow is supplied.
In consequence, the static pressure in the plenum and not the size of the bleed-inlet is the determining
factor for the bleed mass flow. In contrast to the conditions at low Mach numbers, the overall bleed mass flow
at high Mach numbers is very small, even if the terminating shock is positioned in the area of the bleed-inlet.

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 (a) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - A) (b) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - C) (c) Bleed-Inlet 62% (CFD - F)

(d) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - A) (e) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - C) (f) Bleed-Inlet 100% (CFD - D)

Figure 13. Mach distribution at M0 = 2.7

Therefore, the bleed exit never reaches critical conditions. Figure 13 shows the Mach distribution in the air
duct for different points of the characteristic defined in figure 12.

IV. Conclusion
The performance of an AI without a bleed-system is defined solely by the achievable maximum total
pressure recovery at the critical point, as the short subcritical branch has a constant total pressure recovery
and can not be used due to stability reasons. In contrast, a simple classification into a super- and subcritical
branch is not possible for a AI with BS. As it is presented within this paper the shape of the characteristic
can be strongly influenced by the design of the bleed-system. Firstly, the maximum total pressure recovery
can be increased significantly. Secondly, the LSP of the characteristic can be shifted to lower mass flow ratios
which has positive effect on the SM.
Based on the results obtained either by wind-tunnel tests or CFD calculations, it can be seen that with
an optimized design of the bleed system the maximum total pressure and the ε-η-combination of the LSP
can be hold constant by concurrent increase of the supercritical mass flow ratio. This increase can enhance
the overall performance of the RJ due to the higher thrust source and the reduced bleed drag. Such an
optimization is based on the fact that at a given point of the characteristic the bleed mass flow is no longer
determined by the bleed-inlet, but by the bleed-exit. Tailoring the shape of the characteristic to the specific
performance requirement by adapting the bleed-inlet and exit size demands a detailed understanding of the
flow structures within the AI.
At low Mach numbers, the size of the bleed exit is the determining factor, because of choked conditions
at the bleed-exit. In contrast, at high Mach numbers, a recirculation area will establish in the area of the
bleed-inlet, caused by the bleed-plenum pressure. Thus, the bleed-exit is also the determining factor, but in
this case due to a different reason.
In addition, the results at M0 = 2.2 show that not only the size, but also the location of the bleed-inlet
has an impact on the AI performance. If the flow into the bleed system is affected by an additional shock
the results can differ.

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 In conclusion, the results show that, based on a detailed understanding and supported by CFD calcula-
tions, an optimization of the AI with respect to the specific requirements is possible. The final design of the
AI configuration has to be determined by wind tunnel test especially because an exact prediction of the LSP
is not possible by CFD calculation as can be seen in figure 12 (CFD - G) which predict stable conditions
based on CFD calculations but can not be established during wind tunnel tests.

References
1 Bauer, C. and Kurth, G., “Air Intake Development for Supersonic Missiles,” 44th AIAA/SME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propul-

sion Conference and Exhibit, AIAA, Hartfort, CT, July 2008.

2 Jell, C. S., “Air Intake Aerodynamics,” Tech. Rep. 754, Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development.
3 Seddon, J. and Goldsmith, E., Intake Aerodynamics, Blackwell Science Ltd., Oxford, 1999.

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