AN ADVANCED

E N G L I S H G RA MMA R

W ITH E XE R C I S E S

GE O R GE L YMAN Q I TTRE D GE
G U RN Y PRO
E FESSOR
I
OF E
‘
NG ISH I RA UR N
L L TE T E I

H A VA R
R UNIV RSI Y
D E T

A ND

FR ANK E D G AR ARLEY
P
F
ROF E S S OR O F E NG L I S H L E A U RE
I R
T T IN

WE S L E YA N U NIV E R S I T Y

G I NN AND C O M PA NY
NE W YORK CHIC A GO L ONDON
o 0

DA L LA S C O L U MB U S SA N F RA NCISCO
0
C O P Y R IG H T , GE O R GE L Y M A N KI T T R E D GE
19 13, B Y

A N D FR A N K E D G A R F A R L E Y
E N T E R E D A T S T A T ION E RS
’ HA L L
A L L RIGHT S R E S E R V E D

Eg fi w x é

LC C on tr o l Numb e r

tm p 9 6 02 7 9 9 1

m e t c u az u m fi n es
G INN AN D COMPANY P RO 0 '

PRI E T O RS BOS T O N U S A . . .
 P R E FAC E

Thi s g ra m m a r i s in t en d ed for studen ts w ho ha v e a lrea dy

rec ei v ed i n st ru ct i on i n the ru di m en t s S ti ll, every such tex t
.

book m ust beg in a t the b eg in n i n g P a rt On e th erefore whi ch

‘

.
, ,
—
occ upi es pp 1 2 4 g ives a succ i n ct t rea t m en t of th e P a rt s of
.
,

S peec h in the S en t en c e a n d of their substitutes the P hra se ,

a n d th e Cla use c on clud i n g w i t h a

,
S um m a ry of D efi ni ti on s .

T hus it clea rs the w a y for wha t follow s a n d m a y be ut iliz ed ,

a s a rev i ew i f th e stud en t n eed s to refresh hi s m em ory

,
.

P a rt T w o dea ls S pec ific a lly a n d fully w ith I n fi ec ti on s a n d

Syn ta x (pp 2 5 . I t in clud es a ls o a cha pter on the u se of
sub ord i n a t e c la u ses a s n oun s a dj ect i ves a n d a d v erb s pp 1 5 7
, ,( .

a s w ell a s a c h a pt er i n whi c h su c h c la u ses a re log i c a lly

cla ssifi ed in a cc orda n ce with their pa rti cula r offi ces i n the
“

ex pressi on of t houg h t (pp 1 63 .

P a rt T hree (pp 1 8 3 22 6) d evelops the subj ect of An a ly si s

—
.

i n its n a tura l ord er fi rst ex pla i n i n g h ow sen ten c es a re put

,

t og ether a n d then illustra tin g the process by whi ch they m a y

,

be resolv ed i n t o th eir c on sti tuen t pa rt s M odi fiers a n d Com .

l em en ts a re cla ssifi ed a n d the so c a lled I n depen d en t E lem en t s

p
-
,

a re d i scu ssed T h ere i s a d ded a spec ia l c ha pt er on Com b i n a

.

ti on s of Cla uses in whi ch the g ra m m a ti c a l a n d log i ca l rela ti on s

,

of c oordi n a t i on a n d sub ord i n a t i on a re set f ort h a n d t h eir fun c ,

ti on s in the efi ec tive use of la n g ua g e a re c on sidered T hi s .

p or t i on o f th e b ook i t i s h o pe
, d w i ll be es p
,
ec i a lly u seful to

st ud en t s of E n g li sh c omposi ti on .

The Appen dix furn i shes li st s of v erb s ta bles of c onj ug a ,

ti on rules for ca pita ls a n d m a rk s of pun ctua ti on a sum m a ry

, ,

of i m porta n t rules of sy n t a x a n d a bri ef h i st ory of th e E n g li sh

,

la n g ua g e .
iv P RE FA CE
—
The E x c
er i ses(pp 2 2 7 2
. 9 0) a re c ollect ed a t the en d of the

t ex t so a s
,
n ot to brea k c on ti nu i ty R eferen c es prefi x ed to
.

ea c h a s w ell a s pa g e num b ers i n the T a ble of C on t en t s en a ble

,
-
,

the t ea cher to a tta c h them a t w ill to the t opi c s whi c h they , ,

con c ern The pa ssa g es for pa rsin g a n a ly si s etc ha v e b een

.
, ,
.
,

c a refully selected from a wi de ra n g e of em i n en t B riti sh a n d

Am eri c a n wri ters The n a m e of the a uthor i s oft en a ppen ded
.

to the quot a t i on when th e pa ssa g e i s pa rt i c ula rly n ot ewort hy

,

ei t her for its c on t en t s or i ts f orm I n m ost c a ses h ow ever thi s

.
, ,

ha s n ot b een d on e ; but th e stu den t m a y a lwa y s fee l c on fi den t

tha t he i s occupy in g hi m self with spec i m en s of E n g li sh a s a c
tua lly c om posed by di st i n g ui shed a uth ors The c on st ruct i v e .

ex erc i ses c a ll pa rt i cula r a tten t i on to t h ose m a tt ers i n whi c h

error i s espec i a lly prev a len t .

An a dva n c ed g ra m m a r m ust a i m to be servi c ea ble in tw o

wa y s It should a fford the m ea n s for c on ti nu ou s a n d sy st em
.

a t i c stu dy of the su bj ect or of a n y pa rt of i t ; a n d it sh ould a lso

be u seful f or referen c e in c onn ecti on w i th the study of c om po

si ti on a n d of li t era ture With thi s la tter en d in vi ew m a n y
.
,

n ot es a n d obs erva t i on s ha ve b een i n clu ded i n sm a ller type , ,

to show the n a ture a n d dev elopm en t of th e v a ri ous form s a nd

c on structi on s a n d to poin t out differen c es between the u sa g e of
,

to da y a n d t h a t whi ch the stu d en t ob serves i n S ha k spere a n d

-

oth er E n g li sh c la ssi c s Th e fuln ess of the i n dex m a k es it ea sy

.

to fi n d a n yt hin g th a t the v olu m e c on t a in s .

I n a cc orda n c e w ith the desi re of m a n y t ea c hers c erta i n ,

t opi c s of im porta n ce ha ve been t rea t ed w ith un usua l thoroug h

n ess Am on g th ese m a y be m en t i on ed the uses of sha ll a n d
.

w i ll s hou ld a n d w ou ld th e i n fi n i t iv e a n d the i n fi n i t i ve c la use

, , ,

c on diti ona l sen t en c es in direct di sc ourse, a n d the c om bin a ti on

,

of c la u ses i n sen t en c es of differen t ki n ds .

The a uth ors a re in debt ed to sev era l t ea chers for sug g est i on s
a n d c rit i c i sm P a rti cula r a ck n owledg m en t i s due to Mr Theo
.
.

dore C Mi tc hill of the Ja m a i ca Hi g h S c hool N ew Y ork , a nd

.
, ,

Mr C L Hooper, of the Chi ca g o N orm a l S chool

. . . .
 CONT E NT S

[ Th e n um bers i n the fi rs t c olum n re er f to th e p g

a es f
o t h e tex t those i n the
sec ond c olu m n to the p a g es of the E x erc i ses ]

I NT RO D U CT I O N
TE X
T

L a n g ua g e a nd Gr a m m a r

Gra m m a r a nd Usa g e
Sum m a ry of G en era l P ri n c i ples x vu

E N GLI SH GR AMM AR

P ART ONE — T HE P ART S OF S PEE CH I N T HE

S E NT E NCE

T he Sen ten c e S ub je t
c a nd P redi c a te
Ki n d s of S en ten c es
T h e E ig h t P a rts of Speech D efi ned
Th e S a m e W ord a s D i fferent P a rts of Speec h .

I nfi ni ti ves a n d P a rti c i ples

S h
.

C om pa ra ti ve I m porta n c e of th e P a rts of peec .

j
Si m ple a n d C om plete Sub ec t a n d P redi c a te
j
C om poun d Sub ec t a n d P redi c a te .

Substi tutes f or th e P a rts of Speec h

j
P hra ses — N oun , V erb, A d ec ti ve, A d verbi a l
Cla uses — I n d epen d ent a n d Subordi n a te
C om poun d a n d C om plex S en ten c es
C om poun d C om plex S enten c es
C la uses a s P a rts of Speec h .

'
Sum m a ry of D efi ni ti on s

P ART T W O — I NFLE CT I ON AND S YNT AX

—
C HAP TE R I I NFL E C T I ON

I nfl ec ti on i n G en era l
Sum m a r
y of I nfl ecti on s
 CON T E N T S

C HAP T E R I I NOUNS

Cla ssifi ca ti on C om m on Noun s a nd P roper Noun s

S pec i a l C la sses — Abstra c t, C ollec ti ve, C om poun d
I n fl ec ti on of Noun s
G en der
Num ber
P erson
C a se
Nom i n a ti ve C a se
P ossessive C a se

Ob j ec tive C a se

Pa rsi n g of Noun s

C HAP T E R I I I P R ON O UN S

P erson a l P ron oun s

G en d er a n d Num ber of P e son
‘

r a l P ron oun s
C a se of P erson a l P ron ouns
T h e S elf P ron oun s ( C om poun d P erson a l P ron oun s)
-
.

Ad j ec tive P ronouns D em on stra ti ves

A dj ec tive P ron oun s I n d efi n i tes

R ela tive P ron ouns

T h e R ela ti ve P ron oun Wha t
C om poun d R ela ti ve P ron oun s
I nterrog a ti ve P ron oun s
P a rsi ng of P ron oun s

C HA PT E R I V A D JE C T I VE S

Cla ssifi ca ti on of Ad j ec tives

Ad j e tives
c th e A rti c les
C om pa ri son of A d ec ti ves j
I rreg ula r C om pa ri son

C HAP T E R V A D VE R B S

Cla ssi fi c a ti on of Adverbs

R ela tive a nd I n terrog a ti ve A dverbs
C om pa ri son of A dverbs
Use of th e C om pa ra tive a n d Superla ti ve
N m er s
u a l — j
Ad ec tives, Noun s, Adverbs
 C ON T E N T S v ii

C HA PT E R VI V E RB S
T EXT

Cla ssi fi ca ti on of V erbs

Auxi li a ry V erbs V erb P hra ses
-

T ra n si ti ve a n d I n tra nsi ti ve V erbs

C opula ti ve V erbs
I nfl ec ti on of V erbs
T en se of V erbs
P resen t a n d P a st T en ses
W ea k (R eg ula r) a nd S tron g (I rreg ula r
) V erbs
P erson a nd Num ber .

T h e P erson a l E n d i ng s
C on j ug a ti on of th e P re en t s a n dthe P a t s

Spec i a l Rules of Num ber a nd P erson

T h e Future T en se S ha ll a n d Wi ll
C om plete or C om poun d T en ses
V oi c e A c ti ve a n d P a ssive
C on j ug a ti on of th e Si x T en ses
Use of th e P a ssi ve V oi c e
P rog ressi ve V erb P h ra s es
-

E m ph a ti c V erb P h ra ses -

Mood of Verbs .

I n di c a tive M ood
I m pera tiv e M ood
S ub u j
n c ti v e M ood — F orm s

Uses of j
th e Sub un c ti ve
P otenti a l V erb P hra -
ses (M od a l A uxi li a ri es
)
Spec i a l Rules f or S hou ld a nd Would
T he I nfi n i ti ve

T h e I nfi ni ti ve a s a Noun
T h e I nfi ni ti ve a s a M odifi er
T h e I nfi n i ti ve C la use
P a rti c i ples F orm s a nd C onstruc ti on s
Nom i n a ti ve A bsolute
Verba l Noun s i n i ng (P a rti c i pi a l Noun s)
-

C HA P T E R VI I P R E P O SI T I O N S

L i st of P reposi ti on s
Spec i a l Uses of P reposi ti on s
 iii C ON T E N T S

C HAP TE R VI II CONJUNC TI ONS

TE X
T

C oordi n a te (or C oordi n a ting ) C on j unc tions

Subordi n a te (
or Subordi n a ti ng ) C onj un c ti on s

C orrela ti ve C on j unc tions

C HAP T E R I X I NT E RJE C T I O N S

j
I n ter ec ti ons
E x c la m a x
tory E pressi on s

—
CHAP T E R X CL AU SE S A S P A R T S O F S PE E C H

Cla uses a s P a rts of Speec h

Adj ec ti ve Cla uses
A dverbi a l Cla uses
Noun ( or Substa n tive) C la uses

— T HE M E ANI NG S O F S UB O R D I NAT E C L AU SE S
C HAP T E R XI

C la uses of P la c e a nd T im e
C a usa l Cla uses
C on c essi ve C la uses
C la uses of P urpose a nd R esult
C on di ti on a l Senten c es
F orm s of C on d i ti on s
P resent a n d P a st C on d i ti on s
F uture C on di ti on s
C la uses of C om pa ri son
I n di rec t D i sc ourse
S ha ll a nd Wi ll ,
S hould a nd Would i n I n di rec t D i sc ourse
I n d i rec t Questi on s
S ha ll a nd Wi ll ,
S hould a nd Would i n I n d irec t Question s

P ART T HRE E — ANALYS I S

—
C HAP TE R I T HE S T RUC T UR E OF SE NTE NCE S

An a ly sis th e E lem en ts
S i m ple S enten c es
Com poun d S entenc es
 CON T E N T S

TE X
T

x
C om ple S enten c es
C om poun d a n d C om ple C la uses x
C om poun d C om ple S en ten c es x

—
C HAP T E R I I A NA L Y S I S OF SE NT E NC E S

Sim ple S enten c es

C om poun d S en ten c es
C om plex S en ten c es
C om poun d C om plex S en ten c es

C HA P T E R I I I M OD I FI E R S

Modifi ers in G en er a l
M odifi ers of th e S ub ec t j
M odi fi ers of th e P red i c a te

C HAP T E R I V C O MP L E M E NT S

Use of C om plem ents

T h e D i rec t O b ec tj
’

T h e P redi c a te O bj é c tiv e
T h e P redi c a te Nom i n a ti ve
T h e P redi c a te A d ec ti vej
—
C HAPT E R V M OD I FI E R S O F C OMP L E ME NT S A ND O F
M OD I FI E R S

M odifi ers of C om plem ents

M od i fi ers of Oth er M odi fi ers

C HAP T E R VI u

lND E P E ND E NT E L E M E NT S

Four K i n d s of I n d epen d en t E lem en ts

x
P a renth eti c a l E pressi on s

—
C HAP T E R VI I C O MB I NA TI ONS OF C L A U SE S

Gen era l P ri n c i ples

C oord i n a tion a nd Subordi n a ti on
l
C a uses — Si m ple, C om poun d , C om ple x
 C O NT E N T S
TE XT
Sim ple Senten c es w j
i th C om poun d Sub ec t or P red i c a te
C om poun d a n d C om plex S en ten c es .

C om poun d C om plex S enten c es

Va ri eti es of th e C om plex S en ten c e
Spec i a l C om pli c a ti on s i n C om plex S en ten c es
Spec i a l C om pli c a ti on s i n C om poun d C om plex S enten c es

C HA PTE R VI I I EL L I P TI CA L SE NT E NC E S

E lli psi s i n Cla uses a nd S enten c es

Va ri eti es of E lli psi s
E xa m ples of E llipti c a l Construc ti ons

E X E R CI SE S

x
E erc ises on P a rt One

E x erc i ses on P a rt T w o
E x erc i ses on P a rt T hree

A P P E N DI X

L i sts o f V erbs
C on j ug a ti on of th e V erb to
C on j ug a ti on of th e Verb to
Use of C a pita l L etters
Rules of P un c tua ti on
R ules of Sy n ta x
T h e E ng li sh L a ng ua g e

I ND E X
 I NT RODUCT I ON

LANG U A GE AN D G R AMM AR

I . TH E NA T U R E or L A N GU A GE

L a n g ua g e i s the ex p ressi on of th oug ht by m ea n s of S poken

or written word s .

T he E n g li sh word la ng u a g e c om es (throug h th e Fren ch

la ng u e) from the L a ti n li ng u a th e t on g ue B ut the t on g ue !
.
,

i s n ot th e on ly org a n u sed in spea k in g T h e lips the teeth .

, ,

th e roof of the m outh the soft pa la t e ( or u v ula ) the n ose a n d

, , ,

the v oca l c h ord s a ll h elp to produ c e the sou n ds of whi ch la n

g u a g e c on si st s.T h ese v a ri ous org a n s m a k e u

p on e d eli c a t e a n d
c om pli ca ted pi ece off m echa n i sm upon whi c h the brea th of the
-

spea k er a ct s lik e t ha t of a m usi c i a n u pon a c la rin et or ot h er

win d in strum en t .

S pok en la n g ua g e then i s c om posed of a g rea t va ri ety of

, ,

soun d s m a d e w i t h th e v oc a l org a n s A w ord m a y c on si st of .

on e sou n d a s Ah I or O or I ut m ost w ords c onsi st of tw o

( ) b ,

or m ore d i fferen t s oun d s a s g o s ee try fi n i s h on g or short

( ) L , , ,
.
,

h ow ev er a w ord i s m erely a si g n m a d e to ex press t houg ht .

T houg ht m a y be i m perfectly ex pressed by si g n s m a de w i th

th e hea d, th e ha n d s, etc . T hus, i f I g ra s
p a pers on s a rm
’ a nd

poi n t to a d og , he y tm a to a sk D
un d ers a n d m e
o
y ou see t h a t ,

d og An d hi s n od in reply m a y sta n d for Y es I see him ,

.
!

B ut a ny dia log ue c a rri ed on i n th i s w a y m u st be b oth fra g m en

ta ry a n d un c erta in T o ex press our th ou g ht s fully freely a n d
.
, ,

a cc u ra t ely w e m ust u se w ord s

,
— tha t i s si g n s m a de with the
, ,

v oi c e S u ch v oi ce si g n s ha ve h a d m ea n i n g s a ssoc ia t ed with
.
-

them by c ustom or tra di ti on so tha t their sen se i s a t once ,

X1
x ii IN T R O D U CT ION
un ders ood t by a ll . T hei r a dv a n ta g e i s tw ofold : they a re fa r
m ore n um erou s a n d va ri ed tha n other si g n s a n d the m ea n in g s
a tta ched to them a re m uch m ore d efi n it e t ha n t h ose of n od s

a n d g estur es .

Written w ords a re sig n s m a de with the pen to represen t a n d

rec a ll to th e m in d the spok en w ord s
( or v 01 c e s1 g n s
) W ri tt en -
.

la n g ua g e ( tha t i s c om positi on ) m u st of n ec essi ty be som ewha t

, , ,

fuller tha n spok en la n g ua g e a s w ell a s m ore form a l a n d ex a ct

’ , .

For th e rea der s un dersta n di n g i s n ot a ssi sted by the t on es of

the v oi c e, the c ha n g in g ex pressi on s of the fa c e a n d the li vely ,

e st u res whi c h h elp to m a k e S pok en la n g ua g e i n t elli i ble

g , g .

Most w ords a re the si g n s of defin it e i dea s Thus Cha rles .

, ,

c a p ta i n c a t m ouse brea d
, ,
s ton e c up i nk c a ll up i m a g es or
, , , , ,

i ct u res of person s or t hi n g s ; s tri k e d i ve c li m b di sm ou n t

p , , , ,

ex pres s pa rt i cula r k i n ds of a ct i on ; g reen blu e c a reless roc ky , , , ,

tri a ng u la r m us c u la r en a ble u s to desc rib e obj ect s wi t h a cc u

, ,

ra cy . E v en g en era l t erm s lik e g ood n ess tru th c oura g e c ow a rd , , ,

i c e g en erosi ty,ha v e suffi c ien tly prec i se m ea n in g s for t hey n a m e

, ,

qua li ti es or trai t s of cha ra ct er, with whi ch everyb ody i s fa m ilia r

,
.

B y th e use of suc h w ords ev en wh en n ot c om bi n ed i n g roups , ,

w e c a n ex press our th oug ht s m u c h m ore sa t i sfa ct orily t ha n by

m ere g estures The uttera n c e of the sin g le w ord Cha rles ! !

m a y si g n i fy : Hullo Cha rles ! a re y ou h ere ? I a m surpri sed

“

to see y ou !
B rea d !
.
!
m a y su g g est to the h ea rer : Give m e
brea d ! I a m v ery hun g ry C oura g e ! m a y be a lm ost equi v
!

’
.

a leu t to D on t be d ow n hea rted ! Y our troubles w ill soon -

be ov er .

La n g ua
g e, h ow c on fi
ever, n e d t ois
th e u tt
n ot e ra n c e of sin

g le w o rd s T o e x.
pr e ss o u r t h ou g h t s w e m u st put w ord s to
,

g e t h e r ,
w e m u s t c om b i n e t h em i n t o g roups a n d suc h g rou s
p
ha v e settled m ea n i n g s (j u st a s w ords ha v e) est a bli shed (lik e ,

the m ea n in g s of sin g le w ord s) by the c ust om s or ha b i t s of the

p a r t i c ula r l a n g ua g e t h a t w e a re S p e a k i n g or wr i t i n g Fu rt h er .
,

these g roups a re n ot thrown t og ether ha pha z a rd We m ust c on .

struct them i n a cc orda n c e w ith c ert a i n fi x ed rules O therwise .

 THE NAT U RE OF L ANG U AG E x iii

w e Sha ll fa il to ex press ou rsel es v clea rly a nd acc epta bly a n d ,

w e m a cc
ev en sueed i n sa y i n g th e opposi t e of wha t w e m ea n
y .

I n c on stru ctin g t hese g roups ( whi c h w e c a ll phra ses c la uses , ,

a n d sentenc es w e ha v e th e a i d of a la rg e n um b er of S h ort w ords

)
li k e a n d if by to i n i s w a s whi c h a re v ery di fferen t from
, , , , , , ,

the defi n it e a n d pi cturesqu e w ords tha t w e h a ve j ust ex a m i n ed .

T hey do n ot c a ll up di stin ct im a g es in th e m i n d a n d w e S h ould ,

fi n d it ha rd to d efin e a n y of th em Y et thei r im porta n c e i n

.

the ex pressi on of t hou g ht i s c lea r ; f or they serv e to j oin oth er

w ord s t og eth er a n d to S h ow th ei r rela t i on to ea c h ot h er in
,

those g roups w hi c h m a k e up c on n ect ed S peech .

Thus box hea v y c on vey s som e m ea n i n g ; but T he box

,
!

i s hea vy i s a clea r a n d d efin it e sta t em en t Th e S h ow s tha t .

som e pa rt i cula r box i s m ea n t a n d i s en a bles u s to m a k e a n

,

a ssert i on a b out i t An d i n Cha rles a n d J ohn a re m y brothers !

,
.
,

i n d i c a t es tha t Cha rles a n d J oh n a re c losely c on n ect ed i n m y

thoug ht a n d tha t wha t I sa y of on e a ppli es a lso to the other
,
.

If in
,
I f Cha rles c om es I S ha ll be g la d to see him ,
c on n ec t s ,
!

tw o st a t em en t s a n d s h ow s tha t on e of them i s a m ere supposi

,

ti on (for Cha rles m a y or m a y n ot c om e) .

I n g roupi n g Word s our la n g ua g e ha s t hree di fferen t wa y s

,

of in d i c a t i n g t heir rela t i on s 1 h e f orm s of th e w ord s th em

( ) t
selv es ; t h eir ord er ; 3 th e u se of li ttle w ord s li k e a n d if
( )
2 ( ) , ,

i s, etc .

I . Cha ng e W ord s m a y c ha n g e their form T hus

of form . .

the w ord bog b ec om es bog s when m ore th a n on e i s m ea n t ; hi ll

bec om es k i lled when pa st tim e i s referred to ; w a s bec om es
w ere wh en w e a re S ea k i n o f t o o r m o re ers on s o r t h i n s
p g w p g ;
f a st b ec om es
f a s ter w h en a h i g h e r d eg ree o f S pee d i s i n d i c a t ed .

Su ch cha n g e of form i s ca lled i nflecti on a n d the word i s sa id ,

to be i nflected .

I nfi ec ti on isim porta n t m ea n s of showin g the rela ti on s of

’
an

words in “
c on n ected S peech I n H enry s ra ck et w eig hs four
’
.

t een oun ces the form H enry s S how s a t on ce the

!
,
rela ti on
b etween Hen ry a nd the ra cket n a m ely t ha t H en ry , ,
ow n s or
x iv IN T R O D U CT ION
it T he ord H en ry, th en , m a c ha n g e i ts form to
’
ossesses w
y
p .

H enr y ts wn ership or possessi on

o in di ca t e o .

II Order of w ords I n J ohn struck Cha rles the w a y in

. .
,
!

whi ch the word s a re a rra n g ed S hows w ho i t w a s tha t stru ck ,

a n d w h o rec ei v ed the blow Cha n g e the ord er of w ords to .

Cha rles stru c k J ohn !

a n d th e m ea n i n g i s rev ersed It i s ,
.
,

then the order tha t S hows the rela t i on of John to s truc k a nd

, ,

of s tru c k to Cha rles .

III . Use of other w ords . C om pa re the tw o sen en es t c

T h e tra i n f rom B oston h a s j ust a rri ved .

T h e tra i n f or B oston h a s j ust a rrived .

H ere f rom f S h ow tha nd

e rela t i on b etw een th e tra i n a n d
or

B os ton T he B ost on tra i n m i g ht m ea n ei th er th e t ra i n f rom

.

B ost on or the t ra i n f or B ost on B y u sin g f rom or f or w e m a k e .

the sen se un m i sta ka ble .

T w o m a tt ers then a re of v it a l i m porta n c e in la n g ua g e

, , ,
“

th e form s of w ords a n d th e rela t i on s of w ord s Th e sc ien c e

,
.

whi ch trea t s of these tw o m a tters i s c a lled g ra m m a r .

I nflec ti on i s a c h a ng e i n theform of a w ord i ndi ca ti ng s om e c h a ng e

i n its m ea ni ng .

T he rela ti on i n w hi ch a w ord sta nds to oth er w ord s i n the sentenc e

is ca lled its c onstructi on .

Gra m m a r i s th e sc i enc e w h i c h trea ts of th e form the c onstructi ons

'

s a nd

of w ords .

S y nta x i s th a t depa rtm ent of g ra m m a rw h i c h trea ts of the c onstruc

ti ons of w ords .

G ra m m a r then m a y be sa id to c on c ern i t self with tw o m a in

, ,

subj ect s i n fl ecti on a n d sy n t a x

, .

E n g li sh belong s to a fa m ily of la n g u a g es — the In d o Europea n -

Fa m i ly 1 — whi ch i s ri ch i n form s of i n fl ecti on T hi s ri c hn ess .

m a y be seen i n ot her m em b ers o f th e fa m ily suc h a s G reek ,

or La t i n . T he L a t in w ord hom o, m a n,
!
for ex a m le
p , ha s

1 F or a bri ef h i story th e E n g li sh la n g ua g e, see p 3 1 6

of . .
 GRAM M AR AN D U S AG E x v

eig ht d ifferen t i n fl ec ti on a l form s, h om o, a m an hom i n is,

of a m an
!
; h om i n i ,
to a m a n, a n d so on . T hu s, i n L a tin ,
the g ra m m a t i c a l c on st ru ct i on of a w ord i s, i n g en era l, how
s n

by tha t ti cula r i n flec ti on a l en di n g whi ch or t erm i n a t i on

pa r
( )
it ha s i n a ny pa rti cula r sen ten c e I n the An g lo S a x on peri od
1 -
.
,

En g li sh w a s likew i se w ell furn i sh ed wi th suc h in fl ec ti ona l

en di n g s t h ou g h n ot so a bun d a n tly a s L a t i n M a n y of these
’
.
, ,

h ow ev er ha d di sa ppea red by Cha u c er s t i m e ( 1 3 4 0

,
a nd

st ill oth ers h a v e S i n c e b een lost so t ha t m od ern E n g li sh i s on e ,

of the lea st i nfl ect ed of la n g u a g es S uch losses a re n ot to be .

la m en t ed B y du e a tt en ti on to th e ord er of w ord s a n d by
.
,

u si n g of , to f or f rom i n a n d th e lik e w e c a n ex press a ll the

, , , , ,

rela t i on s d en ot ed by th e a n c i en t in fl ect i on s T he g a i n i n sim .

pli c i ty i s en orm ous .

II GRA M M A R
. AN D U S A GE
S in c e la n g ua g e i s th e ex pressi on of th ou g h t , the rules of
g ra m m a r a g ree, in th e m a i n , w i th th e la w s of th ou g ht In .

ther w ords g ra m m a r i s u sua lly log i ca l — t ha t i s, i ts io

rules
“

o , ,

a cc ord i n g en era l w i th the pri n c i ples of

, ,
log i c, whi c h i s the
sc 1 en c e of ex a ct rea son i n g .

T he rules of
g ra m m a r, how ev er, d o n ot d erive their au thority
from log i c, but from g ood u sa g e, — t ha t i s, from th e cu st om s
or ha b i t s follow ed by edu c a t ed S pea kers a nd w ri ers t . T hese
cu st om s course differ a m on g di fi eren t n a t i on s a n d every
,
of , ,

la n g u a g e ha s th erefore its ow n st oc k of pec uli a r c on st ruct i on s

or t urn s of ex
p ressi on S u c h pe cu li a ri t i es a re c a lled i di om s
. .

Thu s in E n g li sh w e sa y It is I but i n Fren c h th e i d i om !

“ ’ ,

i s C est m oi whi ch c orrespon ds to It i s m e

!
,
,

Ma n y ca re .
!

less S pea k ers of E n g li sh f ollow th e Fren c h i di om i n thi s pa r

ti c ula r but t heir pra ct i c e ha s n ot y et c om e to be the a ccept ed
.
,

usa g e Hen c e t hou g h

’
C est m oi,
!
i s c orrect i n Fren ch w e ,

m ust st ill reg a rd It i s m e a s un g ra m m a ti ca l in E n g li sh It .

1 C om pa re 3 1 6 3 1 7
-

pp . .
x vi IN T R O D U CT ION
w ould ,
however, b ec om e correct i f it should ever be a dopt ed
by the r e t m a j o ri ty of educ a t ed person s
g a .

Gra m m a r does n ot en a ct la ws for the c on duct of speech I ts .

busin ess i s to a scerta in a n d set forth those cust om s of la n g ua g e

whi ch ha v e the sa n cti on of g ood usa g e I f g ood usa g e cha n g es .
,

the rules of g r a m m a r m u st c h a n g e I f tw o form s or c on strue

.

ti on s a re 1 11 g ood use the g ra m m a ria n m ust a dm i t them both

,
.

O cca siona lly a lso there i s room for difi eren c e of opini on
, ,
.

T hese fa ct s howev er do n ot lessen th e a uth ority of g ra m m a r

, ,

in the c a se of a n y culti v a t ed la n g ua g e For i n su ch a la n g ua g e .

u sa g e i s so w ell settled i n a lm ost ev ery pa rt i cula r a s to en a ble

the g ra m m a ria n to sa y posi t i vely wha t i s ri g h t a n d wha t i s

wron g E v en i n m a tt ers of di v ided usa g e it i s seldom diffi cult
.
,

to det erm i n e whi c h of tw o form s or c on struct i on s i s preferred

by c a reful writers .

Ev ery la n g ua g e ha s tw o sta n d a rd s of u sa g e the c olloquia l

a n d th e lit era ry By . c olloquia l la n g ua g e w e m ea n the la n ,

u a e o f c o n v e r s a t i o n by “ li t era ry la n u e t h t e m l o y e d !
g g ; g a g a p ,

i n lit era ry c om posit i on E v ery da y c olloqui a l E n g li sh a dm it s

.

m a n y w ord s form s phra ses a n d c on st ruct i on s t ha t w ould be

, , ,

out of l c e i n d i n i fi ed e y O n th e o t h er h n d i t i n
p a a g ssa . a s a ,

error i n t a st e to be a lwa y s ta lkin g like a b ook U n pra cti sed !

.

S pea k ers a n d writ ers sh ould however be c on serva t i ve They, ,

.

sh ould a v oi d ev en i n i n form a l t a lk a n w o rd or ex ressi on

, y , p
tha t i s of doubt ful propriety O nly t hose w ho k n ow w ha t they
'

a re a b out c a n v en ture to t a ke li b ert i es

, It i s qui te possible to .

be c orrect without b ein g st ilt ed or a ffected 1

.

E very li v i n g la n g ua g e i s c on sta n tly cha n g in g W ord s form s .

, ,

a n d c on struct i on s b ec om e obsolete th a t i s
( g o o u t o f u s e
) a n d ,

others t a k e t h ei r l a c e C on e q u en t ly o n e of t en n o t e i n th e
p s s . s ,

older E n li sh cla ssi c s m eth od s of ex e n w h i c h t h u h

g , p r s s 1 o o g ,

f orm erly c orrect a re un g ra m m a t i c a l n ow

, Here a tw ofold .

1 I n thi s book , w ell-esta bli sh ed loqui a

c ol l id i om s or c on struc ti on s a re m en
ti on ed from ti m e to tim e, but a lw a ys w i th a n ote a s to th ei r a c tua l Sta tus in
th e la ng ua g e .
x v iii IN T R O D U C T ION
T he m ea ni n g s of these si g n s a re settled by c u stom or tra di ti on i n
ea c h la n g u a g e .

3 . Most w ord s a re th e si g n s of d efi n i te i dea s : a s, C ha rles, ca

p
m i n, ca t, strike, d i ve, c lim b, tria ng u la r, c a reless .

O th er w ord s, of less d efi n i te m ea n i n g , serv e to c onn ec t the m ore

d efi n i te w ord s a n d to S h ow th ei r rela ti on s to ea c h oth er in c on n ec ted

speec h .

4 . I n the expressi on of thoug ht, w ord s a re c om bi n ed i n to g roups

ca lled phra ses, c la u ses, a n d sen ten c es .

5 T h e rela ti on i n w hi c h a w ord
. sta n d s to oth er w ord s i n the
sen ten c e i s c a lled i ts c on str u c ti on .

Th e c on struc ti on of En g li sh w ord s is S how n i n three w a y s : 1

( ) yb
thei r form ; 2 b
( ) y th ei r ord er 3
; ( ) by th e u se of oth er w ord s li k e

to, f rom , is, etc .

6 I nflec ti on i s a c ha n g e i n th e form of a w ord i n di c a ti n g som e

’
.

c ha n g e i n i ts m ea n i n g : a s, —
boy, boy ; m a n, m en ; d rin k, dra n k
s .

7 . Gra m m ar i s the sc i en c e w hi c h trea ts of the form s a n d th e

c on struc ti on s of w ord s .

Syn ta x i s th a t d epa rtm en t of g ra m m a r w hi c h trea ts of the c on

stru c ti on s of w ord s .

8 T h e rules p f g ra m m a r d eri ve th ei r a uthori ty from g ood u sa g e,

‘

th a t i s, from the c u stom s or h a bi ts follow ed by educ a ted spea k ers

a n d w ri ters .
 E NG L I S H G R AMMAR

PART ONE

THE P ART S OF S PEECH IN

THE SE NTENCE

. j
S um m a ry Th e Sentenc e : Sub ec t a n d P redi c a te ; K in d s of S entenc es .

Use of w ord s in th e Sentenc e : th e E i g ht P a rts of Speec h ; In fi ni ti ves

l
a nd P a rti c ip es — C om pa ra tiv e Im porta n c e of the P a rts of Speec h in the S en
.

j
ten c e : th e S ub ec t N oun ( or Sim ple S ub ec t) j
th e P red i c a te Verb (or Sim ple
j
P redi c a te) ; C om poun d S ub ec t a n d P red i c a te Substi tutes for th e P a rts of
.

Speec h : P h ra ses ; Cla uses ; C om poun d a nd C om ple S entenc es x .

T HE SE NTE NCE

1 . A sentenc e is a g roup of w ords w hi c h ex presses a com plete

th oug ht .

Fi re burns .

W olves how l .

R a i n is f a lli ng .

C h a rles i s c oura g eous .

P a ti ent effort rem oves

‘

m ounta i n s .

L on d on i s th e la rg est c i ty i n th e w orld .

A m a n w h o respec ts hi m self hould n ever c on desc en d S

to use slovenly la ng ua g e .

S om e of these sen ten c es S h ort ex pressin g a very sim ple

a re ,

th oug ht ; others a re c om pa ra t i v ely lon g beca use the thoug ht ,

is m ore c om pli ca ted a n d t herefore requi res m ore w ords for i ts

ex pressi on B ut ev ery on e of t hem w hether short or lon g i s
.
, ,

c om plet e in i tself It c om es to a d efi nite en d a n d is followed

.
,

by a full pa use .
2 T HE S E N T E N CE

2 . E very sen en e, t c whether shor t or lon g , con si sts of tw o

pa r s, t a j
sub ect a n d a predi ca te .

T he sub ect of j a desi g na tes the person, pla ce, or thi ng tha t
sentenc e

is spok en of ; the predi c a te i s th a t w h i c h i s sa i d of th e sub ec t j .

T hus, i n th e fi rst e a m
ple i x
n 1 ,
th e su b ec t i s fi re a n d th e p r e d j
i c a te
i s burns . In j
th e third , th e sub ec t i s ra i n ; the pred i c a te, i s f a lli ng In .

th e la st, th e sub ec t i s a m j a n w ho resp ec ts hi m self ; the pred i c a te, shoul

d
never c ondesc end to use slovenly la ng ua ge

E i ther the bj ect or the predi ca te m a y c onsist of a sin g le

su

word or of a num ber of words B ut n either the subj ect by .

i t self n or th e pred i ca t e by i t self how ever ex t en d ed i s a sen , ,

ten c e T he m ere m en tion of a t hin g ( fi re) d oes n ot ex press a

.

c om plete th oug ht N either d oes a m ere a sserti on (burns) i f

.
,

w e n eg lect to m en t i on the erson or th i n g a b out whi c h the

p
a ssert i on i s m a d e Thus i t a ppea rs tha t b oth a subj ect a n d a
.

red i c a t e a re n ec essa ry to m a ke a sen t en c e

p .

3 S entences
. m a y be decla ra tive, i nterrog a ti e, i m pera ti ve, or ex v
c la m a tory .

1 . A dec la ra tive sentenc e decla res or a sserts som eth i ng a s a fa ct .

D i c k ens w rote D a vi d C opperfi eld .

Th e a rm y a pproa c h ed th e c i ty .

2 . An i nterrog a tive sentence a sk s a q uesti on .

W ho i s tha t ofii c er
D oes A rthur M oore li ve h ere

3 . An i m pera tive sentence ex presses a c om m a nd or a request .

O pen th e w in d ow .

P ronoun c e th e vow els m ore d istin c tly .

4 . An ex c la m a tory sentenc e ex presses surpri s e, g rief, or som e other

em oti on i n the form of a n ex c la m a ti on or c ry .

How ca lm th e sea i s
W ha t a n oise th e eng i n e m a kes 1
 T HE P AR T S OF S P EE CH 3

A decla ra ti ve, a n in t errog a ti ve, or a n im pera ti ve t

sen en e c is
a lso x e cla m a tory , i f i t i s utt ered i n a n in ten se or ex cited ton e
of v oi ce .

4 I n i m pera t i ve sen t en c es, the

. su bj ect (thou or y ou
) is
a lm ost a lwa y s om itted, b ec a u se i t i s understood by b ot h spea k er
a nd hea rer wi thout bei n g ex press ed .

Suc h om itted w ord s , w h i c h a re presen t (i n i dea ) to th e m i nd s of both

spea k er a n d bea rer, a re sa i d to be un d erstood
!
Th us, in
“O pen the w i n .

d ow , th e sub ec t i s
!
j
y ou If e pressed , th e sub ec t w ould be x j
em ph a tic a s, You open th e w i nd ow .

5 . T he bj ect of a sen ten ce c om m only

su p c
re ed es the predi
ca te ,
but som et im es the predi ca te prec edes .

Here c om es T om .

Next c a m e E d w a rd .

O ver w ent the c a rri a g e .

A sen en e t c in the predi c a te prec edes the subj ect i s

whi ch
sa i d to be i n the i nverted order T hi s order i s espec i a lly c om m on
.

in in t errog a ti v e sen en es t c .

W here i s y our boa t

W hen w a s y our la st bi rthd a y
W hither w a nd er y ou S H A KSPE R E .

T HE P A RT S OF SP E E C H

6 . If w e ex a m i n e the w ord s in t
a n y sen en e, w e o c b serve
tha t they ha ve differen t ta sks or duti es to perform in the
ex ressi on of t houg ht
p .

Sa va g e bea sts roa m ed th roug h th e f orest .

In t hi s t
sen en e, c bea sts a nd f ores t a re the na m es of o bj ect s ;
roa m ed a sserts a cti on, t ellin g us wh a t the bea sts di d s a va g e

desc ri bes the bea st s ; throu g h sh ow s the rela ti on i n thoug ht be

tween f orest a n d roa m ed the li m i ts the m ea n in g of f orest ,

sh owi n g tha t on e pa rt i c ula r forest i s m ea n t T hus ea c h of .

these w ord s ha s its speci a l offi ce ( or functi on) i n the sentence .

4 NO U NS AND P R ONO U NS

7 In a ccorda nc e w ith t
. hei r use in th e sentenc e, w ords a re di vided i nto
ei g ht cla sses c a lled pa rts of speec h ,
na m ely , nouns , pronouns ,
a dj ec-o
tives, verbs, a dverbs, preposi ti ons, c on uncti ons, j a nd j
inter ecti ons .

I . NOUNS

8 A noun i s the na m e of
. a person , pla c e, or thing .

E X A MP L E S : L i n c oln , W illi a m ,
E li z a beth ,
sister, eng i n eer, C hi c a g o,
i sla n d , sh elf , sta r, w ind ow ,
ha ppi n ess, a ng er, Sid ew a lk , c oura g e, loss,

song .

II . P RONOUNS

9 A pronoun i s
. a w ord used i nstea d of a noun . It desi g na tes a per

son, pla c e,
or th i ng w ithout na m ing it .

In I a m rea dy , !
the pron oun I i s a c onveni en t substitute f or th e
Spe k e
a
’n rs a m e . In You ha ve f org otten y our um brella , the pronoun s
!

y ou y our d esig n a te the person to w h om one i s spea k i ng

a nd .

O th er pron oun s a re : he, hi s, hi m ; she, hers, her ; i t, i ts ; thi s, tha t;

w ho, w hose, w hom , w hi c h ; m ysel f, them selves
f , y ourself , him sel .

S in ce pron oun s sta n d for they ena ble us to ta lk a b out

n oun s,

a person ,
plbzc e,
or thi n g wi thout c on sta n tly repea tin g the
na m e .

1 0 Nouns . a nd pronouns a re ca lled substa ntives .

N oun s a nd very sim ila r in their use T he di f

pron oun s a re .

feren c e b etween them i s m erely t ha t the n oun des ig n a tes a

e n l c e t h i n by m i i t n d t h t th e ronoun
p rs o p a ,
o r g n,
a ng a a p ,

desi g na tes but d oes n ot na m e H en c e i t i s c on v en i en t to ha ve a

,
.

l t v i c l b t h t h rt s of speec h
g en e ra erm
( s ubs ta nt i e
) to n u d e o ese pa .

11 . T he substa ntiveto w hic h a pronoun refers i s c a lled i ts a ntec edent .

F ra nk
i ntrodu c ed th e boy s to hi s fa th er F nk is th e a n tec ed ent of
.
[ ra

the pron oun his ]

E lea nor i s vi si ti ng her a unt .

T h e book ha s lost i ts c over .

T h e tra pp ers sat round thei r c a m p fi re .

Wa shi ng ton a n d F ra nkli n served thei r c ountry i n di fferent w a y s .

[ Thei r h a s tw o a ntec ed ents, c on n ec ted by a nd ]

 AD JE C T IYE S 5

m . ADJECTIVES

1 2 An
. a j
d ective i s a w ord w h i c h desc ribes or lim its a substa ntive 1 .

T hi s it usua lly d oes by i n d i ca ti n g som e qua lity .

An a dj ective i s sa i d to belong to the substa ntive w h i c h it desc ri bes or

li m its .

13 . An a dj ecti v e lim it s a su bst a n ti ve by res ri t ct in g the

ra n g e of its m ea n i n g .

T h e n oun box ,
f or x ple i n c lud es a g rea t va ri ety
e am ,
of ob ec ts j . If w e

sa y w ooden box ,
w e ex c lud e box es of m eta l of pa per , ,
etc . If w e use a

sec on d a d j ec tive ( sm a ll) a nd a th i rd (squa re

) ,
w e li m i t th e si z e a nd th e
Sh a pe of the box .

Most a dj ecti ves (li k e w ood en , s q ua re, a n d s m a ll) des c ri be a s

well a s lim i t . S uch words a re ca lled des c ri pti ve a d j ecti ves .

We m a y ,
h ow ev er, lim it the n oun box to a si n g le S pec im en
by m ea n s of th e a d j ect i v e th is or tha t or the whi ch does n ot
des cri be, but si m ply poi n t s out, or desi g na tes . S uch w ords a re

ca lled defi nitive a j

d ecti ves .
2

IV . VERB S

1 4 A verb i s
. a w ord w hi ch c a n a ssert som eth i ng ( usua lly a n a c ti on)
c onc erning a person ,
l
p c e,
a or th in g .
3

T h e w i n d blow s . Her j ew els sp a rkled .

T h e h orses ra n . T om cl
im bed a tree .

T he fi re bla z ed . T h e d yn a m ite ex p loded .

Som e v erbs ex press s a t t e or c on diti on ra ther tha n a ction .

T he trea ty still ex ists .

T h e book li es on th e ta ble .

Nea r th e c hurc h stood a n elm .

’
My a un t su ers m uc h fi f rom h ea d a c h e .

1In th e tec h n i c a l la n g ua g e of g ra m m a r a n a d ec tiv e i s sa i d to desc ri be a j

substa ntive w h en i t d esc ribes th e ob ec t w h ic h th e substa n ti ve d en otes j .

2 D efi n i tiv e a d ec ti e j
v s a re often c a lled li m i ti ng a d ec ti ves All a d ec ti ves, j . j
h ow ev er, li m i t, ev en th ose tha t a lso d esc ri be .

3 T h e usua l bri ef d efi n i ti on of
a v erb i s , A v erb i s a w ord w h i c h a sserts !
.

B ut thi s d efi ni tion in stri c tn ess a ppli es only to v erbs i n d ec la ra ti ve senten c es .

 VE RB S

15 . A g roup of words m a y be n eed ed, i n stea d of a S ing le

v erb ,
to m a ke a n a sser
t ion
Ag roup of w ord s tha t i s used a s a verb i s ca lled a verb -
phra se .

Y ou w i ll see .

Th e tree ha s f a llen .

W e m ig ht ha ve i nvi ted h er .

Our d ri ver ha s been di sc ha rg ed .

16 . Certa in
verb s when used to m a ke verb phra ses a re
,
-
,

c a lled a ux i lia ry ( tha t i s a idin g verbs beca use they help, ,

other v erb s to ex press a cti on or sta t e of som e pa rt i c ula r kin d .

T hus, i n Y ou w i ll see, !
the a u xili a ry verb w i ll h elps to e press
see x
future a c ti on in W e m ig ht ha ve i nvi ted h er, !
th e a x
u ili a ri es m ig ht a n d
ha ve h elp i nvi ted to express a c ti on tha t w a s pos si ble i n pa st ti m e .

Th e a ux ilia ry v erb s a re is ( a re, w a s, w ere, m a y, c a n ,

m ust, m i g ht, s ha ll, w i ll, c ou ld , w ou ld, s hou ld, ha ve, ha d, do,

di d . Their form s a n d u ses will be studi ed in c onn ecti on with
the i n fl ecti on verbs of .

The a ux ilia ry v erb reg ula rl y c om es fi t rs in v b phra se

a er -
,

a n d m a y be sepa ra t ed from the res t of i t by som e oth er w ord

or w ord s .

W here w a s W a shing ton born

T he boa t w a s slow ly but stea dily a pproa c hi ng .

17 . va ri ous form s) a n d severa l other verbs m a y

Is ( i n its

be used to fra m e sen ten c es i n whi c h som e w ord or words i n

the predi c a t e desc ri be or d efi n e the subj ect .

Gold is a m eta l
’
.

C ha rles i s m y fr s am e i en d n .

T he c olors of thi s butterfly a re bri lli a nt .

I ron bec om es red i n the fi re .

O ur c ond iti on seem ed d espera te .

B ertra m p roved a g ood f ri en d i n this em erg en c y .

My soul g row s sa d w ith troubles . S H A KSPE RE .

I n the fi rst sen en e,t c the v er b is n ot on l y m a k es a n a sserti on,

but i t a lso c onnects th e rest of the predi c a t e ( a m eta l) with the

8 P RE P OSI T I O NS

W . P REPOS ITIONS

20 A prepositi on i s
. a w ord pla c ed before a substa ntive to show its
rela ti on to som e oth er w ord i n the sentenc e .

T he substa ntive w hi c h follow s a re

p p osi ti on is ca lled its ob ec t j .

A preposi tion i s sa id to g overn its bj ect

o .

In T he surf a c e o f th e w a ter g li sten ed ,

!
f
o m a k es i t c lea r tha tsu
’
r

f a ce belong s w ith w a ter . In P hilip i s on th e ri ver,

!
on sh ow s P hili p s

posi ti on w i th respec t to th e ri ver . I n, or nea r, bey ond w ould ha veor

i n d i c a ted a d i fferen t rela ti on . Wa ter i s j

th e ob ec t of th e preposi ti on of ,
a n d ri ver j
i s th e ob ec t of th e prepositi on on .

21 . A prepositi on of ent ha s m ore tha n on e o bj ect .

O ver hi ll a n d da le h e ra n .

He w a s fi lled w i th sha m e a n d desp a i r .

vn CONJUNCTIONS
.

22 . A j
c on unc ti on c onnec ts w ords or g roups of w ord s .

A c on j un cti on difi ers from a re

p p osi ti on in ha vin g n o obj ect ,

a nd i n i n dica tin g a less defi n i t e rela t i on b etween the w ords

whi ch it c on n ect s .

In
“T im e a nd ti d e w a i t f or no m a n,
!
T h e pa rc el w a s sm a ll but
h ea vy , !
He w ore a k ind of d oublet or a j c k et,
!
th e c on un c ti on s a nd, j
but, or, c onn ec t si n g le w ord s, — ti m e w i th tid e sm all w i th hea vy , doublet
,

w i th j a c ket I n .
g if y oDo
u a re a f ra i
n ot d ,
o
!
I c a m e bec a use y ou sen t
f or m e, !
T a k e m y k ey , but d o n ot lose i t, !
Sw eep th e oor a nd d ust fl
th e f urn i ture, !
j
ea c h c on un c ti on c onn ec ts th e enti re g roup of w ords

prec ed i n g i t w i th th e en ti re g roup f ollow i ng i t .

vm . INTERJE CTIONS

23 . An i nterj ec ti on i s a c ry or other e c la m a x tory sound ex pressi ng

surpri se, a ng er, plea s ure, or som e other em oti on or f eeli ng .

In terj ection s u sua lly ha v e no g t i

ra m m ac a l c onn ect i on w i t h
the g rou s of
p words in whi c h they sta n d ; hen c e their n a m e ,

whi ch m ea n s thrown i n !
.

E XA MPLE S : Oh ! I forg ot . A h, h ow I m i ss y ou ! B ra vo ! A la s !
 D I FFE R E N T P AR T S OF S P E E CH 9

THE S AME W ORD AS DIFFERE NT P ART S OF S PEECH

24 . T he m ea ning of a w ord i n the sentence determ ines to w ha t pa rt

of speec h it belong s .

T he sa m e w ord m a y be som eti m es one pa rt of speec h ,

som eti m es

a noth er .

W ords of en tirely sepa ra te orig in , m ea n i n g ,

a n d use som e

tim es look a n d soun d a like : a s in The m in strel sa n g a

p la i n t i v e la
y a n,
d !
H e la
y on the g ro un d B ut th e f ollo w .
!

in g ex a m ples 2 5 ) S how tha t th e sa m e word m a y ha v e m ore

tha n on e kin d of g ra m m a ti c a l offic e ( or fun cti on ) I t i s the .

m ea ni ng w hi c h w e g i v e to a w ord in the sentence tha t d et erm in es

i ts c la ssifica t i on a s a pa rt of S peec h .

25 T he c hi ef cla sses of w ord s thus va ri ously used a re

.

n oun s a n d a d j ect i ves 2 a dj ect i v es

( )
1 ( ) n oun s a n d v erb s,
3
( ) ,

a dj ect i ves a n d pron ou n s

a n d a dv erb s ( )
4 , ( )
5 a d verb s a n d ,

reposi ti on s
p .

I . NO U NS A ND A D JE C T I V E S

NO U NS ADJ E C T IVE S
Rubber c om es from S outh Am eri c a . T hi s w h eel h a s a rubber ti re .

T ha t bri c k i s y ellow . Here i s a bri c k h ouse .

T h e ri c h ha ve a g ra ve responsi bi li ty . A ri c h m erc h a n t li ves h ere

.

T he first tw o ex a m p les S h ow h o w w ord s t h a t a re c om m on l y

n oun s m a be u sed a s a dj ecti v es ; the thi rd sh ows h ow w ord s
y
tha t a re c om m only a dj ecti ves m a y be u sed a s n oun s .

II . N O UN S AND VE R B S

NO U NS VE RBS
Hea r th e w a sh of the tid e . Wa sh those w i nd ow s .

Gi ve m e a sta mp . S ta m p th i s en velope .

I t i s th e ca ll of th e sea . Y e c a ll m e c h i ef .

O th er ex a m ples a re : a c t, a dd ress a lly , a n sw er, boa st, c a re, c a use,

c lose, d ef ea t, d oubt, d rop, h ea p, h ope, m a rk , off er, pile, pla c e, rest, rule,

sa i l, sh a pe, Sleep, spur, test, w a tc h , w oun d .

10 D I FFE R E N T P AR T S OF SP EE CH

I II . AD J E C T IV E S A ND A D V E RB S

A DJ E C T IVE S A DVE RBS

T ha t i s a f a st boa t . T he snow i s m elti ng f a st .

D ra w a stra ig ht lin e T he a rrow flew stra ig ht .

E a rly c om ers g et g ood sea ts . T om a w ok e ea rly .

x
For a n e pla na ti on of th e form of th ese a d verbs, see 1 91 .

I V A D J E C T IV E S
. A ND P R ONOUNS

A DJ E C T IV E S P RONO U NS
This m an look s unh a ppy . Thi s i s th e serg ea nt .

Tha t book i s a d i c ti on a ry . Tha t i s a ka ng a roo .

'

E a c h d a y bri ng s i ts opportun i ty . I rec ei ved a d olla r f rom ea c h .

For furth er stud y of th i s c la ss of w ord s , see pp . 62 65

-
.

V A D V E RB S
. AND P R E P osrT I O N s

A DV E RBS P R E PO SI T IONS

Ji ll c a m etum bli ng a fter . He return ed a fter the a c c i d ent .

We w ent b low
e . B elow us la y th e va lley .

T h e w eeds Spra ng up . W e w a lk ed up the hill .

O th er ex a m ples a re : a boa rd , bef ore, bey on d , d ow n , i nsi d e, un d ern ea th .

Mi sc ella n eous ex a m ples of va ria tion a re the followi n g

T he c a lm la sted f or three d a y s .

C a lm w ord s Sh ow qui et m i n d s .

C a lm y our a ng ry f ri en d .

Oth er ex a m ples a re i ron , ston e, pa per, sug a r, sa lt, ba rk , qui et,

li g ht, h ea d , w et, round , squa re, w i nter, spri ng .

Wrong seld om
prospers .

Y ou h a ve ta k en th e w rong roa d .

E dw a rd of ten Spells w ord s w rong .

You w rong m e by y our suspi c i ons .

NO U N . T h e outside of th e c a stle i s g loom y .

A DJ E C T IV E . W e h a ve a n outsi de sta teroom .

A DV E RB . T he m esseng er is w a i ting outside .

P R E ro srr m N . I sh a ll ri d e outside the c oa c h .

 INFI NI TI VE S AND P AR T I CIP LE S 11

AD J E C T IV E . Tha t boa t i s a sloop .

P RONO U N . Tha t i s m y un c le .

C ONJ U NC T ION . Y ou sa i d tha t y ou w ould h elp m e .

A DJ E C T IV E . N either roa d lea d s to Uti c a .

PRONO U N . N ei ther of us a rrived i n ti m e .

C ONJ U NC T ION . N ei ther T om n or I w a s la te .

PR E POSI T ION . I am w a i ting

f or th e tra in .

C ONJ U NC T ION . Y ou h a ve plen ty of ti m e, f or th e tra i n i s la te .

INT E RJ E C T ION . H urra h ! th e ba ttle i s w on .

NO U N . I h ea rd a loud hurra h .

VE RB . T he en em y flees . Our m en hurra h .

INFINITIVES AND P ARTICIP LES

26 . cla sses of v erb form s illustra t e in a strikin g w a y

Tw o -

the fa ct t ha t the sa m e word m a y b elong to differen t pa rt s of

speech ; f or they rea lly belon g to tw o d ifi eren t pa rt s of speec h

a t on e a n d th e sa m e t i m e T hese a re the i nfi nitive ( whi ch i s.

both verb a n d noun) a n d the pa rti ci ple (whi ch i s both verb a n d

a j
d ecti ve ) .

27 . Ex a m ples of the i nfi niti ve m a

y be seen i n the f ollow m g
sen en est c
To strug g le w a s useless .

To esc a pe i s i m possi ble .

To ex erc i se reg ula rly preserv es th e h ea lth .

T o s tru g g le i s clea rly a noun, for ( 1 ) it i s the su bj ect of the

tc
sen en e, a n d 2 h ort or ex erti on i m i g ht be
( ) t e n oun e ff pu t n

the pla c e of to s tru g g le S im ila rly the n oun esc a p e m i g ht be

.
,

sub st i tut ed f or to esc a e a n d i n the t hi rd sen t en c e reg u la r

p , ,

ex erc is e a n oun m od i fied b a n a dj ect i v e m i g ht be sub sti tut ed

( y )
for to ex erc is e reg u la rly .

B ut these three form s

( to s tru g l
g , e t o esc a e
p , a n d to ex erc i s e
)
a re a lso verbs , f or they ex press a ct i on , a n d on e of them (to ex
c rois e
) is m odi fied by a n a
(
dverb re u l
g a rl
y).S u c h f orm s t h ere ,

fore, a re n oun -f orm s of the v erb . T hey a re cla ssed with verbs ,

a n d a re ca lled i nfi ni tives .
12 IN FI NI TI VE S AND P AR T I C IP L E S

28 . T he i nfi ni tive i s hi c h pa rta k es of the na ture of a

a verb form
-
w

noun .I t i s c om m only prec eded by the prepositi on to, w hi c h is ca lled the

si g n of th e i nfi niti ve .

29 . T he i n fi n i t i ve with out to is used in a g rea t va riety of

verb phra ses

-

Ma ry m a y rec i te .

Ja c k ca n sw im .

S uc h phra ses will be studi ed in c onnecti on with the i nflec ti On

of v erbs .

N OT E T h a t g o, w i n , rec i te, a n d sw i m a re i n fi n itives m a y be seen by c om

.

i th f ll i t I i t d t ! “J h i !
pa r n g e o o w n g s e n en c es n en o g o, o n s sure to w i n ,
Ma ry i s perm itted to rec i te, !
Ja c k i s a ble to sw i m .

30 . T he followin g t
sen en c e c on ta in s tw o pa rti c i le
p s

S ha ttered a nd Slow ly si nki ng ,

th e f rig a te d ri fted out to sea .

I n t hi s t c
sen en e, w e re og n i z e s ha c ttered a s a form of the verb
l

s ha tter, a n d s i n k i ng a s a f orm of the verb s i n k . They b oth ex

press a c ti on fa nd s i n k i n g i s m od i
fi ed by the a d verb s low ly B ut .

s ha ttered a n d s i n k i ng ha v e a lso th e n a ture of a dj ecti ves f or they ,

a re u sed to d esc ri b e th e n oun f ri g a te Such words then a re .

, ,

a dj ect i ve f orm s of the v erb T hey a re c la ssed a s verbs a n d

.
,

a re c a lled pa rti c i ples b ec a u se t hey sha re or pa rt i c ipa t e i n

, ( ) the

n a t ure of a dj ect i ves .

3 1 T e pa rt c p e
h
. i i l i s a v er b-
form w h i c h h a s no sub ec t, but w h i c h j
pa rta k es o f th e n a t ur e o f a n a d ec ti ve a nd ex pr ess esja c ti on or sta te i n

suc h a w a y a s to desc ribe or li m i t a substa ntive .

A pa rti c iple i s sa id to belong to the su bsta n ti ve whi ch it

desc ri bes or li m it s .

32 . cla sses of pa rti ci ples a re present pa rti ci ples a n d

T he ch i ef
pa st pa rti c i ples s o c a ll
,
ed f rom th e t i m e w h i c h t hey den ot e .

All presen t pa rt i c iples en d in i ng P a st pa rti ciples ha ve .

sev era l d ifferen t en d i n g s w h i c h wi ll be studi ed i n c on n ect i on

,

with the in fl ecti on of v erbs

 SIMP LE AN D C O MP LE T E S U B JE CT
33 . Pa r tic iples a re u sed in a va riety of v erb phra ses
-
.

T om is c om i ng . Your book i s f ound .

O ur boa t w a s w rec ked . T h ey ha d th ei r

ve sol h orses .

I ha ve sent th e m on ey . Y ou ha ve broken y our w a tc h .

He ha s broug ht m e a letter . T h e Sh ip ha d struc k on th e reef .

S uc h ph ra ses will be studied in conn ect ion with the i nfl ect i on

of v erbs .

N OT E . T h e d ouble na ture of th e i n fi n itiv e (a s

both v erb a nd n oun) a n d
th e pa rti c iple ( a s both v erb a n d a j
d ec ti ve) a j
lm ost usti fi es on e i n c la ssi fy i n g
ea c h a s a d i sti n c t pa rt of speec h ( so a s to m a k e ten pa rts of speec h in stea d of
ei g h t) . B ut it i s m ore c onv eni en t to i nc lud e th em un d er th e h ea d of v erbs , in
a c c ord a n c e w i th th e usua l pra c ti c e .

S I M PLE A ND C O MP L E TE S UB JE C T AND P RE D I CAT E

34 . Our y of the eig ht pa rts of speec h ha s shown ( 1 )

surve ,

tha t these ha ve v ery differen t offi c es or fun cti on s i n the sen

ten ce a n d (2) tha t thei r fun cti on s a re n ot of equa l im porta n c e
, .

Clea rly the m ost i m porta n t pa rt s of S peec h a re substa nti ves

,

n oun s a n d p a nd v
( ron ou n s
) erbs .

S ubsta n t ives en a ble us to na m e or desi g na te person s pla ces , ,

or thi n g s a n d v erb s en a b le us to m a k e sta tem ents a b out t hem

,
.

B oth substa n ti v es a n d v erb s t hen a re a bsolut ely n ec essa ry in , ,

fra m i n g sen t en c es W i thout a sub sta n ti v e there c a n be n o

.
,

subj ect ; wi th out a v erb t here c a n be n o predi ca te : a n d b oth a

,

subj ect a n d a predi c a t e a s w e ha v e seen a re n eed ed to m a k e

, ,

a sen t en c e .

Adj ectives a n d a dverbs a re less i m porta n t t ha n sub sta n ti ves

a n d v erb s Their fun cti on i s to m odi fy oth er pa rts of speec h
.
,

tha t is to cha n g e their m ea n i n g in som e w a y T hus a dj ecti ves

,
.

m odi fy sub sta n t i ves by descri bi n g or li m i ti n g a n d a d verb s

( ) ,

u sua lly m od i fy v erb s by i n di c a t i n g how w hen or w h ere the

( , ,

a ct i on t ook pla c e
) W i t h ou t sub st a n t i v es there w ould be n o
.
,

use for a dj ecti ves ; wi thout verbs there w ould be li ttle use ,

f or a d verbs .
14 SIMP LE AND C O MP LE TE S U B JE CT

P reposi ti ons a n d j
con uncti ons a re a lso less im porta n t tha n sub
sta n ti ves a n d verbs . Their offi c e i s to c on n ect a n d to show

rela tion c ourse there would be n o pla c e for c on n ecti ves

. Of ,

if there were n othin g to c on n ect .

I nterj ecti ons a re the lea st i m porta n t of a ll They a d d li veli .

n ess to la n g ua g e but t h ey a re n ot a ctua l nec essi t i es

, We .

c ould ex press a ll th e th oug ht s tha t en t er our m i n ds wi t hout

ev er u si n g a n i n terj ect i on .

35 A sen t en c e m a y c on si st of but tw o w ords — a n oun or

.
,

p ron oun
( th e su bj ect ) a n d a v erb
( th e pred i c a te
) T hus,
.

C h a rles sw im s .

C om m on l
y however either
, ,
th e su bj ec t or the pred ic a te ,
or

b oth , will c on ta in m ore tha n on e w ord . T hus,

Young Ch a rles sw im s slow ly

Here the c om p(y g

lete sub ect j c on si st s o fou n
a n ou n Ch a rles)
C a n d a n a dj ecti ve w h i c h d c i b
( h a rles
) (y ou n
g) es r es C h a r les ,
.

T he c om plete predi c a te c on si st s of a v erb (sw i m s) a n d a n a d verb

i
h i c h m odifi es sw i m by i n di c a t i n g how i on i s
( s low l
y) w ,
t h e a ct
rform ed h a rles a n d th e predi ca t e v erb
p e T e s ubj
. ect n oun
( C h )
a re the c hi ef w ord s i n the sen t en c e for n ei t her c ould
( sw i m s
) ,

be om i tted w i t hout d estroy in g i t They form so to spea k the .

, ,

fra m e or skelet on of the wh ole E i ther of the tw o m odi fi ers .

,

th e a dj ect i v e or the a d v erb or b ot h m ig h t be om itt ed w it h , , ,

out d estroy i n g the sen t en c e ; f or th i s w ould st i ll ex i st a s the

ib

ex pres si on of a t hou g h t t h oug h the t hou g h t

( Ch a rles sw i m s
) ,

w ould be less defin i t e a n d ex a ct t ha n i t i s when the m odi fiers

a re i n c luded .

36 . T h e S i m ple sub ect of j a sentenc e is a noun or pronoun .

T he si m ple predi c a te of a sentenc e is a verb or verb ph ra s e -

.

T he si m ple sub ect, j w ith suc h w ords a s x

e pla i n or c om plete its m ea n

i ng ,
fOrm s th e c om plete sub ect j .

T he si m ple p red i ca te,

w i th suc h w ords a s ex pla i n or c om plete i ts

m ea ni ng , f orm s the c om plete predi c a te .

16 S U B S T IT U TE S FOR P AR TS OF S P EE CH

S UB S TI T UT E S FO R P A RT S O F SP EE C H

P HRAS ES

40 A g roup of
. words m a y t a k e th e pla c e of a pa r t of speec h

The Fa ther of Wa ters i s th e M i ssissippi .

A g i rl w i th blue ey es stood a t the w i ndow .

You a re looki ng w ell.

The Fa ther of Wa ters i s used a s a n oun , S i n c e i t n a m es som eth i ng ,

.

Wi th blue eyes ta k es th e pla c e of a n a d ec tive (blue ey ed) , a n d m od ifi j -

es

g i rl
.

A t the w i ndow i n d i c a tes, a s a n a

’
d verb m i g ht, w h ere the g i rl stood ,
a n d m odi fi es st
ood .

A re looking c ould be repla c ed by th e verb look .

41 . A g roup of c onnec ted w ord s, not c onta i ning a j

sub ect a nd a

pred i ca te, i s ca lled ph raas e .

A ph ra se i s often equi va lent to a pa rt of s peec h .

1 A phra se us ed a s a n oun i s ca lled a noun phra se

.
-
.

2 A phra se used a s a v erb i s c a lled a verb phra se

.
-
.

3 A phra se u s ed a s a n a dj ect i ve i s ca lled a n a dj ecti ve phra se

. .

4 A phra se us ed a s a n a d verb i s ca lled a n a dverbi a l phra se

. .

I n the e xa m ples in 40, The F a ther f Wa ters

o . is a n oun- ph ra se w ith
blue eyes, a n a j
d ec tive phra se a t the w i ndow ,
a n a d verbi a l phra se ; a re

looki ng ,
a verb phra se
-
.

42 . Ma n y a dj ecti ve d verb ia l phra ses c on si st

a nd a of a

re
p p osi ti on a nd i ts obj ec t, w i th or w i t hou t oth er w ord s .

Your um brella i s i n the c orner .

He ha s a h ea rt of oa k .

A c up w ith a broken ha nd le stood on the shel f .

My h ouse of c a rds f ell to thefloor i n a hea p .

Adj ective or a dverbia l phra ses c onsi sti ng of a re

p p osi ti on a nd i ts oh
j c et ,
w i th or w ithout other w ords, m a y be c a lled preposi ti ona l phra ses .

CLAUS E S COMP OUND AND COMP LE X S ENTENOE S

43 . t be ca refully di sti n g uished from c la uses

P hra ses m us .

T he diff eren c e i s tha t a cla use c on ta i n s a subj ect a n d a predi ca te

a nd a phra se d oes n ot .
 CLAU S E S 17

44 . A cla use i s g
a roup of w ords tha t form s pa rt of a sentenc e a nd

tha t c onta ins a j

sub ec t a nd a pred i c a te .

T h e lig htni ng fl a sh ed a nd th e th un d er roa red .

T h e tra i n sta rted w h en th e bell ra ng

Ea c h these sen ten c es c on ta i n s tw o cla u ses ; but the rela tion

of

between the cla uses in the fi rst sen t en c e i s v ery difi eren t from
tha t b etween the cla uses in the sec on d .

I n th e fi rst ex a m ple ea c h of the tw o c la uses m a k es a sepa

,

ra t e a n d d i st i n c t sta tem en t a n d m i g ht sta n d by i t self a s a

,

S i m ple sen ten c e tha t i s a s a sen ten c e ha v i n g but on e subj ect

, ,

a n d on e predi c a t e These cla uses a re j oin ed by the c on j un cti on

.

a n d wh i c h i s n ot a
, p a rt of ei ther N o d oubt the spea k er feels
.

tha t th ere i s som e rela ti on in thoug ht between the tw o sta te

m en t s or he w ould n ot h a v e put t hem t og ether a s cla uses i n
,

the sa m e sen t en c e B ut t here i s n othin g in the form of ex pres

.

si on to sh ow wha t t ha t rela t i on i s I n other w ord s the tw o

.
,

c la uses a re g ra m m a t i ca lly i ndependent f or n ei t h er of th em m od i ,

fi es ( or a ffect s the m ea n i ng of ) th e other The cla uses a re .

therefore sa i d to be c oordi na te th a t i s of the sa m e ord er

, ,

or ra n k a n d th e sen t en c e i s c a l
,
led c om pound .

I n the sec on d ex a m ple on the c on t ra ry th e rela ti on betw een

, ,

th e tw o c la u ses i s i n di ca t ed wi th prec i si on On e c la u se ( the .

tra i n sta rted ) m a k es th e m a i n sta t em en t it ex presses the ,

chi ef fa ct Hen c e it i s ca lled the m a i n ( or pri nci pa l) cla use

. .

The other c la u se ( w h en the bell ra ng ) i s a dded bec a use the

spea k er w i sh es to m odi fy th e m a i n v erb s ta rted
( ) by d e fi nin g

the tim e of the a cti on T hi s cla u se then i s used a s a pa rt of

.
, ,

speec h I ts fun cti on i s th e sa m e a s t ha t of a n a d verb ( p rom p tly)

.

or a n a d v erbi a l hra se on th e s trok e o the bell F r t h is

p ( f ) o p u r .

p o s e a lon e i t ex i st s a n d n ot ,
a s a n i n de p en d e n t sta te m en t H en c e .

it i s ca lled a dependent ( or subordi na te) c la use beca use it depends ,

ha t is h
( t ,
a ng s u p o n t h e m a i n c la u se a n d so occupies a lower ,

or su bord i n a t e ra n k i n the sen t en c e Wh en thus c on struct ed .

,

a sen ten c e i s sa i d to be c om plex .

 8 CLAU SE S

45 . An ord in r a y c om pound s entenc e

( v e seen i n 44 ) a s w e ha
is m a d e by j oin i n g tw o or m ore si m ple sen t en c es ea c h of whi c h ,

thus becom es a n i ndependent c oordi na te c la use .

I n the sa m e w a y w e m a y j oin tw o or m ore c om plex sentenc es ,

usi n g them a s cla uses to m a ke on e c om poun d sen en e t c

T he tra i n sta rted w h en th e bell ra ng ,
a nd T om w a tc hed unti l the
la st c a r d isa ppea red .

T his sen en e t c is m a n i fes tly c om pound ,

for it c on sists of tw o

c odrdi na te c la uses
( th e tra i n s ta rted w h en the bell ra ng T om
w a tc hed u n ti l th e la st ea r d is a pp ea red
) j oi n ed by a n d E a ch .

of these tw o cla uses i s i tself c om plex ,

for ea c h c ould sta n d by
itself c om plex sen ten ce
a s a .

S im ila rly , a com plex a nd a si m ple senten c e m a y be j oin ed a s

c oord i na te c la uses to m a k e a c om ou n d sen t en c e

p .

T h e tra i n sta rted w hen the bell ra n g , [ a nd T om g a z ed a fter i t i n

d espa i r .

Such a sen ten c e, whi c h is c om pound i n i ts structure, but i n

whi c h on e p r m ore of the c oord i n a te cla uses a re com plex ,
is
1
c a lled a c om pound c om plex sentenc e .

46 . A c la use isg a roup of w ord s tha t form s pa rt of a sentenc e a nd

th a t c onta i ns a j
sub ec t a nd a pred i ca te .

A c la use used a s a pa rt of speec h is ca lled a subordi na te c la use . All

other c la uses a re sa i d to be i ndependent .

Cla uses of th e sa m e order or ra nk a re sa i d to be c oordi na te .

S entenc es m a y be si m ple, c om pound , or c om plex .

1 A si m ple sentenc e ha s but one sub

. j ect a nd one predi c a te, ei ther or

both of w hi ch m
y be c om pou nd a .

2 . A c om pound sentenc e c on si sts of tw o or m ore i ndependent c oor

di na te c la uses, w h i c h m a y or m a y not be oi ned by c on unc ti ons j j .

3 . A c om plex sentenc e c onsi sts of tw o or m ore c la uses, one of w hic h

i s i ndependent a ‘

nd the rest subordi na te .

A com pound sentenc e i n w h i c h one or m ore of the c oordi na te c la uses

a re c om plex i s ca lled a c om pound c om plex sentenc e.

1 Com pound plex sen ten cc om

es a re a lso c a l
l ed c om plex c om pound sen tences
For f urth er trea tm ent of suc h senten c es, see pp 1 87, 1 90, 215 2 16
-
. .
 CL AU SE S 19

I . S I M P L E S E N T E N CE S
I ron rusts .

Georg e V is king .

D og s, f ox es, a nd [ C om h a res
poun d sub ec t ] a re qua d ruped s . j .

T h e d ef en d a n t rose a n d a ddressed th e c ourt [ C om poun d predi ca te ] . .

M erton a n d h is m en c rossed th e bri dg e a n d sc a led the w a ll [B oth .

j
sub ec t a n d pred i c a te a re c om poun d .
]

II . C O M P O U ND S E N T E N CE S

Sh a k spere w as born i n 1 56 4 ; h e d i ed i n 1616 .

[ T w o c oordi na te
c la uses ; n o c on j un c ti o n ]
A ri fle c ra c k ed ,
a nd th e w olf f ell d ea d .
[ T w o c la uses j oi n ed by th e
j
c on un c ti on a nd ]
Y ou m ust hurry, or w e sh a lllose th e tra in .
[ T w o c la uses j oin ed by or ] .

Ja m es W a tt di d n ot i nven t th e stea m eng i ne, but he g rea tly i m proved

it .
[ T w o c la uses j oi ned by but ] .

E i th er y ou h a ve n eg lec ted to w ri te or y our letter h a s f a iled to rea c h

me .
[ T w o c la uses j oin ed by either or .
]

The followi n g con j un cti on s m a y b e u sed to j oi n c oordi n a t e

cla uses : a nd
( both r a nd
) or
( ei ther
)
or , n or
( nei th er
—
.
,

n or
) ,
bu t, f or .

III . CO M P L E X S E N T E N C E S

Ex am l ill be foun d i n 48 5 0
-

p es w .

CL A U S E S AS PA R T S or S P EEC H

47 . S ubordi na te cla uses , li ke phra ses, a re u sed a s p rts of speec h

a .

They v
ser e a s su b sti tutes for nouns , f or a dj ecti ves , or for a dverbs .

1 . A subord ina te cla use th a t i s used a s a noun is ca lled a noun ( or

substa nti ve ) c la use .

2 . A subord i na te c la use tha t m od ifi es a substa ntive is ca lled a n

a j
d ective c la use .

3 . A subord i na te cla use tha t serves a s an a dverbia l m od i fi er i s ca lled

ana dverbia l cla use .
 N OU N OR S U B S TAN T I VE CLAU SE S

48 . I . N O UN ( OE S U B S T A N T I VE ) CL A U S E S .

S ucc ess
im proba ble
Tha t w eshould suc c eed i n thi s p
.

The thoug ht in these tw o sen en es t c i s the sa m e, buti n the sec

on d it i s y ex pressed I n the fi rst sen ten c e the subj ect
m ore full .
,

i s the n oun s ucc ess i n the sec on d the subj ect i s the n oun c la use , ,

tha t w e s hou ld su cc eed i n this p la n T hi s c la use i s i n troduc ed .

by the c onj un cti on tha t the sim ple subj ect of the cla use i s the
ron oun w e a n d the si m le redi c a t e i s th e verb h r e s hou ld
p p p p a s -
,

suc c eed The fi rst sen t en c e i s si m ple ; the sec on d i s com plex
. .

S ubsta nt i ve cla uses a re often i n troduc ed by the c onj un ction

tha t .

49 . II . AD J E C T IVE CL A US E S . T he follow in g sen en es t c illus

tra te the use of ( 1 ) a n a dj ective ( 2) a n a dj ective phra se ( 3) , , a n

a dj ecti ve c la use a s a m od ifi er of the subj ect n oun

,
.

An honora ble m a n

A m a n of hono r w ill n ot li e .

A ma n w ho va lues his honor

A sea soua ble w ord

Aw ord i n sea son m a y sa ve a soul .

Aw ord tha t is spoken a t the rig ht m om ent

My ti ve la nd

1
na

T h e la n d o f bi rth
my li es f a r a c ross th e sea .

T h e la n d w here I w a s born J

T he fi rst tw o sen en es t c in ea ch g rou

p a re si m p e, the
l thi rd
is c om plex .

50 . III . AD VE R B I A L CL A US E S . T he followin g sen en est c

illu stra te the use of 1
( ) a n a dverb, 2
( ) a n a dverbi a l phra se,

( )
3 a n a dverbi a l c la use, a s a m odi fier of the predi c a te verb ( or
verb phra se)
-
.

here .

T h e lig h tni ng struc k on thi s sp ot .

w here w e sta nd .

nea r .

Mr An drew . s li ves in this neig hborhood .

w here y ou see tha t elm .

 SUIWMAR Y OF D E FINI T ION S 21

p unc tua ll
y .

T he g a m e beg an on the stroke of one .

w hen the c loc k struc k .

T he ba nk er w ill m a k e th e loa n

y ou e nd orse m y note .

fi rst tw o sen ten ces i n ea ch g roup a re sim ple the third

T he ,

i s c om plex .

5 1 Adj ecti ve cla u ses m a y be i n troduc ed ( 1 ) by the pro

.

2 by a d v erbs lik e w here,

n oun s w ho w hi c h a n d tha t or
, ( ) , ,

w henc e, w hi ther, w h en .

Adverbi a l cla uses m a y b e i n trodu c ed 1

( ) by t h e a d v erb s

w h en , w hi le, be ore, a f ter, u n ti l, how ,

w h ere, w hi th er, w h enc e, f
a s
,
or 2
( ) by the c on j un cti on s bec a u s e, thoug h, a lthou g h, if,
tha t i n ( ord er tha t, so tha t ) ,
lest, etc .

N OT E . Th e use of phra ses a n d c la uses a s pa rts of speec h inc rea ses enor
m ously th e ri c hn ess a n d pow er of la n g ua g e T h oug h E n g li sh h a s a hug e stoc k .

of w ord s, i t c a n n ot provi d e a sepa ra te n oun or a d ec ti v e or a d v erb for every j

i d ea . By g h ow ev er, i n ph ra ses a n d c la uses w e, i n effec t, m a k e
roupin g w ord s ,

a g rea t v a ri ety of n ew j
n oun s , a d ec ti v es , a n d a d v erbs , ea c h prec i sely fi tted to
th e n eed s of th em om ent i rr th e e pressi on of th oug ht x .

S U MM A RY O F DE FI N I T I O N S

T H E S E N T E N CE

1 . L a n g u a g e i s th ou g ht ex pressed i n w o rd s .

2 . T o express th ou g ht w ord s a re c om bi n ed i n to sen ten c es .

3 . A sen ten c e is a g rou

p of w ord s w hi c h e xpresses a c om plete

th oug ht .

4 . S en ten c es m a y be d ec la ra ti v e,
i n terrog a ti v e,
1m
pera ti ve, or

x
e c la m a tory .

1
( ) A dec la ra ti ve sen ten c e d ec la res or a sserts som ethi n g a s a fa c t .

2
( ) An i n terrog a ti v e sen ten c e a sk s a qu esti on .

3
( ) A n i m p e ra ti ve sen ten c e ex presses a c om m a n d or a re uest
q .

4
( ) A n e x c la m a tory sen ten c e ex presses surpri se, g ri ef, or som e

oth er em oti on i n th e form of a n ex c la m a ti on or c r

y .

A dec la ra ti ve , a n i n terrog a ti ve, or a n im pera ti ve senten c e m a y a lso

be x
e c la m a tory .
 2 S U MMAR Y OF DE FINI T IONS

S U B J EC T AND P R E D IC A T E

5 . E very sen ten c e c on si sts of a su bj ec t a n d a predi c a te.

Th e subj ec t of a sen ten c e d esi g n a tes the person , pla c e, or thi n g tha t
is spok en of ; th e predi c a te i s tha t w hi c h i s sa i d of th e su ec t bj .

6 . T he j
si m ple sub ec t of a sen ten c e i s a n oun or pron oun .

T he si m ple predi c a te of a sen ten c e i s a verb or verb phra se -

.

j
7 The si m ple sub ec t, w i th suc h w ord s a s expla i n or c om plete i ts
.

m ea n i n g , form pletessubth e
ec t c om j .

The si m ple pred i c a te, w i th su c h w ord s a s e xpla i n or c om plete i ts

m ea n i n g , form s th e c om plete predi c a te .

8 . A c om po un d sub ec t or j p redi c a te c on si sts of tw o or m ore si m ple

su bj ec ts or predi c a tes j n ec essa ry by c on j un c ti on s

, oi n ed, w hen , .

E i ther the subj ec t or the predi c a te or b oth m a y be c om poun d , , .

TH E P ART S or S P EEC H

9 . In a c c orda n c e w i th th ei r u se i n th e senten c e, w ord s a re di vi ded

i n to ei g ht c la sses lled pa rts o f speec h ,
ca n a m ely, n ou n s,
p ro

n oun s, a dj ec ti ves, verb s, a dverb s, prepo si ti on s, c on un c ti on s, a n d j

i nterj ec ti on s.
I
1
( ) A n o un i s th e n a m e of a person , pla c e, or thi n g .

2
( ) A pron o un is a w ord u sed 1 n stea d of a n oun . I t desi g na tes a

er on la c e or th i n g w i th out n a m i n g i t
p s , p ,
.

N oun s a n d pron oun s a re c a lled sub sta n ti ves .

T he sub sta nti ve to w hi c h a pron oun refers i s ca lled i ts a n tec ed en t .

3
( ) A n a dj ec ti ve i s a w ord w h i c h d esc ri b es or li m i ts a su b sta n ti ve .

T hi s i t u sua lly d oes by i n di c a ti n g som e qu a li ty .

j
An a d ec ti ve i s sa i d to belon g to the sub sta n ti ve w hi c h i t d esc ri bes
or li m i ts .

An a d j ec ti ve w hi c h desc ri b es i s ca lled a d esc ri pti ve a d j ec ti ve ; on e

w hi c h poi n ts out or d esi g n a tes i s c a lled a d efi n i ti ve a dj ec ti ve .

4
( ) A v erb i s a w ord w h i c h c a n a ssert som eth i n g
( u sua lly a n

a c ti on c on c ern i n g a person , pla c e, or th i n g

) .

So m e verbs e xpress sta te or c on di ti on ra th er th a n a c ti on .

A g roup of w ord s th a t i s u sed a s a ver b

b phra se is ca lled a ver -
.

C erta in verbs, w hen u sed to m a k e verb phra ses a re c a lled a ux i li a ry

-
,

h a t i s, i di n g verbs b ec a u se th ey h elp other verb s to express

( t a ,

a c ti on or sta te of som e pa rti c ula r k in d .

 4 SU MM AR Y or DEFINI T IONS

3
( ) A ph ra se u sed a s a n a d j ec ti ve i s c a lled a n a dj ec ti ve phra se .

4
( ) A ph ra se u sed a s a n a d verb i s ca lled a n a dverbi a l phra se .

14 . Adj ec ti ve or a d verbi a l phra ses c on si sti n g of a prepo si ti on a n d

i ts o bj ec t , w ith or w i th out other w ord s, m a y be c a lled preposi ti on a l

phra ses.

C L AU S E S

15 . A c la u se i s a g roup of w ord s tha t form s pa rt o f a sen ten c e a n d

th a t c on ta i n s a p sub ec t a n d a
j redi c a te.

1 6 A c la u se u sed a s a pa rt of speec h i s c a lled

. a subord i n a te c la u se .

All other c la uses a re sa i d to be i n d epen den t .

17 . C la u ses of th e sa m e order or ra n k a re sa i d to be c oordi n a te.

18 . S en ten c es y b
m a
e si m l
p ,e c o m pou n d , or c om plex .

1 A si m l h a s but on e subj ec t a n d on e predi c a te, ei ther

( ) p e sen ten c e

or both of w hi c h m a y be c om pou n d .

2
( ) A c om pou n d sen ten c e c on si sts of tw o or m ore i n depen d ent
c oordi n a te c la u ses, w hi c h m a y or m a
y n ot be j oi n ed by c on j un c ti on s .

3
( ) A c om plex se n ten c e c on si sts of tw o or m ore c la u ses, on e of

w hi c h i s i n d epen d en t a n d th e rest subordi n a te .

A c om
p ou n d sen ten c e in w hi c h on e or m ore o f the c oordi n a te
c la u ses a re c
p p lex i s c a lled a c om
m p ou n d c om plex sen ten c e .

19 . Subordin a te c la u ses, li k e phra ses, a re u sed a s pa rts of speec h .

T h ey serve a s su b sti tutes for n oun s , for a d j ec ti ves ,

or for a dverbs .

1
( ) A su bordi n a te c la u se th a t i s u sed a s a n oun is ca lled a n oun

( b sta n ti ve c la u se
or su
) .

2 A sub ordi n a te c la u se th a t m odi fi es a b sta nti ve i s lled

( ) su ca a n

a dj ec ti ve c la u se .

8
( ) A subordi n a te c la u se th a t serves a s a n a dverbi a l m o di fi er is
ca lled a n a d verb i a l c la u se .
 PART TWO

I NFLE CT I ON AND SYNTAX

C HAP T E R I

INFLECTI ON

52 . I nfl ecti on i s a c h a ng e of form i n a w ord indi ca ting som e c h a ng e

i n its m ea ni ng . Aw ord thus c h a ng ed i n form i s sa i d to be i nfl ected .

T h us th e n oun s m a n, w if e, dog m a y c h a n g e th ei r f orm to m a n

’ s, w ife’s,

dog
’to
s,ex p e r ss poss essi on or
,

to m en , w i ves, dog s, to sh ow th a t tw o or
m ore a re m ea n t .

Th e pron oun_s I , she, m a y c h a ng e th ei r f orm to our, her .

j
T h e a d ecti ves la rg e, ha ppy, g ood , m a y c h a n g e th ei r f orm to la rg er,
ha pp i er, better, to d en ote a hig her d eg ree of th e qu a li ty ; or to la rg est,
ha ppi est, best, to d en ote theh ig h est d eg ree .

T h e verbs la bia see

/
,
si ng, m a y c h a n g e th ei r f orm to l
o ok ed ,
sa w ,
sa ng ,
-

to d en ote pa st ti m e .

The ex a m ples w ord m a y be in flected ( 1 ) by the

sh ow t ha t a

a ddi t i on of a fi n a l lett er or sy lla ble

( d og d o s
g look look ed
) , , ,

by h su b st i tu t i on of on e lett er f or a n ot h er m a n m en
( )
2 t e ( ) , ,

a c om plet e c h a n g e of f orm
or 3
( ) by (g oo d be tter best
) , ,
.

5 3 T h e i n fl ecti on O f a sub sta n ti v e i s c a lled its dec lensi on ;

.

tha t of a n a dj ec ti ve or a n a dverb its c om pa ri son ; tha t of a ,

verb, its c onj ug a ti on .

N OT E . S omform s w hi c h w e reg a rd a s d ue to i n ec ti on a re rea lly d i stin c t

e fl
w ord s T h us w e i s reg a rd ed a s a form of th e pron oun I , but i t i s i n fa c t a n
.

a ltog eth er d i ff eren t w ord S uc h i rreg ula ri ti es , h ow ev er, a re n ot n um erous,

.

a n d a re properly en oug h in c lud ed un d er th e h ea d of infl ec ti on .

26 INFL E CT ION
T he ta ble below g i ves a sum m a ry View of in fl ecti on ,
a nd m a
y
be used for referen c e wi th the follow m g cha pters .

M a sc uli n e ( m a le)
Gen der Fem i n i n e ( f em a le)
( N euter ( n o sex )
( Si n g ula r
( on e
)
N um ber
SU B S T AN T IV E S ( Plu ra l ( m ore tha n one
)
( N O U N S AND Fi rst ( spea ker)
P R ONOUNS ) P erson S ec on d ( sp oken
) to

T hi rd ( spoken of )
N O m i n a ti ve ( subj ec t c a se)
P ossessw e ( ow n ership )
O bj ec ti ve ( obj ec t c a se)

P osi ti v e Deg ree

AD J E C T I V E S
Com pa ri son C om pa ra ti ve Deg ree
AND AD VE R B S
( Su perla ti v e D eg ree

rSi n g ula r
N um ber {
LP lura l
Fi rst Verb a g rees w ith S ub
j ect

P erson S ec on d
T hi rd
P resen t
P a st
Future
T en se
P erfec t(or P resen t P erfec t)
VE RB S P luperfec t( or P a stP erfec t)
Future P erfec t
I n di c a ti ve ( a ll six tenses)
I m pera ti ve ( P resen t T ens e on ly)
Mood
Subj un c ti ve ( P resent, P a st, P erf ec t,
P lup erf ec t)
Ac ti ve ( S ubj ec t a c ts)
Voi c e j S c t rec eives the a c tion
LP a ssi ve ( j
ub e
)
In fi n i ti ves
( P resen t a nd P erfec t)
P a rti c i ples ( P resen t, P a st, a nd P erfec t)
 C O MM ON N O U NS AN D P R O P E R NO U NS 27

C HA P T E R I I

NOUNS

C L A S SI FI C AT I ON C O M MO N NO UNS A ND P R O P E R NO UNS

54 . A noun i s the na m e of a pers on , pla c e, or th ing .

55 . Nouns a re divided i nto tw o c la sses ro

p p er nouns a nd c om m on

noun s .

1 . A proper noun i s the na m e of a parti c ula r person , pla c e, or th i ng .

E XA MP S
L i n c oln , Na poleon , R uth ,
LE : la d ston e, Am eri c a , D en ver, G
Jove, O hi o, M on d a y , D ec em ber, Y a le, C h ri stm a s, B ri ta nni a , Ni a g a ra ,
Merri m a c , E lm w ood , L ouvre, Ri c h a rd son , Huron , F a lsta ff .

2 . A c om m on noun is a na m e W hi c h m a y be a ppli ed to a ny one of a

cla ss of pers ons , pla c es, or th i ng s .

E XA MP L E S : g en era l, em peror, presi d en t, c lerk , street, tow n , d esk ,

tree, c loud , c h i m n ey , c hi ld h ood , id ea ,
th oug h t, letter, dy n a m o, c rui ser,

d i c ti on a ry , ra ilroa d .

P roper n ouns beg in w i th

ca pita l
a lett er ; c om m on n oun s

usua lly beg in with a sm a ll lett er .

N OT E . Alth oug h
proper n oun i s th e na m e of a pa rti c ula r person , pla c e,
a

or thi n g , th a t n a m e m a y be g iv en to m ore th a n on e i n d i v i d ua l M ore th a n on e .

m a n i s n a m ed J a m es ; but w h en w e sa y J a m es , w e th in k O f on e pa rti c ula r

person , w h om w lli ng by hi s ow n n a m e W h en w e sa y m a n , on th e
e a re c a .

c on tra ry , w ea re n ot c a llin g a n y si n g le person by n a m e : w e a re usi n g a n oun

w hi c h a li
pp es, in c om m on , to a ll th e m em bers of a la rg e c la ss of person s .

An y w ord when ,
m en ti on ed m erel y a s a w ord , is a n oun .

T hu s,
A nd i s a j
c on un c ti on .

56 . A c om m on n ou n bec om es a proper n ou n when u sed a s

the pa r ti cula r n a m e of a sh i p, a n ew spa per, a n a n i m a l, etc .

Nelson ’fl sh i p w a s th e Vi c tory
’
g s a .

Gi ve m e thi s ev en i n g H er s a ld .

My d og i s n a m ed Rover .

T h e L i m i ted E x p ress i s d ra w n by th e P ioneer .

28 NO U NS
57 . A proper n oun O ften c on si sts of a g roup of words som e ,

Of w hi c h a re perha ps ord i n a rily used a s other pa rt s O f s eec h

p .

E XA MP L E S : Ja m es Russell L ow ell, W a shi ng ton E lm ,

E i fi el T ow er,
Fi rth C ly d e, North L exi ng ton Jun c ti on , Stony B rook , W estm i n ster
of

A bbey , M ea sure f or M ea sure, W hi te House, B rookly n B ri d g e, A tla nti c

Ra ilroa d , S h erm a n A c t, T h e R eturn O f th e Na ti ve, Fla ti ron B uild i ng .

N OT E . T h ese a re ( stri c tly spea k in g ) n oun -ph ra ses but, sin c e a ll a re

pa rti c ula r n a m es , th ey m a y be reg a rd ed a s pro erpn ouns .

A proper n ou n bec om es a c om m on n oun when u sed a s a

t ha t m a y be a ppli ed to a n y on e O f a cla ss of Obj ect s .

T h e m useum ow n s tw o R em bra ndts a nd a Ti ti a n .

I x
e c h a ng ed m y O ld m otor c a r f or a n ew H a lstea d .

My f oun ta in pen is a B la ke .

L en d m e y our Webster .

He w a s a N a p oleon Of fi na n c e .

I a m g oi ng to buy a Ka za k .

59 Certa i n proper n oun s ha v e b ec om e c om m on n oun s

. when
u sed i n a Spec ia l sen se T h ese g en era lly b eg i n w ith a . sm a ll
letter .

Ex AM P L E s m a c a da m ( c rush ed ston e f or roa d s, so c a lled f rom Ma c

th e i nven tor) , m a c k i n tosh terproof g a rm ent) , n a poleon (a
a da m , ( a w a

c oi n
) , g ui n ea ( tw en ty
-
on e Shilling s) ,
m entor ( a w i se c oun sellor) , d erri n ~

g er ( a k i nd of pi stol) .

60 . A li feless Obj ec t , on e O f the low er a n im a ls, or a n y hum a n

qua lity or em o ti on i s som etim es reg a rded a s a person .

T hi s usa g e i s c a lled personifi c a ti on a n d th e obj ect a n i m a l , , ,

or

qua li ty is sa i d to be personi fi ed .

Ea ch O ld poeti c M ounta i n
I n spi ra ti on brea th ed a roun d . GRA Y .

W ho ’
11 t ll th e bell
o
"
I, !
sa i d th e B ull
B ec a use I ca n pull .

Hi s na m e w a s P a ti enc e . S P E NS E R .
 SP E C IAL C L A SS E S OF NO U NS 29

s a s
’
Sm i le on p t M i f ortune b o s s r w
’
S oft R efle ti on sh n d
c n tr e a ca a c
’
An d o e th e c h eek of S o ro throw
r r w

A m ela n c h oly g ra c e . G RA Y .

L ove i s a nd w a s m y l ord a n d k i n g,
A nd in h is presen c e I a tte n d T E .
-
NNYSO N .

Ti m e g ently sh a k es hi s w i ng s — D . RYD E N .

Th e na m e Of a n ythi n g person i fied i s reg a rded a s a proper

n oun a n d is us ua lly w ri tten w i th a c a pi ta l lett er .

N OT E . Th e rule for ca pi ta ls i s n ot a bsolute . W h en th e personi fi ca ti on i s

k ept up for on ly a sen ten c e or tw o ( a s f req uen tly i n Sha k spere) , th e noun
often beg i n s w i th a sm a ll letter .

S P ECI AL CLASS E S OF NOUNS

61 . An a bstra c t noun i s th e na m e of a q ua li ty or g enera l i dea .

E XA MP S LE : bla c k n ess, f resh n ess, sm ooth n ess, w ei g ht, h eig ht, leng th ,
d epth , stren g th , h ea lth , h on esty , bea uty , li berty , eterni ty , sa ti sf a c ti on ,
p rec i si on ,
splen d or,
terr or
g ,
d i sa ppoi n tm en t,
eleg a n c e,
exi sten c e, g
ra c e,

pea c e .

Ma n y a bstra ct n oun s a re deri v ed from a dj ec tiv es .

E XA MP S LE reenn ess
g (f rom g reen ) , d epth f rom d eep , freed om
( ) (f rom

f )
ree ,
w i sd om ,
(f rom w i se) , rotun d i ty (f rom rotund) , f a lsi ty or f a lsen ess
( f rom f a lse) , bra very ( f rom bra ve) .

62 . A c ollec ti ve noun i s the na m e of a g roup, cla ss , or m ultitude,

a nd not of a si ng le person, pla c e, or th ing .

E X A MP S LE : d , g roup, leg i sla ture, squa d ron , sh ea f , ba tta li on ,

c row

squ a d, A ssoc i a ted P ress, M edi terra n ea n Stea m shi p C om pa ny , S en i or

Cla ss, S c h ool B oa rd .

The sa m e n ou n m a y be a bstra ct in on e of its m ea n i n g s,

T hey beli eve i n f ra terni ty [.A bstra c t ] .

T he stud en t j oined a f ra terni ty [ Collec ti ve ]

. .
30 NO U NS
63 . Ab st ra ct n oun s a re u sua lly c om m on , but bec om e ro er
p p
when qua lity or i dea is person ifi ed
the
C ollecti ve n oun s m a y be ei ther proper or c om m on .

64 . A noun c onsi sti ng of tw o or m ore w ord s uni ted is ca lled a c om

pound noun .

E XA MP LE S :
( )
1 c om m on n oun s, — ta blec loth
,
Si d ew lk , la m psh a d e,
a

bed c loth es, stea m boa t, fi rem a n , w a sh erw om a n , ja c kk ni f e, h a tba n d ,

h ea d a c h e,fl a ti ron , i nnk eeper, k n i fe ed g e, steeple c lim ber, brother i n - - -

la w , c om m a n d er i n c h i ef , w i n d ow c urta in , i nsura n c e c om pa ny ; (2 ) proper

- -

no un s, — Joh n son , W illi a m son , C ooperstow n , L oui svi lle, Holyw ood , E lk
h orn , A uburn d a le, S tra tf ord ou A von , L ow ell Jun c ti on - -
.

A s th e p le s s h
e am
owx, th e pa rts o f a c om pou n d n ou n m a
y be

j oi n ed ( w i th or w i thout a hyphen ) or w ri tten sepa ra tely I n som e .

w ord s u sa g e i s fi x ed , i n oth ers i t v a ri es T he hyphen , h ow ever, i s .

less u sed th a n form erl y .

N OT E . The fi rst pa rt of a c om poun d n oun u sua lly li m i ts th e sec on d a fter th e

m a n n er O f a n a d j e ti ve
c . In d eed , m a ny e xpression s m a y be reg a rd ed eith er

(1) a s c om poun d s or ph r a ses c on t( 2)

a i n i n
a sg a n a d j e tive
c a nd a n oun . Th us
ra i lw a y c on d u c tor m a y be ta k en a s a c om poun d n oun , or a s a noun ( c on d uc tor)
j
li m i ted by a n a d ec ti ve ( ra i lw a y) .

I NFL E CTI O N O F NO UNS

65 . In t
s ud yin g the i n fl ecti on Of n oun s a n d pron oun s w e

ha ve to c on sider g ender, num ber, person, a n d c a se .

1 . Gender i s d i sti ncti on a c c ord i ng to s ex .

2 . Num ber i s tha t property of substa nti ves w hi ch sh ow s w h ether

they i ndi c a te one person or th i ng or m ore th a n one .

3 P erson i s th a t property of substa ntives w h i c h sh ow s w h ether th ey

.

d esi g na te ( r) th e spea k er, ( 2 ) the person spok en to, or ( 3) th e person or

.

th i ng spok en of .

4 . S ubsta nti ves h a ve i n ecti ons fl of ca se to i ndi c a te th eir g ra m m a ti c a l

rela ti ons to verbs , to prepositi ons , or to oth er substa ntives .

T h ese four properti es i n c lud ed un d er in ec ti on for c on

of substa n ti v es a re fl
v en i en c e I n stric tn ess , h ow ev er, n oun s a re i n ec ted for n um ber a n d c a se
. fl
only G e d er i s sh ow n i v a r o s w y ,
. n n i u a s — u s ua lly by th e m ea n i n g of th e

n oun or by th e use O f som e pron oun P erson i s i nd i c a ted by th e sense, by

.

th e pronoun s used , a n d by th e form O f th e v erb .

32 NO U NS
68 . A t
n eu er n ou n m a
y b ec om e c
m a s uli n e or fem i n in e by
pers oni fi ca ti on

T hou w h o d i d st w a k en f rom hi s sum m er d rea m s

T h e blu e M ed iterra n ea n . S HE L LE Y .

S tern d a ug h ter of th e V oi c e O f G od
O D uty W ORDSWOR T H .

Na ture f rom h er sea t

Si g h i ng throug h a ll h er w ork s, g a ve si g n s O f w oe . M I L T ON .

69 . In spea k in g Of c erta in o bj ec t s ,
su ch a s a shi p a n d the
m oon , it i s c ust om a ry to u se s he a n d h er . I n li ke m a n n er, he
is used in spea k in g Of the su n a n d O f m os t a n im a w ithout
ls,
referen c e to sex a lthoug h i t O ft en d esi g n a t es a n
,
i n sect or oth er
sm a ll c rea ture a n d ev en a v ery y ou n g c hi ld
,
.

t o a n d w hi c h a re b oth u sed in referri n g to the low er a ni

m a ls Whi c h i s the c om m on er but w ho i s n ot i n frequen t espe
.
, ,

c ia lly i f th e a n i m a l i s th ou g h t O f a s a n i n t elli g en t b ein g .

T hus on e w ould sa y, T h e d og w hi c h i s f or sa le i s i n th a t k en n el, !

even if on e a dd ed “H e i s a c olli e .
!
B ut w hi c h w ould n ever be used i n
,

suc h a sen ten c e a s, I ha ve a d og w ho loves c hild ren .

!

70 T he g ender O f m a
. s uli n e a n d O f
c fem in i n e n oun s m a
y be

sh ow n i n v a ri ou s w a y s .

1 . The m a le a nd th e fema le O f m a n y ki n d s or c la sses of li vi n g

b ei n g s a re d en ot ed by d i fferen t word s .

MA SC U L IN E M A SC U L IN E FE MININ E

1 Vi x en i s rea lly form ed from f or (c om pa re th e G erm a n F uc hsi n from F u c hs) .

 G E ND E R 33

2 . S om e m a s ulin e n oun s
c bec om e fem i n i ne by the a dd iti on
of a n en di n g .

MA SC U L IN E

N OT E Th e fem i n in e g en d er i s O ften i n d i c a ted by th e en din g ess

. F re .

tl th e e di n m uli n e f m e n d i — a c tor,
q uen y c orr spo n g a sc o r s n or o r e : a s,
r

a c tress ; g ov ern or, g ov ern ess ; w a i ter, w a i tress T h e en d in g ess i s n ot so .

c om m on a s f qrm erly U sa g e fa vors p rop ri etor, a u thor, ed i tor, etc , ev en for

. .

th e fem i n i n e (ra th er th a n th e h a rsh er form s p rop ri etress , a u th oress, edi tress) ,

w h en ev er th ere i s n o spec i a l rea son for em ph a siz i n g th e d i fi eren c e O f sex .

3 . A few fem i n i n e w ords bec om e m a sc uli n e by the a dd it ion

of a n en d i n g . T hu s, — w i d ow ,
w i dow er ; bri d e, bri d eg room .

4 . G en der i s som etim es in di ca t ed by the en di ng m a n , w om a n ,

m a id, boy, or g i rl .

E X A MP S LE : sa lesm a n, s a lesw om a n ; f orem a n, forew om a n ; la un d ry

m a n ; m ilk m a i d ; c a sh boy , c a sh g i rl .

5 . A n oun or a pron ou n is s om e tim es p fi

re x ed to a n ou n to
i n di c a t e g en der .

E XA MP S LE : m a n serva n t, m a i d serva nt ; m oth er bi rd ; c oc k spa rrow

h en spa rrow ; boy f ri en d , g

i rl f ri en d ; h ew -
olf , Sh e
-
w olf .

6 The g en der of a n oun m a y be i n di c a t ed

. by som e a c c om

pa n y i n g pa rt of speec h ,
u su a lly by a pron oun .

My ca t is a lw a y s w a shi ng his f a ce.

T h e i ntruder sh ook her h ea d .

I w a s c on f ronted by a pi ti f ul c rea ture,

h a gg a rd a n d unsha ven .

NOT E T h e v a ri a ti on s in f orm stud i ed un d er 2 a n d 3 ( a bov e) a re O ften re

.

g a r d ed a s i n fl ec ti on s I n rea li ty, h ow.ev er ,

th e m a s c uli n e a n d th e f em i n in e
a re di ff erent w ord s T h us , ba ron ess i s n ot a n i n fl ec ti ona l form O f ba ron , but a
.

d i stin c t noun , m a d e from ba ron by a d d in g th e en d i n g ess , prec i sely a s ba rony

a n d ba rona g e a re m a d e from ba ron by a dd i n g th e en d i n g s y a n d a g e The .

p oc ess
r i s ra th er th a t of d eri va ti on or n oun -
form a ti on th a n th a t of in fl ec tion .
34 NO U NS

II . NUMBE R

71 . Num ber i s th a t property of substa nti es w v hi c h sh ow s w hether

they i ndi c a te one person, pla c e, or th i ng or m ore th a n one .

T h ere a re tw o num bers, the si ng ula r a nd the plura l .

T he si ng ula r num ber denotes but one person, pla c e, or th i ng . T he

plura l num ber d enotes m ore th a n one pers on , p

la c e, or th i ng .

72 . Most nouns form the plura l num ber by a ddi ng 3 or es to the

si ng ula r .

E XA MP S LE : m a t, m a ts ; w a v e, w a ves
“

; problem , problem s ; bo u h
g ,
boug h s ; Joh n , John s ; n urse, n urses ; ten se tenses ; ben c h , . ben c h es ;
di sh , di sh es c la ss, c la sses ; f ox , f o es x .

SPE C I A L R U L E S

1 . I f the si n g ula r en d s in s, a , z
,
c h ,
or s h ,
the plura l en d
in g is es .

E X A MP S LE
“
: loss, losses ; box ,
box es ; bu zz ,
bu zz es ; m a tc h , m a tc h es ;
rush , rush es .

2 . Ma n y n ou n s en d i n g in o p c
re ed ed by a c on s on a n t a lso
ta k e the en di n g es i n the plu ra l .

E XA MP S h ero, h eroes ; c a rg o, c a rg oes ; pota to, pota toes ; m

LE : otto,

m ottoes ; buffa lo, buffa loes ; m osq ui to, m osqui toes .

3 . N oun s en d in g I n 0 pre ed ed c by a v ow el form their plura l

in s : a s, c a m eo, c a m eos f oli o,
f oli os .

4 . T h e follow in g n oun s end i n g in o

prec ed ed by a c on son a n t
a lso form their plura lin 3
°

73 . In som e n oun s the a ddi ti on Of the plura l en din g a lters

the S
pelli n g a n d ev en the sou n d of the S i n g ula r form .

1 Ha lo ,
m em en to, z ero a lso form a plura l i n es ( ha loes,
 N U MB E R 35

1 . N oun s en d in g i n y prec ed ed by a c on son a n t cha n g e y to

i a nd a dd es i n the plu ra l .

E X A MP L E S : sk y , sk i es ; fly , fli es ; ; erry, e r
c oun try , c oun tri es
b b ri es .

( C on tra st : va lley , va lley s ; c h i m n ey , c h i m n ey s ; m on k ey , m onk ey s ; boy ,

boy s ; d a y , d a y s ) .

Most proper n a m es en din g i n y, h ow e er, v ta ke the plura l i n s .

E X A MP S LE M a ry , Ma ry s ; M urphy Mu rphy s ; D a ly , D a ly s ; R ow
: ,
ley ,
R ow ley s ; M a y , M a ys .

2 . S om e n oun s en d i n g in f or f e, c ha n g e the f to v a nd

a dd es or s .

E X A MP S LE ; w ih a rf ,
v es ; sh e
wlf ha
,
sh el v esrves
; w ol f ,
w if e, w

w olves ; thi ef , thi eves ; k n i f e, k n i ves ; h a lf , h a lves ; c a lf , c a lves ; lif e,

li ves ; self , selves ; sh ea f , sh ea ves ; loa f , loa ves ; lea f , lea ves ; elf , elves ;
beef , beeves .

74 . A few n oun s f orm their plura l i n en .

T h ese a re : OX ,
o xen broth er, breth ren ( or broth ers) c hi ld , c h i ld ren .

N OT E . An c i t plura ls belon g in g to th i s c la ss a re : ey n e (for

ey en , f rom eye) , k i ne (c ow s ) ,
sh oon ( sh oes) , h osen (h ose) .

75 . A f ew n oun s f orm thei r plura l by a c ha ng e of vow el.

T h ese a re : m a n , m en ; w om a n , w om en ; m erm a n ,
m erm en ; f oot,
f ee
'

t ;
tooth , teeth ; g oose, g eese ; m ouse, m i c e ; louse, li c e . A lso c om poun d
w ord s en di ng in m a n or w om a n, suc h a s fi rem a n , fi rem en sa lesw om a n ,

sa lesw om en ; D utc h m a n, D utc h m en .

N OT E . Germ a n, Mussu lm a n Ottom a n , d ra g om a n , fi rm a n , a n d ta li sm a n

,

w hic h a re n ot c om pou n d s of m a n , form th ei r plura ls reg ula rly : a s, Germ a n s ,

Mussu lm a ns . N orm a n a lso form s i ts plura l in s .

76 . A few n oun s ha v e the sa m e f orm i n b oth si n g ula r a n d

lura l
p .

Ex AM P LE S d eer, sheep, h ea th en , Ja pa n ese, P ortug uese, I roquoi s .

N OT E . This c la ss w a s la rg er in Old er E n g li sh th a n a t present I t in c lud ed, .

for e xa m ple , y ea r, w h i c h i n Sh a k spere h a s tw o plura ls : six th ousa n d

! " !
yea rs , tw elv e y ea r si n c e .
36 NO U NS
77 . A few n oun s ha ve tw o plu ra ls,
bu t usua lly w i th som e

differen c e i n m ea n in g .

’
S ING U AR
L PL U RA L

broth ers ( rela ti ves)

broth er
( b reth ren m em bers O f th e sa m e soc let
( y)
f h orses ( a n i m a ls)
horse
l h (
orse c a va lry
)
f eet (pa rts of th e body
f oot .
)
f oot (i nf a n try )
rsa ils (on vessels)
1 sa i l (vessels i n a fl eet
)
h ea d s (i n usua l sen se)
h a d Of c a ttle
( e ( )
fi sh es (in d i vid ua lly )
fi sh ( c ollec ti vely )

en n p e n n i e s S
( gi n le c oi n s
)
p y
p e n c e ( c ol l e c ti v e ly)
c loths (pi ec es of c loth )
c loth
c loth es (g a rm en ts)

d i es (for sta m pi n g )
d i c e (f or g a m i ng )

T h e p enni es w ere a rra n g ed in n ea t pi les .

E n g li sh m on ey is rec k on ed i n poun d s, sh i lli n g s, a n d p nc e

e .

78 . When c om pound nouns a rem a de plura l, the la st pa rt usu

a ta kes
lly the plura l form ; less O ften the first pa rt ; ra rely
b oth pa rts .

E X A MP S LE : spoon ful, spoon fuls ; b a th h ou se,

b a th h o uses ; f org et-m
e
n ot, f org et m e n ots ; ed i tor i n
- - - -
c hi ef , ed i tors i n c hi ef ;
-
m a i d of h on or,
- - -

m a i d s O f h on or ; g en tlem a n u sh er, g en tlem en ush ers ; K n i g ht T em pla r,

- -

Kn i g hts T em pla rs ; L ord Justi c e, L ord s Justi c es ; m a n serva nt, m en

serva nts .

79 L ett ers of th e alpha bet , fi g ures, si g n s u sed in wri t in g ,

’
.

a nd words reg a rd ed m erely a s w ord s t a k e s i n the plura l .

E m ba rra ssed S
i s pelled i th tw o r s a nd
’ tw o s s
’
’
w
’
.

Your 3 l k li k e 8
’
s oo s .

T ell th e p i nte t
D ’
h g e th e
r

t i te upt m e i th y u but
on n rr
§
’
t
’
T r o c

w
a n

o r
s

s
o

.
S .
 N U MBE R 37

8 0 Foreig n
. n ou n s i n E n g li sh som et im es reta i n th eir forei g n

plura ls but m a n y ha ve a n E n g li sh plu ra l a lso .

S om e of the c om m on es t a re i n c lud ed i n the f ollow i n g li st :

1

S ING U AR
L PL U RA L S ING U AR
L PL U RA L

a lum na (f em i nin e
) a lum n ae g en n

a lum n us ( m a sc uli n e) a lum ni

lg en i uses

a m a n uen si s a m a n u en ses g en us g en era

a na ly si s a na ly ses rg y m n a si a
g y m n a si um 4
2
a n i m a lc ulum a n i m a lc ula gy m n a S I um S
(
a n ti th esi s a n ti th eses h ippopota m us hippopota m i
( a ppen d i c es hy poth esi s h y poth eses
a ppen d i x
l a ppen d i x es la rva la rvae

a x es m em ora n d um
m em ora n d a
ba c i lli Lm em ora n d um s
ba c teri a n ebula n ebulae

ba n di tti oa si s oa ses
{
ba n d i ts pa ren th esi s pa ren th eses
L
ba ses p h e n om en on p h en om en a

bea u x ra d i us ra d i i

l bea us
sera ph
sera phi m
c a n d ela bra sera ph s
L
cu muli Spec i es
c h erubi m stra ta
{
c h erubs sy n opses
L
c ri ses ta blea u x
c u rri c ula tem pi
d a ta term i n i
elli pses th eses
erra ta troussea u x
f orm ulae v ertebrae
f orm ula
f orm ula s

T h e tw o plu ra ls s om e tim es differ i n m ea n i n g : a s,

M i c h a el An g elo a nd R a ph a el w ere g eni uses .

Spi rits a re som eti m es c a lled g en u .

T h i s book h a s tw o i ndi c es .

T h e pri n ter uses si g n s c a lled i ndex es .

1
T hi s li st i s i nten d ed for referen c e .

2 T h e E n li sh w ord a n i m a lc u l
g e ( plura l a ni m a lc u les) i s prefera ble . T he
plura l a n i m a lc u la ? i s erron eou s .
38 NO U NS
81 . When a ro
p p er na m e w ith the ti tle M r M rs M iss .
,
.
, ,
or

Ma s ter, is put i n t o the plura l, the rules a re a s follow s

1 T he plura l of M r i s M essrs (pron oun c ed M essers
. . . T he
n a m e rem a i n s i n the si n g ula r T hus, .

M r Ja c kson ,
.
plura l M essrs .
( or th e M essrs ) Ja c kson . .

2 . M rs ha s
. no plu ra l . T he na m e i tself ta kes the plura l
form . T hus,

Mrs Ja c kson ,
.
plura l the M rs J a c ksons . .

3 . I n the ca se of Miss som et im es ,

the ti tle i s put i n t o the
plu ra l, som et i m es the n a m e T hus .
,

M i ss Ja c kson, plura l the M i sses Ja ckson or the M iss Ja c ksons

T h e la tter e pressi on i s x som ew h a t i n form a l

. Ac c ord i n g ly , i t w ould n ot be

used i n a f orm a l i n v i ta ti on or reply , or i n a dd ressin g a letter .

4 . The plura l of M a s ter i s M a sters . T he n a m e rem a i n s in

the si n g u la r T h u s, .

M a ster Ja c kson , plu ra l the M a sters J a c kson .

O th er ti tles usua lly rem a i n I n th e si n g ula r, th e na m e ta k i n g th e plura l

form : a s , th e tw o Genera lF olla ns bys B ut w h en tw o or m ore n a m es follow , .

th e title bec om es plura l: a s , Genera ls Rol f e a nd J oh nson .

82 . S om e n oun s ,
on a cc oun t Of their m ea n in g ,
a re seld om or

n ev er u sed i n the plura l .

Su c h a re m a n y n a m es of q u a li ti es ( a s c heer ulness, m i rt
f h ) ,
of sc i en c es

( a s c hem i stry of f orc es ( a s g ra vi ta ti on) .

Ma n y n ou n s, c om m on ly u sed i n the sin g ula r on ly ,

m a y ta k e
a plura l i n s om e spec ia l sen se T hu s .
,

l b ea rth s ( ki d of soi l )
ea rth ( th e g o e) n s

i c e (froz en w a ter) i c es (food )

tin ( a m eta l) ti n s ( ti n d i sh es or c a n s)
n i c k el a m eta l) n i c k els ( c oin s )
(
1 Messrs bbrev i a ti on of th e Fren c h m essi eu rs
. is a n a .

2 W h en suc h n oun s a s c hem i s tr refer to te tbook s th e x

y , y m a y be used i n
!
th e plura l: a s , B rin g y our c hem i stri es to m orrow -
.
40 N OUN S

IV CAS E
.

8 6 S ubsta nti v
. es h a ve i nfl ec ti ons of c a se to i ndi ca te thei r g ra m m a ti
ca l rela ti ons to verbs , to preposi ti ons, or to other substa nti ves .

There a re t hree ca ses ,

the nom i na ti ve, the poss essive, a nd

the j
ob ecti ve .

T h e possessi ve c a se is often c a lled th e g eniti ve .

T he n om in a ti v e a nd O bj ec t iv e c a se O f a n oun a re a lw a y s
th e
a like i n form . I n som e pron oun s h owev er th ere i s a d ifferen c e
, ,

( a s, — I, m e h e, h i m ) .

DE C L E NS I ON OF N O U NS

87 . T he i n fl ect ion Of a su b sta n tiv e is ca lled its dec lensi on .

T o dec li ne a n oun i s to g i v e i ts c a se form s -

in ord er, fi rst i n the
si n g ula r n u m ber a n d then i n the plura l T h us, .

i ’
N om i na ti ve boy
P ossessi ve bo y
’
s

Ob
j i ve
ec t boy

PL U RA L

N om i na ti ve boy s
P ossessi ve boy s ’
Obj ec ti ve boy s

S ING U AR
L

PL U RA L
 NO M INAT IVE CAS E 41

N O M I N A T I V E CA S E

88 . T he nom i na ti ve c a se i s u sed i n the f ollowi n g

c on structions
1
( ) th e subj ec t
( )
2 t h e pred
,
i c a t e n om i n a t i v e 3
( ) t he v oc a ti v e ,

or n om i n a t i v e O f d i rect a dd ress h x cla m a t ory n om i n a

( ) ( )
4 t e e ,

ti ve (5 ) a ppositi v e wi th a n om in a ti ve ( 6) the n om ina tiv e

, ,

a b solut e .

1 . T h e s ub ec t ofj a verb i s i n the nom i na tive ca se .

Wa ter f reez es .

Cha rles c lim bed th e m ounta i n

’
.

T h e boy s f a c e g low ed w i th h ea lth x

a n d e erc i se .

A th ousa n d m en w ere ki lled i n th i s ba ttle .

I n the t hi rd l
p ,f
ex a m e i th e i m le u bj ct th m
’
a c e s s p s e ; e c o

plete bj ec t
su is the boy s f a c e I n the fourt h, m en i s the sim ple
.

su bj ec t ; th e c om plet e su bj ect i s a th ou s a n d m en B ot h f a c e .

a n d m en a re in the n om i n a t i ve c a se ; f a c e i s i n the si n g ul
n um ber ; m en i n the plura l .

2 . A substa nti ve sta nd i ng i n th e pred i c a te, but desc ribing or defi n

i ng th e subj ec tf a g rees w j
ith th e sub ect i n c a se a nd i s ca lled a predi c a te
nom i na ti ve .

A pred i c a te n om in a ti ve i s a lso ca lled a j

sub ec t c om plem ent or a n a ttri bute
.

L obsters a re c rusta c ea ns .
!

A g ood book i s a f a i thf ulf ri end .

V

S h a k spere w a s a na i e
t v O f S tra tf ord —ou—Avon . c/

A rn old proved a tra i tor .

A d a m s w a s elec ted president .

The rule for the the predi ca t e n om in a t i ve i s pa rti c u

c a se O f v

la rly i m porta n t w ith respect to pron oun s

A re y ou she ’
fo

It w a s w ew ho did i t .

T he predi ca te n om in a tiv e i s c om m on est a fter the C opula is

( i n i ts v a ri ou s f orm s
) I t w ill be furt her stud ied i n c on n ec t i on
.

w it h I n tra n siti ve a n d pa ssi ve verb s 21 4,

42 NO U NS
3 . A substa ntive used for the purpose of a ddressi ng a person di rectly ,
a nd not c onnec ted w ith a ny verb, is ca lled a voc a tive .

Av oca ti ve i s i n the n om i na t ive ca se a nd i s often ca lled , a

nom i na tive by di rect a ddress or a voc a ti ve nom i na tive .

C om e, Ruth, g ive m y our h a e nd .

T urn to th e rig h t, m a da m 4 . ,

H erbert, i t i s y our turn . V

C om ew i th m e, m y c hi l
d .

NOT E . A v oc a ti v e w ord is som eti m es sa i d to be i nd epend ent by d i rec t

a ddress , bec a use i t sta n d s by i tself , un c onn ec ted w i th a ny v erb Tha t a v oc a
.

ti ve i s rea lly i n th e n om i n a ti v e
. c a se m a y be seen i n th e use O f th e pronoun
thou i n thi s c on struc ti on : a s, — I w ill a rrest th ee, thou tra i tor (see

4 . A substa nti ve us ed a s a n ex c la m a ti on i s ca lled a n ex c la m a tory

nom ina tive ( or nom i na tive of ex c la m a ti on) .

P ea c e, be sti ll .

Fortun a te Ruth !
A drum ! a drum ! M a c beth d oth c om e .

L ook ! a ba lloon !
T he sun ! th en w e sha ll h a ve a fi ne da y .

C erta in x
e c la m a tory n om i n a tiv es a re som etim es c la ssed a s j
i nter ec tion s

5 . A substa ntive a dded to a noth er substa nti ve to ex pla i n i t a nd s i g

ni fy ing the sa m e person or th i ng ,
is ca lled a n a ppos i ti ve a nd i s s a i d to

be i n a ppositi on .

An a ppositive i s i n the sa m e c a se a s th e substa nti ve w h i c h i t li m i ts .

H en ce bsta n ti ve
a su in a pposi ti on wi th a n om i n a t i ve i s i n
the n om i n a ti ve ca se .

J Mr S c ott, th e g roc er, i s h ere [A ppositi on w i th sub ec t ]

. . j .

T om , Old f ellow , I a m g la d to see y ou [ Apposi ti on w i th voc a ti ve ] . .

T he d i sc overer of th e P a c ifi c w a s B a lboa , a Sp a ni a rd [ Apposi ti on .

w i th predi c a te n om i na ti ve .
]

N OT E . App osi ti on m ea n s a tta c h m en t

!
a pp osi ti ve m ea n s a tta c h ed

n oun or pronoun .
!
An a pposi ti v e m od i fi es th e n oun w i th w h ic h it i s i n a ppo
siti ou m uc h a s a n a d j e tiv e m i g ht d o
c (c om pa re B a lboaSp a ni a rd , a w i th

Sp a ni sh Henc e it i s c la ssed a s a n a j
d ec ti ve m od i fi er .
 FO R M S O F T H E P OSS E SSI VE CA S E 43

P OSS E SSI V E CA S E

89 . T he possessive c a se denotes ow nersh ip or possessi on .

’
John s y a c h t li es a t h er m oori ng s
’
.

T h e duc k s f eet a re w ebbed

’
. V

T h e m uti neer pi s stol burst w h en h e fi red .

N OT E Most uses of th e possessi ve c om e un d er th e g en era l h ea d of posses

’
.

si on in Spec i a l v a ri eti es of m ea ni n g a re sourc e (a s i n

som e sen se ) h en s eg g s !

’
.

a n d a uthorshi p ( a s i n Wordsw orth s

A possessiv e n oun or pron oun m od i fi es th e substa ntiv e to w h i c h i t i s
a j
tta c h ed a s a n a d ec ti ve m i g h t d o H en c e i t i s c la ssed a s a n a d ec tive
. j
m od i fi er .

Form s of the P ossessive Ca se

9 0 T h e possessive c a se of m ost nouns ha s , i n the s i ng ula r num ber,

’
.

the endi ng s .

E X A MP S LE the ow
’
l f e the
s a rs, a
’
E li z beth h s a t, ’
th e Offi er n c s a m e .

P lura l nouns endi ng i n 3 ta k e no further endi n g for the possessive .

In w ri ti ng ,
h ow e ver, a n a postroph e i s put a fter th e s to i nd i c a te the
pos sessi ve c a se .

E A X MP L E S th e ow
’
l f e th er th e offi c ers
’
n m e th e a rti s s
’
t peti ti on
’
: s a s, a s,

th e en g i n eer b ll s a .

P lura l nouns not endi ng i n 3 ta k e ’i

s n th e possessive .

E X A MP LE
’
S th e fi rem en s b a ll, th e poli c em en
’qu s a rters, th e c h ild ren ’
s

h our .

N OT E . E n g li sh th e possessi v e O f m ost n oun s w a s w ri tten a s w ell

In O ld er

a s p ron ou n c ed w i th th e e n d i n g
-
es o r -
i s Th u s ,
i n C h a uc er , th e .
po ssessi v e of
’
c hi ld i s c hi ld es or c hi ld i s th a t of k i ng i s hi ng e s or k i ng i s th a t of J ohn i s
'

J oh n es or J oh ni s Th e use O f a n a postroph e i n th e possessi v e i s a c om pa ra

‘

ti v ely m od ern d ev i c e, d ue to S c h ola rs a t on e ti m e

a m i sun d ersta n di n g .

th oug h t th e s of th e possessi v e a f ra g m en t O f th e pron o un h i s th a t i s , th ey

’
took suc h a ph ra se a s Georg e s book for a c on tra c ti on of Georg e hi s book .

H en c e th ey u sed th e a postroph e before 3 to si g n ify th e supposed om i ssi on of

pa rt of th e w ord h i s S im ila rly , i n th e possessi v e plura l, th ere w a s thoug ht
’
.

to be a n om i ssi on of a fi n a l es ; th a t i s , suc h a ph ra se a s the h orses h ea d s w a s

th oug ht to be a c on tra c ti on of th e h orseses h ea d s B oth th ese errors ha ve .

lon g been e plod ed x .

44 NO U NS

91 N oun s lik e s h eep a n d d eer, whi c h ha v e the sa m e form

’
.

in both the si n g ula r a n d the plura l, u sua lly t a k e 3 i n the

poss ess i ve plu ra l .

T hus, the d eer’tr s a c ks w ould be w ri tten , w h eth er on e d eer or m ore

w ere m ea n t .

92 P OSS E SS IV E S I N GU L A R N OUNS N D IN G IN
'

. OF E S .

1 M on osy lla b i c n oun s en d i n g in d lly

’
. s or a n s -s oun usua

m a k e thei r possessi v e S i n g ula r by a ddin g s .

E XA MP S C ha le ’ h t F be ’ d e M ’
W ell d h ter,
’
r or n, a ug
’
s s a s s a r r
’
g
LE : , . s s

Ri c e s c a rri a g e, Mrs .D i x f m ily

s f x b u h
a ,
a o s r s .

N OT E . Most of th ese m on osy lla bi c n oun s in

fa m i ly n a m es T h e rule s a re .

a c c ord s w i th th e best usa g e ; but i t i s n ot a bsolute, for usa g e v a ri es Hen c e

’ ’
.

form s lik e Ch a rles a n d Wells c a nn ot be c on d em n ed a s posi ti v ely w ron g ,

’ ’
th oug h Ch a rles s a nd Wells s a re prefera ble I n spea k in g , th e h orter form i s S
’ ’
.

often a m bi g uous, f or th ere i s n o d i fferen c e i n soun d betw een D i x a n d D i c k s,

Mr .
’
Hi lls a n d Mr .
’
Hi ll s D r ,
.
’
Chi lds a nd D r . Ch i ld
’ s .

2 . N oun s of ylla bles en din g 1 11 s or a n s soun d

tw o or m ore s -
,

a n d n ot a c c en t ed on th e la st sy lla ble m a y m a k e t h ei r posses

si ve S i n g ula r by a dd i n g
’
s or m a
y t a k e n o en d i n g m th e pos ,
,

sessi v e .

I n the la tt er c a se, a n a pos ro he

p t is a dd ed i n w ri ti n g ,
but i n
soun d t here is no d ifferen c e betw een the possessi v e a nd th e
n om i n a t i v e .

E X A MP L E S B urrow ’( B urrow ’
) H otel, JEn ea s ’(o JEn ea ’
)
’ ’ ’
s s or s s r s
’
:

voy a e, B e t i e s (or B e t i e ) g r ti tud e r c F eli x ( o r F eli x ) a rri va l,

’
r c a a s
’
g a ,

f or c on s c i en c e s (or c onsc i en c e ) s k e a .

Most of the n oun s in questi on a re ro er

p p na m es I n S pea k .

in g , t t
of en u se th e lon g er f orm to reven t a m b i g u i ty ;
’ ’
on e m u s

for Wi lli a m s Wi lli a m s ’d ober s a n

’R t d
p
R ober t
’R obbi ns
’
a n ,
s,

a nd R obi n s a re i n di st i n g ui sha ble in sou n d

,
.

N OT E N oun s of tw o or m ore sy lla bles en d i n g i n s or a n s- soun d a n d a o

’
.

c en ted on th e la st sy lla ble, follow th e rule for m on osy lla bles Thus, L a p la c e s
’ ’
.

m a th em a ti c s (n ot L a p la c e ) A lp honse s fa th er (n ot
W h en fi n a l s i s silen t (a s i n m a ny F ren c h n a m es) ’
s m ust of c ourse be a dd ed

in th e possessi v e T h us ,
’
D esc a rtes s h ilosoph y
,

( pron o un c ed
.
p
 U SE O F T H E P OSS E SSI VE CAS E 45

Use of th e P os sessive Ca se

P ossessi on y b e d en ot ed by a phra
m a se w ith of a s w ell
a s by the possessi v e c a se T h e d i st i n c t i on . between the tw o
form s c a nn o t be broug ht u n d er ri g id rules, but the follow i n g
sug g es t i on s w ill be of u se .

I . In old er E n g li sh a nd i n poet ry the possessi v e c a se of

n oun s i s freely used , but i n m od ern prose i t i s ra re u n less the

possess or is a li v i n g bein g . A phra se with of is used i n st ea d .

T h e m y r of D et oi t (N
’
D etroi t m y o ) e/
’
a o r OT s a r .

T h e top of the p o t (N th e p o t top)

’p ev
s OT s s .

T h e preva len c e o f the ep i dem i c (N O T th e e

p i dem i c s r a len c e) .

C on tra st the poet i c use

B elg i um ’p i ta l h a d g t
s ca
a h ered th en

Her bea uty a n d h er c hi va lry B . YRON .

O th er preposi ti on s a re som eti m es used : a s, th e e plosi on i nx N ew York

( N O T N ew York s e plosi on
’x th e sta ti on a t P ly m ou th !
.

II When . the pos sessor i s a li v in g bein g , g ood u sa g e v a ri es .

1 I f th ere i s a c tua l ow n ershi p Or o e i n f m e m teri a l thi ng th e

’
.
p ss ss o o so a ,

possessi ve c a se i s g en era lly used i n th e in g ula r a s, S

Jo hn h S a t !
( n ot

th e h a t of John T he possessi ve plura l, h ow ever, i s often repla c ed by

a h r e i th f, to a voi d a m bi g ui ty or h a rsh n ess th e j ew els
’
p a s w o a s,

of the la di es (rath e th t
rh e l d ia n
e j e a s w els 2
th e w i ng s f the
o

g eese (ra th er th n a the g ee e

’ i ng s s w s
,

2 W i th n ou n s d en oti ng u li ty , a n a c t, or th e lik e, ei ther th e pos

q
’
. a a

sessi ve or
" "
the of ph ra se i s proper : a s, — John s g en erosi ty , !
or th e
’
-

enerosi ty of J ohn Jo hn s c on di ti on , th e c on d i ti on o f John

!

’d e th
g or
’
th e g uid e effort s s, or th e efforts of the g uid e C aesa rs a ,
!
or

th e d ea th of C aesa r .
!

W h en th ere i s a n y c h oi c e i tusua lly d epen d s on euph ony (th a t i s a g ree

, ,

a ble soun d f i f l S i h
) n d i th e e ue t n t e m et m e e v e
’
a s ,
r e or a q s o o s y o s ow r .
, ,

th ere i s a d i sti n c ti on i n sen se . John f e s a r,

!
f or e xa m ple ,
i nd i c a tes th a t
John i s a f ra i d but th e f ea r of J ohn m ea n s th e f ea r w h i c h Joh n i n spi res
in oth ers .

1 This sec ti on fl
i s i nten d ed c h i e y for referen c e .

2 N ote th e a m bi g ui ty to th e ea r th oug h n ot to th e ey e .
46 NO U NS

IIIT he followin g phra ses a re esta bli shed i d i om s w ith the

.

ossessi v e I n som e of t h em , h owever, th e possessi v e m a be

p .
y
re
pla c ed by of a nd its o bj ect .

( )
1 T h e e rth
’ u f e th e un
’ th e m
’ fl t i t h i t
’
’ ’
r y n e
r a c e n e
’ ’
a s s oo r o , p s s a s, s c ,
s

m outh en d h i j ou n ey en d t hi i t end th e h ip k eel

’
rope r
’ ’
s s s a
’
,
a , ,
s w s ,
s s ,

th e te edg e th e n n on m outh out of h m t d

’ ’ ’
w a r s ,
ca
y o s ,
a r s w a ,
a sw r s

i t f i t k e f i k ; ( )
2 m m t e
’
n en e e u
’
n or o e
’
r n
’
o os, p y s sa o c sc c sa a a
p
’ p
, s s ,
a

ti m h d b e d th b t l th m th l k
’ ’
e n e
’
e o n n r a ee a a
’
y a r s ,
a a g s y ,
s ,
a o s sa a r ,
a w s

n oti e ni g ht e t d y o k ton e
s r s th o f e th er eig ht r
’
a a s w a r w
’ ’
c ,
a , ,
s s ,
a a s w ,

n h u d el y d oll r orth n ot f oot d i fi e en e

a a
’
a o r s a ,
s w ,
a s r c .

I n th e e on d g oup f ph s c e m om en tr p u e o th e po ra s s a s a s ,
!
s

sessive d en otes n ot ow n ership, but m ea s ure or e xtent .

IV The possessi v e c a se of c ert a in pron oun s (m y, ou r, your,

.

hi s , h er, i ts, th ei r) i s m ore freely u sed tha n t ha t of n oun s i n

ex p ressi on s tha t do n ot den ote a ctua l own ership
I k n ow h im to m y sorrow .
[ C om pa re to h i s loss, to our d etri m en t,
to his a d va nta g e .
]
T h e bra ss ha s lost i ts poli sh .

T h i s q uesti on m ust be d ec i d ed on i ts m eri ts .

Hi s a rg u ents d i d f a il of thei r effec t

m n ot .

fl
For th e i n ec ti on of th ese pron oun s , see § 1 15 . F or th e use of w hose, see 1 5 2 .

94 . When thi n g belon g s to tw o or m ore j oi nt ow

a ners , the
S ig n of the possessi v e i s a dd ed to the la st n a m e on ly .

B row n, Jon es, a nd R i c h a rd so n

’fs a c tori es .
[ B row n, Jon es, a nd Ri c h
a rd son a re t e ]
’
pa r n rs

I t is G eorg e a n d W illi a m tu
s rn to ta k e th e boa t .
[ G eorg e a n d W il
li a m to g o i n th e boa t tog eth er ]
a re .

O n th e oth er h a n d , i n ord er to a void a m bi g uity w e sh ould

’J ’ ’f y, sa

B row ne s s, a n d R i c h a rd son a c tori es,

!
i f ea c h i n divi d ua l h a d
’
n s, o s

a f a c tory of h is ow n ; a nd G eor g e s a nd
’
W illi a m s a nsw ers w ere c or
rec t,
!
i f ea c h boy a n sw ered i n d epen d en tly of th e other .

95 . In c om pound nouns the la s t pa r t ta kes the possessi ve

S ig n . So a lso when a phra se is u sed a s a n ou n .

’
My f a ther i n la s hom e i s i n E a ton
’
- -
w s .

W e h d a qua rter of a n hour s ta lk

a .
48 NO U NS
98 . T he obj ect of a verb m a y
bj ect, (2) the be ( 1 ) the direct o

red i c a t e obj ect i ve h i i

p ( )
3 t e n d rect obj
,
ect ( )
4 th e c og n a t e ob ,

O f t h se the d i rect obj ect i s the m ost im porta n t

j ect . e .

T he obj ect i ve i s a lso used ( 5 ) a d verbia lly ( )

6 i n ap

i i i h n oth er obj ect i v e d

p o s t on w t a a n
( 7 a s t h e s u bj ect
of a n i n fi n i t i ve

99 . S om e verbs m a y be f ollow ed by a substa nti ve denoting tha t

w h i c h receives the a c ti on or i s produc ed by it T h ese a re ca lled tra nsi .

tive verbs . All oth er verbs a re c a lled i ntra nsiti ve .

T ha t m ruc k m
a n st y dog .

T he a rrow hit th e ta rg et .

C aesa r c onquered G a ul.

M r Holla n d
. sell
s flour .

T he f a rm er ra i ses c orn .

Mr E a ton m a kes stoves

. .

My g ra ndfa th er bui lt tha t house .

In N os .
—
1 4, the v erb i s followed by a n oun denot ing the
rec ei ver of til
h a cti on Thus i n the fi rst senten c e the d og rec ei ves
.
, ,

the blow ; i n the sec on d the ta rg et rec ei ves the a cti on of hit ,

tin g I n N os 5 7 the v erb i s followed by a n oun den otin g the

.
—
.
,

p rod uc t of th e a ct i on For e x a m ple the c orn i s pro

.duc ed by the ,

a ct i on ex pressed by the v erb ra i s es .

I n ea c h ex a m ple the n oun tha t follows the verb c om pletes

,

the sense of the v erb Tha t m a n s tru c k S truck

.

w h om ? He st ru ck the d og
!
U ntil dog is a dded the sense .

of the v erb s tru c k i s i n c om plete .

1 00 A . substa nti ve th a t c om ple tes th e m ea ni ng of a tra nsi ti ve verb

is ca lled its direct ob ect, j a nd is sa i d to be i n th e ob ective ca se j .

T hus, i n th e ex a m ples bove, dog i s th e di rec t ob ec t of th e tra nsi tive

a j
verb struc k ; ta rg et i s th e di rec t ob ec t of hi t, a nd so onj E a c h of these .

nouns i s therefore i n th e ob ecti ve c a se j .

Th e di rec t ob ec t i s j often c a lled th e ob ect j c om plem ent, or the obj ect of the
 D I R E CT O B J E CT 49

101 . In tra n sitive v erbs ha v e no o bj ect .

T h e li on roa red .

T h e vi si tor hed g en tly

c oug .

T he log drifted d ow nstrea m .

W e a ll listened intently .

Com pa re these sen t en c es with those i n 99 W e observ e .

tha t the verbs (unlike th ose i n 99 ) a dm i t n o obj ect si n c e ,

their m ea nin g i s c om plete without the a dditi on of a n y n oun

to den ote the recei ver or product of the a ct ion T he m a n .

s tru c k prom p t s th e i n q u i ry S tru ck w h om

,
B ut n o

su ch quest i on i s sug g est ed by The li on roa red f or R oa red

w ha t 2 7 w ould be a n a bsurdity .

1 02 T he predi ca te nom i na tive

. 88 2) m ust n ot be c on fused
,

with the direct obj ect T hey resem ble ea ch other in tw o pa rti c u
.

la rs : ( 1 ) both sta n d i n the predi c a t e a n d ( 2) b oth c om plete ,

the m ea n i n g of the v erb B ut they d iffer utterly i n th eir

.

rela t i on to the subj ect of the sen t en c e For .

The predi ca te nom i na ti ve desc rib es or d efi n es the subj ect H en c e .

b oth substa nti ves d en ote the sa m e person or thin g .

C ha rles [ S U BJ E CT c a p ta in [ PR E DIC A T E NOMIN A T IV E

] .

T he d irec t obj ec t n ei ther desc ri bes bj ect n or d efin es the su .

On th e c on tra ry it d esi g n a t es tha t upon whi c h the subj ec t

,

a cts .Hen c e th e tw o substa n t i ves reg ula rly den ote different
1

erson s or t hi n g s
p .

( struc k J a m es [ OBJ E C T ] .

Ch a rles [ S U BJ E C T ] 4 th rew a ston e [ OBJ E C T ] .

Lbuilt a boa t [ OBJ E C T ] .

B oth the di rect bj ect a n d the predi c a t e

o

cla ssed a s c om plem ents b ec a use they a re u sed

,

sen se of th e predi c a t e v erb

1 x fl x
T he only e c epti on i s i n re e i v e a c ti on , w h ere th e j
ob ec t i s a c om po un d
person a l pron o un C h a rle s d ec ei v ed S ee 1 26 .
50 N OU N S
1 03 . A verb of a s k i n g S om etim es ta kes tw o j
di rect ob ects , on e
d en oti n g the person a nd the ot her the thi ng .

She a sk ed th e boy hi s n a m e .

A sk m e n o f a vors .

I a sk ed th e la w y er hi s op i ni on .

2 P redi ca te Obj ective

1 04 Verbs
. of c hoosing ,
ca lling , na m ing , m a king , a nd thinking m a y ta k e
tw j
o ob ec ts referring to th e sa m e person or th i ng .

T he fi rst of these i s the di rec t ob ect, j a nd the sec ond , w hi c h c om pletes

the sense of the predi c a te, i s ca lled a pred i c a j
te ob ec ti ve .

W e c hose Osc a r presid ent [ Osc a r i s . j

th e d i rec t ob ec t of c hose; presi
denti s th e pred i c a te obj ec tive ]
I ll John m y f ri end
ca .

T h ey thoug ht th e m a n a c ow a rd .

M a k e m y h ouse y our hom e .

j
T h e pred i ca te ob ec ti v e i s often ca lled th e c om plem enta ry ob ec t or th e obj ec ti v e j
ttri bute It i s c la ssed a s a plem ent
"

a . c om .

An a d j ecti ve m a y serve a s pred i a c te obj ecti ve .

I call thi s ship unsea w orthy .

Y our letter m a d e y our i ster S a nx i ous

’
.

W h a t m a k es E dw in so c a reless 2

3 . I ndi rect Obj ect a nd S i m ila r Idi om s

1 05 . S om e verbs of g iving , telling , re

f using , a nd the li k e, m a y ta k e tw o

j
ob ec ts , a j
d i rect ob ec t and a n i nd irect obj ec t .

T he i nd i rec t obj ec t d enotes th e person or th i ng tow a rd w hom or

tow a rd w x
h i c h i s direc ted the a c ti on e pressed by th e rest of th e pred i c a te .

D IR E C T O BJ E C T AND I NDIR E C T
D IR E C T O BJ E C T ON L Y
O BJ E C T
D ic k sold his bi c y c le . D ic k John his bi c y c le
sold .

I g a ve perm i ssi on . I g a ve th i s m a n perm issi on .

He pa i d a d olla r . He pa i d th e g a rdener a d olla r .

S h e ta ug ht L a ti n . Sh e ta ug ht m y c hi ld ren L a tin .
 IND IR E CT O B JE C T AND SIM IL AR ID IO M S 51

Most of the verbs tha t a dm it a n i n d i rect o bj ect a re i n c luded

in the follow in g list

a llot, a llow ,
a ssig n , bequea th , bring ,
d eny , en sure, f etc h , fli ng ,
forbi d
f org i ve, g i ve, g ra nt, g ua ra n tee, h a n d , lea se, lea ve, len d , let, ow e, pa rd on ,
p a ss a
, p y,
ref un d ,
re f use,
rem i t,
res t ore ,
sell,
se n d ,
S h ow ,
S i n g, p
s a re,

tea c h, tell, th row ,

toss , vouc hsa f e .

P ron oun s a re c om m on er a s i n di rect bj ec t s tha n

o n oun s .

Th ey d en i ed her th e n ec essi ti es of lif e .

I g ua ra nteed them a h a n d som e profi t .

T h e ki ng vouc h sa f ed them a n a udi en c e .

It i s a lw a y s to i nsert the preposi ti on to before th e i ndi rec t

poss i ble

j
ob ect w i th out c ha ng i ng th e sense .

S in ce the in direct obj ect i s equi va len t to a n a dverb ia l phra se ,

it i s cla s sed as a m odi fier of the verb .

T hu s, i n D ic k sold
John h is bi c y c le, !
John i s a n a d verbi a l m od i fi er

of th e pred i c a te verb sold .

T he i n di rect obj ect 1 s som e t im es used without a direct o bj ect

ex p ressed . T hus,
He pa i d th e ba tter .

Here ha tter m a z j
y be rec og n i ed a s a n i n d i rec t ob ec t by in sertin g to before
it a nd a d d in g a di rec t ob ec t j hi s bi ll,
! !
hi s m oney , or th e lik e) .

1 06 . T he o bj ecti ve ca se som e tim es ex presses the person f or

w hom a n ythin g is d on e .

Willi a m m a d e hi s brother a k ite m a d e a k i te f or h is broth er ] .

Sa m pson built m e a boa t [ z built a boa t f or m e] .

T hi s con stru ct ion m a y be c a lled the obj ecti ve of servi ce .

N OT E j
Th e ob ec tive of servi c e i s often i nc lud ed un d er th e h ea d of th e
.

j
i nd i rec t ob ec t B ut th e tw o c on struc ti on s d i ffer w i d ely in sen se, a n d sh ould
.

be c a refully d i stin g ui sh ed T o d o a n a c t to a person i s n ot th e sa m e thi n g a s

.

to d o a n a c tf or a person C ontra st John pa i d the m on ey to m e, w i th

.
!
Joh n
id h
"
D i k ld b i l i h
“ D i k ld
p a t e m on eyf o r m e c so a c y c e to m e, w t c so a

bi c y c lef or m e .
52 N OU N S

1 07 . T he o bj ecti ve ca se is u sed a fter li k e u n li k e n ea r , , ,

a nd

n ex t, w hi ch a re rea lly a dj ect i ves or a d v erb s thoug h i n ,

this
c on structi on th ey a re oft en reg a rded a s prepositions .

V
Sh e sa ng lik e a bi rd .
[ L i ke i s a n a d verb .
]
T he ea rth i s lik e a ba ll .
[ L i ke i s a n a j
d ec ti ve ] .

My offi ce is n ea r [ N ea r i s a n a d j
th e sta ti on
ec ti v e ] . .

T h a t a n sw er w a s un lik e J osep h [ Un li ke i s a n a dj ec tive ] V . .

T hi s m a n w a lk s unlik e Josep h [ Un li ke i s a n a d verb ] . .

A strea m ra n n ea r th e hut [ N ea r i s a n a d verb ] . .

The u se of the obj ect i v e a ft er t hese w ord s i s a pe ul

cia r i di om
si m lla r to the i n d i rect o bj ect T he ture of the c on na

see a s i n the i n d irect obj ec t) by i n sert i n g

s rut cti on m a y be n
(
to or u n to She sa n g li k e u n to a bird

NOT E j
Th e i n d i rec t ob ec t, th e ob ec ti v e of servi c e, a n d th e ob ec ti v e a fter
. j j
li ke, u n li ke, a n d n ea r a re a ll survi va ls of old d a ti v e c on struc ti on s B esi d es .

j
th e c a se of th e di rec t ob ec t ( often c a lled a c c usa ti v e) , E n g li sh on c e h a d a c a se
( ca lled th e da ti v e) w h i c h m ea n t to or f or [som ebody or som eth i n g ] . T h e d a ti ve
is ea sily di stin g ui sh ed i n G reek , L a ti n , a n d G erm a n , bu i n E n g li sh i t
c a se
t
ha s lon g been m erg ed i n form w i th th e ordi n a ry ob ec ti v e j .

4 . Cog na te Obj ect

1 08 A verb tha t i s reg ula rly i ntra nsi tive som eti m es ta k es a s ob ec t
‘

.
j
a noun w h ose mea ni ng c losely resem bles i ts ow n .

A noun i n th i s c onstruc ti on is ca lled the c og na te j

ob ec t of th e verb
a nd i s i n the ob ective j c a se .

He ra n a ra c e .

T he m a y or c oug h ed a d ubi ous, i n si nua ti ng c oug h .

A sc orn ful la ug h la ug hed h e .

T he trum peter blew a loud bla st .

S
Sh e leeps th e sleep of d ea th .

N OT E . Cog n a te m ea n s k i n d red or rela ted . Th e c og n a te j

ob ec t re

pea ts th e i d ea of th e v erb, often w i th som e m odi fi c a ti on , a nd m a y be c la ssed

a s a n a d v erbi a l m odi fi er I ts di fi eren c e from th e d i rec t ob ec t m a y be seen
. j
by c ontra stin g T h e bla c k sm i th struc k the a n vi l
!
w i th “T h e bla c k sm i th
m i g h ty blow (c f struc k F or th e pron oun i t a
!
struc k a . s c og
j
n a te ob ec t, see 1 20 .
 AD VE R B I AL O B JE CT IVE 53

5 Adverbi a l Obj ective

1 09 . A noun , or a p h ra s e c ons i sti ng of a noun a nd its m od i fi ers, m a y

be used a dverbi a lly . S uc h a noun i s c a lled a n a dverbi a l ob j ective .

W e h a ve w aited y ea rs for thi s reform .

I a m y ea rs old er th a n y ou a re .

T h e ri ver i s m i les aw a y .

T he w a ter rose threef eet .

T hi s i s a n i nc h too long .

My broth er i s tw y y ea rs old
ent .

I w ill sta y a short ti m e.

W a it a m om ent .

C om e h ere thi s i nsta nt!

T u rn y our ey es thi s w a y .

S
T hi s i lk i s severa l sha des too lig ht .

A g roup of word s c on si stin g of a n a dv erbia l bj ec t with

o i ts
m odi fi er or m od i fi ers f orm s a n a dverbi a l ph ra se

6 . Obj ective i n Apposi ti on

1 10 A. su bsta ut1 v e ln a pposi ti on w it h a n o bj ecti ve i s it self

i n th e o bj ecti v e ca se .

Y esterd a y I sa w W illi a m s th e ea p ressm a n .

[ A pposi ti on w i th th e d i rec t
j
ob ec t of sa w ] .

T om g a ve hi s f ri en d J ohn a book . A
[ pposi ti on w i th th e i n d i rec t ob ec t j
He lives w i th A n d rew s th e bla c ksm i th . A
[ pposi ti on w i th th e ob j e t of
c

th e preposi ti on w i th .
]
Thi s rule f ollow s from the g en era l prin c i ple tha t a n a pposi
t i ve i s i n the sa m e c a se a s th e sub sta n t i ve to w h i c h i t i s

a tt a c h ed 8 8,

7 . S ubj ec t of a n I nfi ni tiv e

111 . bj ec t of a n i n fi n iti ve i s i n the obj ec ti v e c a se

T he su .

Th i s c on struct i on w i ll be trea t ed i n c onn ect i on w it h the u ses

of the i n fi n i t i v e
54 N O U NS

Pa rsi ng

1 12 . T o pa rse a word i s to desc ri be its g ra m m a ti ca l form

a nd to g i v e i ts c on s t ruct i on .

I n pa rsin g a noun, w e m en t i on the c la ss to whi c h it belon g s,

g i v e i ts g en d er,
n um b er, p
ers on ,
a n d c a se,
a n d tell w hy i t i s i n

tha t ca se Thus, .

1 . F ra nk sh ot a w olf .

F ra nk is a ro
p p er n oun of th e m a sc uli n e g en d er, i n th e sin g ula r num

ber a nd
thi rd person . I t i s i n th e n om i n a tive c a se, bec a use i t i s th e sub
j ec t of th e v erb shot .

Wolf is a c om m on n oun of th e m a sc uli n e or f em i n i n e [ or c om m on

]
g en d er, i n th e Si ng ula r n um ber a nd thi rd person I t i s i n the ob ec ti ve . j
c a se, j
bec a use i t i s the ob ec t [ or d i rec t ob ec t] of th e tra nsiti ve verb shot j .

2 . Ja n e, c om e h ere .

Ja ne i s a p oper n oun of
r S
th e f em i n i n e g en d er, i n th e i ng ula r n um ber
a n d sec on d person . I t is i n th e n om in a tive c a se, bei ng used a s a voc a tive
( or i n di rec t a dd ress) .

3 . T he rope i s fi fteen f eet long .

Feet i s a c om m on n oun of th e n euter g en d er, i n th e plura l n um ber

a nd thi rd person I t is . j
i n th e ob ec ti ve c a se, bei ng used a s a n a d verbi a l
m od i fi er of th e a d ec ti ve long j .

4 . Edg a r s ’b oa t is a Sloop .

E dg a ’i
rs s a ro
p p er n ou n ofth e m a sc uli n e g en d er, i n th e sing ula r
n um ber a nd thi rd person . I t i s i n th e possessi ve c a se, m od i fy i ng th e
n oun boa t .
56 P R ONO U NS

TH E P RONO UN OF T HE T HIRD P E RSON : he, she, it

S ING U AR
L PL U RA L

M A SC U L IN E F E MININE
MA S C U L IN E FE MININ E NE UT E R a nd NE UT E R
,

th ey
P ossessi ve ,
hi s th ei r or th ei rs
Ob
j ec ti ve hi m th em

U nlike t of the
n oun s, m os
person a l pron oun s h a v e d i sti n ct
form s for the n om i n a t i v e a n d th e ob e j ctive .

N OT E . Th e poss essi v e c a se of person a l pron oun s n ev er h a s th e a postroph e

T h us , i ts , y ou rs , thei rs
’
.

T h e form i t s i s proper only a s a c on tra c ti on of i t is .

GENDER AND NUMB ER

1 16 . T he pron oun s of th e fi rst a n d sec on d pers on s (I a nd

th ou a y be ei t h er m a s c uli n e or f em i n i n e
) m .

The pron oun s of the th i rd person ha v e differen t form s for

a s culi n e fem i n i n e, a n d n eu t er i n th e s ing ula r
m
( h e, s h e, i t ;
)
but In the plura l the f orm th ey serv es for a ll three g en d ers .

N OT E . I n th e old est E n g li sh h i s w a s both m a sc ulin e a n d n euter . Th e

n euter us e la sted un til th e sev en teen th c en tury . Th u s,

T h a t sa m e ey e w h ose ben d d oth a w e th e w orld

D i d lose h i s lustre — S . HA KSPE R E , J u li us Ca es a r, i 2 123
. . .

1 17 T h ou , thy, thi ne, th ee, a n d y e a

. re old f orm s s till foun d
in poet ry a n d th e solem n sty le .

In ordi n a r y rose, ou , ou r, a n d ou rs a re th e on l y form s

p y y y
u sed for the c
se on d person , w h eth er si n g ula r or p lu ra l Y et .

y ou , ev en when d en otin g a si n g le person a lw a ys ta ,

k es the verb
form s tha t g o with plura l subj ect s Thu s .
,

M y f ri en d , y ou w ere [ NOT w a s ] i n error .

Hen ce you m a y best be reg a rded a s a y s plura l i n form

lw a ,
but
m a be d esc ri b ed a s si n g ula r in s en se wh en it st a n ds f or on e
y
erson on ly
p .
 P E R SONAL P R ONO U NS 57

NO T E . Mem bers of th e S oc iety of F ri en ds (c om m only ca lled Q ua k ers) a nd

of som e oth er reli g i ous bodi es use thee a n d thy i n th ei r ordin a ry c onv ersa ti on .

Ye form erly th e reg ula r n om in a ti v e

w a s plura l, a n d y ou th e ob ec ti v e j
Ye h a s g on e out of use ex c ept i n
'

but th e form s w ere a fterw a rd s c onfused .

poetry a n d th e solem n sty le, a n d y ou i s n ow th e re g ula r f orm f or both n om i

j
n a ti v e a n d ob ec ti v e .

Wh ere a n j
ob ec ti v e
form y e i s foun d pri n ted in stea d of y ou (a s often i n
Sh a k spere, A south w est blow on y e i t represents a n i n di stin c t pronun
c i a ti on of y ou ra th er th a n th e old n om in a ti v e y e T h i s i n d i stin c t soun d m a y
’
.

still be h ea rd i n ra pi d or c a reless speec h I ll tell y er th e truth

Ye a s a n a bbrev i a ti on for the (a s in y e old tow n ) h a s n oth i n g to d o w i th
!

th e pron oun y e T h e y sim ply sta n d s f or th e c h a ra c ter 1) (a n old i g n for th) ,

, S
a n d th e a bbrevia ti on w a s pron oun c ed the, n ev er y e .

118 T hey, you , a n d

. w e a re of en u sed t in defi n i t ely for on e

l i l
!
or eo
p p e n g en era .

They y th a
sa t Joe h a s g on e to sea .

T o sh ut off th e stea m , y ou c lose both va lves of th e ra di a tor .

NOT E . We
, ou r, a n d u s a re u sed
in ed i tori a l a rt i c le s i n st ea d of I , m y , a n d

m e, bec a use th e w ri ter represen ts th e w h ole ed itori a l sta ff Th i s pra c ti c e .

sh ould n ot be f ollow ed i n ordi n a ry c om posi ti on .

A sov erei g n ruler m a y use w e, ou r, a n d u s w h en spea k i ng of hi m self i n

prb c la m a ti on s a n d oth er f orm a l d oc um en t s T hi s c o n st ru c t i on i s o ften c a ll
.e d
th e plura l of m a j e tys
!
. T h us,

K n ow th a t w e h a v e d i v i d ed
I n three ou r k i ng d om . S A H KSPE R E .

The form
’
em ( a s in T ell m e y our c oun sels ; I w ill n ot d i sc lose ’
em ,
in
J u li us Caesa r) is n ot a c ontra c ti on of th em , but of h em , a n old j
ob ec ti v e

plu r a l of he .

CAS E OF P ERS ONAL P RONOUNS

N O M I N A T I V E CA S E

1 19 . Nom i na tive c onstructi ons of th e person a l pron oun s a re th e

sa m e a s those of n ou n s

I a m rea dy .
[ S u b je t ]
c .

I t is I .
[ P redi c a te n om in a ti v e .
]
Here, y ou ra sc a h a t a re y ou a bout
l, w [ V oc a ti v e,
di rec t a dd ress ]
P oor y ou ! [ Nom i n a ti v e of e c la m a ti on ] x
G en era l A ustin , he a n d n o oth er, w on th e ba ttle .
[ Apposi ti on ] .

For th e nom i na ti v e a bsolute, see 345 .

 8 P R ONO U NS

C a re ta ken n ot to u se
m us t be a n o bj ecti ve form when a

red i ca t e n om i n a t i v e i s requi red

p .

I t is I [ NO T m e ] .

I t is w e [ NO T us] w h o di d i t .

It w a s he [ NO T hi m ] w h o told us .

It w as they [ NO T them ] w ho w ere to bla m e .

120 . I t ha s v
se era l peculia r u ses i n the n om in a t i ve .

1 . I t i s u sed bj ect in m a n y ex pressi on s lik e

a s the su
“It
ra i n s
! “ It sn ows, ! “ I t lig hten s ! “ I t is c old where
!
no
, , ,

d efi n i te subj ect i s t h oug ht of I n t hi s u se i t i s sa i d to .

,
a

be
i m persona l .

N OT E . An i m person a l i t a lso oc c urs a s a c og n a j

te ob ec t 1 08 ) i n c olloq ui a l
la n g ua e : a s, G o
“Ha n i t!
i t ! H e en t i t H e f rm ed i t f o
!
g g w a r a .

!
O th m l f th i d x fi i t d i m person a l i t in v a ri ous c on struc
’
y e a r . er e a p es o e n e n e a n
ti on s a re :
“ W e a re roug hi ng i t ! “ K eep i t up ! “ You ll c a tc h i t
.
! “ Let . .

i t a ll g o
!
He m a d e a poor j ob of i t
.
!
H e m a d e a suc c ess of i t !
. .

2 . I t often g t i c a l su v
bj ct
s er es a s
e m ere ly to i n t d
ra m m a
ro u c e

the v erb i s the rea l subj ect of the t houg ht sta n din g i n the
,

predi c a t e In t h i s u se i t.i s c a ll e d a n ex pleti ve

( or fi ll e r

I t is be .

I t i s C h ri stm a s .

I tw a s a ti resom e ri d e .

In these ex a m le
p ,s th e bj ect
su of thoug ht ( he
the ,
Chri s t
m a s, ri d e
) a ppea rs a s a p r e d i c a t e n om i n a ti v e .

3 . T he t c
a n e eden t of i t i s often a g roup of w ord s .

W ea ring S
tig ht hoes i s f ooli sh . I t d eform s the f eet .

1 21 I n i m pera ti ve the bj ect (you) is c om m on ly

‘

. sentenc es su

om i tted : a s, S hut the d oor .

N OT E j
Th e sub ec t I i s som eti m es
. om i tted i n w i sh es (a s , Would h e w ere
h ere ! f or I w ould th a t h e w ere So a lso in Th a n k y ou,
!
P ra y
tell m e (c om pa re p ri thee for I pra y

x C a n st tell? C ll “Art th ere ?

E pressi on s lik e ( ? !
f o r a n s t th ou te
!

( f o r A rtth o u th ere a re c om m o n i n p o etr y a n d ol d er E n g li sh Th ese c om e .

from th e g ra d ua l w ea ri n g a w a y a n d fi na l di sa ppea ra nc e of th e pron oun thou

’
( c a nst thou , c a ns tow , c a nste, c a ns t) .
 P E R SON AL P R ONO U NS 59

P OSS E SSI V E C A S E

1 22 The possessive f orm s

. m y, thy, ou r,
y ou r, her, a nd their
a re u sed wh en a n oun follow s ; m i n e, thi n e, ou rs, ou rs , hers ,
y
a nd ca nn ot be followed by a
th ei rs n oun , a n d s a t n d c om m on ly
in the predi ca t e H is m a y be u sed. in ei ther w a y .

My broth er h a s a rri ved . T h e f a ult i s m i ne .

Our w ork i s d on e . T h ose sea ts a re ours .

I ha ve torn y our g love . T hi s pen c i l i s y ours .

Thei r turn h a s c om e . T ha t fi eld i s thei rs .

H is h a i r i s bla c k . T h e book i s n ot hi s .

E x a m ples of m i n e, you rs, etc . n ot i n the predi ca t e

Mi ne w a s a terri er ; y ours w a s a poi n ter .

Thei rs i s a red m otor c a r .

Ours brok e d ow n la st n ig ht .

H is lea k ed ba d ly .

His n a m e i s M a rti n ; hers i s Sm i th .

In suc h c a ses th e pron oun i s a lw a y s em ph a ti c . Th e c on struc ti on is c hi e fly

c olloq ui a l .

NOT E . In old er E ng li Sh a i d in poetry m i ne a n d th i n e a re c om m on i n stea d

of m y a n d thy before w ord s beg i n n i n g w i th a v ow el or h : a s ,

Mi ne ey es d a zzle : Sh e di ed y oun g — J . OHN W E BST E R .

The v ery m in ute bi d s th ee ope thi ne ea r S H AK SP E R E

. .

Mi ne i s som eti m es used a fter a v oc a tiv e n oun : a s, brother m i ne .

x
For e pressi on s lik e fri en d
“th t un rul ton ue f
of m i ne, !
a a y g o y ou rs ,

see § 96 .

1 23 . Wh en tw o or m ore sepa ra te obj ects a re spok en of a s

po sses sed ,
a pos s es si v e sh ould pre ed e the n a m e of ea
c ch i f there
i s da n g er of a m big u ity .

I w i ll sen d f or our sec reta ry a n d our trea surer .

[ T w o person s ]
I w ill sen d f or our sec reta ry a n d trea surer .
[ O n e person .
]
I ha ve c a lled for m y brea d a nd m y m i lk [ T w o th i n g s.
]
I h a ve c a lled f or m y brea d n d m i lk [ A m i ture ] x
’
a . .

Ha ve y ou B a c on E ssa y s a nd A poph th eg m s [ O b k ]
’
s n e o o
“
.

Ha ve y ou B a c on s Essa y s a n d hi s A d va n c em ent of L ea rn i ng

[ T w o book s ]
60 P R ONO U N S

O BJ E C T IV E C A S E

1 24 . Th ec om m on est c on structi on s in whi ch person a l pro ~

n oun s ta ke the obj ective ca se a re the follow in g

1 . O bj ect of a preposi ti on 9 7) a s,

T a k e i t from hi m .

2 . D i rect o bj ect of a tra n siti ve v erb 9 9) a s,

I w ill fi nd y ou .

3 . In direct O bj ect of a tra n si ti v e verb 1 05 ) a s,

He g a ve m e a d olla r .

4 . S ubj ect of a n i n fi n it i v e ( s ee

N OT E . j
I n poetry th e ob ec ti v e m e i s som eti m es u sed in exc la m a ti on s : a s,

Me m i sera ble ! (M L T ) I ON .

I n m ethi n ks a nd m eseem s i t seem s to m e m e is a rem n a n t of th e old

d a ti ve, a s j
i n th e i n d i rec t ob ec t ( see
Th e c om poun d s thereo f , therew i th , theref rom , etc .
, a re equi v a lent to of it ,

w i th i t, f rom i t, etc a s, . P roc la i m liberty th roug h out a ll th e la n d unto a ll

th e i n ha bi ta n t th ereof ( Levi ti c us
!
x x v
s .

For th e i m person a l i t a s c og n a te ob ec t, j see 1 20 .

T HE S E LF P R O NO UNS —
( CO M P O U ND P E R S O NAL P R O NO U NS)
1 25 T he t hree c om pound persona l pronouns a re m a d e by a ddin g
.

th e w ord s el
f to c ert a i n f orm s of th e pers on a l pron oun s T hu s,
.

m y self , p lura l ourselves ;

thy self or y ourself , p lura l y ourselves
h im self, h erself , i tself , p lura l th em selves .

T o th ese m be d d ed th e i n d efi n ite on ese f, m ore c om m only w ri tten a s

l
’
a y a

tw o w ord s , on e s sel
f

O b serv e tha t y ours el

f is sin g ula r, a nd y ou rs elves
plu ra l .

H i sself a nd thei rs elves a re i n c orrect f orm s . Oursel

f ( not ou r

s elves
) i s the c om poun d pron ou n c orres on d in g
p to the y
ro a lw e

W ha t touc hes us ourself sh a ll be la st serv ed . S H A KSP E R E .

 CO M P O U ND P E R SONA L P R ONO U NS 61

1 26 . 1 . T h e c om pound persona l pronouns m a y be used to em pha s i z e

substa nti ves .

In th i s use they a re c a lled intensi ve pronouns .

f w ill g o
I m ysel .

Ki ng A lfred hi m sel
f took th e fi eld .

T h ey did th e w ork them selves .

An i nt en si ve pron oun i s in a pp03 1 ti on w ith the su bsta n ti ve

to which it refers .

2 . T he c om pound persl pronouns m a y be used a s th e ob ec ts of

ona . j
tra ns itive verbs or of preposi ti on s w h en th e ob ec t denotes th e sa m e j
person or th i n g a s th e sub j ect .

I n th i s use they a re c a lled refl ex ive pronouns .

I h a ve h urt m ysel
f .

K i ng A lf red i nterested hi m sel

f i n hi s j
s ub ec s t .

T h ese sc h em ers d ec ei ved them selves .

Ma ry w as f
ta lk i n g to hersel .

He g a ve him self a h oli d a y .

[ I n di rec t ob j ec t ] .

T hese pron oun s ca lled xi ve (tha t i s ben din g ba c k

'

a re refle ,

beca use th ey refer ba ck to the subj ect a n d repea t its m ea n i n g i n

a n obj ect c on stru ct i on .

N OT E . A re fl exiv e pronoun som eti m es refers to a substa n ti ve in th e obj ec

tiv e O ur
!
c a se : a s, ca ptors left u s to ou rselves .

In E ng li sh th e si m ple person a l pron oun s m e, thee, etc , w ere often

old er .

used refl ex i v ely : a s, I h eld m e m y sel f ] still ;

!
Yi eld thee thysel f]
c a pti v e ; Th ey built them f h l ] h ( 1 0 ) Thi i d i
!
or t em s e v es ou s es se e 6 s om
surv i v es in c olloq u i a l la n g ua g e (a s,
!
I h a v e h urt m e, I h a v e boug ht m e a
but i t i s a v oi d ed i n w ri ti n g e c ept i n x a few x
e pressi on s suc h a s I
m ust look a bout m e ;
!
W e g a ed a bout u s z Look behin d y ou .
!

1 27 . T he a dj ec ti ve ow n is som e t im es in serted between the

fi t
rs a nd the se on d c pa r t of th e s el
fp ron ou n s f or em
-
ph a s is .

E XA MPL E S : m y ow n self , y ou r ow n self ,

hi s ow n self , our ow n selves,

th ei r ow n selves .

In thi s u se, self i s in stri c tness a n oun lim ited by th e possessiv e a n d by th e

‘

j
a d ec ti ve ow n , but th e ph ra s es m a y be reg a rd ed a s c om poun d pron oun s O th er .

j
a d ec ti ves a re som eti m es i n serted betw een th e possessi ve a n d sel f : a s, — m y
very self , hi s w orthless self .
62 P R O N O UN S

1 28 . T he i n ten si ve pron oun s a re som e tim es used wi thout a

su bsta n t i ve T hus,
.

f [ Mysel
I t i s m ysel f I m yself. .
]
Y ou a re h a rdly y ourself to d a y -
.

In poetry a n d old er E n g li sh , th e i nten si v es a re ev en foun d j

a s sub ec ts

a s, Oursel f w ill m i ng le w i th soc i ety (Ma c beth) .

1 29 T h e in ten si v e pron oun s

. sh ould n ot be used a s S lm ple

pers on a l pron ou n s .

T hus w e sh ould sa y He w a s ki n d to Ma ry a nd m e ( NO T m f) ;
ysel
T h ey i n vi ted m y w i fe a nd m e ( NOT m f
y sel

A D JE C T I VE P R O NO UNS

1 30 S om e w
. ords a re used eith er a s a d i ec ti v es or a s
pron ouns. S uch
w ord s a re c a lled a d j ective pronouns .

Adj ec t ive pron oun s a re cla ssi fied ,

a cc ording to their m ea n

in g ,
a s dem onstra ti ve pronouns a n d ( )
2 i ndefi nite pronouns .

I . DEM ONS TRATIVE PRONOUNS

131 . T he dem onstra tives a re this ( plur a l,

thes e), tha t (plura l,
thos e) .

T hey poi nt out persons or th i ng s for speci a l a ttenti on .

The dem on s ra t ti ves m a y be u sed ei ther a s a dj ect i ves or a s

ron oun s
p .

I . As a d j ecti ves
Thi s sa ilor sa ved m y li f e . These g i rls a re en erg eti c .

B e k i n d to thi s c hild . I a m n ot a la rm ed by these th rea ts .

Gi ve thi s boy a d im e . These c h erri es a re sour .

Thi s fi re i s too h ot . L ook a t these a c orn s .

Tha t sa w i s d ull . Those trees a re dyi ng .

W e m ust c ross tha t strea m . T a k e those d i sh es a w a y .

Tha t tra in i s la te . W ho a re those stra ng ers

S end tha t d og hom e . D o y ou see those roc k s ?

I a m ti red of tha t tun e . I a m sorry for those c hi ld ren .
64 P R ONO U NS

1 33 . A dem on s ra t t i ve pron oun ma y be used to a void the

repe titi on of a n oun .

My d og a nd tha t th e d og ] of m y fri en d John h a ve been fi g hti ng .

C om pa re th ese m a ps w i th tho se th e m a p ]
s on th e bla c k boa rd .

1 34 . T he sin g ula r for

m s thi s a nd tha t n ot th e plura ls thes e
(
a nd thos e) a re u sed w i th the n oun s k ind a n d s ort .

I lik e this k i n d of g ra e
p s .

I ha ve m et thi s sort of p pe
eo l before .

Tha t ki n d of a pples g row s i n I d a ho .

11 . I NDEFINITE P RONOUNS

1 35 . T h e i ndefi ni te pronouns poi nt out ob ec ts j less clea rly or defi

nitely th a n d em onstra tives do .

E X A MP L E S ea c h , every , ei th er, both , n ei th er, som e, a ny , suc h , n one,

oth er, a n oth er, ea c h oth er, on e a n oth er .

E a c h h a s its m eri ts . E i ther i s c orrec t .

S om ea re m i ssi ng . He k n ow s nei ther of y ou .

I c a nn ot g i ve y ou a ny . I li k e both .

1 36 . M ost i n defi n ites y b

m ae e i t her pronouns or a dj ecti ves .

B ut n on e i s a lwa y s a sub sta n t i ve i n m odern use, a n d every is

a lw a ys a n a dj ecti v e .

1 37 . N on e m a y be ei ther sin g ula r or p lu ra l . When it m ea ns

d i st in ctly n ot on e, it i s S in g ula r . In m a n y i n s ta n es ei
c ther c on
s rut cti on i s perm i ssi ble .

N one of us h a s th e k ey .

N one w a s (or w ere) left to tell th e ta le .

1 38 . E a ch other a n d on e a n oth er a re reg a rded a s c om

poun d
p ron oun s . T hey d esi g n a te rela ted person s or thin g s .

My n eig hbor a nd I lik e ea c h other .

W e m ust bea r w i th one a nother .

T he rela ti on i n d i c a ted by th ese pronoun s i s tha t of rec iproc i ty . Henc e they

a re often c a lled rec i proca l pronouns .

T h ere i s n o rea l d i sti n c ti on betw een ea c h other a n d one a n other Th e rules .

som etim es g i ven for suc h a d i stin c ti on a re n ot supported by th e best usa g e :

 IND EFINI TE P R ONO U NS 65

On e ( possessi ve on e s
1 39 .
’
) i s of en t u sed a s a n i ndefi n ite
person a l
pron oun T h us, .

One d oes n ot li k e one

’[ N s OT hi s or thei r m oti ves to be d oubted

Th e use hi s of
’
(for one s) to refer ba c k to a prec ed ing one i s foun d in
respec ta ble w ri ters , but i s c ontra ry to th e best usa g e .

For the i nd efi ni te use of w e, y ou , they , see 1 18 .

140 All, . e
s vera l, f ew ,
m a ny, a n d si mila r words a re of en t
cla ssed a s i n defi n ites They m a y be used a s a dj ecti ves or a s .

su bsta n ti ves E verybody everythi ng a nybody a n ythi ng som e

.
, , , ,

a re c a lled i n d efi n i t e n ouns
1
w ha t a ug ht n a ug ht
,
etc , ,
.
,
.

141 C a re should be ta ken i n fra m i n g suc h sen ten ces a s the

.

followi n g

E verybod y h a s his [ NOT thei r] f a ults .

If i sh es to g o, he [ N O T they ] m a y
a ny bod y w .

j
I f a ny bod y ob ec ts, let hi m [ N O T them ] spea k .

E very m em ber of thi s c la ss m ust h a n d i n hi s [ NO T thei r] c om posi ti on

to- d a y .

E a c h hurri es tow a rd hi s[ NO T thei r] h om e .

Ea ch of us m ust lea d hi s [ N O T thei r]

-
ow n lif e .

In t
sen en c e s of thi s k in d, the person a l pron oun ( h e, his ,

him ) m us t be i n the S in g ula r to a g ree w ith i ts t c

a n e eden t
( everybody, a n ybody , etc .

) ( see

N OT E . W hen th e a ntec ed en t i s of c om m on g en d er (a s x
i n th e la st e a m ple) ,
th e person a l pron oun s (he , hi s , hi m ) m a y be reg a rd ed a s of c om m on g en d er

a lso . In v ery prec i s e o r form a l la n g ua g e, on e m a y ysah e o r sh e, h i s or h er

“E a c h of us m ust lea d hi s or h er ow n li fe but th i s f orm of e pressi on x
a s,

i s to be a v oid ed un less th e d i sti nc ti on i s c lea rly n ec essa ry .

1 42 . W hen u sed a s a dj ecti ves, n on e of the i n defi n ites ha v e

a ny f orm s of i nfl ecti on . The sa m e is true when they a re ro
p
n oun s, ex cept a s follow s

Others i s used th e plura l of a nother T h e possessive f orm s a re

’ ’ ’
a s .

Si ng ula r, a nother s plu ra l,

others The other (possessi v e,
the o
.ther s) h a s

i n the plura l the others (possessi ve, the E a ch other a n d one a nother
’
a dd s i n th e possessi ve One h a s a possessi ve one s .
’ the one bec om es the
ones i n th e plura l .

1 T h e n eg a ti v e n ot 1 90, 4) i s m erely a Sh ortened form of n a ug ht.

 P R O N O U NS

RE LATI VE P R O NO UNS

1 43 . Rela tive pronouns ha ve a pe ulica r fun cti on i n the sen

ten c e ,
si n e c they serve b oth a s pronouns a n d a s c onnecti ves . T hei r
use m a y be seen by c om pa ring the tw o sen en es t c tha t follow :
1 . T hi s i s the sa ilor, a ndh e sa ved m y lif e .

2 . T hi s i s th e sa ilor w ho sa ved m y li fe .

E a ch c on sist s of tw o pa rts or cla uses I n N o 1 the tw o .

,

c la u ses a re c on n ect ed by the c on j un ct i on a nd w h i c h belon g s ,

to n ei ther ; the pron oun he whi c h st a n d s f or s a i lor i s the sub , ,

j c et of the sec on d cla use I n N o 2 there i s n o c on j un cti on ; . .

,

i n st ea d w e fi n d the w ord w ho whi c h repla c es a n d h e T hi s

, ,
.

w ho i s a pronoun si n c e i t st a n d s f or sa i lor ( prec i sely a s h e d oes

,

in N o 1 ) a n d ( li k e he) i s the subj ect of the v erb sa ved B ut

‘
. .

w ho 1 s a lso a c onnec ti ve S i n c e i t j oi n s the tw o pa rt s of the sen

,

t en ce a s a n d does i n N o 1 S uch w ords ( whi c h serve both a s . .

ron oun s a n d a s c onn ect i v es a re ca lled rela tive pronouns

p ) .

I n No 1 th e tw o c la u ses a re c oordi na te N either serv es a s a

.
,
.

m od ifi er a nd ea ch m i g ht sta n d a lon e a s a c om plet e sen t en c e

,

T hi s i s the sa ilor He sa ved m y life The sen t en c e i s

!
.

c om poun d I n N o 2 on the c on tra ry the c la use w ho .

, ,

li i subordi na te or dependent c la us e, for i t i s used

sa ved m y f e s a

a s a n a dj ecti ve m odi fier of th e n oun sa i lor, w hi c h it lim i ts by o

sh ow m h t rt i c ula r sa ilor i s m ea n t T h e sen t en c e i s c om plex

g a wpa .

The d epen den t cla u se (w ho s a ved m y lif e) i s c on n ected

w i th the m a in cla use ( thi s i s th e sa i lor) by the pron oun w ho,
whi ch refers to sa i lor .

1 44 . Rela ti ve pronouns c onnec t dp

e end ent c la uses w i th m a in c la uses
1
by referri ng d i rectly to a substa nti ve i n th e m a in c la use .

T hi s substa nti ve i s th e a ntec edent of th e rela tive

T hus i n 1 4 3 the n oun sa i lor 1s the a n e eden

t c t of w ho .

Rela ti ve m ean s Th ese pron oun s

c a rry i n g ck lled bec a use
!
ba . a re so c a

they c a rry th e m i n d ba c k d i rec tly to th e a n tec ed ent .

1 B ec a use of th ei r u se a s c onn ec ti ves, rela ti v e pron oun s a re som eti m es

ca lled j
c on unc ti ve pronouns .
 R EL A T I VE P R ONO U NS 67

145 . T he si m ple rela t i ve pron oun s a re w ho, w hi c h , tha t, a s

,

a nd w ha t .

Who a nd w
'
hi c h a re d ec li n ed a s f ollows i n both the sin g ula r
a nd the plura l :

N om i na ti ve
P ossessi ve
Ob
j ec ti ve

T ha t, a s, a n d w ha t a re n ot i n fl ected . T hey ha ve the sa m e

form for both n om i n a t i ve a nd o bj ecti ve a n d a re n ot u sed in

the possessi v e ca se .

1 46 . As m a y be u sed a s a rela t i ve pron oun when suc h

t
s a n ds i n the m a in cla use .

Suc h of y ou a s ha ve fi n ish ed m a y g o .

I ha ve n ever seen suc h stra w berri es a s th ese [ a re

] .

Use suc h pow ers a s y ou h a ve .

1 47 . As i s of en used a s a
t rela ti ve a fter the sa m e .

T h is c olor i s th e sa m e a s th a t [ i s] .

O ther rela ti ves a re a lso u sed a fter th e sa

‘

m e .

T h is i s th e sa m e book tha t (or w hi c h) y ou w er erea di ng

y esterd a y .

T hi s is th e sa m e m a n tha t (or w hom ) I sa w on th e pi er la st F rid a y .

148 . Who is t her m a sculin e or fem ini n e ; w hi c h

ei a nd w ha t
a re n euter ; th a t a n d a s a re of a ll three g en ders .

A ll w ho h ea rd , a pprov ed .

Here i s the la d w hose story in terested y ou .

T he fi rst w om a n w hom I sa w w a s M a ry .

He a nsw ered in suc h E ng lis h as he c ould m u ster .

I sa w nobod y tha t I k n ew .

T h is is th e roa d tha t lea d s to L on d on .

In old er E n g li sh the w hi c h i s often used for w hi c h a s,

O ur foster n urse
-
of n a ture i s repose,
I

The w hi c h h e la c k s . S H A KSPE R E .

For oth er uses of a s , see 368 , 428 429 -

. F or bu t i n suc h sen ten c es a s
T h ere w a s n obod y bu t believed h im , § 370
!
see .
68 P R ON O U NS

1 49 . A rela tive pronoun m ust a g ree w ith its a ntecedent i n g ender,

num ber, a nd pers on

The sen en es t1 4 8 illu stra t e the a g reem en t

c in of the rela

ti ve w ith its a n tec eden t i n g ender .

S in c e rela tive pron oun s ha ve the sa m e form for b oth n um

bers a n d for a ll three person s thei r num ber a nd person m ust be ,

d i sc overed i n ea ch in sta n c e by ob serv in g the n um ber a nd

, ,

person of th e a ntec edent .

I t is I w ho a m w ron g .
[ F i rst person , Si ng ula r num ber a n tec ed en t, I
A ll you w ho a re rea dy m a y g o .
[ S ec o n d person plura l : a ntec ed en t,

y ou .
]
G i ve h elp to hi m w ho n eeds it .
[ T h i rd person , Si ng ula r : a ntec ed en t

hi m .
]
The roa d tha t lea ds to th e Shore is sa n d y .
[ T hi rd person si ng ula r

a n tec ed en t, roa d .
]
T he roa ds tha t lea d to th e shore a re sa n d y .
[ Th i rd person plura l
a n tec ed en t, roa ds ]

T o determ i n e the ber a n d person of a rela ti ve pron oun

n um

i s pa rt icula rly n ec essa ry when it i s the subj ect of the cla use for ,

the form of t he v erb va ries ( a s the ex a m ples show) a cc ord in g

to the n um b er a n d person of the su bj ect 222) Hen ce the
rule f or the a g reem en t of a rela t i v e w i t h i ts a n tec eden t i s of

m uc h pra ct i ca l i m porta n c e .

1 5 0 T h e c a se of
. a rela tive pronoun ha s noth i ng to d o w ith i ts a nte

c edent, but depend s on the c onstructi on of i ts ow n c la use .

T he serva nt w ho open ed th e d oor w ore livery .

[ Who i s i n th e nom i
n a ti v e c a se,bei n g the sub ec t O f op ened ] j
He di sc h a rg ed hi s serva n t, w ho i m m ed i a tely left tow n .
[ Wh o i s in
th e n om i n a ti ve c a se, si n c e it i s th e sub j ec t of left ,
a lth oug h i ts a ntec ed en t

( serva nt ) i s i n th e ob j ec ti ve ] .

T he serva n t w hom y ou d isc h a rg ed h a s return ed [ Wh om i s i n th e .

j
ob ec ti ve c a se, si n c e i t i s th e di rec t ob ec t of di sc ha rg ed j
T h e a ntec ed ent .

( serva nt
) i s, on theoth er h a n d , i n th e n om i n a tive, bec a use i t i s th e sub ec t j
of ha s returned
]
Here i s suc h m on ey a s I ha ve .
[ A s i s i n th e ob j ec tive c a se, bei ng the
ob ec t of
j ha ve . T he a n tec ed en t (m oney) i s i n th e n om i n a ti ve .
]
 RELAT IVE P R ONO U NS 69

1 51 . A rela t i ve p ron oun i n th e o bj ec t i ve ca se is of en t

om i tted .

Here i s th e book hic h y ou w a n ted

w . Here i s th e book y ou w a n ed t .

T h e n oi se tha t I h ea rd w a s th e w i n d . T h e n oi se I h ea rd w a s th e w i n d .

T he m a n w hom I m et w a s a c a rpen ter . T he m a n I m et w a s a c a rpen ter .

N O T E In old er E n g li sh a rela ti v e i n th e n om i n a ti v e i s often om i tted :

— “T h ere ’
. a s,

h a ve seen stra n g e si g hts (J uli us Ca esa r) ,

!
s tw o or th ree of us
tha t i s , T h ere a re tw o or three of us w h o h a ve seen , etc T h e sa m e om i ssi on
!
.

i s often m a d e i n ra pi d or c a reless c olloq ui a l speec h I t i s a pprov ed in c la u ses .

w i th there i n suc h sen ten c es a s He i s on e of th e best m en th ere a re in th e

w orld 232)

1 52 . Certa i n questi on s of g ender ca ll for pa rti c ula r a tten ti on .

1 Wh i c h i s c om m only used i n referrin g to the low er a n im a ls

.

u n less these a re reg a rd ed a s person s Th i s i s true ev en when .

he or s he is u sed of the sa m e a n i m a ls

T hi s i s th e d og w hi c h I m en ti on ed I S .
’
n t he a fi ne f ellow
W e h a ve on e c ow w hic h w e pri e h ig hly z . S he i s a Jersey .

2 . The possessi v e w hos e m a y be u sed of a ny Obj ect th a t

T hi s i s th e m a n w hose w a tc h w a s stolen .

I h a ve a ca t w hose n a m e i s T a bby .

T hi s i s th e tree w hose lea ves w ere d estroy ed . I t i s quite d ea d .

3 . ca se of thi n g s without a n i m a l life of w hi c h a n d

I n the ,

w hos e a re b oth c om m on T he t en d en c y i s to prefer of w h i c h

.

i n prose but w hose i s often u sed b ec a u se of i ts m ore a g reea ble

,

soun d I n poetry w hos e i s espec ia lly frequ en t

.
,
.

A broa d river, th e n a m e of w hi c h I h a ve f org otten , f orm s th e n orth ern

boun d a ry of th e provi n c e .

Ja c k w a s fi shi n g w i th a ba m boo rod , to th e en d of w hi c h h e h a d ti ed a

sh ort i
p ec e of ord i n a ry tw in e .

S h e w a s g a z i n g i nto th e pool, w hose c a lm surf a c e re ec ted fl h er f ea

tures li k e a m i rror T h e surf a c e of w hi c h
. w ould n ot soun d so w ell .
]
N OT E . In E n g li sh , w hi c h i s often u sed for w ho or w h om : a s,
old er
w hi c h h a th y our n oble f a th er sla i n , pursued m y li fe (Ha m let)
!
.

T h e c om pound s w hereof , w h eref rom , w herew i th , etc , a re eq ui v a len t to of .

w h i c h , f rom w hi c h , etc (c f 1 24) T h us ,

. . E sa u h a ted Ja c ob bec a use o f th e
blessin g w h erew i th h i s fa th er blessed him ( Genesi s vi i xx .
70 P R ONO UN S

DE S CRI P TIVE AND RES T RI CTIVE RELATIVES

1 53 . cla use i n troduc ed by a rela tive pron oun is

T he
a d j ec ti ve c la use si n c e i t serves a s a n a dj ect i ve m od i fi er of
,

a n tec ed en t T here a re tw o di fi erent wa y s i n whi c h

a n t ec eden t m a y be thus m odi fi ed .

1 . T h e I ta li a n, w ho w ore a flow er i n his c oa t, sm iled a t m e .

2 . T h e I ta li a n w ho w ore a flow er i n hi s c oa t sm iled a t m e .

I n the fi rst sen en e, t c the i ta li c iz ed relati ve cla use serves

si m ly to desc ri be the I t a lia n , n ot to id en ti fy him T he fl ower
p .

is a m ere det a il of the pi ct ure .

I n the c
se on d sen en e, t c the rela t i ve cla use serves n ot m erely
to desc ri b e th e I ta lia n ,
but a lso to d i sti n g ui sh hi m from a ll
o thers . T he fl ower is m en ti on ed a s a m ea n s of i dentifi ca ti on .

T he ti v e cla u se c onfi n es
rela or restri cts th e m ea ning of the
a n t eced en t a lia n
( I t ) .

1 54 . A rbla tive pronoun tha t serves m erely to i ntroduce a desc ri ptive

fa ct i s lled desc riptive rela tive
ca
a .

A rela tive pronoun th a t i ntroduc es a c la use c onfi ni ng or li m i ting the

a ppli c a ti on of the a ntec edent i s ca lled a restri c tive rela tive .

Thus i n the first ex a m p le i n 1 5 3 ,

w h o i s a des c ri pt i v e

rela t iv e ; i n th e se on d,c it i s a rest ri ct i ve rela t i ve .

1 55 . B efore a d esc ri pti ve rela ti v e w e reg ula rl y m a ke a pa use

in spea kin g ,
but n e er v before a res ri t cti ve rela t i v e H en c e .

th e rule

A descri ptive rela tive i s prec eded by a c om m a ; a restri cti ve rela tive
i s not .

T hree sa ilors, w ho w ere loi teri n g on th e pi er,

spra n g to th e resc ue .

A c lum sy w ea pon ,
w hic h I took f or a blun d erbuss, hung over th e
fi repla c e .

I told th e n ew s to th e fi rst m a n tha t ( or w hom ) I m et .

T he c oi n s tha t (or w hic h) y ou sh ow ed m e a re d oubloons .

Noth i ng tha t I h a ve ever rea d ha s m oved m e m ore prof oun dly th a n

th e thi rd a c t of K i ng L ea r .
!
 2 P R ONO U N S

COMP OUND RELATIVE P RONOUNS

158 . T he c om pound rela ti ve pronouns a re form ed by a ddi ng ever or

soever to w ho, w hic h, a nd w ha t .

They a re decli n ed a s follows

S ING U AR L AND P LU RA L
w h oever ( w hosoever) w hi c h ever ( w hi c hsoever)
w h osever (w h osesoever)
w hom ever (w h om soever ) w hi c h ever (
w h i c hsoever)

Wha tever (w ha tsoever) ha s no i n flecti on . T he n om i n a ti ve

a nd thebj ect i ve a re a like a n d the poss essiv e i s suppli ed by
o ,

the phra se of w ha tever (of w ha tsoever) .

The phra se of w hi c h ever ( of w hi c hsoever) i s u sed i n st ea d of

w hos ever ex a ct ly a s o w hi c h i s u sed i n st ea d of w hos e
f

1 59 . T he c om pound rela tive pronouns m a y i nc lude or i m ply thei r

ow n a ntec ed ents a nd h enc e m a y ha ve a double c onstruc ti on .

Whoever Sa n
s, he m ust be a d m itted .
[ H ere he,
th e a n tec ed ent of w ho
ever, i s th e sub j ec t of m ust be a dm i tted ,
a nd w hoever i s th e sub j ec t of c a lls ]
.

Whoever c a lls m ust be a d m i tted [ Here th e a ntec ed ent he i s om itted

.

bein g i m pli ed i n w hoever Whoever h a s th eref ore a d ouble c onstruc ti on

.
,

bei ng th e sub j ec t of both c a lls a n d m u t be a dm i tted ] s

He sh a ll h a ve w ha tever h e w i sh es .

I w ill d o w hi c hever y ou sa y .

In su ch sen en es, c a re sh ould

t c be ta k en to u se w hoever a nd

w hom ever c orrectly . Th e n om i n a t i ve ( w h oever) i s re u i red

q
when the rela t i v e i s the su bj ect of its ow n cla use .

He a sk ed w hoever c a m e .

He told th e story to w hoever w ould li sten .

He a sk ed w hom ever h e k n ew .

He told th e story to w hom ever h e m et .

160 . T he c om poun d rela t iv es a re som etim es u sed without a n

a n e eden
t c t ex pressed or im pli ed .
 IN TE RR OGATI VE P R ONO U N S 3

Whoever d eserts y ou I w ill rem a in fa ithful , .

Whom ever i t offen ds I w ill spea k th e truth , .

Wha tever h e a ttem pts h e i s sure to f a il ,

.

Whi c hever y ou c hoose y ou w i ll be di sa ppointed , .

NO T E Th i s c on struc ti on i s c losely rela ted to th a t e pla in ed i n

. 15 9 x .

W h oever d eserts y ou , I w ill rem a in fa i thful, i s pra c ti c a lly eq ui v a lent to

!

W h oev er d eserts y ou , let h im d esert y ou ! I w i ll rem a in fa i thful No !

.

a n tec ed en t, h ow ev er, i s felt by th e spea k er, a n d h en c e n on e n eed be suppli ed

in pa rsin g C om pa re c on c essi v e c la uses

.

161 . Whi c h ,
w ha t, w hi c h ever, a nd w h a tever a re of en u sed t
a s a dj ecti v es .

Use w ha t (or ha tever) pow ers y ou h a ve

w .

Whic hever pla n y ou a d ept, y ou h a ve m y best w ish es .

1 62 . A n ou n li m i ted by th e a dj ecti ves w ha t, w hi c hever, a nd

w h a tever, m a
y h a v e th e sa m e d ou ble c on st ru c t i on tha t these
rela ti ves ha v e w hen they a re u sed a s pron oun s Th us,

T a k e w hic hever pen i s n ot i n use .

[ H ere p en i s both th e d i rec t obj ec t
of ta ke, a nd j
th e sub ec t of i s .
]
Wh ose for w h osoever a nd w h a tso for w h a tsoever a re c om m on in old er
E n g li sh .

I NTE R R O GA T I VE P R ONO UNS

16 3 . T h e i nterrog a tive pronouns a re w ho, w hich, a nd w ha t T h ey

. a re

i 1
used i n a sk ing quest ons .

Who i s y our n eig hbor Whi c h sh a ll I ta k e

Who g oes th ere Whic h i s c orrec t
Whom h a ve y ou c h osen Wha t di d h e sa y
F rom hom d i d y ou lea
w rn th i s Wha t i s la c ki ng
Whose voi c e i s th a t W i th w ha t a re y ou so d elig h ted

1 64 . Who ha s a pos sessi v e w h os e, a nd a n o bj ec ti v e w hom .

Whi c h a n d w ha t a re n ot in fl ec ted .

Who m a y be ei ther m a sculin e or fem in i n e ; w hi c h a nd w ha t

m a y be of a ny g en d er .

1 r
F or i nd i ec t q uesti on s , see 44 1 .
74 P R ONO U N S

1 65 . T he j
ob ec tive w hom of ent b eg in s questi on (a s i n the
a

third ex a m ple i n Ca re should be t a ken n ot to writ e w ho

for w hom .

1 66 . Whic h a nd w ha t a re u sed a s i nterrog a ti ve a j

d ecti ves .

Whi c h street sh a ll I ta k e
Wha t villa g e i s thi s

1 67 . T he i n terrog a t i ve a dj ecti ve w ha t m a y be u sed in a

e uli a r
c form of ex cla m a tory t
s en en e c T hus,
p .

Wha t a c old n ig ht this i s !

Wha t c oura g e he m ust ha ve h a d !
Wha t by i tself often serves a s a n e c la m a ti on : x a s, Wha t d o y ou
rea lly th i nk so ? I n thi s use w h a t m a y be reg a rd ed a s a n i n ter j ec ti on .

1 68 . I n pa rsi ng pronouns the follow in g m odels m a y be u s ed

1 . He w a s m y ea rli est f ri en d .

He is a person a l pronoun of th e thi rd person I t . i n the m a sc uli n e

g en d er, th e sing ula r n um ber, a n d th e n om i n a ti ve c a s

'
bei ng the sub j ec t
of th e verb w as .

A
1

2 .
poli c em a n w hom I m et show ed m e th e house .

Whom ti ve pron oun of th e m a sc uli n e g en d er, sing ula r n um ber

is a rela

a n d thi rd person , a g reei n g w i th i ts a n tec ed ent, p oli c em a n I t i s i n th e .

ob j ec tive c a se, bei ng the d i rec t ob j ec t of the tra nsitive verb m et .

3 . The c orpora l, w hose n a m ew as S c ott, ca m e f rom L eith .

Whose i s a ti ve pron oun of th e m a sc uli n e g end er, si ng ula r n um ber,

rela

a n d thi rd person , a g reei ng w i th i ts a n tec ed en t, c orp ora l I t i s i n th e .

ossessive c a se, m od i fy i ng th e n oun n a m e

p .

4 . Whose birth da y do w e c elebra te i n Febru a ry

Whose i s a n i n terrog a tive pron oun i n th e m a sc ulin e or f em ini n e g ender ,

si ng ula r n um ber, a nd possessi ve c a se,

m od if i
y gn th e n oun birthd a y .

5 . He i nj ured hi m sel
f severely .

H im self is a c om poun d person a l pron oun of

the thi rd person , used re
fi ex ively . I t is of th e m a sc ulin e g en d er, si ng ula r n um ber, a n d th i rd per

son , a g reei ng w i th i ts a ntec ed en t, he I t i s i n th e ob ec ti ve c a se, bei ng

. j
j
th e d i rec t ob ec t of th e tra nsi ti ve verb i nj ured .
 CLA SSI FI CATION OF AD JE CT I VE S

C HA P T E R I V

ADJ
’
E C I I VE S
‘

C L A SSIFI CA TI O N OF AD JE CTI VE S

1 69 . An a d j ective i s a w ord w h i c h desc ribes or li m i ts a substa nti ve .

An a d j ective i s sa i d to belong to th e substa nti ve w h i c h it d esc ri bes

or lim its .

An a j
d ec tive w h i c h desc ri bes i s ca lled a desc ri pti ve a d j ec tive ; one

w h i c h poi nts out or desi g na tes i s ca lled a defi ni tive a d j ective

M ost a dj ec t i v es a re des rip c t iv e a s, — rou n d c old red

, , ,
a n r
g y,
g ra c e u l, ex c ess ive,
f y ou n g, su d d en ,
R om a n .

N OT E . M a ny d esc ripti v e a j
d ec ti v es a re c om pound (see a s, — stea d
fa st, li on lik e, fi reproof , d ow n ri g h t, h ea rtsi c k , ev erla sti n g , brow n- ey ed , broa d
s ould e ed ,
h r ill-
t m
e pe e ,
r d d ea r-
b u
o g h t ,
f a r-
f et c h ed , n ev er -en d i n
g , self ev i d en t,
-

self -
i m po rta n t H e w a s
. a m a tter -
f
o f
-
a c t p e r so n
!
T o m i s h a i l
-
f ellow .
-
w ell

m etw i th ev ery bod y .

!
This i s a n ou t o -
f the- -w a l
y pa ce.
!
A d a sh in g , d ow n
d l- th e- heel y outh a n sw ered m y k n oc k .

1 70 A proper n oun
. u sed a s a n a dj ect iv e, or a n a dj ect i ve
deri v ed from a proper n ou n , is ca lled a ro
p p er a d j ecti ve a nd

usua lly beg i n s wi th a ca pi t a l lett er .

E X A MP S LE : a Pa na m a ha t, F lori da ora n g es, a B uns en burn er ; Vi r

g i n i a n , S pen seri a n ,
N ew ton i a n, I c ela n d i c , M ilton i c , B y ron i c , T urki sh,
E n g lish , V eronese .

N OT E . Ma ny j
lled proper a d ec ti v es beg i n w i th a sm a ll letter bec a use
so-c a

th ei r ori g i n i s f org otten or d i sreg a rd ed : a s , c hi n a d i sh es , i ta li c type, m es

m eri c pow er, a j ovi a l a i r, a sa tu rn i ne e pressi on , a m erc u ri a l tem pera m ent, x
a sten tori a n v oi c e .

1 71 . Defi ni ti ve a j
d ecti ves i n c lud e pron ou n s u s ed a s a dj ec
ti v es ( a s, thi s Opportun ity ; those pi ctures ; ei ther ta ble ; w ha t
t im e i s i t n um era l a dj ec t i v es a s tw o sta rs ; the thi rd y ea r)
( ,

the a rti cles , a

( or a n
) a nd the .
76 AD JE CT I VE S

P ron oun s used a s a dj ect i v es ( O ft en c a lled

pron om ina l a d
j ec ti v es
) ha ve been studied u n d er P ron oun s - 1

d em t t i ves
on s ra

1 31 i n d efi n i tes 1 35 rela ti ves 1 43

i n t errog a ti ves 1 63
Num era l a dj ecti ves will be trea ted ,
a lon g w ith other n um era ls
—
( n ou ns a n d a d v erb s
) i n 2 04 2 08 ,
.

—
T he ti cles will be trea ted i n
ar 1 73 1 8 0 .

1 72 Adj ecti ves m a y be cla ssifi ed a c c ordi ng to their posi ti on

.
,

in the sen t en c e a s a ttri butive a ppositive a n d predi ca te a dj ect

,
ives , , .

1 An a ttri butive a dj ective i s c losely a tta c hed to i ts n oun a nd

.

reg ula rly prec edes i t .

Th e a ng ry spot d oth g low on C aesa rs

’b row .

0 y ou ha rd h ea rts, y ou c ruel m en O f R om e!

Yond C a ssius h a s a lea n a n d hung ry look .

2 . An a ppos i ti ve a dj ective is a d ded to i ts n oun to ex pla i n it,

lik e a n oun in a pposi ti on 88 ,

Nom i IN A PPOSI T ION A PPOSI T IV E A DJ E C T IVE

The c a stle,
a rui n , stood on th e T he c a stle, a nc i ent a n d rui nous,

edg e O f th e c li ff . stood on th e edg e Of th e c li ff.

B ertra m ,
th e ri ng lea der, refused B ertra m und a unted , refused to
,

to surren d er . surren d er .

3 . A predi c a te a dj ective c om pletes the m ea n i n g O f the predi ca t e

verb ,
but desc ri bes bj ect or li m its the su .

P redi c a te a dj ecti v es a re c om m on a ft er i s ( i n its va ri ou s form s)

a n d ot her c opula t i v e v erb s pa rt i c ula rly bec om e a n d s eem ,

T h e sea i s roug h to d a y -
.

B urton soon bec a m e c a uti ous i n hi s udg j m ents .

Y ou seem a nx i ous a bout y our future .

T he a i r g rew hot a n d sul

try .

Our fi rst e xperim ent proved unsuc c essf ul .

T h e m ilk turn ed sour .

O ur a g ent proved trustw orthy .

N OT E . Th e c on struc ti on of th e pred i c a te a j
d ec ti v e i s sim i la r to th a t of th e
pred i c a te n om i n a ti v e 88 , B oth a re k n ow n a s c om plem ents , bec a use th ey

c om plete th e m ea ning of a v erb .

 AR T I CLE S 77

Aft er look , sou nd , ta s te, s m ell, f eel, a p redi c a te a dj ect i ve is

used to desc ri be the su bj ect . T hus,

Y our flow ers [ N

look thrifty
O T lo ok th ri f tily ]
. .

'

T h ei r voi c es sound shri ll [ NO T soun d sh rilly

)
. .

T hi s a pple ta stes sw eet [ NO T ta stes sw eetly ] . .

T h e a i r sm ells g ood [ N o r sm e lls w el l

.
] .

T h e pa ti ent f eels c om f orta ble [ NO T f eels c om f orta bly . . .

]
For pred ic a te a d j e tive fte
c s a r pa ssi v e v erbs , see 492 .

For th e a n d j e ti v e
a c a s predi c a te O b ec ti v e, j see 1 04 .

T HE A RTI C L E S

1 73 T he a dj ectives
. a ( or a n) a nd the a re ca lled a rti c les .

1 . T he defi ni te a rti c le the points out one or m ore pa rti c ula r ob ects a s j
d istinct from oth ers of the sa m e k i nd .

The tra i n i s la te .

Here i s the k ey .

The c hild ren a re i n x

the n e t room .

2 . T he indefi nite a rti c le a ( or a n ) desi g na tes j

a n ob ec t a s m erely one

of a g enera l c la ss or k ind .

L en d m e a pen c il;

I ha ve a c old .

A y oun g m a n a n sw ered m y k n oc k .

Th e ar ti cle a is a fra g m en t of an
( pron ou n c ed a hn ) , the
a nc ien t form O f the n um era l on e ; a n keeps the n whi ch a ,

ha s lost T h e i s a n O ld dem on stra t i v e rela t ed to tha t

.
,
.

1 74 T he w ith a sin g ula r n oun som etim es in di ca t es a c la s s

.

or k ind O f O bj ect s .

The sc hola r is n ot nec essa rily a d ry a sdust .

The elepha nt i s th e la rg est Of qua d ruped s .

The a erOp la n e i s a very rec en t i nventi on .

R esi n i s Obta in ed f rom the p i ne .

N OT E In thi s use the i s O ften c a lled th e g eneri c a rti c le (from th e La ti n

.

g e n u s , k in d !
or Th e s i n g ula r n um be r w i th th e g en eri c the is pra e
ti c a lly eq ui v a lent to th e plura l w i th out a n a rti c le Th us i n th e fi rst e a m ple . x
th e sen se w ould be th e sa m e if w e h a d , S c hola rs a re not nec essa ri ly d ry a s
d usts .
!
78 AD JE C T I VE S

1 75 . An a dj ecti v e prec ed ed by the m a y be u sed a s

n oun .

The bra ve a re h onored .

The ri c h h a ve m a ny c a res .

The strong should protec t the w ea k .

1 76 A n i s . used before w ord s beg inni ng w ith a vow el or

a before oth er w ords . T hus ,

a n ow l a n a l
pp e ; a n h on est m a n ; a ston e a pea r .

1 77 . S pec ia l rules for a or a n a re the follow i

1 . B efore w ord s beg i n n in g with the soun d of y or w ,
the
f orm a ,
n ot a n , is u sed .

E XA MP S LE : a un i on , a un i versi ty , a y ew ,
a ew e, a eulog y , a Utopi a n
sc h em e, suc h a on e .

Th i s rule c ov ers a ll w ord s beg inni n g w i th eu a n d m a ny beg in ni n g w ith a .

N ote th a t th e i ni ti a l soun d is a c on son a n t, n ot a v ow el . An w a s f orm erly

— un i on ,
c om m on before suc h w ord s ( a s, a n suc h a n on e ) , but a i s n ow th e
settled f orm .

e ords
l '

2 . B efor w beg in ni n g w ith h a n d n ot a ccen t ed on the

fi rst sylla ble ,
a n i s O ft en u sed T hu s w e sa y .
,

’
a hi s tory
’
B U T a n hi stor i c a l n ovel
; .
,

In suc h c a ses , th e h i s v ery w ea k in soun d , a n d is som eti m es q ui te silen t,

so th a t th e w ord lly beg i n s w i th
pra c ti c a a v ow el . U sa g e va ri es , but c a ref ul

w ri ters fa v or th e rule h ere g i v en An w . a s form erly m ore c om m on before h

th a n a t presen t .

178 . W i thc on n ect ed n oun s or a dj ec ti ves

tw o or m ore th e
a rt i c le sh ould be re ea t ed when ev er c lea rn ess requ i res c f
p ( .

I ha ve c on sulted
the sec reta ry a n d the trea surer T h e sec reta ry a n d .

trea surer w ould i m ply th a t th e sa m e person h eld both ffi c es ] O

I f oun d a n a n c h or a n d a c h a i n '
A n a n c h or a n d c h a i n w ould sug g est .

th a t th e c ha in w a s a tta c h ed to th e a n c h or .
]
In som e tow n s th ere a re sepa ra te sc h ools f or the boy s a nd the g i rls ;
in oth ers the boy s a nd g i rls a tten d th e sa m e sc h ools .

He w a ved a red a n d w hite fl a g .

He w a ved a red a n d a w hite fla g .

80 AD JE CTI VE S

2 T he com pa ra ti ve deg ree of a n a d ec tive i s form ed by

. j a dding the
“
term i na ti on er to the positive deg ree .

It tha t the qua lity ex i sts i n the O bj ec t des cri bed

den otes in
a hig her deg ree tha n i n som e ot her O bj ec t .

W illi a m is strong er tha n T hom a s.

Thus , the com pa ra t iv e deg ree O f the a dj ect i ve s trong i s s trong er .

3 T he superla tive deg ree i s form ed by dd i ng es t to the positive “

;
. a

tha t the qu a lity

It den otes ex i st s in the hi g hest deg ree i n
the Obj ect desc ri bed .

Herbert i s strong est of th e three .

O ther ex a m ples Of the c om pa ri son of a j

d ecti ves a re :

P OSI T IV E D E GR E E C OMPA R A T IV E D E GR E E S UP RE LA T IV E D E GR E E
ri c h ri c h est

poor poorest
f a st f a stest
fi rm fi rm est

1 83 . R U LE S OF S P E L L IN G .

1 . Adj ecti ves en di n g in si len t e d rop this letter before the

c om pa ra ti ve en d i n g er a n d the superla t i v e en din g es t . T hus,

w ise, w i ser, w i sest ; pu re, purer, purest ; ha n dsom e, h a n dsom er,

ha n dsom est .

2 . Most a d j ec ti ves en di n g i n y cha ng e y to i before the en d

in g s er a n d es t . T hus,

silk y , si lki er, Silk i est ; g lossy , g lossi er, g lossi est sorry , sorri er, sorri est.

3 . Adj ecti ves ha vin g a sh or t vowel a n d end i n g in a si n g le

c on son a n t d ouble thi s before the en d in g s er a n d es t . T hus,

d im ,
di m m er, dim m est ; sa d, sa dd er,d d est ; fi t, fi tter, fi ttest ; big ,
sa

big g er, big g est ; red , red d er, red d est ; h ot, hotter, h ottest .
 IRRE G U LAR C O MP AR ISON 81

1 84 . Ma ny a dj ecti ves a re c om pa red by prefi x i ng the a d verbs m ore a nd

m ost to th e positi ve deg ree .

Ma ny a dj ecti v es Of tw o sylla bles a n d m os t a dj ect ives of

three or m ore s ylla bles a re so c om pa red . Thus,

rec ent, m ore rec en t, m os t rec en t terri ble, m ore terrible, m ost terrible
tri um ph a n t, m ore tri um ph a n t, m ost tri um ph a n t ec on om i c a l, m ore ec o

n om i c a l, m ost ec on om i c a l .

S om e a dj ecti ves ma y be c om pa red in ei ther w a y .

Ex AM P LE s : i ntense, i n ten ser, i n ten sest ; OE i nten se, m ore i ntense,

m ost i nten se . So a lso — prof oun d , subli m e, un ki n d .

N OT E Th e a d verbs less a nd lea st m a y be used w i th a n a d ec ti ve, i f on e

. j
w ish es to run d ow n th e sc a le of c om pa ri son a s, terri ble, less terri ble, lea s t
terri ble T hi s id i om , h ow ev er, sh ould n ot be reg a rd ed a s c om pa ri son of th e
.

j
a d ec ti v e S uperla tiv e m ea n s in th e hi g h est d eg ree, a n d i s n ot a ppli c a
.
!

ble to lea st terri ble, w hi c h m ea n s terrible i n the low est d eg ree !

.

IRREGULAR COM P ARIS ON

18 5 . S evera l a dj ecti ves a r c om pa rison .

1

S UP R E L AT IVE

good

la te
w ell (i h l h
n ea t )
li ttle
m uc h , m a ny

Old ha s c om pa ra tive older or eld er superla ti v e oldestor eldest ,

.

E ld er or eld est m a y be us ed w i t h c ert a i n n oun s of rela ti on

shi p, or in th e phra ses the eld er a nd th e eld es t .

T h i s i s m y eld er broth er . M y broth er i s older th a n y ours .

Ja n e w a s th e eld est of si x c h i ld ren . I sh a ll w ea r m y dest c lothes

ol .

E ld er i s a lso used a s a n oun : a s, Y ou should respec t y our eld ers .

1 In som e of th ese c a ses th e c om pa ra ti v e a n d superla ti ve a re rea lly d i ffer

ent w ord s from th e posi ti ve .
82 AD JE CT I VE S

N ex t is a superla ti ve O f n ig h . It is used On ly in the sen se of

!
the very n ea res t .

I live i n th e nex t street .

T he nex t ti m e he c om es, I sha ll refuse to see h im .

18 6 . A few superla ti ves en d in m os t

-
. W it h t hese ,
on e or

both Of the o ther d eg rees a re c om m on ly wa n ti n g .

P OSI T IV E S UP R E L AT IV E
f orem ost

h indm ost

i nm ost, i nn erm ost

outm ost, outerm ost

utm ost, utterm ost

upperm ost
endm ost
n eth er n etherm ost
topm ost
furtherm ost
n orth m ost

m ore n orthern
) n orth ernm ost

southm ost

m ore south ern ) south ern m ost

m ore ea stern ) ea stern m ost

m ore w estern ) w esternm ost

N OT E T h e en d in g -m ost i s n ot th e a d v erb m ost I t i s a v ery Old

. . superla
tive end i n g - m est c ha n g ed un d er th e i n fl uen c e O f th e a d v erb m ost .

187 . For a dj ec t i ves I n ca pa ble O f c om pa ri son see 2 02 ,

. For
spec ia l rules for the use O f c om pa ra ti ve a n d superla ti ve ,
see
—
1 99 2 03 .

1 88 . I n pa rsing a n a dj ecti ve, tell whether it i s d esc ripti ve or

d efi n i ti ve, m en ti on the su bsta n ti ve to whi ch i t b elon g s, a nd
‘

spe cify the deg ree Of com pa rison .

 AD VE RB S

3 . Ad verbs Of pla c e a n sw er the question Where

us ua lly m od i f y verbs . T hus,

C om e here .

Yonder sta nd s th e c ulpri t .

An Old sa i lor c a m ef orw a rd .

My sister is out .

I w as a broa d tha t w i nter .

4 . Ad verbs of wer the questi on TO wha t deg ree

deg ree a ns

or ex ten t They m od i fy v erbs a dj ecti ves a n d a d verb s , , .

Thus
A rthur is ra ther ta ll .

Fa th er plea sedw a s m uc h .

Fa th er w a s very muc h plea sed .

T he ta sk seem ed utterly h opeless .

T h a t i s ha rd ly possi ble .

T ha t i s not possi ble .

19 1 . Som e a dverbs ha ve the sa m e form a s the correspon d

in g a dj ecti ves .

You h a v e g uessed rig ht .

How f a st th e ti d e ebbs !
T h e horse w a s sold c hea p .

T i red m en sleep sound .

Oth er e xa m ples a re — w rong stra ig h t, ea rly , la te, qui c k , h a rd , f a r,

,

nea r, slow ,
hi g h, low ,
loud , ill, w ell, d eep, c lose, j ust, very , m uc h , li ttle .

U n der thi s hea d c om e c erta in a d verbs Of deg ree u sed to

m od ify a dj ect i ves .

His ey es w ere [ C omda rk blue

p a re v ery b lu e ] . .

T h a t silk i s lig ht y ellow [ C om p a r e : ra ther y ellow

.
] o
.

T hese flow ers a re deep purple [ C o m pa re i nten s ely purple . .

]
T h e w a ter w a s i c y c old [ C o m pa re ez trem e ly c.old ] .

Th a t d a rk , li g ht, etc .
, a re a d verbs i n th i s use a ppea rs from th e fa c t tha t
th ey a n sw er th e q uesti on
“How Th us , — "
Hi s ey es w ere blue !
How .

blue Da rla blue .

!

NO T E . In th eE ng li sh m a ny a d v erbs en d ed i n - e, a s if form ed
Old est

j
di rec tly from a d ec ti ves by m ea n s O f th i s endin g T hus, th e a d ec tive for hot . j
w a s hi t, si d e by si d e w i th w h i c h w a s a n a d v erb hci te ( d i ssy lla bi c ) , m ea n ing
' '

hotly In th e fourteenth c entury thi s d i stinc ti on w a s still k ept up Thus,

. .
 AD VE RB S 85

j
Cha uc er used both th e a d ec tive hot a n d th e d i ssylla bi c a d verb hote, m ea ni ng
' '

.
’
hotly B etw een 1 400 a n d 1500a ll w ea k fi n a l e s di sa ppea red from th e la ng ua g e .

’
x
In thi s w a y the a d verb h ote, f or e a m ple, bec a m e sim ply h ot T h us th ese a d .

v erbs in 45 bec a m e i d enti c a l in form w i th th e c orrespon d in g a d ec tiv es? Hen c e j

x
i n th e tim e of Sh a k spere there e i sted , i n c om m on use, n ot only th e a d ec ti ve j
hot, but a lso th e a d verb hot (i d enti c a l in form w i th th e a d ec tive but rea lly j
d esc en d ed from th e a d v erb O n e c ould sa y n ot only Th e fi re i s hot !

( a dj ec ti v e) , but Th e fi re b ur n s h ot !
(a d v e rb o f m a nn e r ) .

T h e ten d en c y in m od ern E n g li sh h a s been to c onfi n e th e form w i th out end

h ti
ing to t e a d ec ve use aj n d t o r e st ri c t th e a d ve r bi a l f u n c ti on to f or m s i n -l
y .

T h us, a w ri ter of th e present tim e w ould n ot sa y , in prose, Th e fi re burns

hot, but Th e fi re burn s h otly
! !
N everth eless, a n um ber of th e Old a d v erbs
.

w i th out en d in g stillrem a in in g ood use, a n d m ust n ot be reg a rd ed a s erron eous - .

In poetry , m oreover, suc h a dv erbs a re freely em ploy ed a s , — "

Th e boy
lik e a g ra y g osh a w k sta red w i ld !
[ p
I n r.ose : sta r e d w i ld ly ] .

—
For a dv erbi a l phra ses, see 4 1 4 2, 4 7 5 .

For th e a d verbia l obj ecti v e, see 1 09 .

192 . Yes a n d n o a re pe ulica r a d verb s u sed in a s sen t in g a nd

den y i n g . Thu s,
A re y ou hun g ry
N0 .

N OT E . As n ow used , y es a n d n o sta n d
p let e sen te for
n c es O ri
c om
g i n a lly , .

h ow ev er, th ey w ere m odi fi ers , a n d h en c e th ey a re still c la ssed a s a d v erbs .

Th e ori g i n a l m ea n ing orn o w a s n ev er

!
C om pa re never a s a n em ph a ti c
.

n eg a ti v e in m od ern E n g li sh : a s , — “ W ill y ou surren d er ? ! “ N ever ! !

Th e
old est a ffi rm a tiv e a d v erb w a s y ea Yes w a s ori g in a lly a c om poun d of y ea
.

w i th a form O f so, a n d w a s used i n em ph a ti c a fi rm a ti y es (lik e ourj ust so I)

O th er a d verbs or a d v erbi a l ph ra ses a re som eti m es used lik e y es or n o .

Suc h a re c erta i n ly , a ssu red ly , by n o m ea ns, n ot a t a ll In th ese c a ses , h ow .

ev er, th e m od ify in g efi ec t of th e w ord or ph ra se m a y ea sily be seen w h en th e

senten c e i s suppli ed T h us , —.
"
Will y ou h elp m e ? !
Certa i n ly [I w i ll
hel p y ou

193 . T h ere i s O ft en u sed m erel y to i n trodu c e a sen en e t c in

the in v ert ed ord er

T h ere i s a h ole i n m y sh oe .

T h ere a re m a ny stra n g ers i n tow n .

T h ere rose a thi c k sm ok e f rom th e volc a n o .

I n thi s u se, th ere i s tim es c a lled a n ex pletive ( or fi ller

som e

It i s un em pha tic a n d ha s lost a ll its force a s a n a dverb of pla ce

,
.

Con tra st T H E R E [ em pha t i c ] st ood a n In d ia n u n der a tree w i th, Q

T here [ un em pha t i c ex plet i v e] st ood a n In dia n un der a tree !

.
 6 AD VE RB S

RE LATI VE AND I NT E R R O AT I VE A D VE RB S G
1 94 . Rela tive a dverbs i ntroduce subordina te cla uses a nd a re; sim i la r

in their use to rela ti ve pronouns .

I k now c a n spend th e ni g ht .

Where is a n a d verb of pla c e m odi fyin g ca n spend But it a lso ,

.

in troduc es the subord ina te cla use a s the rela t i ve pron oun w hi c h ,

d oes Hen ce w here is c a lled a rela tive a dverb

. .

1 9 5 The prin c ipa l rela ti ve a d verb s a re

.
—w here w hen c e
, ,

w hi ther, w herever, w hen, w henever, w hi le, a s, how ,

w hy, bef ore,
a t
f ,
er ti ll,
u n ti l, s i n c e .

B ec a use of their si m ila ri ty to j

c on un c ti on s, th ese w ord s a re often c a lled
j
c on unc ti ve a d verbs .

He h a d a f ever w hen h e w a s In Spa in .

W ork hi le i t is d a y
w .

As th e sh ip pa ssed, w e observe d tha t her d ec k s w ere c row d ed w ith

Ma la ys .
[ T i m e .

K eep to the rig ht, a s the la w d i r ec ts [ M a n n er . .

You sta rted bef ore I w a s rea dy .

W a i t until the c a r stops .

S i nc e y ou c a m e, i t h a s ra i n ed c onsta n tly .

As a n d si nc ei n th e sense of bec a use, !

a nd w hi le in th e sen se of a lth oug h ,
a re c la ssed a s c on un c ti on s j
The cla uses in trodu ced by rela ti v e a d verb s m a y be ei ther
—
a dj ect i ve or a d verb ia l 4 9 5 0 3 79 ,

NOT E . In The m ore y ou w a ste, the soon er y ou w ill w a nt

!
(a n d sim ila r

sentenc es ) the i s n ot a n a rti c le, but a n old c a se-f orm of th e pron oun tha t, used
a s a n a d verb of d eg ree . We m a y expa n d th e sen ten c e a s follow s: To w ha t
ex ten t y ou w a ste m ore, to th a t ex ten t y ou w ill w a n t soon er . T h us it a ppea rs
!

tha t th e fi rst the ha s a rela ti v e forc e, a nd th e sec ond th e a d em on stra tive forc e .

196 . An interrog a ti ve a dverb i ntroduc es a q uesti on .

Where ,
w hen, w hen c e, w h i ther, how ,
w hy, m a y be
i nterrog a ti ve a dverbs T hus,

Where a re y ou g oing
Why m ust y ou g o
88 U SE OF C O MP AR ISON

US E O F T HE C O MP A RAT I VE A ND SUP E RL AT I VE

1 99 T he c om pa ra tive deg ree,

. not the superla tive, i s used i n com pa r
i ng tw o persons or th i ng s .

T he superla tive i s used i n c om pa ri ng one pers on or th i ng w i th tw o

or m ore .

M a ry i s th e m ore a g reea ble of th e tw o

R IGH T
.

lM a ry i s th e m ost a g reea bl
e Of a ll th e f a m i ly .

I lik e both M a ry a n d Ja n e, but I a m f ondest of Ma ry .

W RONG I am study i ng L a ti n , hi story , a nd g eom etry , but I di sli k e

L the la tter .

The sa m e ri n c iple a pplies to d verb s

p a .

John run s f a ster th a n T om .

[ Here th e a c ts of tw o persons a re c om

pa red .
]
W hi c h Of y ou th ree c a n run f a stest [ Here th e a c ts of m ore th a n tw o
a re c om pa red ]
N OT E E n g li sh th e superla tiv e som etim es oc c urs w h en only tw o
. In Old er

j
O b ec ts a re th oug ht O f T hi s use i s still foun d in a few prov erbi a l ph ra ses :
.

a s, — “P ut y our best f oot f orem ost

!
.

200 The superla t i ve i s

. tim es u sed m erely
som e for em pha si s,
without y
i m pl i n g a ny d efi n i t e c om pa ris on : a s ,
My d ea res t

K a te !
T he superla tive of em pha s i s i s v er y c om m on with m ost .

Mostpotent, g ra ve, a n d reverend si g n i ors . S H A KSP E R E .

Justi c e h a d been m ost c ruelly d ef ra ud ed . W ORDSWORT H .

E xc essive use of th i s c on struc ti on (lik e freq uent repetiti on of very ) i s ti re

som e a n d w k en s sty le ea .

D ouble c om pa ri son (a s m ore w orthi er, m ost u n k i n dest ) is c om m on in old er

E n g li sh , but i s n ow a g ross error .

201 . W hen tw o a dj ecti ves or a d v erb s a re c on tra sted by

m ea n s of tha n , m ore is used wi t h the fi rst .

S uc h i n dulg en c e i s m ore hi nd th a n w i se.

T hi s sc h em e i s m ore c lever th a n hon est .

He a c ts m ore bold ly th a n d isc reetly .

N OT E . Th e d verb ra ther i s
a O ften u sed w j
i th th e fi rst a d ec ti v e or a d v erb
( a s, ra ther k i nd th a n w i se or k ind ra ther th a n w i se) , but i n a sli g htly '

diff erent sense .

 N UME RAL S 89

202 . Ma ny a dj ecti ves a nd a d verb s a re, from their m ea n i n g ,

i n ca pa ble O f c om pa ri son S u c h a re .

1 Adj ect i ves ex pressi n g a qua li ty a s a bsolute

. or c om
pl t e e,

a n d a d v erbs deri v ed from su ch a dj ecti ves .

Ex AM P LE s : uni que, un i versa l, si ng le, m a tc hless, i nsta n ta n eous, tri a n

g ula r,
ev erla sti n g ,
i n fi ni te, m orta l; u n i quely , si ng ly , etern a lly , m orta lly .

2 . The a d verb s here, th ere, then , n ow ,

w hen , a nd the like .

N OT E . W ord s
lik e p erf ec t, ex a ct, stra i g h t, etc , a re c om m only sa i d to be .

in c a pa ble of c om pa ri son , but/th i s i s a n error For ea c h of these w ord s m a y .

v a ry in sen se W h en perf ec t (for e a m ple) d en otes a bsolu te perf ec ti on , i t

. x
c a nn ot be c om pa red B ut p erf ec t h a s a lso a n oth er sen se : na m ely ,
.
pa rt a k i n g
i n a h i g h er or low er d eg ree O f th e qua liti es th a t m a k e up a bsolute perf ec ti on ,
so th a t w e m a y d esc ri be on e sta tue a s m ore p er f ec t th a n a n oth er, or o n e o f
th ree sta tues a s th e m ost p erf ec t of th em a ll I n th i s use, w hi c h i s un obj ec .

ti on a ble, w e sim ply a d m it th a t n othi n g i n th e w orld i s a bsolutely a w less , fl

a n d a ssert th a t th e th ree sta tues a pproa c h id ea l perf ec ti on in v a ri ous d eg rees .

203 . An a dj ecti v e phra se m a y som e tim es be c om pa red by

m ea n s of m ore a n d m os t .

I w a s n ever m ore out of hum or m ore v e ed x ] .

I thi n k y our la st sug g esti on m ost i n keep i ng [ z m ost a ro

pp p ri a te] .

NUME RAL S — A D JE C T I VE S , N O UNS , A ND A D VE RB S

204 . W ords i ndi c a ting num ber a re c a lled num era ls . T h ey a re a djec
tives, nouns , or a dverbs .

T h ere a re seven d a y s i n th e w eek .

[ A d j ec ti v e ] .

Tw elve m a k e a doz en [Noun ] . .

I h a ve ca lled tw ic e .
[ A d verb ] .

205 . The c hi ef cla sses of n um era ls a re ca rdi na ls a n d ordi na ls .

L Ca rdina l num era l a dj ectives ( one tw ,

o, three, f our, etc ) . a re used in
c ounti ng , a nd a nsw er th e questi on How m a ny

I h a d to pa y three d olla rs .

T h ere w ere f orty tw o vessels i n th e

-
fl eet.

N OT E . In suc h e xpressi ons a s T h e boy w a s si x teen , th e n um era l i s a

p red i c a te a d j e ti ve li m itin g
c boy 1 72 , We n eed n ot e xpa n d six teen to
si xteen y ea rs Old .
90 N U MERAL S
2 . Ordi na l num era l a j
d ectives (fi rst, sec ond, third, etc .
) denote the
posi ti on or order of a person or thi ng in a seri es .

C a rl pla y s th e sec ond vi oli n .

Y our f ri en d i s Si tti ng i n th e fi fth row .

206 . All the c a rdi n a l a n d ordin a l n um era ls m a y bec om e

n oun s a n d m a
y ta ke a plura l en ding in som e of their sen ses .

One i s en oug h .

Four a re m i ssi ng
T he ni ne pla y ed a n e c el x
lent g a m e .

T hree tw os a re si x .

T he m en form ed by f ours .

Thousa nd s peri sh ed by th e w a y .

E ig ht i s tw thi rds Of tw elve reg ula rly i n fra c tiona l pa rts

o .
[ S O
]

NO T E . Hund red , thousa n d , m i lli on w ere ori g i n a lly n oun s , but a re n ow

eq ua lly c om m on a s a d j e tive
c s . Oth er n um era l n oun s a re — tw a i n
, c ouple,

pa i r, bra c e, tri o, q ua rtette, q ui ntette, foursom e, d o en , z sc ore, c entury .

207 . Certa in n um era l a dj ect i v es (s i ng

le,
d ou ble,
tri le
p , etc
) .

i n dicate how ma n y tim es a th i n g is ta ken or of how m a ny like

rt s it c ons is ts
pa .

A d ouble row Of poli c em en stood on g ua rd .

A f ourf old la y er of c h illed steel form s th e d oor .

S om e O f these words m a y be u sed a s a d v erbs .

The ca bm a n c h a rg ed double .

His f ea r i n c rea sed tenf old .

208 . Certa i n n um era l a d v erbs a nd a d verbia l phra ses in di ca te

h ow ma n y tim es a n a cti on ta kes pla c e .

Onc e m y a ssa i la nt Slipped .

I th e bell tw ic e
’
ra ng .

T he ri ver h a th thri c e fl ow d n ,
o ebb betw een . S H A KSPE R E .

°
Th e only a d verbs of th i s k in d in ord i n a ry u se a re on c e a n d tw i c e
. For
la rg er num bers a n a d verbi a l ph ra se ( three ti m es , f ou r ti m es, etc ) i s em ploy ed . .

Thri c e, h ow ev er, i s still c om m on in poetry a n d the solem n style .

92 VE RB S

2 11 Verbs a re ei ther tra nsitive or i ntra nsitive

S om e verbs m a y befollow ed by a substa ntive denoting tha t w hi c h
rec eives the a c ti on or i s produc ed by i t T h ese a re ca lled tra nsitive .

verbs All oth er verbs a re c a lled i ntra nsitive

. .

A substa nti ve th a t c om pletes th e m ea ni ng of a tra nsitive verb i s

ca lled i ts direc t j
ob ec t

I n the followi n g sen en es,t c the

verbs a re tra nsitive first four
w i th obj ec t s , the la st fi ve a re i ntra nsiti ve wi th out O bj ect s
( ) ( )
L ig htn i ng sha ttered th e oa k .

Clouds da rkened th e sky .

C hem ists ex tra c t ra di um f rom pitc hblend e .

Th e ora tor quoted T enny son i n c orrec tly .

Look w h ere h e sta nds a nd g la res !

T he ba nk rupt a bsc onded .

T h e ora n g e sky Of even i ng di ed a w a y .

'

T he w ord s difler i n a si n g le letter .

2 12 . A verb w h i c h i s tra nsiti ve i n one of its senses m a y be i ntra nsi

tive i n a noth er .

T RAN SI T IV E NT RA NSI T IV E
I
WI T H O BJ E C T ) WI T HO U T O BJ E C T
( ( )
B oy s fly k ites . B i rd s fly .

T he pi ra tes sa nk th e T h e ston e sa nk .

I osed m
cl y ey es . S c h ool c losed y esterd a y .

Tom tore hi s c oa t . T h e c loth tore ea sily .

2 13 . Ma ny tra nsitiveverbs m a y be used a bsolutely , th a ti s, m erely

to ex pres s a cti on W ith out a ny i nd i c a ti on of the d i rect ob ec t j .

RA NSI T IV E VE RB
T TRA NSI T IVE VE RB
WI T H O BJ E C T E X PRE SS E D U S E D A BSO L U T E L Y
The horses dra nk w a ter . T h e h orses dra nk from th e brook .

T he fa rm er p low s his fi eld s . T h e f a rm er p low s i n th e spri ng .

C ha rles i s dra w i ng a pi c ture . C h a rles is dra w i ng .

T here i s a sha rp c on tra st betw een a tra n si ti ve verb used

a bsolutely a n d a rea l i n tra n si t i v e v erb T O the form er w e c a n .

a lw a y s a dd a n O bj ect ; with the la tter n o obj ect i s possible .

 C L A S SI FI CAT ION OF VE RB S 93

214 . Isva rious form s) a n d severa l other verbs m a y

( i n its

be us ed to fra m e sen ten ces in w hi c h som e w ord or w ord s i n

the predi ca te desc ri be or defi n e the subj ect
Such verb s a re ca lled c opula ti ve (tha t is j oin i n g verbs ,
.

I s in this use i s often c a lled th e c opula (or li n k

T i m e is m on ey .

Gra nt w as a ti reless w ork er .

M a c beth bec a m e a ty ra nt .

Hi s sw a ns a lw a y s p rove g eese .

T h e c urren t i s slug g i sh .

L ions a re c a rni vorous .

T hi s villa
g e looks prosperous
’
.

Th e c onsul s brow g rew stern .

T h e queen turned pa le .

I n the first four ex a m ples the c opula ti ve v erb (the sim ple
,

pred i c a t e
1
) i s f ollow ed by a pred i c a te n om i n a t i v e 88 ,

in the la st fi v e by a predi c a te a dj ecti ve 1 72 ,

The c opula ti v e v erbs a re i ntra n si ti v e, sin c e th ey ta k e n o j

ob ec t . Som e
ti m es , h ow ev er, th ey a re reg a rd ed a s a thi rd c la ss d i sti nc t both f rom tra nsi ti v e
a nd i n tra n si tiv eAverbs .

21 5 . The v erb is is n ot a l wa y s a c opula . It is som e tim es

em pha t i c a nd ha s the sen se of ex is t .

I thi nk . T herefore I a m .
[ T h a t i s,
I ex ist ]
W ha tever is ,
i s ri g ht .
[ T h e s ec on d is i s th e c opula .
]

M ost of the ther c opula ti ve verbs m a y

o be used som e

sen se I n w hi c h they c ea se to be c opula ti v e .

T h e la w y erp roved hi s c a se .

W a lnut trees g row slow ly .

M r W a tson
.
g row s pea c h es .

T h e w h eel turned Slow ly on the a le x .

He turned hi s h ea d a ooked a t m e
nd l .

M a ny g ra m m a ria n s reg a rd i s a n d the n oun or a d j ec tiv e tha t follow s it

1

(is m oney etc ) a s th e si m ple predi c a te ; but th e nom en c la ture h ere a d opted
, .

is equa lly sc i enti fi c a nd m ore c on v eni ent.

94 VE RB S

I NFL E C TI O N O F VE RB S

21 6 . Verbs ha ve i n fl ecti on s of tense, person a n d num ber, a n d

m ood . T hey a lso ha ve the d i st in ct i on of voi ce whi ch
,
is ex

press ed by the help of v b phra ses

er -
.

T ense i n di ca t est im e ; person a n d num ber c orrespon d with per

son a n d n um ber i n su b st a n t i ves ; m ood shows th e m a n n er i n

whi ch the a cti on 1 3 ex pressed ; voi ce in di ca tes whether the

subj ect a c ts or 1 s a c ted upon .

T E N SE O F VE R B S

217 . T h e tense of a verb i ndi ca tes its tim e .

1

Verbs h a ve form s of tense to i nd i c a te present, pa st, or future ti m e .

1 . A verb in the present tense refers to present ti m e .

2 . A verb i n the pa st tense refers to pa st ti m e .

2

3 . A verb i n the future tense refers to future ti m e .

T he present, the pa st, a nd the future a re ca lled si m ple ten ses .

P R E S E NT T E NS E F U UR
T E TE NS E
He li ves hem . He w i ll li ve h ere .

T h e sun ~
shi nes . T h e sun w i ll shi ne
I know h im . I sha ll know hi m .

F ORMS OF THE P RE S ENT AND THE P AS T

21 8 . T he present a nd th e pa st ten se ha v e spe c ia l form s of

i n fl ect i on .

For th e m om ent w e w ill c on si der th e form w hi ch the verb

ha s when i ts subj ect i s the fi rst pers on a l pron ou n I .

I n the present tens e th e verb h a s its si m plest f orm ,

w i th out a ny

i nflecti ona l end i ng .

I li ke i t . I dw elli n th e w i ld ern ess .

I hop e f or th e best . Ifi nd hi m a m usi ng .

1 Th e w ord
tense i s Si m ply a n E n g li sh f orm of th e F ren c h w ord for ti m e .

pa st tense i s often c a lled th e preteri te (from a L a ti n w ord m ea ni n g

2 The

g on e by P reteri te i s i n som e w a y s a better n a m e for the ten se th a n p a st,

sin c e both th e perf ec t a n d th e pluperf ec t ten ses a lso re fer to pa st tim e,
96 VE R B S

3 . A few verbs add d or t i n the pa s t a nd a lso cha n g e

v owel of the presen t . Thus,

sell sold buy

tell told ca tc h c a ug ht
Shoe shod seek soug ht
sa y sa (pid
ron oun c ed sed ) beseec h besoug ht
h ea r h ea rd (pronoun c ed herd) tea ch ta ug ht
bri ng broug h t m ethi n k s m ethoug ht

Work h a s a n old pa st ten se w roug h t, c om m on i n poetry ; i ts usua l pa st i s

w ork ed . For m ust, w ou ld , etc , see p 299 . . .

4 . S om e v erb s t ha t ha
ve a lon g v owel soun d in the present
ha ve in the pa st a short v owel soun d b ef ore the en di n t
g .

E XA MP LE S c reep, c rept k eep, k ept sleep, Slept sw eep, sw ept w eep,

w ept f eel, f elt d ea l, d ea lt (pron oun c ed dell) m ea n , m ea n t pron oun c ed

(
m ent) l
lose, lost ; lea ve, e t f 1 .

5 . S om e v erbs i n d or t prec eded by a lon g vowel soun d ha ve

a shor t v owel in the pa s t but a dd n o en di n g .

E XA MP S LE : aleed ,
bled
breed , bred ; f eed , f ed ;
b Speed , sped ; le a d ,

led ; rea d (pron bun c ed reed ) , rea d (pron oun c ed red) m eet, m et ; li g h t,
li t ( a lso lig h ted ) .

6 . S om e verb s In d or t ha ve In the pa s t the sa m e form a s

i n the presen t .

E X A MP L E S ,
Sh ed d , p
a st p
s a
prst
ea dShed ;
; b et , p
a s t
spreabet hi t,
p a st hi t ; set, p
a st set u
; p , t p a st put ; S h u t, p a st S h ut ; c u t, p a st c ut ;
hurt, p a st hurt ; c a st, p a st c a st .

N OT E Th e v erbs i n 5 a n d 6 m i g ht a ppea r to be stron g v erbs, sin c e th ey

.

h a v e n o end in g i n th e pa st a n d som e of th em c h a n g e th e v ow el Th ey a re, .

h ow ev er, a ll w ea k v erbs T h ei r la c k of en d i n g i s d ue to th e fa c t th a t the

.

d or t of th e term i na ti on h a s been a bsorbed i n th e fi n a l d or t of th e v erb

i tself Th us , th e pa st set w a s ori g i n a lly sette(d i ssy lla bi c ) , a n d th i s form , a fter
‘

’
th e loss of -é , bec a m e i nd i sti ng ui sh a ble i n soun d from set, th e present .

—
For li sts of i rreg ula r wea k verb s ,
see pp 2 9 1.299 .

1 Noti c e a lso th e c ha ng e from v to f before t .

 P E R SON AN D N U MB E R 97

PERS ON AND —
NUMBER THE PERSONAL ENDINGS

22 2 . A verb m ust a g ree w ith i ts sub ec t i n num ber a nd j person

,

Verbs, lik e substa ntives, h a ve tw o num bers ( si ng ula r a nd plura l) a nd

three persons ( fi rst, sec ond , a nd thi rd) .

T he si ng ula r num ber denotes a si ng le person or th i ng . T h e plura l

num ber d enotes m ore th a n one person or th i ng .

T he fi rst person denotes the spea k er ; th e sec ond pers on denotes the
person spok en to ; the th ird person denotes the person orth i ng spok en of .

223 . T he in fl ecti on s of pers on a nd num ber in v er s m a b y be

seen by fra m i n g sen en c es t wi th the person a l pron oun s a s sub

j ec ts . Thu s,
P RE S E NT TE NS E
SING U L A R P L U RA L
1 . 1 k
2 . T hou w a lk est -
.

3 . He w a lk -
s [ O ld f orm ,
w a lk -
6th
] .

PA ST TE NS E
SING U L A R P L U RA L
1 . I w a lk ed . 1 . We w a lk ed .

2 . T h ou w a lk ed -
si . 2 . Y ou w a lk ed .

3 . He w a lk ed . 3 . T h ey w a lk ed .

From the v iden t et tha t the person a n d num

s n en es c it i s e

ber of a v erb a re u sua lly show n by i ts subj ect only but ( 2

) ,

tha t som e v erb form s ha ve spec i a l endi ng s whi ch den ote person
-

a n d n um b er .

22 4 . T h e endi ng
by m ea ns of s w h ich a verb i ndi c a tes person a nd

num ber a re c a lled persona l end i ng s .

1 . I n the presen t ten se a v erb ha s tw o person a l en d i n g s, es t

for the sec ond person S i n g ula r a n d s for the t hi rd person S i n

g u la r ( Old form eth

) .

Th e first pers on s m g ula r a n d a ll three person s of the plura l

a re a lik e The si m lest f orm of the verb i s u sed a n d n o e
.
p p r

sona l en din g is a dd ed .
 98 VE R B S

2 The pa s en e a
. t t s h s b u t on e pers on a l en d i n g
— es t or s t i n ,

the sec on d person si n g ula r 1

.

V T he form s i n est or st a re c on fi n ed to poetry a n d the solem n

sty le I n ord i n a ry la n g ua g e the sec on d person plura l i s used
.
,

to a ddress le person
a si ng .

T he followi n g ta ble sh ow s the persona l endi ng s of th e presen t

a nd the pa s t ten se

PE R SONA L E N D INGS

P R E S E NT TE NS E PA ST TE NS E
SING U L A R P L U RA L SING U L A R P L U RA L
1 .
[ n o ending
] 1 . 1 .
[ n o en d ing
] 1 l .

2 .
-
est, -
st 2 .
[ n o en ding
] 2 . e t,
-
S -
st 2 .
L[ n o en d ing
]
3 .
-
s
[ old, -
eth
] 3 . 3 .
[ no en di ng
] 3 .
J

C ONJ UG A T ION OF T HE P R E S E NT A ND THE PA ST

of a v erb is ca lled its j

c on ug a ti on

When w e i rifi ec t a v er b w e a re sa i d to
\
j
c on ug a te i t .

C ON J UG A T I ON OF T HE WE A K VE R B WAL K
P R E S E NT TE NS E
SING U LA R P L U RA L
1 . I w a lk .

2 . T hou w a lk est .
2

3 . He w a lk s .

PA ST TE NS E
SING U L A R P L U RA L
1 . I w a lk ed . 1 . W e w a lk ed .

2 . T h ou w a lk ed st . 2 . Y ou w a lk ed .

3 . He w a lk ed . 3 . T hey w a lk ed .

1 T h e endi n g ed i n d i c a tes ten se, n ot person or n um ber .

2 S
T h e sec on d person i n g ula r i s often g iv en a s Thou w a lk es tor You w a lk ,
but i t i s S im pler to reg a rd You w a lk i n th i s u se a s a plura l i n a si n g ula r sen se
1 00 VE RB S

S PE C I A L R U L E S OF NUM BE R A ND P E R SON

226 . When bj ect is c om poun d

the su the n u m b er of
the v erb i s d et erm i n ed by the follow in g rules
1 A c om poun d subj ect w i th a n d u sua lly ta kes a v erb i n the
.

plu ra l n u m b er .

My brother a nd Sister p la y tenni s .

T he g overn or a n d th e m a y or a re c ousi n s .

2 . A com poun d subj ect with or or n or ta kes a verb in the

si n g ula r n um ber if the sub sta n t i v es a re S i n g ula r .

S
Ei th er m y broth er or m y i ster i s sure to w i n .

Neith er th e g overnor n or th e m a y or f a vors th i s a ppoi ntm en t .

3 . A c om poun d su bj ect with a n d ex pressin g but a si n g le

i dea som e ti m es ta kes a v erb i n the S in g ula r n um ber .

T h e sum a n d substa n c e [ z
g i st] of th e m a tter is thi s .

N OT E . Thi s c on struc ti on is ra re in m od ern E ng li sh prose It is for the .

m ost pa rt c on fi
ned to suc h i d i om a ti c ses a h
p ra s en d a n d a i m p urp ose) , the
“
long a n d sh ort of i t, etc Th e poets, h ow ever, use th e c on struc ti on freely (a s
’
.

in K ipli n g s T h e tum ult a nd th e sh outi ng

4 . I f the su bsta n ti ves c onn ect ed by or or n or differ in n um

ber or
person , the v erb u sua lly a g rees wi t h the n ea rer .

E i th er y ou or h e i s to bla m e .

Nei th er y ou n or h e i s a n Austri a n .

Nei th er John n or w e w ere a t h om e .

Neither th e m a y or n or th e a ld erm en f a vor thi s la w .

But c olloqui a l usa g e v a ri es, a n d such ex pressi ons a re a v oi ded

by c a reful writers T he follow in g sen t en c es S h ow how t hi s m a
.
y
be d on e

E i th er y ou a re to bla m e, or h e i s .

On e of y ou tw o i s to bla m e .

Nei th er Of y ou i s a n A ustri a n .

He i s n ot a fra i d n ei th er a m I .

B oth John a n d w e w ere a w a y f rom h om e .

 P E R SO N AND NU MB E R 1 01

227 . In suc h ex pressi on s a s the f ollow i n g ,

the subj ect i s n ot

com poun d ,
a nd th e v er b a g rees w ith i ts si n g ula r su bj ect
The g overnor w i th hi s sta ff i s presen t .

John, a s w ell a s M a ry , i s i n L on d on .

Tom ,
a long w i th h i s f ri en d s D i c k a nd B ob, i s ta ki ng a sa il .

228 . N oun s tha t a re p lu ra l i n form but si n ula r i n

g sen se

c om m only ta ke a v er b in the sin g ula r n um ber

E c on om i c s is . a n im porta nt study .

T he g a llow s ha s been a boli sh ed i n M a ssa c husetts .

In som e w ord s usa g e v a ri es Thus, p a i ns , i n th e sen se of

. c a re or e ort, f is
som eti m es reg a rd ed a s a si n g ula r a n d som etim es a s a plura l .

Gre a t p a i ns ha s ( or ha )
ve been ta k en a bout th e m a tter .

229 . Collective nouns ta k e som eti m es a si n g ula r a n d s om e tim es

a lu ra l v erb
p .

Wh en the person s or thin g s den oted a re thoug ht O f a s

i ndi vi dua ls , the plura l sh ould be u sed W hen the c ollect ion i s .

1
reg a rd ed a s a unit, th e sing ula r sh ould be u sed
‘

1 . T h e S en i or C la ss requests th e plea sure of y ou r c om pa n y .

[ Here th e

c la ss i s th oug ht of a c ti n g a s a uni t
c ollec ti vely , ]
2 . T h e S en i or C la ss a re un a ble to a g ree upon a presi d en t .
[ H ere th e

spea k er h a s i n m i n d th e indivi dua ls Of w h om th e c la ss is

posed ]
c om

3 . T he n a ti on w el
c om es P ri n c e Joseph .
[ T h e w h ole n a ti on un i tes a s a

Sing le i n di vi dua l to w elc om e a d i sti n g ui sh ed g uest]

4 . T h e A m eri c a n n a tion a re d esc en d ed f rom ev ery oth er n a ti on on
ea rth [ T h e sepa ra te qua li ti es Of th e i n d i vi d ua ls ho c on sti tute th e
’
. w

n a ti on a re in th e Spe k e m in d ]
a r s

230 A . num ber i n th e sen se O f sev era l !

or m an y reg u

la rly ta k es the plura l ; th e n um ber ta kes the S in g ula r

A n um ber O f sa i lors w ere loi teri ng on th e pi er .

The n um ber of ti c k ets i s li m ited .

1 Thi s rule is n ot a bsolute . Som etim es th e d i sti n c ti on i s un i m porta n t, a n d

th e feelin g Of th e m om en t O ften d eterm i n es th e n um ber of th e verb .
1 02 VE RB S
23 1 . H a lf , p a rt, p orti on , a n d the like, ta ke ei ther the sin

g ula r or the plura l a cc ording to sen se .

H a lf of a c i rcle i s a sem i c i rc le
“M
.

H a lf of th e pa sseng ers w ere lost /

232 . A v erb whi ch ha s for i ts bj ect a rela tive pronoun is in
su *

the sa m e person a n d n u m ber a s the a n tec eden t For ex a m ples, .

see 1 49 .

E rrors a re espe cia lly c om m on in su ch t

sen en es c as ,

T hi s i s on e of th e stra ng est sig hts th a t ever w ere seen .

[ T h e a ntec e

d ent of tha t i s sig hts (n ot one) h en c e th e rel ati ve (tha t) i s plura l, a nd

a c c ord i ng ly th e verb i s plura l (w ere, n ot

M r W i nn
.
’
s ora ti on w a s a m ong th e m ost eloquen t th a t ha ve [ N O T ha s]
been d eli vered i n thi s sta te f or m a ny y ea rs .

T hi s i s on e of th e fi n est pa i nti ng s th ere a rei n th e h a ll .

[ F or th e om i ssi on

Of th e rela ti ve, see

THE FUTURE TENS E

233 . T he f uture tense is v b phra se c on si sting of the a ux

a er -

i lia ry b s ha ll or i ll follow ed by the i n fi n i ti ve wi thout to

‘

v er w

s
T he followin g ta ble S h ow s the f orm Of the future for ea c h of

the t hree person s ( )

1 i n a sserti ons a n d 2
( ) i n questi on
?
FU T U R E T E NS E

A SS E RT IONS (D E C L A RA T IV E )

SING U LA R P L U RA L
1 . I sh a ll f a ll . 1 . W e Sh a llf a ll .

2 . T h ou w i lt f a ll . 2 . Y ou w ill f a ll .

3 . He w ill f a ll . 3 . T h ey w ill f a ll .

Q U E S T IONS (I N T E RROG A T IV E )
SING U L A R P L U RA L
1 . Sh a ll I f a ll 1 . Sh a ll w e f a ll
2 . Sh a lt th ou f a ll 2 . S h a ll y ou f a ll
3 . W ill h e f a ll 3 . W i ll they f a ll
1 04 VE RB S

II . PR OM I S E S, T H R E A T S, E TC .

I i ll subsc ribe to y our f un d

w [ P rom i se . .
]
W e w i ll do our best [P rom ise ] . .

I i ll di sc ha rg e y ou i f y ou a re la te a g a i n
w .
[ T h rea t]
W e w i llp ermi t y ou to g o [ C on sent] .

I w i ll ha ve obed i en c e [ R esoluti on ] .

’
I ll a nd w e
’
ll a re c on tra cti on s Of I w i ll a nd w e w i ll a nd c a n

n ev er s a n d t for I s ha ll a n d w e s ha ll .

’
I ll m eet y ou
‘

t n oon [ P m i ]
’
a . ro se .

I ll e e n v r c on sen t [ R luti ]
’
. eso on

We ll be reven g ed on y ou .
[ T h rea t
]

236 W hen w i llin g n ess i s ex pressed by a n

. a d j ective ,
I s ha ll
is c orrec t ; when by a n a dverb I w i ll Thus ,
.
,

I sha ll be g la d to h elp y ou .

I w i ll g la dly h elp y ou .

N OT E . xpressi on s a s I sh a ll be g la d I sha ll be w i lli ng I sha ll be

S uc h e , ,

c h a rm ed to d o thi s express w i lli n g n ess n ot by m ea n s of sh a ll but i n th e a d j ec

,

ti ves g la d , w i lli n g , c h a rm ed T o sa y ,
!
I w ill be g la d to d o th i s , th en , w ould
.

x
be w ron g , for i t w ould be to e press v oli ti on tw i c e Suc h a sentenc e c ould .

on ly m ea n I a m d eterm i n ed
O n th e oth er ressed
by th e
v erb ph ra se w i ll h el d t h d b m l m di fi th h se by em ph a siz
’
-
p a n e a v er ere y o es e p ar

i n g th e spea k er s w illi n g n ess Hen c e I w i ll i s c orrec t . .

237 Wi ll when em pha si z ed a lw a y s ex presses d eterm in a t ion

.
, ,

on the pa rt of the su bj ect ev en i n th e sec on d a n d t hi rd pers on s ,

.

I WI L L g o n o m a tter w ,
'

h a t y ou sa y .

Y ou WI L L ]
a ct f ooli shly ,
Q

Spi te of 0

m y a d vI c e
0

f
In
He W I L L
.

‘
f
23 8 . In the sec ond S ha ll you ?
pers on not Will you ? i s the proper
form of th e future tense i n questi ons .

Willyou a lw a y s denotes w i lli ng ness , c onsent, or determ i na ti on, a nd

never si m ple futuri ty .

N ote tha t questi on s in the sec ond person the

in ,
a ux i lia ry
u sed i s th e sa m e a s t ha t ex pect ed i n the a n sw er .
 T E N SE O F VE R B S 1 05

I . FU T U RE TENSE ( S I M P L E FU T U R I T Y
)
S ha ll y ou be disa ppoi n ted if h e d oes n ot c om e [ I S h a ll]
S ha ll y ou reg ret hi s a bsen c e [ I sh a ll]
S ha ll y ou g o by boa t or by tra i n ? [ I Sh a ll g o by boa t]
5

II . VE RB P H R A S E
-
D E NO T I NG W I L L I NGN E SS , E TC .

Wi ll y ou w rite Often [I w ill]

Will y ou a llow m e to h elp y ou [I w ill]
Wi ll y ou be so kin d a s to Open th e w i n d ow [ I w i ll]

239 . S ha ll in the sec ond a n d thi rd persons i s n ot the S ig n Of

the future t en se i n d ec la ra ti v e sen ten ces .

It is used in co
m m a ndi ng , prom i si ng , threa teni ng , a n d ex press

i ng res oluti on , the v oliti on bei n g tha t of the spea ker .

T h ou sha lt n ot ki ll
[ C om m a n d.
]
Y ou sha ll ha ve th e h a t bef ore M on d a y [ P rom i se ] . .

Y ou sha llp dy f or thi s i n sult ! [T hrea t]

Sh e sha ll n ot reg ret h er g en erosity [ R eso l uti on
] .

I n prophetic la n g ua g e, s ha ll i s c om m on in the c
se on d a n d

th i rd person s ,
ev en when there is no i d ea Of c om m a n din g or

the lik e .

T he sun sha ll be turned i n to d a rk n ess a nd th e m oon in to blood .

Joel i i 3 1
. .

240 . I n m ili ta ry ord ers a n d Offi ci a l c om m un ic a ti on s custom ,

perm i t s the m ore c ourteous w i ll in the pla c e of sha ll in the

c
se on d a nd thi rd pers on s .

Y ou w i ll i m m ed i a tely report f or ord ers .

Hea d s of D epa rtm ents w i ll subm i t th eir esti m a tes before Ja n ua ry fi rst .

—
F or s ha ll a n d w i ll i n su b ordin a te cla uses .

, pp 1 3 0 1
see 3 2 . .

24 1 . Future t im e m a y a lso be ex presse d by th e pre se n t

tense ,
or by a bou t or g oi ng w i th the i n fin i ti ve

W e sa i l for Ha va n a on T uesd a y .

T hey a re a bout to beg i n th e study of Greek .

 VE RB S

COMP LE TE OR COMP OUND TENSES

242 . Com pleted a cti on i s d en ot ed by spe c ia l verb phra ses -

m a de
by prefi x i n g to the pa st pa rti c i ple som e form Of the a ux ilia y
r

verb ha ve .

T h ese a ca lled the c om plete or com pound tenses

re .
. r

There a re th ree com plete or c om pound t enses 2 ,

the perfect

( t f t ) the pluperfect ( f d
) the future
'

or presen per ec ,
or pa st per ec t ,
a n

perfect .

1 T h e perfect ( or present perfec t) tense deno es th a t th e a cti on of

t
«
.
,

th e verb i s c om plete a t the ti m e of spea k i ng I t i s form ed by prefi x i ng .

ha ve ( ha s t, ha s) to th e pa st pa rti c i ple .

I ha ve lea rned m y lesso n .

He ha s c onvi nc ed m e .

NOT E . With sev era l ve ifi of m oti on th e a u xilia ry be i s som eti m es used

i n stea d of ha ve a s, My fri en d s a re g on e ( or ha ve g one Your tim e
is c om e (or ha s

2 T h e pluperfect ( or pa st perfect) tense denotes th a t th e a cti on w a s

.

c om pleted a t som e poi nt i n pa st ti m e I t i s form ed by prefi x i ng ha d .

( ha ds
)
t to th e pa st pa rti c i ple .

B efore n i g ht fell, I ha d fi ni shed th e book .

W hen B la k e ha d sp oken, A llen rose to reply .

3 . T he future perfect tense denotes tha t the a cti on w i ll be c om pleted

a t som e poi nt i n future ti m e .I t i s form ed by prefi x i ng th e future tense
of ha ve sha ( ll ha ve, etc .
) to th e pa st pa rti c iple .

B efore I h ea r f rom y ou a g a in , I sha ll ha ve la nd ed a t Na ples .

T h e future perfec t ten se i s x

ra re e c ept i n v ery form a lw riti n g .

243 . T he form s Of the pa t

s pa rti c iple w ill be studied i n
33 4 . Mea n w hile, the followi n g pra ct i ca l rule w ill serv e ev ery

u
p pr ose

T he pa st pa rti c i ple i s th a t verb- form w h i c h i s used a fter I ha ve .

E XA MP LE S [ I : ha ve ] m end ed , tri ed , sw ept, boug ht, brok en , f org otten ,

f ound , sunk , d ug .
1 08 VE R B S

24 7 . T he pa ssive voi ce o a ver

f b i s e p e sed by ve
x r s a rb-
phra se m a de
by prefi x i ng som e form of th e c opula ( is, w a s, etc ) to th e pa st pa rti c iple . .

I n the pa ssi v e v oi c e of th e com plete tens es ,

th e pa s t pa rti ciple
been follows the proper form Of the a ux ilia ry ha ve
( as i n the
third l
ex a m
p e i n 2 4 6,

T he pa ssi v e of the i nfi niti ve i s m a de by prefi x i ng to be ( per

fec t, to ha ve been to the pa st pa rti c iple Thus,
) .

P R E S E NT INF INI T IVE PA SSIV E : to be struc k .

P E R F E C T IN F INI T IV E P A SSIV E : to h a ve been struc k .

248 The followi n g ta ble

i v es the onj ug a ti on of the verb
.
g c

s tri k e i n the a cti ve a n d pa ssi v e of the si x ten ses

AC T IVE VOIC E P A SSIV E VOIC E

P R E S E N T T E NS E

SING U L A R
1 . I stri k e
. 1 . I a m struc k .

“
2 . T h ou stri k est . 2 . T hou a rt struc k .

3 . He stri k es . 3 . He i s struc k .

P L U RA L
1 . W e stri k e . 1 . W e a re struc k .

2 . You stri k e . 2 . You a re struc k .

3 . T hey stri k e . 3 . T h ey a re struc k .

PA ST T E NS E
SING U L A R
1 . I struc k . 1 . I w a s struc k .

Th ou struc k est T h ou struc k

2 . . 2 . w a st
( or w ert ) .

3 . He struc k . 3 . He w a s struc k .

P L U RA L
1 . We struc k . 1 . We w ere struc k .

2 . You struc k . 2 . You w ere struc k .

3 . Th ey struc k . 3 . T hey w ere struc k .

 CON J U G AT ION O F VE RB S 1 09

AC T I VE VO I C E P A SS I V E VO I C E

F U UR
T E TE NS E
SING U L A R
1 . I Sh a ll stri k e . 1 . I sh a ll be struc k .

2 . T h ou w i lt stri k e . 2 . T h ou w ilt be struc k .

3 . He w i ll stri k e . 3 . He w ill be struc k .

P L U RA L
1 . We Sha ll stri k e . 1 . W e sh a ll be struc k .

2 . You w i ll stri k e . 2 . Y ou w i ll be struc k .

3 . T hey w ill strik e . 3 . T h ey w ill be struc k .

R F E C T ( OR P R E S E N T P E RF E C T ) T E NS E
PE

SING U L A R
1 . I h a ve struc k . 1 I h a ve b een stru c k . .

2 . T hou h a st struc k 2 T h ou h a st b een struc k

. . .

3 . He h a s struc k . 3 He ha s b een stru c k . .

P L U RA L
1 . W e h a ve struc k . 1 . W e h a ve b een stru c k .

2 . Y ou h a ve struc k . 2 . You h a ve b een struc k .

3 . T h ey h a ve struc k . 3 . T h ey h a ve been struc k .

PL UP R C E FE T
( OR P A S T P E RF E C T
) TE NS E
SING U L A R
1 . I ha d struc k . 1 . I h a d been struc k .

2 . T hou h a d st struc k . 2 . T h ou h a d st b een stru c k .

3 . He h a d struc k . 3 . He h a d been struc k .

P L U RA L
1 . W e ha d stru c k . 1 . W e h a d b een struc k .

2 . You h a d stru c k . 2 . Y ou h a d b een struc k .

3 . T hey h a d struc k . 3 . T hey h a d b een struc k .

 VERB S

AC T IV E VO IC E P A SSIV E VO IC E

F UT UR E P E RF E C T T E NS E

SIN GU L A R
1 . I sh a ll h a ve stru c k . 1 . I sh a ll h a ve been struc k .

2 . T hou w i lt h a ve struc k . 2 . T ho u w i lt h a ve b een s truc k .

3 . He w i ll h a ve struc k . 3 . He w ill h a ve been struc k .

PL U RA L
1 . We sh a ll ha ve struc k . 1 . W e sha ll ha ve been struc k .

2 . You w i ll h a ve struc k . 2 . Y ou w ill h a ve been struc k .

3 . T h ey w i ll h a ve stru c k . 3 . T h ey w ill ha ve been struc k .

US {O F THE P A SSIV E VOIC E

249 . An y
t c whi ch the predi ca t e is a tra n siti ve
sen en e of

v erb follow ed by a n O bj ect m a y be c ha n g ed from the a ct i ve ,

to the pa ssi ve form w i th ou t a ffecti n g the sen se .

A C T IV E . Ri c h a rd shot th e bea r .

il
i
P A S S I VE . T h e bea r w a s shot by Ri c h a rd .

In thi s cha n g e ( 1 ) bea r the O bj ect Of the a cti ve verb

, ,

s hot b ec om es th e su bj ect of the pa ssi v e v erb w a s s hot

,
a nd

( )
2 R i c ha rd th e subj ect of the a ct i ve v erb s hot b ec om es by
, ,

R i c ha rd a n a d verb ia l phra se m odi fy in g the pa ssi ve verb w a s

, ,

s h ot
. T hus w e ha v e the rule

T he ob j ect of the a ctive verb bec om es th e subj ect of the pa ssive ,

a nd

j
th e sub ec t of the a c tive verb bec om es i n th e pa ss i ve a n a dverbi a l ph ra se
m odify i ng th e pred i c a te verb .

A C T IV E V OIC E P A SSIV E VOIC E

My ca t c a ug ht a bi rd . A bi rd w a s c a ug ht by m y c a t .

A us ti n th a nk ed C h a rles . C ha rles w a s th a n k ed by Austin .

T h e bullet pen etra ted a tree . A tree w a s pen etby th e bullet

ra ted .

S a rg en t pa i n ted th a t portra i t . T ha tportra itw a s pa i nt ed by S a rg ent .

T he fi rem a n ha d sa ved th e c hild . T he c h i ld h a d been sa ved by th e fi re

m an .
1 12 VE R B S

O BJ E C T OF THE P A SSIV E

253 . When
verb ta kes b oth a direct a n d a n indi rect obj ect,
a

on e of the tw o i s O ften reta in ed a ft er th e pa ssi ve, the other

becom in g the subj ect Thus, .

1 . The i ndirect obj ect i s re a in ed

t .

A C T IV E VOIC E PA SSIVE VO I C E
My a unt g a ve m e thi s w a tc h . T hi s w a tc h w as
g iven m e by m y

W e a llow ed them f ree c hoi c e . Free c h oi c e w a s a llow ed them .

He a llow ed ea c h w ea ker a n h our . A n hour w as a llow ed ea c h spea ker .

C ong ress g ra nted m e a pensi on . A pensi on w a s g ra nted m e .

N OT E T h e preposi ti on to i s O ften i n serted in th e pa ssi ve c on struc ti on ,

.

espec i a lly w i th a n oun ; a s, A sm a ll pen si on w a s g ra nted to D r J ohnson !

. .

2 . The di rect obj ect i s re a t i n ed .

A C T IV E V OIC E P A SSIV E VO I C E

W e a llow ed th em th ei r c hoi c e . T hey w ere a llow ed th ei r c hoi ce .

He a llow ed ea h spea k er a n hour Ea ch spea k er w as a llow ed a n hour

g
. .

‘
T hey sh ow ed m e th e w a y . I the w a y
w a s sh ow n .

x
E peri en c e h a s ta ug h t m e w i sdom . I h a ve been ta ug ht w isdom by eX
peri en c e .

T he direct Obj ect a fter a pa s si ve verb is Often ca lled the

reta i ned ob ect j .

N OT E Thi s c on struc ti on , i s a void ed by m a ny c a reful

th oug h
’
. c om m on ,

x
w ri ters, e c ept in a f ew w ell-esta bli sh ed i d i om s I ts ha bi tua l use g iv es on e s .

sty le a h ea vy a n d a w k w a rd a i r In stea d of He w a s g i ven perm issi on , on e

.
!

m a y sa y He rec ei ved perm i ssi on in stea d of I w a s g i ven thi s w a tc h by

m y a unt, ei th er It w a s m y a unt w ho g a ve m e thi s w a tc h or This w a tc h
!
w a s a presen t from m y a unt .

254 . T he v erb a sk , wh i c h ma y ta k e tw o di rec t obj ec ts,

on e den otin g the person , the other the th i n g ,
som etim es

reta in s its sec on d O bj ect i n th e pa ssi v e c on structi on

A C T IV E . W e a sk ed hi m hi s opi ni on .

PA SSIV E . He w a s a sk ed h i s op i ni on .
 P R OG R E SSI VE VE R B P HRA S E S —
113

P RO G —
R E SSI VE VE RB P HRA SE S

255 . In a ddi ti on to the ten se form -

s a lrea dy desc ri bed , verbs
v s —
ha e o c a lled prog ress i ve form s .

T he prog ressive form of a tense represents the a cti on of th e verb a s

g oi ng on or conti nui ng a t the ti m e referred to .

I a tem y di nn er .

I w a s ea ti ng m y di nn er .

W hile I w a s qui etly rea di ng by m y fi resi d e, stra ng e thi ng s w ere ta ki ng

pla c e i n th e squa re .

B oth a te a n d w a s ea ti ng a re in the pa
t ten se But a te m erely s

ex presses a pa st a cti on wherea s w a s ea ti ng d es cri bes thi s a cti on

,

a s conti nui ng or i n prog ress i n pa s t t i m e .

25 6 T he prog ress ive form i s a verb-phra se m a de by prefi x i ng to

.

the present pa rti ci ple som e form of the verb to be .

P R O GR E SS I VE FO R M

A C T IV E VOIC E

P RE SE NT TE NS E
SI N G U L A R P L U RA L
1 . I a m stri ki n g . 1 . W e a re stri kin g .

2 . T h ou a rt striki n g . 2 . You a re striki n g .

3 . He i s striki n g . 3 . T h ey a re striki n g .

the other tenses

PA ST I w a s stri ki n g , etc .

F U UR E
T I sh a ll be striki n g , etc .

PE RF E CT I h a ve b een stri k i n g , etc .

P L U PE RF E CT I ha d been striki n g , etc .

FU T U R E PE R F E C T I Sh a ll ha ve been striki n g , etc .

P A SS IV E VO I C E

I a m bei n g struc k , etc .

I w a s bein g struc k , etc .

114 VERB S

25 7 I n the pa ssi ve, the prog ressi ve form

. s a re c on fin ed to
the presen t a n d the
pa st t en se .

He i s bei ng help ed by hi s broth er .

[ P resen t]
I a m bei ng tra i ned by A rthur R a y .
[ P resen t
]
W hen I ca lled , tea w a s bei ng served .
[ P a s t]

258 . b ordin a te cla uses the v erb i s (in its v a ri ous form s)
In su ,

w i th i ts subj ect i s O ft en om i tt ed i n prog ressi v e phra ses .

W hi le w a i ti ng f or th e tra i n , I boug ht a n ew spa per .

[ Th a t i s, W hile I
w as w a i ti ng ]
T h oug h [ h e w as ] i
sw m m i ng vi g orously ,
h e c ould n ot stem th e ti d e
W hen [ I am
] rea di ng , I lik e to h a ve th e lig h t shi n e over m y left

should er .

I n pa rsin g , th e om i tt ed words sh ou ld be suppli ed .

259 . For su ch prog ress1 v e f orm s a s i s bu i ld i ng for i s bei n g

bui lt, see 3 52 .

4 ;
MPHAT I C VE R B P HRA SE S
-

260 T he present or the pa st of

. verb i n the a ctive voi ce m a y be ex
a

pressed w ith em ph a si s by m ea ns of a Verb phra se c onsi sti ng of do or did

-

a nd the i nfi ni tive w ith out to .

S uc h a ph ra s ei s ca lled the em pha ti c form of th e present or pa st tense .

I d o see y ou I di d g o d i ffer f rom

a nd I see y ou a n d I w en t
m erely I n em ph a si s Hen c e do seei s c a lled th e em pha ti c form O f th e present
.

ten se Of see, a n d did g o th e em ph a ti c f orm of th e pa st tense of g o .

261 . questi on s a n d i n n eg a ti ve sta tem en t s

In th e em pha ti c
form s a re u sed wi t hou t th e effect of em pha si s .

D i d y ou g o I d id n ot g o .

N OT E . D o of ten sta n d s for som e oth er v erb w h i c h ha s j ust been used : a s ,

Ja c k sw i m s better th a n I d o,
!
Y ou looked a s ti red a s sh e d i d .
!
Thi s i d i om
c om es from th e om i ssi on of th e i n fi n i tive i n th ev erb-
ph ra se Ja c k sw im s
better th a n I d o
I n poetry a n d old er E n g li sh th e v erb-ph ra se w i th do or d id i n d ec la ra ti ve
sen ten c es often c a rri es n o em pha si s, but m erely ta k es th e pla c e of th e present
!
or pa st : a s , Th e serpent beg ui led m e, a nd I di d ea t .
116 VE R B S

265 . T he
c om m onest uses of the i ndi ca tive m ood a re in sta te !

m en ts or quest ion s a s to m a tters O f fa ct ; but i t m a y ex press .

a lm ost a n y other form of t houg ht Thus .

T im e a nd tid e w a it for no m a n .
[ A sserti on ]
How g oes th e w orld w i th y ou [ I n terrog a ti on ]
How i t ra ins ! [E x c la m a ti on ]
I f th e ri ver ri ses , th e d a m w ill be sw ept a w a y . S
[ pp
u osi ti on ]
I suspec t th a t h e ha s a bsc onded .
[ D oubt]
I hOpe th a t John w i ll c om e soon [ D esi re] .

T houg h E llen dislikes a lg ebra , Sh e n ever shi rks .

[ C on c essi on ]
You w i ll rep ort for d uty im m edi a tely .
[ C om m a n d ]
Wi ll y ou a llow m e to use y our k nif e [ R e q u es t]
I

N OT E j
The i n d i c a ti v e a nd th e sub un c tiv e w ere ori g i n a lly q ui te d i sti nc t
.

i n form , a n d eac h h a d i ts ow n set of c on struc ti o

‘
ns B ut, a s our la ng ua g e h a s .

i l i i h f f
'

g row n s m p e r n ts str uc ture, t e o rm s o t h ese tw o m ood s h a ve bec om e a

a lm ost i d en ti éa l, a n d th e uses of th e in d i c a ti v e h a v e been g rea tly m ultipli ed

x
a t th e e pen se of th e sub un c ti ve j
I n d eed , th ere i s sc a rc ely a ny v a ri ety of
.

x j
th oug ht e pressed by th e sub un c ti v e or th e i m pera ti v e for w hi c h th e i n di ca
tive c a nn ot a lso be em ploy ed I t i s th erefore i m possi ble to fra m e a ny sa ti sfa c
.

tory d efi ni ti on of th e i n d i c a tive I ts func ti on s a re too v a ri ed to be in c lud ed i n

.

on e g en era l sta tem en t T h e i n d i c a ti v e i s often d esc ri bed a s th e m ood w h i c h

.

j
a sserts th oug h ta s a f a c t, a n d th e sub unc ti v e a s th e m ood w h i c h e presses x
th oug h t a s suppo§i ti on (or a s m ere thoug h t) B ut th e i n d i c a ti ve, a s w ell a s the
.

j x
sub un c ti v e, m a y e press supposi ti on , c on d i ti on , d oubt, d esi re, c on c essi on , etc .

x
Henc e th e d efi n iti on s i n 263 a re a s e a c t a s th e fa c ts of th e la n g ua g e a llow .

All th e efforts of g ra m m a ri a n s to d evi se m ore a c c ura te d efi ni ti ons brea k

d ow n w h en tested by a c tua l usa g e .

11 . IMP ERAT IVE MOOD

266 . T he im pera ti ve i s the m ood of c om m a nd or req uest .

L ig ht th e la m p .

S how us th e w a y .

Wa it a m om en t .

C om eto d i nn er .

The i m pera t i ve ha s b oth v oices, a ctive a n d pa ssive, but on ly

on e ten se, the present It ha s b oth n um bers, the sing ula r a n d
.

the plura l, but on l y on e person , the sec ond . It ha s the sa m e

form for both th e si ng ula r a nd the plura l .

 IMP E RAT IVE MOOD 11 7

26 7 . 1 . T he i m pera ti ve a ctive i s th e verb i n i ts sim plest f orm .

For ex a m l
p ,es se e 266 .

Th e i m era ti ve of the v erb to be i s be T hus,

p .

B e bra ve . B e sure y ou a re ri g ht .

B e ca reful . B e h ere a t n oon .

2 . T he im pera tive pa s sive i s a verb-

ph ra s e c ons i sti n g of be a nd a

pa st pa rti c i ple .

B e trusted ra th er th a n f ea red .

S tud y y our f a ilures a nd be i nstruc ted by th em .

26 8 . T h e sub ect of j a n i m pera tive i s seldom ex pres sed unless it is

em ph a ti c .

T he su bj ect wh en
,
ex pressed , m a
y pre ed e c the im pera t i v e
a s, You si t here .

N OT E In old er E n g li sh , th e sub ec t j often f ollow ed th e i m pera ti v e : a s,

’
.

Go thou , Go y ou , Hea r ye . Th i s u se i s n ow c on fi n ed to th e solem n sty le a n d

to poetry .

269 . T h e em pha ti c f orm of the i m pera ti v e c on si st s of the i m

pera ti ve do, f ollow ed by th e i n fi n i t i ve w ithout to .

D o tell m e w h a t h e sa i d .

D o sta nd sti ll .

The f orm wi th do i s often used w hen the subj ect i s ex p ressed

a s, — D o y ou rem a in .

270 . P rohi biti on ( or neg a ti ve c om m a nd

) is c om m onl y ex pressed
by m ea n s of the form w ith d o .

Do n ot op en a c losed d oor w i th out k n oc k i ng .

Do f
n ot org et to sa y th a n k y ou .
!

I n poetry a n d the s olem n style proh i b i t i on i s of en ex t press ed

by the sim ple i m pera ti v e w ith n ot .

Tell m e n ot w h a t too w ell I k n ow .

D evise n ot evil a g a i n st thy n ei g h bor .

S eek not to lea rn m y na m e .

118 VE RB S

271 . C om m a n d s a re som e im es ex t pres sed i n the i n d i ca ti ve

by m ea n s of s ha ll or w i ll 23 9

T hou sha lt n ot stea l .

You w i ll lea ve th e room i m m edi a tely .

For suc h expressions a s

“Forw a rd ! O ff w i th y ou ! a nd th e li k e,
see 5 30 .

For th e i m pera tive in c ond i ti ons , see 41 8 .

y SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

FO R M S OF T HE S UB JUN CT I VE

272 T he . j
sub unc ti ve m ood i s used i n c erta in speci a l c onstructi ons
of w i sh , c onditi on, a nd th e lik e .

In older E n g li sh the were c om m on i n a j

sub unctive form s

va riety of uses a s they still a re i n poetry a n d the solem n

,

sty le I n ord i n a ry prose h owev er subj un cti ve forms a re ra re

.
, , ,

a n d i n c on versa t i on they a re ha rd ly ever h ea rd, ex cept i n the

,

ca se of the copula be .

The subj un cti ve form s of be a re the followi n g

S U BJ UNC T I V E M oo n
PR E S E N T TE NS E
SING U LAR P LU R A L

P A S T T E NS E
SING U LA R P LU RA L
1 . If I w ere. 1 . If w e w ere .

2 . I f th ou w ert . 2 . I f you w ere .

3 . I f he w ere . 3 . I f they w ere .

P E RF E C T (OR PR E S E N T PE RF E C T) T NS E E

SING U L A R P LU RA L

1 . I f I h a ve b een . I I f w e ha ve been . .

2 . I f th ou h a ve been 2 If you h a ve been

. . .

3 . I f h e h a ve b een 3 I f th ey h a ve been
. . .
1 20 VE R B S

I n thefi rst fi ve ex a mples the wish i s ex pressed in a n i n de,

pe n d e n t sen t en c e I n the la st tw o th e c on struc t1 on i s sub

.
,

o d
r i n t
a e — th e tha t cla use b ei n g the obj ect of a n un ex pressed
-
,

I wish !

276 T he subj un ct iv e be i s often om i tted when i t m a y ea sily

.

be suppli ed .

P ea c e [ be] to hi s a sh es

Hon or b
[ ]
e to h i s m em ory

Honor b
[ ]
e to w h om h on or i s due

277 . W i shes a re of en t in troduc ed by m a y or w ou ld .

Ma y y ou n ever w a n t
Would th a t h e w ere sa fe
Would y ou w ere w i th us [ F or Would tha t]
Ma y a n d w ou ld x
i n suc h e pressi on s w ere ori g i n a lly sub un c ti ves ; w ould j
sta n d s for I w ou ld , th a t i s, I sh ou ld w i sh Wa n t i n th e fi rst e a m ple i s a n
. x
in fi n i ti v e w ith out to x
F or w i sh es e pressed by th e i n fi ni ti v e, see § 320 .

278 . E x horta ti ons i n the first person p lu ra l som e t im es ta ke

the subj un c tiye i n eleva t ed or poet i c a l s ty le .

H ea r w e th e k ing
J oi n w e in a hy m n of pra i se!

E x h orta tion i s ord i n a ril y ex p ressed by let us followed by

the i n fin i t i v e w i thout to .

L et us j oi n ha n d s .

L et us h a
’
ve pea c e .

L et s ca m p h ere .

L et i s a v erb i n th e im pera ti v e m ood , u s i s i ts j

ob ec t, a n d th e i n fi n i tiv e
(j oi n , h a ve, ca m p ) d epen d s on let .

S ubj unctives i n Conc essi ons , Condi ti ons , etc .

279 . T he j
sub unc ti ve i s used a fter thoug h, althoug h, to ex press an

a dm i ss i on or c onc essi on not a s a fa ct but a s a suppositi on .

T houg h h e sla y m e, y et w ill I trust i n hi m .

Th oug h h e w ere to beg th i s on hi s k n ees, I should sti ll refuse .

 S U B J U N CT IVE MOOD 1 21

When the con cessi on is t ted

s a a s a n a dm i tted fa ct, the i ndi ca
ti ve i s reg ula r .

A lth oug h he i s f orei g n er, h e spea k s g ood E ng li sh

a .

T houg h h e som eti m es si ng s, h e i s n ot n ow i n g ood voi c e .

28 0 After .
if a n d u n less , ex ressin g
p c onditi on , the sub juncti ve
ma y be us ed in a va riety of w a ys .

1 . I f thi s be g old , our f ortune i s m a d e .

[ I t m a y or m a y not be g old ]
2 . I f h e c onf ess, I sh a ll overlook th e offen c e .
[ He m a y or m a y n ot
c onf ess ]
3 . Unless h e f
c on ess, he c a nn ot be c on vi c ted .
[ He m a y or m a y not
c onf ess ]
4 . I f thi s w ere g old , our f ortun e w ould be m a de .
[ I t i s not g old h en c e
our f ortun e i s n ot m a d e]
5 . I f he stood before m e a t thi s m om ent, I sh ould tell h i m m y Opi n
i on .
[ H e d oes n ot sta n d bef ore m e h en c e I d o n ot tell hi m .
]
6 . I f h e ha d f
c on essed , I Should h a ve overlook ed hi s f a ult .
[ He d i d
n ot c onf ess ; h en c e I did n ot ove rloo k i t]
7 . Unless h e ha d c onf essed , h e c ould n ot h a ve been c on vi c ted .
[ He
d id c on f ess ; h en c e h e w a s c on v i c ted ]

In ti on a l c la uses the present subj unctive den otes either

c on d i ,

pr e s ent or futu re t i m e I t pu t s th e su pp.o s ed c a s e d ou bt fully bu t ,

n ot n ec essa ri ly a s im proba ble S

( ee ex a m
ple s 1 .

The pa st subj uncti ve refers to present t im e It im plies tha t .

the supposed c a se i s not now a fa ct ( See ex a m ples 4 a n d .

T he pluperfect ( or pa st perfect) subj uncti ve refers to pa st tim e .

It im pli es tha t the supposed ca se w a s not a fa ct ( See 6 a n d .

—
For d et a ils of c on di ti on a l sen ten c es see pp 1 67 1 72 , . .

28 1 Concessi on or c onditi on m a y be ex pressed by the subj uncti ve

w i t hou t thou h or i h v rb rec edi n g the subj ect whi c h i s
g f t e e p , ,

som eti m es om i tt ed .

I . CO N C E SS I C N

Try as w em a y, w e c a nn ot sw im to th a t roc k .

Sa y w c a n n ev er c on vi n c e m e
h a t h e w ill, h e
’
.

C om e w h a t w i ll, I ll sta n d m y g roun d .

B e th a t a s it m a y ,
m y m ind is m a d e up .
1 22 VE R B S

II . CO N D I T I O N

Were I a sk ed , I c ould tell a ll the f a c ts .

[ I f I w ere a sk ed etc ]
H a d I k n ow n, I w ould h a ve w ri tten to y ou .
[ I f I h a d k n ow n , etc

I sh a ll be tw enty y ea rs old ,
c om e T u esd a y .
[ I f T u esd a y c om e, etc ]
I w ill g o, ra in or shi n e .
[ I f i t ra i n ,
or i f i t shi ne, etc ]
B e h e pri n c e or be h e pa uper, every g uest i s b c om e h ere
w
l .

NO TE . j
T h e sub unc ti v e i n th ese c on c essi v e a n d c on d i ti on a l uses i s rea lly
th e sa m e a s th a t in e h orta ti on s x Try [w e] a s w e m a y m ea n s li ter
ally , L et u s try a s h a rd a s w e c a n, a n d thi s h a s th e forc e of
“How ev er
h a rd w e try or Althoug h w e try ever so h a rd .
!

28 2 . After a s if ( a s thoug h
) ,
th e pa st subj unctive i s u sed .

He look s a s i f he w ere a bout to spea k .

[ NO T : a s if h e w a s a bout to
spea k]
I a ct a s if I w ere c ra zy [NO T . a s if I w a s c ra zy ]

28 3 . Th e sub uncti ve j m a y ex press n ot w ha t i s or w a s, but

w ha t w ould be or w ould ha ve been , the c a se .

I t w ere sa f e
r to tra vel by da y .
[ I t w ould be sa f er, etc ]
I ha d been Wi ser h a d I f ord ed th e ri ver .
[ I Should ha ve been w i ser if
I ha d ]

T hi s c on struc ti on is Old- fa sh i on ed . M od ern E n g li sh c om m only uses should

( or w ou ld ) be, sh ou ld ( or w ou ld ) ha ve been , in stea d .

28 4 . Th e sub uncti ve j
cc a si on a lly u sed a ft er tha t les t be is o , ,

f ore u n,
ti l etc i n su b ord in a t e c la u ses referri n g to the future
,
.
,

a n d c om m on ly ex pressi n g purpose or expecta ti on .

T a k e h eed th a t h e esca p e n ot .
[ P urpose]
G i ve h i m f ood lest h e p eri sh .
[ P urpose]
L et us ta rry un ti l h e c om e .
[ E pec ta tx
i on ]

c on struct i on is c on fin ed to poetry a n d the

T hi s solem n or

form a l style I n ord i n a ry la n g ua g e the i n di ca ti v e

. or a verb
ph ra se w i t h m a y i s u s ed .

T a k e h eed th a t h e does n ot esc a p e .

Give him f ood i n ord er th a t h e m a y not p eri sh .

L et us w a i t till h e c om es .
 VE RB S

NT I A L VE RB P HRA SE S -

OF MODAL AUXILIARIE S

28 7 . v
S e era l a ux i li a ry verbs a re used to form verb phra ses indi ca ting
-

bility , possibility , obli g a ti on, or nec essity

‘

a .

Such verb phra ses a re ca lled potentia l phra ses tha t i s

-
, , phra ses

of pos si bility .
!

The a u x ilia ry verb s i n potentia l phra ses a re — m a y, ca n ,

u sed

m us t, m i g ht, c ou l
d, w ou ld , a n d s hou ld T hey a re ca lled m oda l .

a ux ili a ri es a n d a re followed by the in fi n it i ve W i thout to .

We m a y a sk hi m a f ew q uesti on s .

I c a n m a na g e a m otor c a r .

You m ust i nqui re the w a y .

He m ig htg i ve y ou a c h a nc e .

I c ould show y ou hi s house i f y ou w oul

d p erm i t m e .

I should enj oy a sea voy a g e -

.

N OTE Th e fa c t tha t g i ve, etc , i n suc h ph ra ses a s c a n g i ve, a re i nfi n i ti ves

. .

m a y be seen by c om pa rin g I c a n stri ke w i th I a m a ble to stri ke, !

I may
I a m perm i tted to s tri ke, I m ust stri ke w ith I a m obli g ed
!
stri ke w i th

to stri ke, a n d sa on In ea rli er peri od s of th e la n g ua g e, w h en th e i nfi n iti ve ha d

!
.

a spec i a l en d i n g -
a n or -en ) th e n a ture of th e c on struc ti on w a s un m i sta k a ble .

28 8 . P otenti a l phra ses m a y be a rra n g ed i n ta bles of c onj ug a

t ion ,
like tha t on pp 1 08 1 1 0
.
-
. T hey a re O ften c a lled c ollee ,

tiv ely, the potentia l m ood .

AC T IV E VO I CE

PR E S E N T TE NS E
SING U LA R P L U RAL
1 . I m a y stri k e .
1 1 . We m a y stri k e .

2 . T hou m a y st stri k e . 2 . You m a y stri k e .

3 . He m a y strik e . T hey m a y strik e .

PA ST TE NS E
1 . I m i g ht stri k e .
2
1 . W e m i g ht stri k e .

2 . T h ou m i g htst stri k e . 2 . You m i g ht stri k e .

3 . He m i g ht strik e . 3 . They m i g ht stri k e .

1 SO I c a n stri ke, etc .

2 So I c ou ld stri ke, etc .
 P O T E N T IAL VE R B P HR AS E S —
1 25

P E RF E C T (OR P RE S E NT PE RF E C T ) TE NS E
SINGU L A R PL U RAL
We m a y
“

1 . I m a
y h a ve struc k .
1
1 . h a ve struc k .

2 . T h ou m a yst h a ve struc k . 2 . You m a y h a ve struc k .

3 . He m a y h a ve struc k . 3 . T h ey m a y h a ve struc k .

PL UP R CE FE T
( OR PA ST PE RF E C T ) T E NS E
1 . I m i g ht ha ve struc k .
2
1 . W e m i g ht h a ve struc k .

2 . T h ou m i g htst h a ve struc k . 2 . You m i g ht h a ve stru c k .

3 . He m i g ht ha ve stru c k . 3 . T h ey m i g ht h a ve struc k .

P A SS I V E VO I C E

P R E S E N T T E NS E

I m a y be struc k , etc . We m a y be stru c k , etc .

P A S T T E NS E

I m i g ht be struc k , etc . W e m i g ht be stru c k , etc .

PE RF E C T (OR P RE S E NT P E RF E C T ) T E NS E
I m a y h a ve been struc k , etc . W e m a y ha ve been struc k , etc .

PL UP R C
E FE T
( OR PA ST P E RF E C T ) T E NSE
I m i g ht h a ve been struc k , etc . W e m i g ht h a ve been stru c k , etc .

289 . Ca n
( pa s t t en se ,
c ou ld
) reg ula rl y in di ca tes tha t the
su bj ec t is a ble to do som e thi n g .

Joh n c a n ri d e a bi c y c le .

Ha rry c oul
d sw im .

29 0 M a y .
( pa s t t en se ,
m i g ht) i n di c a tes 1
( ) perm i s si on , ( )
2
pos s i bi li ty or doubtful i ntenti on, 3
( ) a w i sh .

I
( ) Y ou m a y borr ow m y p en c il .

I told hi m th a t h e m i g ht oi n j our pa rty .

( )
2 He m a y a c c ept m y offer .

Y ou m ig ht n ot lik e it .

3
( ) M a y g ood f ortun e a tten d y ou 1

So I c a n ha ve stru c k , etc .
2 So I c ou ld ha ve stru c k , etc .
1 26 RB S
\
29 1 . In a ski n g pe i ssi on , the proper form 1 8
rm Ma y I
n ot Ca n I Wi th n eg a t ives, however, c a n i s m ore c om m on
t ha n m a y, ex c ept in questi on s . T h u s,

Q U E ST ION .
'

Ma y I ( or m a
’
y n t I ) pl y b a a ll this m orn i n g

A NSW E R . N0, y ou c a nnot; but y ou m a l

y p a y thi s a ftern oon .

29 2 . M ust ex presses nec essity or obli g a ti on .

W e m ust a ll di e som etim e .

Y ou m ust w a it f or th e tra i n .

Y ou m ust n ot be di sc oura g ed by f a ilure .

N OT E . Must ,
th oug h i n a lly a pa st ten se, i s i n m od ern E n g li sh a lm ost
ori g

a lw a y s u sed a s a presen t P a st n ec essi ty m a y be e pressed by h a d to w i th

. x
th e i n fi n i ti ve : a s, I h a d to w a i t f or th e tra i n !
.

29 3 . w ith the present i nfi nitive ex presses a presen t

Oug ht ,

d uty or m ora l O blig a ti on ; wi th th e perfect i nfi ni ti ve a pa st duty ,

or ob li g a t i on S hou ld i s O ft en u sed i n the sa m e s en se

. .

I oug ht to w rite th a t letter [ P resent] .

Y ou oug ht n ot to ob j ec t [ P resent
} . .

T hi s roof oug htto be m ended .

[ P res en t .

I oug ht to ha ve know n better .

[ P a st .

Y our d og oug ht n ot to ha ve been un lea shed [P a st ] . .

Y ou should be c a reful [P resent ] . .

T h e g a rd en should ha ve been w eed ed y esterd a y [ P a st

] . .

NOT E
Oug h t i s rea lly a n old pa st ten se of th e v erb ow e, but i s n ow a lw a y s
’
'
.

a presen t I ts f orm er m ea n i n g m a y be seen i n D a m e Q ui c k ly s

.
“ Y ou oug ht
h im a th ousa n d poun d !
( S A E E ,
1 He n ry I V, i i i 3H KSP R . .

H a d sh ould n ev er be prefi x ed to ou g ht .

C ORR E C T I NCORR E C T

Y ou ht to sta y t h om e Y ou h a d oug h t to sta y a t h om e

’ ’
oug a . .

We oug htn t to m a ke SO m uc h We ha d n t oug ht to m a k e m uc h SO

n oi se n oi se
’ ’
. .

John oug h t to beg i n , oug htn t he Joh n oug ht to beg i n , h a d n t he

294 . S hou ld a n d ou g ht som e ti m es ex p ress wha t would c er

ta in ly be ex pect ed i n the ca se supposed .

1 28 VE RB S

29 8 . Com m on errors a re the u se of I w ou ld for I shou ld in

a sser ti on s Wou ld I ? a n d Would you for S hou ld
,
a nd tha t of

I a n d S hou ld you i n quest i on s .

T he c orrect form s a re shown i n the follow in g sen ten c es .

I I shou ld (w e shou ld) a n d I w ould (w e w ou ld) in a ssertions

.

1 . I brea k m y n ec k i f I f ell
shoul
d .

2 I should h esi ta te to try this experi m ent

’
. .

3 . I should n t w on d er if h e esc a ped .

4 . We should reg ret a ny m i sun d ersta n d i n g .

5 . I d w
shoul i sh to pla n x
e a m i n e th e
s a g a i n bef ore d ec i di ng .

6 . I should be g la d to a c c ept a n y f a i r offer .

7 . I w ould g ive fi ve d olla rs f or a ti c k et .

8 . I w oul
d help y ou if I c ould .

9 . I w oul
d n ever a g tree
o s u c h a ro
p p osi ti on .

10 . We w d ra th er d i e th a n surrend er
oul .

11 . We w oul
d y pa our bi ll to d a y if w e h a d th e m
-
on ey .

12 . I w d g la d ly
oul a c c ept a ny f a i r offer .

I n th e fi rst ( )si x c
ex a m l I
orrect bec a use shou ld is
’
e
p ,s or w e ,

the a ux i lia ry g i ves n o sug g est i on of the S pea k er s w ill ( or

.
’
v olition ) I n the la st si x on the c on tra ry the S pea ker s will , ,

i ng n ess or d esire i s pla in ly ex pressed by the a ux i lia ry a n d I ,

or w e w ou ld i s th erefore u sed
( ) .

N OT E . I n suc h sentenc es a s th e fi fth ,

I sh ould w i sh to e a m i ne th e pla ns x
a g a i n befo e d ec d
r i i n g ,
! — w i sh e presses v o li ti on H en c x
e I w ould w i sh is . .

x
i nc orrec t, for i t e presses v oliti on tw i c e a n d c a n m ea n only I d esi re to i sh !
W .

“ I h ould prefer, !
S
I h ould be g la d , !
S
O n th e sa m e prin c iple w e sa y etc

( see
S om etim es ei th er I w ou ld or I shou ld m a y be used , but w ith a d ifi erenc e in
m ea n in g Th us , i n th e ei g h th e a m ple,
. x
I sh ould h elp y ou m i g h t be substi
tuted for I w ould h elp y ou
!
T h i s c h a n g e, h ow ev er, m a k es th e rem a rk sound
.

less c ord i a l a n d sy m pa th eti c ; for I sh ou ld (unlik e I w ou ld ) g i ves n o hi nt of

’
th e spea k er s d esi re to be of serv i c e .

II . Shou ld I ( or w e
) ? i n questi ons

1 . S hould I brea k m y n ec k if I f ell

2 . S hould I be poi son ed i f I a te th ose berri es
3 . Should I ta k e i th out m y overc oa t
c old w

4 . Should I d i sturb y ou if I w ere to pra c ti se m y m usi c lesson

5 . Should w e run a g roun d i f w e m i ssed th e c ha nn el ?
 S H O UL D AND WO UL D 1 29

N OT E . Wou ld I i s c on fi ned , for th e m ost pa rt, to q uesti on s i n w hi c h one

repea ts th e w ord s or th oug h t of a n oth er T h us , You w ou ld g iv e fi ve d olla rs
’
.

for a ti c k et .
!
Wou ld I 9 NO , I w ould n t! I n thi s u se it i s c hi e y c olloqui a l fl .

III . S hou ld you a nd Wou ld you 7

2 in questi on s
1 . S hould you d row n i f th e boa t w ere to ca psi ez [ Y es ,
I shoul
d
d row n , f or I d o n ot k n ow h ow to sw i m ]
2 . S hould you d espa i r if th i s pla n w ere a f a ilure [ No, I d n ot,
shoul

for I h a ve other resourc es

]
S hould you th i nk th a t ten y a rd s of velvet w ould be en oug h
3 .
[ Y es ,

I should thi nk so]

4 Should you be ofi en d ed i f I w ere to spea k f ra n k ly
. N
[ ,o I shoul
d
not be offen d ed ]
5 . S hould y ou w i sh to ex a m i n e th e pla n s a g a in before d ec i d i ng ?
[ Y es,
I should (see n ote un d er I , a bove) ]
6 . Would y ou w ea r a ha t or a c a p [I w ould w ea r a c a p if I w ere y ou ] .

7 . Would y ou study Greek if y ou w ere i n m y pla c e [ Y es I w ould ] ,

8 . Would y ou a c c ept m y a polog y if i t w ere offered ? [ C erta i nly I ,

w oul
d a c c ept i t g la d ly ]
9 . Would y ou be ki n d SO to len d m e y our
a s c om pa sses [ C erta i nly
I w oul
d len d th em ,
i f I h a d n ot lost th em ]
10 . Would y ou a llow m e to use y our n a m e a s a ref eren c e [ I w oul
d ]

Th e ch oi ce between s hou ld a nd w ou ld in
these sen en es t c
r
c o respon d s to the form ct ed i n the
ex pe a n swer

29 9 . The ch ief occ a si on s on whi ch Wou ld you ? i s c orrect

a re
( )
1 i n a ski ng a dvi c e i n a m a tt er of d oubt a n d ( 2
) i n ,

a ski n g c onsent or perm i ssi on .

In p l x
e am
es 6 a n d 7 i n 29 8 ,
I I I ,
th e S pea k er a sk s a d vi c e ; i n 8 , 9 ,
a nd 10,
h e a sk s c on s en t o r perm i ssi on .

300 N ote tha t the proper form

. s a re I s h ou ld li k e, S hou ld I
lik e a nd S hou ld you li k e
I shoul
d lik e to rea d th a t book .

Should I lik e to g o to R om e I n d eed , I shoul

d.
S hould y ou li k e to rec ei ve a c opy of our c a ta log ue [ I shoul
d lik e to
rec ei ve on e
]
N OT E . Wou ld is v ery c om m on i n th ese ph ra ses, ev en a m on g w ri ters of

repute, but i t i s still c on tra ry to th e best usa g e Th e . rea son for shou ld i s th e
sa m e a s in I shou ld w i sh 29 8 , I , n ote) .
 30 VE RB S

301 .
’
I d a nd w e
’
d a re con t ra cti on s of I w ou ld a nd w e

w ou ld . Hen c e they ca n n ev er st a n d for I s hou ld a nd w e

s h ou ld

302 . S hou ld in the sec ond a n d thi rd persons m a y be used I n

simp le d ec la ra t i ve sen t en c es a n d i n d epen den t c la uses to ex

ress the w ill of the spea ker

p

I f I ha d m y w a y, y ou should be prosec uted .

[ T h a t is : I w ould ta k e
ca re th a t y ou w ere prosec u ted ]
I f I h a d th e m on ey , y ou shoul
d be pa i d i m m ed i a tely .
[ C om pa re : You
sha llbe pa i d ]
If I w ere y ou ,
s he should n ot reg ret h er g en erosi ty .
[ C om pa re : S he
sha ll n ot reg ret i t]

II . S HO ULD AND WO ULD IN S UB ORDINAT E CL AUS E S

303 . In s om e k in ds O f subordi na te c la uses , the u se of s hou ld

a n d w ou ld d iffers c on sid era bly from tha t in si m ple sen en es t c

a nd p c i
ri n pa l c la u ses .

T he follow in g cla sses require a tt en t i on ( )

1 c la u ses of pur

p o s e O r e p c ta ti on 2
( ) c o n d i t i on a l a n d c on c essi v e

cla uses 3 c la u ses ex pressi n g v olit i on n ot t ha t of

( ) ’
the subj ect c la u ses st a t in g som ethi n g a s a n i d ea
( )
4 l

5
( ) i n d irect d i sc ourse

304 I n sub ordi n a t e c la uses ex pressin g the purpose or ex pec

.

ta ti on w i t h whi c h a n ythi n g i s d on e s ha ll a n d s h ou ld a re used ,

in a ll three person s .

I
1
C a rleton took g rea t p a i n s th a t you shoul
d ersta n d th e d eta i ls
of th e trea ty . they
I sha ll
S c ott v ery c a ref ulth a t n othi ng { terf ere W 1 th h1s pla n s .

s
L
I
T h ey took every prec a uti on lest y ou shoul
d suspec t th e plot .

he
I
A n d erson w a i ted pa ti en tly un ti l you shoul
d a rri ve w i th th e h orses .

they
W e stra i n ed every n erve to rea c h the c a ve bef ore the storm d brea
shoul k .
1 32 VE RB S

306 . S ha ll a n d shou ld O ften used in the secon d a n d thi rd

a re

er on s i n su b ord i na t e cla u ses to ex press v oli t i on wh i c h i s n ot

p s

tha t of the subj ect .

T em pleton i nsi sts th a t you sha ll a c c om pa n y h i m .

T hi s letter di rec ts w h ere y ou sha ll sta ti on y ourself .

W e g a ve ord ers tha t th e g a tes should be c losed .

you
My w i sh is th a t rem a i n a t hom e
he
.

T h e la w presc ri bed w h en a nd to w h om th e ta x shoul

d be pa i d .

307 . When a cla use W I th tha t s a t t es s om e thin g ,

n ot a s a

fa ct but a s an i dea to be c on sid ered ,

s hou ld i s the proper
a ux ilia ry i n a ll three person s .

I a m n ot surpri sed th a t y ou should fi nd y our lesson ra th er d iffi c ult .

[ T h a t i s W h en I c on sid er th e m a tter, I d o n ot fi n d th e i d ea surpri si ng .

n ot surpri sed tha ty ou fi nd , th e subord i n a te c la use m k es

!
In I am etc .
,
a

th e sta tem en t a s a fa ct]

I t i s stra n g e tha t T om shoul
d n eg lec t hi s sw im m i n g lesson s .
[ C on tra st
I t i s stra ng e th a t T om neg lec ts ]
T h a t Na poleon should h a ve c h a f ed a t c a pti vi ty i s only n a tura l .
[ C on

tra st : T h a t Na poleon c ha f ed ]

308 . For s ha ll a nd w i ll, s hou ld a nd w ou ld, in i ndi rect di s

—
c ourse, see 4 38 4 39 .

T HE I NFI NI TI VE

309 . T he i nfi niti ve i s a v tha t ha s som e of the proper

er form
b-

t ies Of a noun I ts tw o S i ded c ha ra ct er c om es out c lea rly

-

w hen it i s u sed a s the subj ect of a sen t en c e .

1 . To hop e i s our on ly resourc e .

2 . To fla tter i s n ot m y c ustom .

3 . To sleep w a s a n i m possi bi li ty .

4 . To surrender seem ed d isg ra c eful .

5 . To c hoose w i sely w a s m y g rea test diffi c ulty .

6 . To sc a le th e w a ll w a s th e w ork of a m om en t .

Ea ch these i n fi n itiv es ( to hop e to fla tter etc ) i s a noun

of , , .
,

f or ea c h i s the S I m ple subj ec t O f a sen t en c e B esi des; a n ordi .

n a ry n oun m a b e sub st i t ut ed for ea c h i n fi n i t i v e w it h n o c h a n g e

y ,
 IN FIN I T I VE S 1 33

in m ea n i n g ; a s H op e i s our onl y resou rc e F ta ttery i s

n ot m y cust om S leep w a s a n i m possi b i li ty .

B ut ea c h of these i n fi n iti ves i s a lso a verb, — for ( )

1 i t ex

presses a ction ; ( 2) it m a y be m odifi ed by a n a dverb a s in ,

No 5 ; (3) it t akes a n obj ect if it i s tra n sit iv e a s in No 6

.
,
. .

An i n fin i ti ve (a s the ex a m ples S how) ha s reg ula rly n o sub

j ec t a n d t h eref ore la c k s both n um b er a n d person H en c e iti s n ot .

boun d by the g en era l rule for the a g reem en t of a v erb with

its su bj ect From th i s fa ct it deri ves its n a m e i nfi niti ve , ,
1
whi ch m ea n s un restri cted or free from lim i ta ti on s .
!

3 10 . T h e i nfi niti ve i s a verb- form w h i c h pa rta k es of the na ture of a

noun It e presses
. x a cti on or sta te in th e si m plest poss i ble w a y , W i th out

pers on or num ber .

It i s c om m only prec ed ed by th e prepositi on to, w hi c h is ca lled th e

S i g n of th e i nfi niti ve .

To is n ot, in s ri c n ess, a
t t p t ar of the i n fi n i ti v e, but it m a y
be so reg a rd ed for c on v en i en c e, si n c e the i n fi n it i v e, i n m os t of

its u ses, is prec ed ed by to .

N O T E To som eti m es sta n d s f or a n in fi n itiv e in c a reless speec h : a s ,

.

Y ou m a y g o i f y ou w i sh to “ S uc h expres
-
(th a t i s, if y ou w i sh to
si on s a re to be a v oi d ed It i s better to sa y , .Y ou m a y g o if y ou w i sh !
.

31 1 . T he i n fi n i t i ve of en
t la c k s to, espe cia lly i n v er b phra ses
-

w it h the a ux i li a ri es w i ll, s ha ll, m a y, c a n , m u s t, m i g h t, c ou ld ,

w ou ld, s hou ld , do, d id . For ex a m ples ,

see pp .1 02 ,
1 1 4 ,
1 2 4 .

312 . T h e i n fi n i t i v e ha s tw o t en ses ,
-
th e present a n d the

perfec t .

1 T h e present i nfi nitive i s th e v erb in its sim plest f orm , u su

.

a lly prec ed ed by to a s, to li ve, to tea c h, to bin d, to s tri k e .

2 T he perfect i nfi nitive i s m a de by prefi x in g the i n fin it i v e

. of

the a ux ili a ry v erb h a ve to th e pa st pa rti c iple a s,

to h a ve li ved, to h a ve ta ug ht, to h a ve bou n d, to h a ve s tru c k .

1 F or th e so-c a lled i nfi ni ti v e c la use, in w hi c h th e i n fi n i ti v e ha s a sub ec t of j

—
a pec uli a r k in d , see 3 24 328 .
1 34 VE RB S

313 . An in fin it i ve m a y be m odi fi ed by a n a dverb, a n a dverbi a l

phra s e,
or a n a dverbi a l c la use .

To w ri te l
eg ibly i s a va lua ble a c c om pli sh m ent .

It w ould be useless to sea rc h long er .

T h ey a llow ed hi m té g o i n p ea c e [A dverbi a l phra se] .

T o d i ve a m ong those w eeds w ould be folly .

T h eod ore prom i ses to c om e w hen I send f or hi m .

[ A d verbi a l c la use]
No m odi fi er should be i nserted betw een to a nd the i nfi niti ve .

I beg y ou to i n qui re c a ref ully i nto th i s m a tter .

[ NO T : to ca refully

i n qui re]
Mr Ha rri s
. m oved to postpon e th e questi on i nd efi n itely .
[ N OT : to
i n d efi n i tely postpon e ]
I expec t a lw a y s to be poor .
[ N O T : to a lw a y s be poor]

N OT E . Ca ri ters
pa y sli g h t a ttenti on to thi s rule, a n d som e g ood
reless w

w ri ters a n d spea k ers d efy i t, h opi n g to brea k i t d ow n B ut i t i s unq uesti on .

a bly still in a c c ord w i th the best usa g e .

3 14 . T he i nfi nitive m a y ta k e a n ob ec t i f j i ts m ea nin g a llow s.

I long to vis i t I ta ly .

My m oth er f ea red to en ter th e house .

T o la un c h a boa t w
i m possi ble a s .

T o g ra nt y our request is a plea sure .

T o g ive hi m m oney i s useless .

[ M on ey i s th e di rec t Obj ec t of to
a n d hi m th e i n di rec t ob ec t ] j .

3 15 . Th e i n fi n i t i v e i s u sed in a va riety of con structi on s ,

( )
1 a s a noun, 2
( ) a s a n a j
d ective m odifi er or a dverbi a l m odifi er ,

3 i n th e so— lled i nfi ni tive

( ) ca c la use .

I . THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN

3 16 . The in fi ni ti ve i s u sed in va ri ous noun c onstructi ons, —a s

su bj ec t ,
a s pred i a c te n om in a ti v e a s n om i n a ti ve of ,
excla m a ti on ,

as a pposi ti ve ,
a s O bj ect of certa i n preposi t i on s a s ,
m od i fier

317 . An i nfi ni ti ve w ith or w ith out a c om p lem e nt or m o d ifi ers ,

m a y
be used a s th e j
sub ec t of a sentenc e, a s a pre d i c a te nom i na t iv e,
or a s

an a ppos i ti ve .
136 VER B S

320 The i n fi n i t i ve m a y be u sed

. a s a nom i na tive of ex cla m a ti on

( s 8 8 .
4 ) To sleep ! perc h a n c e to drea m !
To sa f er a n d be silen t l
O to be a boy a g a i n I [A w i sh ]
O to ha ve li ved i n th e bra ve d a y s of Old !

II . THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIF IER

3 21 . An i nfi ni tive m a y b e used a s a n a dj ective m odifi er of a noun or

a s a n a dverbi a l m odi fi er of a n a j
d ective .

I n th i s use th e i nfi niti ve i s sa i d to depend on the w ord w hi c h it

m odifi es .

W ITH NO U NS WITH A DJ E C T IV E S
A DJ E C T IV E M ODI F I E R A DV E RBI A L M ODI F I E R
( ) ( )
An Opportun i ty to a dva nc e c a m e . T h e m en a re rea dy to a dva nc e .

D eterm i n a ti on to w i n bri ng s suc c ess . Joh n i s ea g er to w in .

W illing n ess to obli g e m a k es fri en ds . I Sh a ll be g la d to obl

i g e y ou .

I w i sh I h a d th e a bi li ty to sw i m . W e a re a ll a ble to sw im .

Hi s a n xi ety toplea seus w a s la ug h a ble . He i s a n xi ous to p lea se every body .

N OT E T hi s u se i s d ue to th e f a c t th a t th e i n fi n itiv e w ith to i s rea lly a

.

\
preposi ti ona l phra se T h us, d eterm i n a ti on to w i n !
i s eq ui va lent to
“d eterm i n a ti on or vi c tor ! a n d “ea er to w i n “ i
f f
!
y, g t o e a g e r or v c tory .

j
Th e a d ec tiv e forc e of th e i n fi ni tiv e c om es out c lea rly i n
“ n oth in g to ea t,
w h ere to ea t i s pra c ti c a lly sy n ony m ous w i th ea ta ble .

j
I n i ts a d ec ti v e use, th e presen t i n fi ni ti v e som etim es h ow s n o di stin c ti on S
i n v oi c e, so th a t th e a c ti ve a nd th e pa ssi v e a re i nterc h a n g ea ble : a s, a

h ouse to let or!

to be let !
a n a x e to g ri n d
!
or
“to be g roun d
!
. In suc h

expressi on s th e a c tive form i s usua lly prefera ble .

322 . T he i n fi n i t i v e w i thout to y b
m a e u s ed a s a n a dj ect i v e

m odi fi er a ft er the d irec t obj ec t of s ee, h ea r, f eel, a n d som e

ot her verb s of li k e m ea n i n g .

I sa w th e poli c em a n a rrest h i m .

Hea r th e sea roa r !

Ca n y ou f eel th e g roun d trem ble

R uth w a tc h ed th e ti d e c om e i n .

I n th i s use th e i n fi ni ti v e i s pra c ti c a lly equi v a lent to a pa rti c iple C om pa re .

I h ea rd hi m shou t w i th
! “ I h ea rd hi m shou ti ng !
Hen c e th e substa ntiv e .

j
m a y be reg a rd ed a s a n ob ec t, a n d th e i n fi n i ti v e a s i ts m od i fi er B ut th e
'

c on struc ti on c losely a pproa qh es th a t of a n i n fi ni ti v e c la use 324

 IN FINI T IVE S 1 37

323 An infi niti ve m a y m odify a verb ( 1 ) by

. c om p eti ng i ts m ea ning
l ,

or ( 2 ) by ex pressi ng the purpose of th e a cti on .

I . C O M PL E M E N T A R Y IN F IN I T IV E
T h e ship beg a n to roll .

T h e ra in c on ti nued to f a ll h ea vi ly .

E very boy d esi res to succ eed .

O
T he ffi c er n eg lec ted to w a tc h hi s m en .

T h e pri son ersttem pted to esca p e

a .

Y ou prom i sed to c om e to—

ni g ht .

After d a re, th e c om plem en ta ry i n fi n I ti v e m a y or m a y n ot h a v e to . T h us ,

I d a re n ot d o i t ; !
Wh o w ill d a re to sp ea k ?

II . I NF I N I T I V E OF P U RP OS E

He w ent to New Y ork to study m edi c in e .

He Open ed h i s lips to sp ea k .

Sh e c losed h er ey es to shut out th e si g ht .

E lsa lifted th e c over to see w h a t w a s i n si d e .

T he c on d uc tor si g n a lled to stop th e tra i n .

Ha rold w a i ted to a s sist h i s tea c h er .

B oth the l t i fi i ti d th i fi i ti f pu
‘

c om p em en a ry n n ve a n e n n ve o rpose

ma y be reg a rded a s a dverbi a l ph ra ses m odi f yin g the verb .

N OT E . After som e v erbs th e i n fi ni ti v e a pproa c h es th e c on struc ti on Of a

pu re n oun a n d i s often reg a rd ed a s a n ob e c t T h u s ,

I d esj
i re to see y.ou

(c om pa re I d esi re a si g h t O f I t i s sim pler, h ow ev er, to reg a rd a ll

suc h in fi ni ti v es a s c om pl em e n ta ry a n d to trea t th em a s a d v erb i a l m odi fi ers .

For i t i s i m possible to di sti n g ui sh th e c on struc ti on of th e i n fi n i ti v e a fter c er

j
ta in a d ec ti v es (a s in I a m ea g er to see y ou
!
) from i ts c on struc ti on a fter
suc h v erbs a s w i sh a n d d esi re .

III . THE INFINI TIVE CL AUS E

324 . A peculia r i n fi n it i v e c on stru cti on of en repla t c es a th a t

cla use a s the Obj ect of a v erb . T hus,

° tha t he should g o
I W I Sh e
.

him to g o .

I n the first t
sen en c e, the n ou n cla use tha t he shou ld g o i s the
obj ect of w is h ed ; in th e sec on d, thi s c la use i s repla c ed by hi m to
 VE RB S

g o, but w i thout a n
y cha n g e in m ea n i n g . Thi s ex press i on c on

si s s of
t tw o pa r O bj ecti ve ca se
s t ( )
1 h i m ,
a pron ou n i n the ,

whi ch repla c es the subj ect h e ; a n d (2) a n in fi n i t ive to g o,

whi ch repla ces the predi c a te s hou ld g o Thus it i s pla i n tha t .

hi m to g o i s a lso a n oun c la use of wh i c h hi m i s the subj ect , ,

a n d to
g o the
pred i ca t e S u c h a n ex
pressi on i s c a lled a n .

i nfi nitive c la use .

3 25 . A k ind of c la use, c onsi sti ng of a substa nti ve i n the ob j ective

c a se follow ed by a n i nfi v
niti e, m a y be used a s the ob ec t of j c erta in
verbs .

S uc h c la uses a re c a lled i nfi ni tive c la uses, a nd the substa ntive i s sa id

to be th e sub ec t of j th e i nfi ni ti ve .

T h e sub j ect of a n i nfi nitive i s i n the obj ective c a se .

I nfi nitive c la uses a re u sed ( )

1 a fter v erb s of w ishi n g c om m a n d ,

i ng ,
a dvi si ng ,
a nd the lik e, a nd
( )
2 a fter som e v erb s of beli eu
1
i ng , d ec la ri ng a nd erc ei vi n T hus,
, p g .

Th e c olon el c om m a n d ed them to c ha rg e th a t th ey sh ould c ha rg e ] .

I beli eve hi to be trustw orthy th a t h e i s trustw orthy ] .

,
j
T h e ud g e d e la red hi m to be a da ng erous m a n th a t he w a s, etc ] .

Aft er a few v er bs the i n fi n i t i ve without to i s u sed i n i n fi n i

t iv e cla uses .

Mr . E sm on d ba d e h i s serva n t p k a
a c portm a n tea u a nd g et h orses .

[ C om pa re ord ered hi s serva n t to p a c k , etc ]

W ha t m a k es h im [
c ryC o2
m pa r e W h a t c a uses him to c ry

I let h im slee
p .
[ C om pa r e I a llow ed him to sleep ]

N OT E O rdi na rily th e i n fi nitiv e c a nn ot a ssert a n d h enc e h a s no sub ec t

. j
Th e i n fi n i ti ve c la use i s, th erefore, a pec uli a r e c epti on , f or hi m to g o x
m a k es a n a sserti on a s c lea rly a s th a t h e sh ou ld g o d oes T h a t hi m i s rea lly .

j
th e sub ec t O f to g o a n d n ot th e ob ec t of w i shed i s m a n i fest, for I w i shed j
. O j
h i m m a k es n o sen se T h e b ec t of w i shed i s th e w h ole c la use (hi m to g o) .

O ri g in a lly , to be sure, th e n oun or pron oun i n th e ob ec ti v e w a s felt to be j

j
th e Ob ec t of th e m a i n v erb , a n d thi s rela ti on m a y still be f elt in I ord ered
h i m to g o ; but ev en h ere th e rea l ob ec t of ordered i s th e c la u se ( a s m a y be
!
j
seen i n I ord ered th e c a stle to be blow n T h e substa n ti v e h a s c om e to
j
be th e rea l sub ec t O f th e i n fi n i ti ve, a n d h ould be so trea ted i n pa rsi ng S .

1 After v erbs of w ishi ng , etc

,
th.ey e press purpose x 403) a fter verbs of

beli evi ng , etc .

,
th ey a re i n i n d i rec t d i sc ourse
 VE RB S

P A RT I CI PLE S

329 . words unite in t hem selves som e Of the prop

Certa i n
erti es of a dj ecti ves w i th som e of the propert ies of verbs S uch .

w ord s a re c a lled pa rti c i ples T hus ,

S ha ttered a n d si nki ng , but g a lla n tly returni ng th e enem y

’fi s re, th e

frig a te d ri fted out to sea .

S ha ttered , s in k i n g ,
a n d return i ng
verb form s whic h a re in
a re -

som e respect s sim i la r to i n fi n i ti v es for ( 1 ) t hey ex press a cti on ;

( )
2 t h ey ha v e n o subj ect to a g ree w i th a n d hen c e ha ve n ei t her ,

rson n or num b er ; a n d 3 on e of t hem t a k es a di rect O bj ect

p e ( ) .

T hey d iffer from i n fi n i ti ves h owever in t ha t they resem ble

, , ,

n ot n oun s but a dj ect i v es f or th ey desc ri be the sub st a n t i v e

, ,

ri a te to whi c h t h ey b elon g
f g .

Such v erb form s a re c a lled pa rti ciples beca use they sha re (or
-
,

rti c i a t e i n h t re of a dj ect i v es
p a p ) t e n a u .

T h epa rti c iple i s j

i

330 . a verb- form w hich ha s no sub ect, but w h i c h

pa rta k es of thena ture of an a j

d ective a nd ex presses a c ti on or sta te in
suc h a w a y a s to desc ribe or li m it a substa ntive .

W ho thunderi ng bla c k est steed B YRON

'

c om es on .

C li ng i ng to the horns Of th e a lta r, voi c eless Sh e stood . DE Q U INC E Y .

D eserted, surrounded , outnum bered , a nd w ith every thi ng a t sta k e, h e

did n ot even d eig n to sta n d on th e d ef en sive . MA C A U L A Y .

S hrouded i n suc h ba leful v a pors, th e g en i us O f B urns w a s n ever seen

in c lea r a z ure splen d or, enl

i g hteni ng th e w orld . CA R L Y L E .

FORMS OF P ART ICIP LES

33 1 . Verb s ha ve three pa rt i c i ples, the present, th e pa st,

a nd the perfect .

332 .T he present pa rti c i ple en d s i n i ng

-
. It u sua lly desc ri b es
an a ction a s ta ki n g pla c e a t the sa m e t i m e w i th som e o ther
a ction .

T om th e pa th
c a m e sa unteri ng up .

T h e beg g a r sh a m bled d ow n th e steps, g rum bli ng .

fl
Rea c hi ng f or th e ow er, I lost m y ba la n c e .
 P AR T I C I P L E S 1 41

3 33 T h e presen t pa rti c iple often refers to tim e re ed i n c

.
p g
tha t den ot ed by the predi ca t e v erb .

Risi ng from h i s c h a i r, h e bow ed .

[ T h a t i s, w h en h e h a d ri sen ]
Lea rni ng th a t y our broth er w a s i n trouble, I h a sten ed to hi s a id .

334 T h e pa st pa rti c iple i s

. a lw a y s a ss oc i a ted w ith the i dea of pa st
ti m e or c om pleted a c ti on .

1 . T h e pa st pa rti c i ple of a w ea k verb h a s the sa m e form a s th e pa st

1
tense .

P R E SE NT TE NS E PA ST TE NS E PA ST PA RT ICIP L E
I m end c ha i rs . I m end th e c ha i rs . T h e c h a i rs a re m ended .

I sw ee
p th e room s . I pt
sw e he room s . T h e room pt
s a re sw e .

I seek trea sure . I soug ht trea sure . T rea sure i s soug ht .

I lose m on ey . I lost m on ey . T he m on ey i s lost .

T h e pa st pa rti c i ple of
2 . strong verbs sh ow
_
s a c h a ng e from th e vow el

of th e present tense .

All stron g verbs h a d ori g i na lly th e ending en ( 72) i n th e pa st pa rti

c iple, but th i s endin g h a s been lost i n m a ny verbs .

P R E S E NT TE NS E PA ST PA RT ICIP L E
He sp ea ks .
( He h a s) sp o k en .

He dra w s .
( He h a s
) d ra w n .

He si ng s .
( H e h a s ) su n g .

He w i ns .
( H e h a s
) w o n .

The form S how t va ri e ty a nd t be lea rn ed

‘

g s rea m us
—
ra c t i c e S 2 f li st
p ( ee pp 9 1 . 2 9 7 or . a
) .

335 The perfect pa rti c i ple i s m

. a de by prefi x i n g ha vi n g to

pa s t pa r ti c i ple .

H a vi ng m end ed th e w a tc h , I sen t i t to th e ow n er .

H a vi ng lost hi s m on ey , Ja m es w a s f orc ed to w a lk h om e .

336 T h e presen t pa rti c iple i s

. u sed i n form in g the prog res
si v e v erb-phra s es 2 55
T he pa st pa rt i c iple i s u sed i n f orm i n g the c om plet e t en ses
—
242 2 44 ) a n d the pa ssi ve v oi c e

1 Th e only x
e c epti on s a re tri fl in g d ifi eren c es in spellin g .
 42 VE R B S

CONS TRUCTIONS OF P ARTICIP LES

3 37 . S in ce the pa rti c iple ha s a dj ecti ve propert ies, Its c on ~

struc ti on s a re i n the m a i n lik e those of a dj ect i v es .

33 8 . A pa rti c iple i s sa i d to belong to the substa nti ve w hi c h i t

desc ribes or li m i ts .

Rupert, m i ssing hi s c om pa ni on , stepped to th e d oor .

[ T h e presen t

pa rti c i ple m i ssi ng belon g s to th e sub ec t Rup ert] j

Risi ng , Sh e open ed th e w i n d ow .
[ R i si ng belon g s to she]
I h ea rd th e ra i n f lli ng [ F ll
i bel t th e O bj ec t ra in ]
’
a . a ng on g s o

To m s a rm ,
broken by th e blow ,
h ung useless .
[ T h e pa st pa rti c i ple
broken belong s to th e sub ec t a rm j ]
H a vi ng bed th e h ill w ith g rea t d iffi c ulty , I stopped to
cl
im rest .
[ T h e

perf ec t pa rti c i ple ha vi ng c l

i m bed belon g s to th e s ub ec t I ] j
339 A pa rti c i ple sh ould
. not be used w i th out som e substa ntive to
w hi c h it m a y belong .

R IGH T : E nteri ng th e room ,

w e sa w a stra ng e S ig ht [T he pa rti c iple
.

enteri ng belong s to th e pron oun w e ]

W RONG :
‘

E
n o substa nti vl
e to
nteri ng th e room

w hi c h enteri ng
,
a stra ng e sig

ca n belon g
ht
it ha
w a s seen

s no
[ S.i n c e

c on struc ti on ]
th ere i s

Appa ren t ex c ept ion s a re c on c ern i ng ,

c onsi d eri ng ,
p en d i n g ,

g en erall s
y p ea k i n , etc
g T h e fi r st t h ree m a y be c la ss ed . a s re
p p o

si ti on s th e la st a s a n i n d epen den t pa rt i c iple .

W e f oug h t every da y, a nd , g en era lly sp ea ki ng ,

tw i c e every d a y — D E .

Q U INC E Y .

N OT E . Th e rule in § 3 39 d oe s n ot a l
pp y to su c h ph ra ses a s o n en ter i ng ,
a f ter i n ves ti g a ti ng , etc , i n w h i c h th e w ord s i n -i n g a re n ot pa rti c iples , but
.

v erba l n oun s T h us the follow i n g senten c es a re g ra m m a ti c a l On

Si g ht a ppea red “A ter i n vesti ti ng th e sub
f
!
en teri n g th e room , a stra n g e ; g a

j S uc h expressi on s Should be used w i th

!
ec t, th e p a n w a s a d opted
l .
, h ow ev er,
ca uti on , si n c e th ey a re som eti m es a w kw a rd or a m bi g uous .

3 40 A pa rti c i ple
. may be m odi fi ed by a n a dverb, a n a dverbi a l
ph ra se, or a n a dverbi a l cla use .

S m ili ng bri g h tly , She exten d ed h er h a n d A d verb] .

[
He lea ped f orw a rd , sh ri ek i ng w i th a ll hi s m i g ht [A dverbi a l phra . se]
L a ug h i ng unti l he c ri ed, h e sa n k i nto a c ha i r [A d verbi a l c la use] .
 44 VE RB S

N O M I N A T I VE AB SO L U T E

344 . A su bsta n ti ve with the pa rti ciple belong in g to it is

, ,

O f en
t used to m a ke a pec ulia r form of a d verb ia l m od ify in g

Phra se : a s3

The w f a i li ng , w e low ered th e sa ll

0

i nd .

Here the w i nd f a i li ng i s equiva lent to an a dverbia l phra se

( on

the f a i lu re o
f the w i nd) or a n a dverbia l cla use ( w hen the w i n d

f a i led) . I t defi n es the t im e of th e a cti on .

On thef a i lure of the w i nd , w e low ered th e sa il

.

When the w i nd f a i led,

345 . A substa nti ve , w ith a pa rti c i le

p , m a y ex press the ca use, tim e,
or c irc um sta nc es of a n a c ti on .

T hi s i s ca lled the a bsolute c onstruc ti on .

T he substa ntive i s i n the nom i na tive c a se a nd i s ca lled a nom i na tive

sl
,
i pp i ng I c ut m[ T h e y
phse
rl
afse
sevm
ere
ylykn ife slip .

i
p gn i s eq ui va lent to bec a use m y knif e slipp ed : i t e pre sse s ca use] x
Tw o da ys ha vi ng ela p sed , w e a g a in set f orw a rd [T h e phra se i n i ta li c s .

i s equi va lent to w hen tw o da ys ha d ela psed i t expresses ti m e]

E veni ng s h e rea d a loud , hi s w ife sew i ng by hi s side [T h e ph ra se .

p ress es on e of th e c i rc um sta nc es th a t a tten d ed th e rea di n g]

This done, proc eed to busi n ess [T h e ph ra se thi s done i s equi va lent to
.

th e c la use si nc e (or w hen) thi s i s done, a n d i ndi c a tes c a use or tim e]

NOT E . Thi s c on struc ti on i s ca lled

free or a bsolute (th a t i s,
“loosened
bec a use th e substa n ti v e i s n ot i n a ny one of th e c on struc ti on s ( sub ec t, ob ec t, j j
a ppositi on , etc ) w h i c h ord i n a rily a tta c h n oun s g ra m m a ti c a lly to oth er w ord s
.

i n th e senten c e N ev erth eless, th e w h ole ph ra se, th oug h sta n di n g a pa rt from

.

th e rest of th e senten c e, i s i n m ea nin g a n a d verbi a l m od i fi er of som e verb .

346 . The pa rti c iple being i s som e tim es om i tt ed in the a b

solu e t c on stru ct i on .

Allen on c e m a y or, m y c h a n c e of a d va n c em en t w ould be rui ned .

[ T h a t
i s : A llen on c e bei ng m a y or]
P eter stood bef ore m e, hi s h a n ds i n hi s poc k ets .

Hi s c lothing i n shreds, he presented a sorry sig ht .

 P AR T I CI P IAL N O U N S 1 45

—
VE RB AL NO UNS I N I N G A R C A L NO UN S
(P T I I P I )
3 47 . En g lish ha s a la rg e a nd im porta n t cla ss of verba l nouns
tha t in i ng , a n d tha t serv e
en d -
a s th e na m es of a cti ons .

These a re i den t i c a l i n form w ith present pa rti ci ples , for whi c h

th ey a re frequen tly m i sta k en The di stin ction , however, i s clea r, .

f or the presen t pa rti c i ple i s n ever used a s the n a m e of a n a o

ti on Hen c e n o such word i n -i ng tha t i s a subj ect

. or a n o bj ect,
or s a n d s
t in a ny o ther n oun c on structi on ,
ca n be a pa r ti ciple .

W hile I w a s tra vell

i ng in M exi c o, I m et w i th a n a c c i d ent .
[ P a rti c i ple]
Tra velli ng broa d en s th e m i nd .
[ V erba l n oun ,
used a s sub ec t j ]
He enj oy s tra velli ng [ Verba l n oun , used a s obj ec t of a
. verb ]
He Spen ds hi s ti m e i n tra velli ng [ Verba ln oun , obj ec t of i ti ]
’
. a re
p p os on

To m f s a vori te e erc i se x is sw i m m i ng .
[ V erba l n oun , p
red i ca te n om

i n a tive]
T hi s sport, fi shi ng ,
ha s been ca lled th e c on tem pla ti ve m a n
’ es r c rea ti on .

[ V erba l n oun ,
i n a pposi ti on w i th sp ort]

T ha t n oun s in -
i ng a re rea l n ou n s m a y be prov ed by putting
ord in a r y n ou n s in their pla ce .

Tra velli ng broa d en s th e m i n d . Tra vel broa d en s th e m i n d .

Ta lki ng i s useless . Ta lk i s useless .

He i s a f ra id of f a lli ng . He i s a fra i d of a f a ll .

348 . From nea rly every E ng li sh verb there m a y be form ed a verba l

noun in ing
-
.

’
Verba l nouns in -
zng ha ve the form of presen t pa rti c i ples ,
but the
c onstructi on of nouns .

T hey a re of en t ca lled pa rti ci pi a l nouns .

S u ch n oun s a re freely used , ei ther by them selves or in a

seri es a lon g wi th ord in a r y n oun s .

Mi ni ng i s a da ng erous oc c upa ti on .

P a i nti ng a n d sc ul
p ture a re si ster a rts .

T he I n di a ns of M a ssa c husetts spen t th ei r ti m e i n hunti ng , fi shi ng ,

a g ri c ulture, a nd w f a re
a r
’
.

Rea di ng , w ri ti ng ,
a n d a rithm eti c a re j oc o ely s ca lled th e th ree r s .
"
1 46 P AR T I C IP I AL NO U NS
349 . V b er a l n oun s in -
i n g ha ve certa i n ro er
p p ties of the
verb .

’
1 . Verba l nouns i n -zng m a y ta k e a d i rec t or a n i ndirect ob ec t i f thei r j
m ea ni ng a llow s .

D ig g i ng g old seem s to th e uni n i ti a ted lik e fi n d ing buri ed trea sure .

L en d i ng hi m m oney i s useless i t m erely f osters hi s un th ri fty ha bi ts .

[ Here th e n oun lendi ng ,

w hi c h i s th e sim ple su b j
ec t of th e sen ten c e,

ta k es both a d i rec t ob ec t (m oney) a nd a n j j

i n di rec t ob ec t (hi m ) , prec i sely
a s th e verb lend m ig ht d o ]

2 . A verba l noun i n -
ing m a y ta k e a n a dverbi a l m odifi er .

Spea k ing ea tem pora neously i s g ood pra c ti c e [ Here th e verba l n oun .

spea ki ng i s th e si m ple sub ec t j

but i t i s m odifi ed by th e a d verb ea tem po
ra ucousl i l i f i t b ]
'

y, p rec se y a s w ere a v e r

But v erba l n ou n s i n -
i ng ,
like o ther n oun s, _m a y be m od i fi ed
by a d j ectives .

E x tem p ora neous spea k in g is g ood pra c ti c e .

3 . T o the verba l nouns being ha ving , pa st pa rti c iples m a y be

a nd

a tta c hed, so a s
_
to g i ve th e effec t of voi c e a nd tense .

A fter being i n truc ted i n g my d uti es, I w a s ord ered to w a i t on th e ki ng .

T h ere wg d oub t
ere
s e pre ed
ra ve
ss a x s to h i s ha vi ng seen th e m a stod on .

A fter ha vi ng been trea ted i n so h a rsh a f a shi on , I ha d no w i sh to repea t

th e i ntervi ew .

S u ch ex re i on ‘
a re verba l noun phra ses
p ss s -
.

350 Verba l . in -i ng a re
n oun s si m il m e of their c on

struc ti on s to i n fi n iti ves used a s n

I N F INI T IV E AS NO UN VE RB A L NO U N IN -
i ng '

To sw im w a s d iffi c ult . fi i c ult .

My busin ess i s to m a ke shoes . si n ess i s m a ki ng shoes .

To see i s to beli eve . S eei ng i s beli evi ng .

Noun s i n -i ng a re som eti m es c a lled i nfi ni ti ves or g erund s .

35 1 . A n oun i n i ng m a y be u sed
-
a s a n a d j ective ,
or a s the
a dj ect i ve elem en t i n a c om pound noun

T he sleep i ng c a r w a s c om
p let el y w rec k ed .

W i lli a m ha s plen ty of sp end i ng m on ey .

1 48 P RE P OSI T IONS

R VI I

P REP OS I TIONS

3 54 . A prepositi on i s a w ord pla c ed before a substa nti ve to show its

rela ti on to som e other w ord i n the sentenc e .

T he substa ntive w hi c h follow s a re

p p os i ti on is ca lled its j
ob ect a nd

j
i s i n the Ob ec tive c a se .

Aphra se c onsi sting of a re

p p os i ti on a nd its ob j ect ,
w i th or w ith out
other w ord s , is ca lled a re
p p os i ti ona l phra se .

On th e fl oor la y a h ea p
f nutso .

He stood behi nd th e tree f or som e tim e .

From m orn i n g ti ll n ig ht h e rem a i n ed a t hi s post .

T h e fi re d estroy ed every thi ng ex c ep t a f ew a rti c les o f f urn i ture .

A prepositi ona l phra se m a y be either a dj ect i v e or a d verb ia l .

T hus, i n th e fi rst ex a m
j
l
p e, o f nuts i s a n a j
d ec tive phra se m od i fy i ng th e
n oun hea p , a n d on d verbi a l ph ra se m od ify i ng th e verb
the floor i s a n a

la y I n
. th e sec ond senten c e, th e verb stood i s m od i fi ed by tw o a dverbi a l

p h ra ses,
behi nd thetree a nd f or som e ti m e .

355 . T he followin g li st in c ludes m os t the preposi t i on s

a boa rd c onsid eri ng

a bout d espi te
a bove d ow n

a c c ord i ng to d uri ng
a c ross ere
a fter x
e c ept, e c epti ng x
a g a i n st f or
a long f or th e sa k e of
a long w i th from
a m id , a m id st x
e c ept ) f rom a m ong

a m on g ,
a m on g st f rom betw een

a pa rt from f rom un d er
a roun d in
a s for, as to in a c c ord a n c e w i th
a t in a d d i ti on to
a th w a rt in c a se of

ba rri ng in c om li
p a nc e w ith
 P RE P O SI T I ON S 1 49

in c onsequen c e of on th roug h out

in c on sid era ti on of on a c c oun t of to, unto
in f ront of out of touc hi ng
i n li eu of outsid e ( outsi d e of ) tow a rd , tow a rds

in opposi ti on to over un d er
i n pla c e of over a g a i nst un d ern ea th
i n pref eren c e to pa st un til, till
in reg a rd to pen ding up
i n spi te of reg a rding upon
i nsi d e (i nsid e of) respec ting w ith
i nstea d O f round w i thi n
i nto roun d a bout w i th out
n otw i th sta n d ing sa ve, sa vi ng w i th ref erenc e to
of si n c e w i th reg a rd to
off throug h w ith respec t to

N OT E x
Suc h e pression s a s by m ea ns of , i n a c c ord a n c e w i th , i n sp i te of ,
.

etc , a re rea lly ph ra ses , but m a y be reg a rd ed a s c om poun d preposi ti on s

. .

Sev era l pa rtic iples lik e c on c erni ng , c onsi d eri ng , p end i ng , a re c om m on i n a

preposi ti on a l use a n d a re th erefore in c lud ed in the li st
For a ( a form of on ) i n a bed , a s leep , a fi re, a -fishi ng , etc , . see § 35 2 .

P er i s c onfi n ed to th e stri c tly c om m erc i a l style e c ept in x suc h e xpressions

f
a s p er orc e, p er c en t, p er a n n um

356 . A preposi ti on ma y s a nd a
t t the en d of a sen en e ort c

Whom d i d y ou a sk f or [ C om pa re F or w ho mdi d y ou a sk
T h e box w hic h it c a m e i n h a s been d estroy ed .
[ C om pa re T h e box i n
w hic h i t c a m e
]
NOT E . T hi s ord er, i n th e best a uth ors ; but,
th oug h i nform a l, i s c om m on

if c a relessly used , i t m a y result i n a w k w a rd n ess of sty le S om eti m es a rela .

j
ti v e w h i c h i s th e ob ec t of th e prepositi on i s om i tted (see Th us, in th e
sec on d senten c e, w hi c h m i g ht be d ropped , a n d th e Ob ec t of i n w ould th en be j
w hi c h , un d erstood F or .
! “He w la ug h ed a t, a n d th e lik e,
a s
!
see 25 1 .

In poetry a preposi ti on som j

eti m es follow s i ts ob ec t d i rec tly : a s, B a re
foot plod I th e c old g roun d up on (S HA K SP E RE ) .

.
“
3 5 7 Certa i n a d verb i a l ex pressi on s lik e on S un da y !
,

Ma rch first occur b oth wi th a n d wi thou t the prepositi on

!
,
.

He c a m e S un d a y (or, on Sun d a y ) .

W e sa il M a rc h fi rst (or, on M a rc h fi rst

) .

N OT E . Th e form i th out on a re g ood c olloq ui a l E n g li sh , but a re a v oided

s w
in th e m ore form a l sty le NO prepositi on n eed be suppli ed i n pa rsin g Th e
. .

n oun is a n a d v erbi a l ob ec ti v e j
 50 P RE P O SI TI ON S

3 58 . Ca re is re ui red
q in the us e Of pronouns a s the obj ects of

re
p p osi ti ons

He h a s been very f ri en dly

T he old house w ill seem lon ely to y ou a n d m e .
[ NO T y ou a n d I]
T ha t m k es d i fferenc e
’
a no

To m s c a relessn ess m a k es trouble

f or y ou a nd m e
T here a re letters t th e post offi
.

a ce

{
£ 3
2 332
1
I h a ve i nvi ta tion s f or
1 2
2? 1

He w ill d ivi de the rew a rd betw een y ou a nd m e .

Whom a re y ou w a iti ng f or
[ NO ho]
Whom
T w
w ere y ou spea ki ng to

3 59 . S evera l w ords a re used ei ther a s a dverbs or prepositi ons .

A s A DV E RB A s P R E POSI T ION

I f ell dow n . I f ell dow n the steps .

Sta nd by ! He stood by th e w i n d ow .

A bi g d og ra n behi nd . A d og ra n behi nd th e c a rri a g e .

K eep of th e g ra ss
"

K eep bfi !
‘

O ther exa m p es — bove, fter, long

n ea th, besi d e, betw
l a re

een
a boa rd , a
bey ond , ere, i n , i nsid e,
a a ,

on , outsi d e,
bef ore, below
a st roun d,
,
be
, p ,

sin c e, und er, up, w i thi n , w i thout .

For w ord s used ei th er a s re

p p osi ti on s or a s c on un c j ti on s , see pp .
—
1 5 2 1 54 .

360 . w va ri ous
P reposit i on s sh o d i st i n ct ion s i n u se a nd

m ea n i n g w hi ch m ust be lea rn ed by pra cti ce a n d by the t

s ud y
of sy n on y m s i n a la rg e d i cti on a ry .

T h e follow i ng g roups a fford Opportuni ty f or suc h study a t, i n in,

i nto ; betw een , a m ong , i d ; on , upon ; f rom , O ff ; roun d , a roun d ,
a m

a bout ; to, w i th ; besi d e, besi d es ; a g ree w i th , a g ree to ; c h a ng e f or,

c h a ng e w i th ; di sa ppoi nt i n , of ; d i ff er w i th , f rom ; c onfi d e i n , to ; c or

respon d w i th , to ; pa rt f rom , w i th ; c om pa re to, w i th ; oi n w i th , to ; j

c onn ect with , to ; c om e up w i th , to ; ta lk to, w i th ; spea k to, w i th ;
h a n g on , f rom , to ; li ve a t, i n , on ; a rg ue w i th , a g a i n st ; c onten d w i th ,

a g a in st ; d epa rt f rom , f or, a t, on , i n .

 52 CONJU N CT I ON S

362 . The c hief c oordi na j

te c on uncti ons a re

m oreover
th erefore
th en

y et
still

n evertheless

n otw ithsta n di ng

S evera l of these a re m uch u sed for tra nsiti on, whether from
t
sen en e c to sen ten c e or from on e pa ra g ra
ph to a n other .

Suc h a re — h ow ever m oreover, th erefore, th en , n everth eless, n ot

,

w i thsta n di ng , y et, still .

363 . T hen i s a n a when it den ot es ti m e

d verb ,
a c onj un ct ion
when it den ot es c on sequen ce or the like .

Then the boa t g li d ed up to th e pi er [T i m e ] . .

M en a re i m perfec t c rea tures : w e m ust n ot, then, e xpec t them to be

a ng els .
[ C onsequen c e]

I
364 . Yet a n d s ti ll a re a d verbs when they ex p ress ti m e
deg ree, c on j un ction s when t hey c onn ect .

W e h a ve n ot sta rted y et .
[ T i m e
.
]
I t is sti ll ra i n i ng .
[ T i m e ] .

T hi s h a tc h et i s d ull, but th a t i s d uller sti ll . D

[ ge ree]
I m i ss hi m , y et I a m g la d h e w en t [ C on un c ti on ] . j
I lik e d og s sti ll I d o n ot c a re to ow n on e [ C on un c ti on ] . j

365 . F or a n d n otw i ths ta n d i ng m a y be ei t h er re osi t i on s

p p or

c onj un ct ion s .

P R E POSI T IONS C ONJ U NC IONS T

I a m w a i ti ng f or y ou . W e m ust g o f or i t i s la te , .

Ja ne is c om i ng , notw i thsta ndi ng I t is a h a rd storm . Sh e w ill c om e

the storm . not
w i thsta ndi ng .

N OT E . F or i s som eti m es c la ssi fi ed a s a but the subordi n a te j

c on un c ti on ,

fa c t th a t i t m a y be used to beg i n a n i n d epen d ent sentenc e ( even w h en suc h a

j
senten c e open s a pa ra g ra ph ) usti fi es i ts i nc lusi on a m ong th e c obrd in a tes .
 C ON J U N CT IONS 53

366 . T he c hi ef subordina te j i
c on unct ons a re

a lth oug h , th oug h tha t

a s unless
a s if ( as th oug h) bec a use) w h erea s
bec a use w h eth er (
w h ether

A f ew phra ses m a y be reg a rded a s c om poun d c on un c ti on s j . Suc h a re

in order tha t, tha t, provid ed tha t, i n c a se tha t, but tha t, a s if ,
so a s thoug h,
if P rovided , a n d i n c a se (w i th out tha t) m a y a lso be used a j
’
even . s c on un c

ti on s : a s, I w i ll g o p rovi d ed i t d oes n t ra i n .
!

367 . T he sub ord i n a te c on j un cti on tha t i s of en omt i tted when

it m a y rea dily be suppli ed .

He sa i d [ th a t] h e w a s sta rvi n g .

T hey f ea red [ th a t] th ey w ere betra y ed .

I c a n not beli eve [th a t] y ou w ould try to i n ure m e j .

N OT E Thi s om i ssi on i s si m ila r to th a t of th e rela tiv e pron oun

. It
x
i s e trem ely c om m on , n ot only i n c olloqui a l la n g ua g e but a lso i n litera ture,
w h eth er prose or v erse .

368 . As a n d si nc e i n the sen se of b eca use ,

a nd w hi le i n the
sen se of thoug h ,
!
a re c on j un ct i on s .

W hen d en ot i n g ti m e, a s is a n a dv erb , w h i le i s a n oun or a n

a d v erb a n d ,
si n c e is a n a d verb or a re osi
p p ti on .

As ( or si nc e ) y ou w ill n ot listen , I w i ll sa y n o m ore .

[ C on un c tj
i on ]
As w e c rossed th e bridg e, I look ed d ow n a t th e rushi ng strea m .

[ A d verb]
T en y ea rs h a ve pa ssed si nc e m y un c le w en t to sea [ A d v erb
] .

T h e h ouse h a s been em pty si nc e C hri stm a s [ P reposi ti on ] .

369 . Con un j cti on s used i n pa irs a re ca lled c orrela ti ve c on

~

j uncti ons .

T he chief c orrela ti ves a re

y et stil
(l )
but a lso y et still ( )
th erefore
th en
1 54 CON J U N C T IONS

Ex a m ples of c orrela ti ves m a y be seen i n the followin g

t
sen en es c
B oth li on s a nd w olves a re c a rn i vorous .

T h e c ulpri t look ed both a n g ry a nd a sh a m ed .

W illi a m I I i s not only erm a n E m peror but a lso King G of P russi a .

E i ther bra ss or c opper w ill d o .

N ei ther Kea ts nor Sh elley li ved to be old .

He a sk ed m ew hether I w a s a n Austri a n or a R ussi a n .

Thoug h th e roa d s w ere very ba d , y et h e m a na g ed to rea c h Uti c a bef ore

m i d n ig h t .

A lthoug h h e h a s w ron g ed m e, sti ll I c a nn ot beli eve h e i s m y en em y .

S i nc e f our i s th e squa re of tw f ore tw o i s th e squa re root of f our

there
’ ’
o, .

If A llen te ti m s s ony i s true, then Gilbe t m u t be f

r s s a lse .

3 70 B u t i s
. used a s a su b ordi n a t e c onj un ct i on i n the sen se

of bu t tha t or u n less .

T here i s n o d oubt buttha t th ey a re m urd erers . SH E L L E Y .

Y our un c le m ust n ot k n ow but buttha t] y ou a re d ea d S H A KSPE R E

’
. .

Ne er m a y I look on d a y but [ z unless] sh e tells y our hi g h n ess th e

truth SH A KSPE R E [ T h i i b l ]
‘

. s use s o so e
.te
T h ere i s ot a w a ve of th e S ei n e but i s a ssoc i a ted i n m y m i nd w i th th e
fi rst ri se of th sa n d ston es a n d f orest pi n es of F onta i n eblea u R SKIN . U .

Th ere w a s n obody but loved h er .

N OT E . I n th e la st tw o ex ‘
p la m
es th e su b ec t o f th e j subo rd i n a te c la use i s

a v e bu t [ i t] i s a ssoc i a ted , T h ere w a s n obody

!
om i tted T h ere i s n ot a w
bu t [he] lov ed h er .
!
In suc h c a ses, bu t i s som eti m es reg a rd ed a s a rela ti ve

pron oun .

N otw i ths ta n d i ng is u sed a s a su bordin a te c onj un cti on i n the

sen se O f thoug h .

I sh a ll g o, notw i thsta ndi ng th e roa d is sa i d to be i m pa ssa ble.

Rela ti ve a dverbs a re sim ila r i n th ei r use to conj un cti on s ,

a n d a re therefore O ft en ca lled j
c on unc ti ve a dverbs 1 94

N OT E M ost c on j un c ti on s h i storic a lly c on sid ered a re m erely a d v erbs ( or

.
, ,

a d v erbi a l ph ra ses) w hi c h h a v e c om e to be used i n so pec uli a r a w a y a s to form

a spec i a l c la th e pa rts of speec h T h us th e a d verbs si n c e a nd w hi le

ss a m on g .

j
bec om e c on un c ti on s w h en th ey c ea se to d en ote tim e ; bec a use i s a c orrupti on
!
of th e ph ra se by c a use bu ti s d eveloped from a n ol
da d verb m ea ni ng outsi d e.
1 56 IN T ERJE CT IONS
3 75 . Alm os t a ny pa r t of spee ch ma y be used a s an ex

cla m a ti on .

N onsens e! I d o not beli eve i t .

Fi re !
Ha lt ! B a ck, villa i n s !
Good I lik e th a t ! I ! n ot a bit of i t !
Forw a rd B ut

Suc h words O ft en ca lled i nterj ecti on s but i t is better to

a re ,

des cri be t hem a s n oun s a dj ecti ves etc used i n ex cla m a ti on

, ,
.
, ,

a n d to c onfi n e the t erm i nterj ecti on to w ord s w hi c h belon g to

n o ot her pa rt of speec h .

N OT E .T h us nonsense a nd fi re a re nouns in th e e c la m a tory n om in a x

tiv e ; I ! i s a pron oun i n th e sa m e c on struc ti on ; ha lt! i s a v erb i n th e i m
pe ra ti v e ( c om pa r e h a rk ! h u sh ! be h old ! look g oo d ! i s a n a d ec tiv e ; j
f or w a rd ! o n ! a w a y ! a n d b a c k a re a d v erb s ; bu t! i s a c o n u n c t i on j .

T h e followi n g ex a m ple s i llu st ra t e v a ri ous ex c la m a tory ex pres

si ons , word s, ph ra ses, a n d sen t en c es

How l a te I shudd ered on th e bri n k YO U NG .

Rig h t ri g ht a th ousa n d ton g ues e x c la im ed . SO U H Y

T E .

T h e pa le sta rs ! SH E L L E Y ;
’
a re g on e ]

P oor w id ow ed w retc h t w a s th ere sh e w ept i n va i n .

—C A M P R E L L .

0 h ea rtf elt ra ptures B li ss bey on d c om pa re B U RNS

’
.

Ti s d on e d rea d W i n ter sprea d s hi s la test g loom s . HOMSON

T .

Hei g h h o -
si n g h ei g h ho -
unto th e g reen h olly . SH A KSPE R E .

I ha d a h h a ve I n ow a f ri en d . B YRON .

To a rm s ! !
c ried Morti m er, a n d c ouc h ed h is qui veri ng la nc e .

G RA Y .

10 . O f or th e g en tlen ess of old R om a n c e KE A T S .

11 . R un ! !
ex c la i m s sh e, w ith a toss of in d ig n a n t a ston ish m en t f
C A R L Y LE .

12 . Ca n h e k eep hi m self stilli f h e w ould ! O h , n ot h e — W ORDSWORT H .

 CL AU SE S A s P ART S OF S PE ECH

C HAP T E R X

CLAUSE S AS P AR TS OF S P EECH

3 76 . A cla use i s g a roup of w ords th a t form s pa rt of a sentenc e a nd

th a t c onta i ns a j
sub ec t a nd a pred i ca te .

A cla use used a s a pa rt of speec h is ca lled a subordi na te c la use

3 77 A
bord ina t e cla use m a y be i ntroduc ed by ( 1 ) a
. su

rela ti v e or a n i n terrog a ti v e pron oun , 2 rela ti ve or a n

( ) a

in t errog a ti ve a d v erb ( 3 ) a su bord i na t e c on j un cti on ,

.

T he rela ti ve pronouns a re : w ho, w hi c h, w ha t, tha t w ho or w hi c h) ,

as ( a fter suc h or sa m e ) ,
a nd th e c om poun d rela tives w hoever, w hic hever,
w ha tever . T hei r uses h a ve lrea d y been stud i ed (pp 66
a .

‘
T he c hi ef rela ti ve a dverbs a re : w here, w henc e, w hi ther, w herever, w hen ,
w henever, w hi le, before, a f ,
ter ti ll,
unti l,
sinc e, a s, how ,
w hy (p .

T h e i nterrog a ti v e pronouns a re : w ho, w hi c h, w ha t 163

T h e i nterrog a ti ve a dverbs a re : w here, w hen , w henc e, w hi t
her, how ,
w hy .

The m ost i m porta n t s ubordina te c on j un ti on

c s a re : bec a use, si nc e be
c a use ), thoug h,l
t ho ug , f ,
h ai u n less,
tha t (i n or d er tha t,
so tha t) , lest, a s, a s

if , a s thoug h, tha n , w hether (w het her or) .

378 . Acc ordin g to their use a s pa rt s of spee ch ,

su bordin a te
c la uses a re a j
d ecti ve, a dverbi a l, or noun c la uses

I . A D JE C TI VE C L A USE S

3 79 . A subordi na te c la use tha t m odifi es a substa nti ve is ca lled an

a j
d ective cla use
A ble m en
M en of a bi li ty c a n a lw a y s fi n d em lo
p y m ent .

M en w ho show a bi lity
Treeless spots
Spots w i thout trees w ere pla i n ly visi ble .

Spots w here no trees g rew

In these g roups a n oun (m en sp ots) is m odi fied

ea ch of , ,

1 a n a dj ecti v e a n a dj ect i v e phra se

( ) by 2
( ) by ( )
3 by a
, n ,

a dj ecti v e cla use The sen se rem a in s un c ha n g ed

. .
158 CL AUS E S A s P AR T S OF S P EECH
380 Adj ecti ve
. cla uses m a y be in troduced ( 1 ) by rela tive

pron ouns
( )
2 by ,re la ti ve a dverbs of pla c e ( w h ere w h enc e w , ,
hi ther,
etc ) or t i m e (w h en w hi le
.
, ,

II . AD VE RB I AL C L A USE S

38 1 . A subord i na te c la use th a t v
ser es a s a n a dverbi a l m odi fi er
ca lled a n a dverbi a l cla use

thoug htlessly .

Ja c k spok e w i thoutthi nki ng .

bef ore he thoug ht .

there .

T h e sc hoolh ouse sta nds a t the c rossroa ds .

w here the roa ds m eet .

m onthly .

W e pa y our ren t on thefi rst o f every m onth .

w hen thefi rst o f the m onth c om es .

In ea ch of
th ese g roups the verb (sp ok e s ta nds p a y) is , , ,

m od i fi ed J by a n a d verb
( o) ( )
2 by a n a d v erb i a l phra se 3
( ) by "

, ,

a n a dv erb ia l c la use

382 Ad verbi a l cla uses m a y be in t rodu c ed ( 1 ) by rela t i ve

.

ord i n a t e c on un c
(
a d v erb s w h en w h ere be f ore etc
, ) ( )
2 by su b , j ,
.

t ion s (if thoug h bec a u se etc ) ( 3 ) by rela ti ve or i n terrog a ti ve

, , ,
.

ron oun s
p .

38 3 . Ad verbia l c la u ses O ften est m odi fy v erb s but they ,

a re

a lso com m on a s m od i fi ers of a dj ect i v es a n d a d v erb s .

Ang ry bec a use he ha d f a i led , he a ba n d on ed th e un d erta k i ng .

[ T h e

c la use m od i fi es a ng ry ]
I a m un c erta in w hi c h roa d I should ta ke .
[ T h e c la use m odi fi es unc erta in ]
F a rth er tha x
n ey e c ould see e tend ed th e w a ste of tossi ng w a ters .
[ T h e

c la use m od i fi es f a rther ]
Here, here the c lifi low ll protec ted the pa th [ T h
‘

w w a s stee
p est,
a w a . e

c la use m od i fi es here]

384 . An a dv erb ia l c la use w it h tha t m a y be used to m od i fy

b
ver s a n d a dj ect i ves .
 C L A U S E S A S P AR T S O F S P E E CH
C aesa r c om m a n d ed tha t the pri soners should be sp a red [ Ob ec t] . j
I w i sh tha t y ou w ould w ork ha rder [ Ob ec t] . j
T h e tra veller i n q ui red w here he c ould fi nd the i nn [ O b ec t] . j
He a sk ed m ew ha t m y na m e w a s .
[ S ec on d j
ob ec t of a sked
]
My f ea r tha tthe bridg e m ig htf a llproved g roun dless .
[ A pposi ti on w i th

O n e f a c t i s u n d oubted , — tha tthe sta te of A m eric a ha s been kept i n c on

ti nu a l a g i ta ti on —B E . A
[ pp osi ti U RK
on w i th.
f a c t ]
T h e old sa y i ng i s tha t m i sery loves c om p a ny [ P red i c a te n om i n a ti ve ] . .

38 7 N oun c la uses m a y be in trodu ced ( 1 ) by the subordin a te

.

c onj un cti on s tha t w hether (w hether ,

or
) a n d if
( i n the ,

sen se O f w h eth er 2
); ( ) by th e i n t err o g a t i v e p ro n ou n s w h o ,

w hi c h w h a t 3 by h e i n t errog a t i v e a d verb s w h ere w hen c e

, ( ) t , ,

w hi ther, how ,
w hy, w h en
388 . Noun cla uses a re c om m on a s O bj ect s of v er sb (I ) of

2 Of
c om m a n di ng ,
d esi ri ng ,
etc ; .
( ) telling ,
thi n ki ng ,
etc ; .
( )
3
O f a sk i ng ,
d ou bti ng ,
etc .

S ee ( 1 ) c la uses of purpose ( 2) i n d i rec t d i sc ourse 43 1 (3)

in d i rec t q uesti on s

O bj ect c la dSes frequen tly om i t tha t

C h a rles sa i d [ th a t] he w a s sorry .

I hope y ou w i ll c om e .

I w i sh he w ould hel p me .

For the i n fi n i ti ve cla use repla ci n g a tha t c la u se

-
a s O bj ect ,
—
see 3 24 3 2 5 .

389 . A n ou n cla use m a y be u sed a s the reta i ned ob ect O f a j

ssi v e v er b
pa

A C T IV E V OIC E P A SSIV E V OIC E

( C LA US E As O BJ E C T ) ( R E T A IN E D O BJ E C T)
T h ey i nf orm ed m e tha tthe tra i n I w a s i nf orm ed tha t the tra i n w as

w a s la te . la te.

C h a rles told us tha tthe i c e w a s thi n . We w ere told tha t the ic e w a s thi n .

T h ey a sk ed m e w hether (or if ) I I w a s a sk ed w hether I liked tenni s .

li ked tenni s .
 NO U N CL AU S E S 1 61

390 A . n ou n cla u se m a y be th e o bj ect of a re

p p osi t i on .

I see n o rea son f or a la w sui t e c ept x tha t both p a rti es ubborn .

a re s t

[ C om p a re : ex c ept th e stu b b ornn ess of both ]

Sh e n ever studi es, ex c ept w hen she c a n fi nd nothi ng else to do .

I c ould sa y n othi ng but [ z ex c e pt] tha t I w a s sorry .

Justi c e w a s w ell a d m i n i stered i n hi s tim e, sa ve w here the ki ng w as

p a rty . BA CON .

Sh e c ould see m e f rom w here she stood .

T h ere is a di spute a s to w hi c h o f the m i ners fi rst sta ked outthe c la i m .

For a n oun c la use used a s a n a d v erbi a l ob j e ti ve

c , see § 384 .

39 1 . N oun cla uses w i th tha t a re c om m on I n the predi c a te

when the ex plet i v e i t i s th e g ra m m a tic a l subj ect 1 2 0,

It w as p la i n tha t w a r w a s a t ha n d .

It w as c lea r tha t thi s a dm i ni stra ti on w oul

d la st but a very short ti m e .

I t m ust be a d m itted tha t there w ere m a n y ex tenua ting c irc um sta nc es .

Itw a sby slow d eg rees tha t For bec a m e a bri lli a nt a nd p ow erf ul deba ter .

It w a s un d er th e c om m a n d of a f orei g n g en era l tha t the B ri ti sh ha d

In su c the rea l subj ect of the th oug ht i s the

ch sen en es t
cla use T hi s howev er m a y be reg a rd ed a s g ra m m a ti ca lly i n
.
, ,

a pposi t i on w i t h i t a s if on e sa i d I t ( t h a t w a r w a s a t h a n d)
,

w a s pla i n .
!

NO T E T h i s usef ul i d i om en a bles us to a d opt a k i n d of in v erted ord er

.

a n d th us to sh ift th e em ph a si s C ontra st Th a t w a r w a s a t h a n d w a s
.

“ l d f !
pla in ith It w i h h I h
!
w a s p a n t a t w a r w a s a t a n n t e or m er sen ten c e,
.

th e n oun c la u se is m a d e prom in ent ; in th e la tter, th e a d ec ti v e p la i n j .

39 2 . T he f ollow i n g sen t en ces, ta k en from d i st in g u i shed

au thors of d ifferen t peri od s, i llu st ra t e the usefuln ess of the

n oun cla u se i n its v a ri ou s c on s ru t cti on s .

1 . T h a t th e ki n g w ould ever a g a in h a ve rec ei ved B ec k et i n to f a vor i s

n ot to be beli eved . SO U H Y
T E .

2 . T h a t i n ed u c a ti on w e sh ould proc eed f rom th e sim ple to th e c om ple x

is a truth w hi c h h a s a lw a ys been to som e x
e ten t a c ted on S E E . P NC R .

3 . How g rea t hi s reputa ti on w a s, i s prov ed by th e em ba ssi es sen t to

hi m . C O L E RIDG E .

4 . I t ve ed x old Ha w ki ns th a t h i s c oun selw a s n ot f ollO W ed .

— F U LLE R .
1 62 CL AU S E S A S P AR T S O F S P E E CH
5 . I t bec a m e n ec essa ry , a t la st, th a t I sh ould a rouse both m a ster a n d

va h
let to t e e p e d i en cy of rem ox
vi n g th e trea su re — P O E . .

6 T h ere i s n o d oubt th a t breed s m a y be m a d e a s di fferen t a s

. spec i es

in m h
a ny
p y si olog i c a l c h a ra c teri sti c s H . UX Y LE .

7 T h e m a i n d efi n i ti on y ou c ould g i ve
. of O ld M a rqui s M i ra bea u i s,
th a t h e w a s of th e ped a n t speci es CA L . R YLE .

8 . The fa c t seem s to be th a t w e h a ve survi ved th e trem en d ous

explosi on . B RO U GH A M .

9 . T h e questi on i s, w h eth er the f ei g ned i m a g e of poesy, or th e reg ula r

i n stru c ti on of
phi lo so ph y ,
h a v e t h e m o re f o rc e i n tea c h i ng
— S E IDN Y .

10 I f e red th t om e e ri ou s di sa ste r h a d b e f a lle n m f ri en d — POE

a
. a s s y .

11 . i th y ou th a t th e m ost m a g n i fi c en t ob ec t un d er h ea ven
I th i n k w j
is th e g rea t d eep C E . OWP R .

1 2 A ureolus soon d i sc overed th a t th e suc c ess of h i s a rtifi c es h a d on ly

.

ra i sed up a m ore d eterm i n ed a d versa ry . G IBBON .

13 . Ha rold a lleg ed th a t h e w a s a ppoi n ted by E dw a rd . TE MP L E .

14 . T h a t w e sh a ll d i e, w e k n ow . S H A KSP E R E .

15 . Her M a j esty h a s prom i sed th a t th e trea ty sh a ll be la id bef ore h er

P a rli a m en t . S WI F T .

16 . D eersla y er proposed th a t th ey sh ould c i rc le th e poi n t i n th e c a n oe .

C OOPE R .

17 . I rem em bered h ow i
soft w a s th e h a n d of Sleep — . LA NDOR .

j ju
‘

18 . I c a n n ot see w h a t ob ec ti on ca n stly be m a d e to th e pra c ti c e .

R E YNO L DS .

19 . N0 m an k n ew w ha t w a s x
to be e pec ted f rom th i s stra ng e tribun a l .

MA C A U L A Y .

20 . We m a y i m a g i n e w i th w h a t sen sa ti on s th e stupefi ed Spa ni a rd s

m ust h a ve g a z ed on thi s h orri d spec ta c le .
— PR E SCO T T .

21 . O bserve h ow g ra c i ously Na ture i n struc ts h er hu m a n c hild ren .

C O L E RIDG E .

22 . My f ri en d a sk ed m e i f th ere w ould n ot be som e d a n g er i n c om i ng

h om e la te — . A DDISON .

23 . A m es sa g e c a m e th a t th e c om m i ttee w a s si tti ng a t K en si ng ton

P a la ce .
— T H A CK E RA Y .

24 . Jeffreys h a d obta i n ed of the ki n g a p om

r i se th a t h e w ould not

pa rd on h er . B U RN ET.

25 T h e presen t a g
. e seem s pretty w ell a g reed in a n opi n i on th a t th e
u tm ost sc ope a n d en d of rea d i ng i s a m usem en t only . F I E L DING .

He sudd enly a la rm ed m e by a sta rtli n g q u esti on e w h eth er I h a d

seen th e sh ow of pri ezc a ttle th a t m orni ng i n S m i th fi eld .
— LAMB .

27 . I a m told th a t th e L a n c a shi re sy stem i s perf ec t . K INGS LE Y .

1 64 ME ANING S OF S U B O RD INATE CLAU S E S

39 6 . Adj ecti ve cla usesc e a n d tim e m a y be i n troduced of pla

by rela ti ve pron oun s ( see ex a m ples a b ove) .

Adj ect i ve a n d a d verb ia l cla uses of pla c e a n d tim e m a y be

i n troduced by rela t i v e a d verb s T hus .
,

P LA CE w h ere, w h en c e, w hi th er, w h erever, w hi th ersoever, w herefrom ,

w h ereto, etc .

T IM E w h en , w h en ever, w hile, a s, bef ore, a fter, until, si n c e .

For a s a nd si n c e in c a u sa l c la uses, see § 3 98 ; for w hi le in c on c essi ve

c la uses , see § 399 .

39 7 . Cla u ses of t im e a re som e tim es shor en ed t by the om is

si on of the C opula a nd i ts su bj ect .

W hen [ he w a s ] resc ued , he w a s a lm ost d ea d .

T om w a s a tta c k ed by c ra m p w hi le sw i m m i ng a c ross th e ri ver .

II . C A U SA L CL A U SE S

3 98 . An a dverbi a l c la use m a y ex press c a use .

Ca usa l c la uses a re in trodu c ed by the sub ordi n a t e c onj un cti on s

1; 0

bec a u s e9 S i n c e7 a s i n a sm u c h a s9 a n d som et i m es tha t .

I ca m e h om e bec a use I w a s ti red .

A s the da y w a s c lea r, w e d ec id ed to c li m b th e m oun ta i n .

Si nc e y ou i ll not relent, y ou m ust ta k e th e

w c onsequen c es .

We w ere g la d tha t the w rec k w a s no w orse .

T om w a s d elig hted tha t hi s fri end w a s sa fe .

S i n c e i s a preposi ti on or a n a d v erb w h en i t d enotes ti m e; a s i s a n a d v erb

w h en i t d en otes ti m e B oth si n c e a n d a s a re c on un c ti on s w h en th ey e press
. j x
ca use . F or a s used a s a rela ti ve pron oun , see 1 47

I II . CONC E S SI VE C L A USE S

399 . An a dverbia l cla use m a y ex press c onc essi on .

A c onc essi ve c la use is usua lly i n trodu c ed by a subordi n a te

c onj un cti on ,
thou g h, a lthou g h, or even if I t a dm its ( or c on
.

c edes) som e fa ct or su pp si o ti on in spi te of w hi c h the a ssert i on

i n the m a in cla use i s m a de .

 C ON CE SSI VE CL AU S E S 1 65

A lthoug h I do not like his m a nners, I respec t his c h a ra c ter .

We w on th e g a m e, thoug h w e ex p ec ted to lose .

E ven if y ou f a i l, y ou w i ll h a ve g a i n ed e peri en c e x .

E ven if y ou w ere a ki ng , y ou w ould fi n d som ebod y or som eth i n g m ore

-

pow erf ul th a n y ourself .

Thoug h he should rea d books f orever, h e w ould n ot g row w i se .

N OT E . Whi le i s often used a s a w ea k er or m ore c ourteous sy n onym for

a lthoug h .

T he cla use w hen it follow s the c on c essiv e cla use

m a in , ,
m a y
be em pha siz ed by m ea n s of yet s ti ll n ev erth eless , ,
.

’
Alth oug h th e ta sk h ea vy , y et hi s
w a s c oura g e n ever f a iled .
[ A lthoug h
a nd y et a re c orrela ti v e c on un c ti on s j
T h oug h hi s reputa ti on w a s g rea t a t h om e, y et i t w a s g rea ter a broa d .

Con cessi ve cla u ses som e tim es om i t the c opula a nd its su bj ect .

Thoug h [ he w a s ] ti red , h e w a s n ot di sh ea rten ed .

T hi s pun i shm en t, thoug h p erha p s n ec essa ry, seem s ra th er severe .

400 For th e d i sti n cti on

. between the i n di ca t i v e a nd the
su bj un cti ve in c on essi v e
c cla uses ,
see 2 7 9 ; for tha t betw een

s hou ld a n d w ou ld , see 3 05 .

401 . A c on c essi v e c la u se m ay b e i n t roduc ed by the c on

j un cti on a s , or by a rela ti ve pron oun o r a re la t i v e a d v erb .

Wha tever y ou sa y ,

Whic hever a rg um ent y ou present he w i ll c a rry h i s poi n t .

H ow ever m u c h y ou Obj ec t ,

Wea k I a m I ill m k e th e efi ort

’
a s ,
w a .

Ga y a s the sc ene w a s, t w a s but a d rea ry pla ce f or Mr . E sm on d .

N O T E Th e
. ad verbi a l use of h ow ever i s q ui te d i sti n c t f rom i ts u se a s a

c oOrdi n a te c on j un c ti on

402 . C on cessi on i s som e tim es ex

p ressed by a su bj un cti ve
c la use w ithout a c on j un cti on to i n t rod uc e i t

B e it ever so hum ble, th e e

r
’ s no pla ce li k e h om e .

I w ill h elp y ou, c ost w ha t i t m a y

1 66 M EANING S OF S U B O R D INATE CL AU S E S

IV V -
. C L A US E S OF P URP O SE A ND OF R E S ULT

403 . A subord i na te c la use m a y ex press purpose or result .

I . C L A US E S OF P U RP OS E

T h ese m en d i ed tha t w e m ig ht li ve .

I w i ll ta k e c a re tha t you a re not ha rm ed .

Joh n Work ed da y a n d n ig ht tha t the p la ns m ig ht be rea dy i n ti m e .

We threw our ba lla st overboa rd , so tha t the a i rship m ig ht c lea r the

treetop s .

A ll our a rra ng em en ts h a ve been m a de w ith th e utm ost prec i si on ,

in
order tha tthe ship m a y be la unc hed p rom p tly a nd w ithout a c c i dent .

II . CL A US E S OF R E SU L T

He ha s rec overed hi s streng th , so tha t he c a n now w ork .

T h e tow n stood a t th e f oot of th e volc a n o, so tha t every bui ldi ng w a s

destroy ed .

Quentin sta rted so sudd en ly tha t he a lm ost dropp ed his w ea p on .

Hi s i t th e d uk e e t tha t one sa it i n thefi rst

’
ra n c or a g n a
s w a s so a ppa r n w

ha l
f hour-
s c onversa ti on .

T h ei r m i n d s w ere so m u c h em bittered tha t they i m puted to ea c h other

nothi ng less tha delibera te vi lla

n'
ny .

Y ou m a k e suc h a n oi se tha tI c a nn ot hea r the m usic .

404 . Cla uses of ur

p p os e m a y b e i n trodu c ed by th e su b ord in a t e

c onj un cti on tha t or by j

a phr a se c on t a i n i n g i t ( s o th a t,
i n ord er

tha t, to the end th a t,

N eg a ti ve cla uses of ur
p p os e m a y b e i n t rodu c ed by th a t

n ot or by lest . For les t w ith the subj u n ct i ve, see 284 .

T a k e h eed lest thou f a ll .

I f ea red lest I m ig ht a ng er thee . SH A KSPE R E .

405 . Cla uses of result m a y b e i n troduc ed by th e phra se so

tha t, c on si sti n g of the a d v erb so a n d the sub ord i n a t e c on j un c

ti on tha t; or by tha t a lon e espec ia lly when so , ,
su c h, or som e

si m ila r w ord st a n d s i n th e m a i n c la use .

406 A cla use of purpose or of result m a y

. be ei ther a n

a dverbi a l cla use a ( s in 4 03) or a substa ntive c la us e .

1 68 ME ANINGS OF S U B O R D INATE CL AU S E S
‘

41 2 . A c onditi ona l s entenc e in its '

si m plest f orm c on sist s Of

tw o pa r s t
1
( ) A su bord in a te (a dverbia l) cla use c om m on ly ,
i n troduc ed
by i f; a n d ex pressin g the c onditi on .

2
( ) A m a i n cla use ex pressi n g the c onclusi on t h a t is t h e , ,

sta tem en t whi c h i s t rue in c a se the c on d i t i on ex pressed i n th e

i c la use i s true
-
.

T hus i n th e fi rst ex a m ple i n 41 1 th e c ondition i s if it ra i ns ; th e c on ,

elusion is w e sha ll rem a in a t hom e .

E ither the c on dit ion or the c on clusi on m a y c om e fi rst .

Th e c on d iti on a l c la use is often c a lled th e prota si s , a nd th e c on c lusi on is

Often ca lled th e a pod osi s .

Th e c onc lusi on of a c on dition a l sen t en c e m a be d ec la ra t i ve,

y
in t errog a ti ve, i m pera t i v e or ex c la m a t ory ,
.

I f y ou g o to P h i la d elphi a , w here sha ll y ou sta y [ I n terrog a ti ve]

S i t here, i f y ou w i sh [ p
I m era ti v e] .

I f y ou w i n th e pri e, how g la d Iz sha ll be [ E x c la m a tory ]

41 3 . A on di ti on a l c la u se m a
y b e i n t rodu c ed by p rovi d ed

( orp rovi d e tha t ) , g ra n ted tha t, supp osi ng

( or su
pp os e ,
) on

c on di ti on th a t .

I ill perm i t y ou to g o, on c ond iti on tha t y ou c om e h om e ea rly

w .

Y ou m a y h a ve th e m on ey , p rovi ded y ou w ill put i t i n th e ba n k .

S upp osi ng ( or supp ose ) i t ra i n s,

w h a t sh a ll w e d o

S upp ose i s rea lly a n i m pera ti v e a n d supp osi n g a pa rti c i l

p e, th e c la use bei n g
th e j
ob ec t.

414 . A neg a tive c onditi on is c om m on ly i n trodu c ed by if

n ot or u n less .

I w i ll w a i t f or him
,
if y o u d o n o t ob ec t j .

Un less y ou ov erc om e th a t h a bi t, y
ou w i ll be rui n ed .

41 5 . Double ( or a lterna ti ve
) c ondi ti ons m a y be i n t roduc ed by
w heth er
Whether h e g oes or sta s
y , h e m ust pa y a w eek
’b s oa rd .
[ C om pa re If
he g oes or if h e sta y s, etc ]
He i s d eterm i n ed to buy th a t c a r, w hether y ou a pp ove or not
r .
[ T h a t
is : if y ou a pprov e or if y ou d o n ot a pprov e]
 C ON D I T IONAL SE N T E N CE S 1 69

41 6 . A c on dit i ona l cla use m a y be i n t rodu ced by w hoever,

w hen ev er, or som e si m ila r c om poun d 1 59,

W hoever offen d s, i s puni sh ed .

[ C om pa re : If a ny body offen ds, he i s
pun i sh ed ]
W hoever sha ll offend sha ll be pun i sh ed ,
.

W hom ever y ou a sk y ou w ill be d i sa ppoi nted [ C om pa re

,
. I f y ou sh a ll
a sk a n y bod y ]
He w i ll c om ew hen ever if ever] h e i s ca lled .

N OT E . In old er E n g li sh a nd in poetry , w ho i s c om m on in thi s c on struc ti on

Wh o ( S HA KSP E R E )
'
h oever]
!
a s, w stea ls m y purse, stea ls tra sh .

41 7 . A c on d i ti on a l c la use som e t im es om i t s the c opula a nd

i ts su bj ect .

I w ill g o if [ it is] n ec essa ry .

If [ it i s] possi ble,
c om e to m orrow
-
.

T he if c la use i s
-
s om e tim es u sed a s a n ex cla m a t i on with ,
the
c on clusi on om i tt ed .

If I on ly ha d a ri fle

41 8 c on diti on ma y be ex pressed by m ea n s of a n a sserti on

. A ,

a questi on a n im pera ti ve or the a b solut e c on structi on

, ,

W e ta k e th e rec ei ver f rom th e h ook , a nd th e Opera tor a nsw ers . We

repla c e i t, a nd the c on n ec ti on i s brok en .
[ C om pa re : If w e ta k e th e
rec ei v er f rom th e h ook , th e Opera tor a n sw ers, etc ]
P ress th a t button , a nd th e bell w i ll ri n g .

D o y ou ref use T h en y ou m ust ta k e th e c on sequen c es .

W e sh a ll sa il on M on d a y , w ea th er perm i tti ng .

N OT E . In suc h c a s es , th ere i s n o subord i n a te c on di ti on a l c la use T h us, in .

th e fi rst e xa m ple , w e h a v e tw o i n d epen d en t c oOrdi n a te c la uses , m a k in g a

c om poun d sen ten c e 44)

FORM S OF CONDITI ONS

4 19 . C on di ti on a l
c sen en es sh o
w g rea t va ri ety of form but
t ,

it i s ea sy to cla s si fy them a cc ordi n g to the ti m e of the supposed

ca se a n d the deg ree of doubt t ha t th e spea ker ex presses .

420 Con di ti on s m a y be present pa st or future

.
, ,
.
1 70 M E AN INGS OF S U B O R D INATE CL AU S E S

PR E S E NT AND P A S T C ON D I T I ONS

421 . P resen t a nd pa s t c on dition s m a y be ei ther ( 1 ) non

c om m itta l or 2
( ) c ontra ry to fa ct .

1 . A c on d i ti on is non c om m
-
i tta l when it i m plies no th i n g a s

to th e t ruth or fa lsi ty of the ca se supposed .

If J a m es i s a ng ry , I a m sorry .
[ P erh a ps Ja m es i s a n g ry , perh a ps n ot ]
2 . A
con diti on i s c ontra ry to fa ct when it i m pli es t ha t th e
supposed c a se I s n ot or w a s n ot true .

If Ja m es w ere a ng ry , I Sh ould be sorry .

[ Ja m es is not a n g ry
]

422 . In a non- c om m itta l present c ond iti on, the if -

cla use ta kes 1

the presen t i n d i c a t i v e ; i n a non com - m itta l pa st c onditi on, the

pa st ,
th e perf ec t ,
or t h e l
p pu erfect .

The c onc lusi on m a y be i n a ny form tha t th e sen se a llow s .

I . PRE S E NT C ON D I T I ON, N O N -
CO M M I T T A L
it is va lu a ble .

g ua rd it c a refully .

l y ou h a ve m a de a g rea t di sc overy
é
.

I f thi s p bblew a di a m ond ,

y ou w ill g et a la rg e sum f or i t .

w h y a re y ou so c a reless of i t

w h a t a pri e i t i s ! z
If i t i s ra i ni ng ,
sh ut th e w i n d ow .

he isluc k y boy
’(
a .

If J a c k li ves i n thi s house, rin g th e bell .

h e h a s m oved i n c e la st M a y S .

II . P A S T C ON D I T I ON , NON -
CO M M I T T A L
( it w a s v a lu a ble .

If tha tp ebble w a s a di a m ond

] hy d i d y ou th row i t a w
w a y
Lg o ba c k a n d look f or i t .

(I h e h a s d on e hi s d uty .

If Tom ha s a p olog i z ed , < y ou oug ht to e c use h i m x .

Lf org ive h im .

If John ha d rea c hed hom e bef ore w e sta rted, h e m ust h a ve m a de a

qui c k j ourn ey .

1 By if c l
-
a u se is m ea n t th e prota si s ,
w h a tev er th e j
c on unc ti on .
1 72 MEANINGS OF S U B O RD INAT E CL AU SE S

1 . In c on dit i on whi c h sug g ests n othi n g a s to the

a future

p r ob a b i li ty or i m pr ob a b ili ty of th e c a se s u pp os ed th e p e
r s en t ,

in di ca t i v e i s reg ula rly used i n the l f c la u s e a n d th e f ut ure -

,

i n dic a t i ve in the c on clu sion .

I f i t ra i ns to m orrow -
,
I sha ll n ot g o .

x
I n v ery form a l or e a c t la n g ua g e a v erb-ph ra se w ith sh a ll m a y be u sed i n
th e (if-c la use : a s, If i t sh a ll ra i n to m orrow , I sh a ll n ot g o
!
-
.

The presen t
2 . su bj un ct i ve is som e ti m es u sed i n th e if
cla u se T hi s form
. c om m on ly su g g es s m ore t d oubt tha n the

p resen t i n di c a t i v e
I f i t ra i n to m -
orrow ,
I sh a ll n ot g o .

3 . In a fut ure c on di t i on
whi ch puts the supposed ca se ra ther
v a g uely oft en w it h a c on si d era b le su g g est i on of d ou bt a v erb
, ,

h ra se w i t h s h ou ld or w o u ld i s u sed i n b ot h cla u ses

p .

I f i t should ra i n to m -
orrow ,
I shou l
d n ot go .

For th e use of s hou ld or w ou ld in ch cla u ses 3 05

‘

su ,
see .

A phra se-
w it h w ere to m a y p la c e th
re e s hou ld
p h ra -
se i n the
73 - cla u se . T hi s form of en t em ph a si z es the su g g est i on of d oubt .

I f it w ere to ra i n to m -
orrow ,
I sh ould n ot g o .

T h e pa st su bj un cti v e m a
y s a nd t i n the if -
cla use i n stea d of

the s h ou ld phra se -
.

I f i t ra i ned to m -
orrow ,
I sh ould n ot g o
.

N OT E . Th e c om pa ra ti v e a m ount of d oubt i m pli ed i n th e d ifi eren t k i n d s of

future c on d iti on s c a n n ot be d efi n ed w i th prec i si on ; for i t v a ri es w i th th e c i r
c um sta n c es or th e c on te xt , a n d often d epen d s on em ph a si s or th e ton e of th e
v oi c e . Th us, i n i f i t sh ould ra i n to m -
orrow ,
!
shou ld m a y be so em ph a si e dz
a s to m a k e th e h i g hly i m proba ble, w h erea s a n
supposed c a se seem em ph a si s
on to— m orrow w ould h a v e a v ery d i ff eren t effec t As to th e sub un c ti v e, i ts j
’
.

u se i s often d ue ra ther to th e w ri ter s lik i n g for th a t m ood th a n to a n y spec i a l

d oubt in h i s m i n d .

427 . For even if i n c on c essi ve c la u ses, see 3 9 9 ; for a s if

in c la u ses § 4 2 8 ; for if i n th e sen se of
of c om pa ri son , see (
w h eth er) i n i n di rec t questi on s, see § 442 .
 C L AU S E S OF C O M P AR ISON 1 73

V II . CL A U SE S O F CO M P A RI SO N

42 8 . An a dverbia l c la use i ntroduc ed by a s if m a y ex press c om

pa ri son .
1

Y ou spea k a s if y ou w ere a ng ry .
2

He brea th es a s i f he w ere ex ha usted .

Sh e c a red f or m e a s i f I ha d been her son .

As thoug h i s a lso used , but a s if i s n ow preferred by m ost w ri ters .

T he su bj un c ti v e w ere, n ot th e i n di c a t i v e w a s
,
is used a ft er
a s if
429 . As a nd tha n , a s su bordi n a te c on un j cti on s ,
in t rod uc e
cla uses of c om pa ri s on or deg ree .

Y ou a re a s old a s he [is] .

I a m y oun g er tha n y ou [ a re
] .

He w eig hs a s m uc h a s I [ w ei g h] .

I pi ty y ou m ore tha n [ I p i t
y ] her .

W hen the v erb is om i tt ed, the su bsta n tiv e tha t follows a s

or tha n i s i n the sa m e c a se in w hi c h i t w ould sta n d i f the
v b w
er ere ex pres sed .
-
T hu s,

Y ou a re strong er
[ N th a n he
O T : th a n hi m
] . .

I see y ou Of ten er th a n hi m [ N O T t h a n he] .

Hepla y s a better g a m e th a n I [ NO T : tha n m .

]
e
T hey w ill m i ss Joh n m ore th a n m e .
[ T h a t is m ore th a n th ey m i ss m e ]

VII I . I ND I R EC T D I S C O UR SE

4 30 A . quota ti on m a y be d i rect or i ndi rect .

A direct q uota ti on repea t s a spee ch or thoug ht i n i ts ori g in a l

f orm .

I repli ed : I to h ea r i t
!
a m sorry .

Hen c eforth ,h e e pla i n ed ,

!
x
I sh a ll c a ll on T uesd a y s .
!

You m ust see C a li f orn i a , sh e i n si sted

!
.

1Cla uses introd uc ed by a s a re often c a lled c la uses of m a nner .

‘
3 S uc h senten c T h e m a n a c ts a if h e w ere
es a re ellipti c a l in ori g in Th us, . s

c ra zy i s equiv a lent to T h e m a n a c ts a s [h e w ould a c t] if h e w ere c ra zy .

"

B ut it i s not nec essa ry to supply th e ellipsi s in a na ly i ng z .

1 74 ME ANING S OF S U B O RD INAT E CLAU S E S

E li z a beth n o long er li ves h ere !

he id
’ eply
,
sa .

I k n ow n oth i ng a bout i t, the i tn ess

!
w a s w s r .

W here ,
!
th oug ht I , a re th e c rew 1

An i ndi rect quota ti on re ea

p ts a spee ch or thoug ht i n su b sta n ce ,

but usu a lly with som e cha n g e i n i ts form .

An in d irect quota t i on when a sta tem en t , ,

is a su b ord i na te
c la use depen den t on som e w ord of sa yi ng or thi n k i ng ,
a nd

i n troduc ed by the c onj un ct i on tha t .

I repli ed tha t I [ D i re t
w a s sorry
c z I a m sorry
] to hea r it .

He expla i n ed tha t henc ef orth he should c a ll on Tuesda y s .

Sh e i nsisted tha t I m ust see C a liforni a .

b eg ins w ith a ca pita l letter u n less it i s a fra g

A di rect quota ti on ,

m en t of a sen t en c e It i s en closed in quota tion m a rk s

. .

An i ndi rec t quota ti on b eg i n s w it h a sm a ll letter I t u sua lly ha s .

n o qu ota t i on m a rk s .

43 1 . A substa nti ve c la use i ntroduc ed by tha tm a y be used w ith verbs

a nd oth er ex pres s i ons of telling , thinking , know ing , a nd perceiving , to report

the w th oug
ords or { ht of a person in substa nc e, but usua lly w ith s om e

c h a ng e of fornifi
S uc h cla uses a re sa i d to be i n the i ndi rect d i sc ourse .

For d i sti n c ti on , a rem a rk or a th oug h t i n i ts ori g i n a l f orm (a s in a d i rec t

q uota ti on) is sa id to be i n th e d i rec t d i sc ourse .

432 . S ta tem en t s in i ndi rect di sc ourse, bein g substa n t ive

c la u ses, m a y be u sed in va ri ous n ou n c on stru ct i on s : ( 1 ) a s
j
ob ect of som e v erb of telli n g ,
th i n k i n g ,
or the lik e, 2
( ) a s sub

j ect,
( )
3 a s predi c a te nom i na ti ve, ( )
4 a s a ppos i ti ve .

He sa i d tha tthe boa: w a s em pty .

[ O b j ec t]
Tha t the box w a s em p ty w a s a ll h e c ould sa y .
[ S u b ec t ] j .

My rem a rk w a s tha t the bi ll i s a m ena c e .

[ P red i c a te n o m i n a ti v e ] .

Y our rem a rk , tha t the bi ll i s a m ena c e, h a s a roused vi g orous protest .

A
[ pposi ti on .
]
z
In a n a ly i n g , th e d i rec t quota ti on m a y be reg a rd ed a s th e ob ec t of th e
1 j
v erb of sa y in g , etc ( o r th e s ub ec.t ,
if th a t v er b i s p j
a s si v e) ; a n d if i t form s
a c om plete senten c e, th i s m a y be a n a ly ed a s i f i t stood by i tself z
It i s not .

p rop er to r eg a rd th e d i rec t q uo ta ti on a s a su b o rd i n a te c la u se .
1 76 ME ANINGS O F S U B O R D INATE C L AU S E S

3 . T he bj ect
su of th e tha t c la u se -
b ec om es the subj ect of the
pa s si ve verb a nd ,
the v erb of th e c la use i s repla ced by a n
i n fi n it i ve .

R og ers is c om m only reported to d esi re th e offi ce .

T he c hoi ce these three i d i om s i s la rg ely a m a tt er of

a m on g

em p h a si s or euph on y T h e fi rst m a y ea sily b ec om e hea vy or

.

a w k wa rd, a n d i t i s therefore less c om m on tha n ei ther of the

o thers .

N OT E . T h e th i rd of th ese i di om s i s oftenlled th e persona l c onstructi on ,

ca

to d i stin g ui sh i t from th e sec on d , in w h i c h th e g ra m m a ti c a l sub ec t i s th e i m j

per so n a l i t 120 ,
T h e i n fi n i ti v e i n thi s th i rd i d i om m a y be reg a rd ed a s a
pec u li a r a d v erb i a l m odi fi er o f t h e pa ssi ve v erb .

Further pl
ex a m
es o f t h e t hre e c on st ru ct i on s w i t h pa ssi ve
verbs of telli ng , thi nk i ng , etc , a re the f ollowi n g .

T ha t i n vi va c i ty , hum or, a n d eloquen c e, th e I ri sh sta n d hi g h a m ong

th e n a ti on s of th e w orld i s n ow lly a c k n ow led g ed

un i versa . MA C A U L A Y .

It is a d m i tted th a t th e e erc i se of th e i m a g i na ti on i s m
x ost d eli g htf ul .

SH E L L E Y
’
.

I t m ust be ow n ed th a t Ch a rle li f e h
s s a s poi n ts of som e ori g i n a li ty .

ST E V E NSON .

P orto B ello i s still sa i d to be i m preg n a ble, a n d i t i s reported th e D utc h

ha ve d ec la red w a r a g a i n st us RA Y . G .

He w as en era lly beli eved to h a ve been a i ra te — L Y T T ON

g p . .

P ope m a y be sa i d to w ri te a lw a ys w i th hi s reputa ti on i n hi s h ea d .

JOHNSON .

Sh e w a s observed to flutter h er f a n w i th suc h veh em ent ra pi d i ty th a t

th e ela bora te d eli c a c y of i ts w ork m a n shi p g a ve w a y — HA WT HORN E . .

T hi s i s sa i d to be th e on ly c h a tea u i n F ra n c e i n w h i c h th e a n c i ent
furni ture of i ts ori g i n a l a g e i s p eserved
r — L ONG F E L L OW . .

43 7 . A substa n ti ve cla use wi th tha t is c om m on a fter i t seem s,

i t is tru e, i t i s evi den t, a n d si m ila r ex ressi on s
p .

I t seem s tha t R obert ha s lost a ll hi s m oney .

I t i s true tha t g eni us does not a lw a y s bri ng ha pp i ness w ith it .

I t i s evi d en t tha t A ndrew s tells the truth .

T hi s c on struc ti on is rea lly th e sa m e a s th a t in 436 , 2 .

 IN D IRE CT D IS C O U R SE 77

438 . Th e uses of s ha ll a nd w i ll, s hou ld a n d w ou ld , in i n

1
direct di scourse a re the sa m e a s i n the di rect, w i th the followi n g
ex c epti on
W hen th e fi rst person w ith sha ll or should i n d i rect d i sc ourse bec om es
the sec ond or th i rd person i n th e i nd i rec t, sha ll or should i s reta i ned .

D IR E C T Y ou sa y, I sha lld i e .
!

I NDIR E C T : Y ou sa y th a t y ou sha lldi e .

D IR E C T Y ou sa i d ,
“I sha lldi e !
.

I ND I R E C T : Y ou sa i d th a t y ou should d i e .

D IR E C T He sa y s, “I
sha ll di e .

I NDIR E C T : He sa y s th a t he sha ll d i e .

D IR E C T
“
He sa id , I sha lld i e .

I NDIRE C T : He sa i d th a t he should d i e .

T he rea son t ti on of s ha ll or shou ld i s tha t in

for the re en ,

su ch c a s es th e sec on d or t h ird person of th e i n d i rect d i s c ourse

,

represen t s th e first person of the di rect .

T he c ha n g e from sh a ll (a ft er sa ys) to s hou ld ( a fter sa id)

a m ere cha n g e of t en se a cc ordi n g to the rule i n ,
4 34 .

N OT E T h e g en era l pri n c iple i s , to reta i n in th e i n d i rec t d i sc ourse th e a ux

. ~

ili a ry of th e d i rec t, si m ply c h a n g i n g th e ten se i f n ec essa ry Thi s pri n

c iple of c ourse c ov ers th e u se of y ou or h e sh a ll or sh ou ld to represent I

sha l l or shou ld T h ere i s, h ow ev er, on e i m porta nt e c epti on to th e g en era l

. x
pri n c iple : w h en i ts a ppli c a ti on w ould result i n th e u se of I w i ll or I w ou ld to
x
e press m ere futuri ty , I sh a ll or I sh ou ld i s em ploy ed T h us, Joh n sa y s to .

C h a rles , If y ou fa ll ov erboa rd , y ou w i ll d row n ; but Ch a rles, reportin g th i s,

John tells m e th a t, if I fa ll ov erboa rd , I sha ll [N O T w i ll] d row n
!
m ust sa y , .

Th e g en era l rule, th en , m a y be sta ted a s f ollow s : Th e i n di rec t d i sc ourse re

x
ta in s th e a u ili a ry of th e d i rec t (w i th a c h a n g e i n ten se, if n ec essa ry ) , unless
x
s uc h retenti on m a k es w i llor w ou ld e press si m ple f uturi ty in th e fi rst person ,

i n th a t c a se, sh a ll or shou ld i s u sed .

439 T he f ollow i n g
. t
sen en c es illustra t e th e ct
c orre u se of

s ha ll a n d w i ll, s hou ld a n d w ou ld , in th e i n d irect d i sc ourse

1 . He w ri tes m e th a t h e beli eves he sha ll be a t E ton till th e m i d dle

of Novem ber . G RA Y .
[ D i rec t I sh a ll be a t E ton ]

1 —
S ee pp 1 02 1 05 , 1 27 132
.
-
.
1 78 MEANINGS OF S U B O RD INAT E C LAU SE S

2 . He tha t w ould pa ss th e la tter pa rt of h i s li f e w i th h on or a nd

d ec en c y , m ust, h i le h e i s y oung , c on si d er th a t he sha ll on e d a y be

w old .

JOHNSON .
[ D i re c t : I sh a ll on e d a y be old
]
3 C ould h e but
. red uc e th e A tec z
p i ta l,
h e
ca f elt th a t he shoul
d be
sa f e .
—P
[R E SCO T T
D i rec t . I sh a ll be sa f e]
4 P la nta g en et took i t i n to hi s h ea d th a t he should lik e to lea rn to pla y
.

a t bow ls D ISR A E L I
.
[ D i rec t : I sh ould li k e
] .

5 He a nsw ered th a t he should be very proud of h oi sti n g hi s fl a g

’
.

un d er S i r Joh n s co m m a n d — SO T H E Y [ D i rec t : I sh a ll (or sh ould )

. U .

be, etc ]
6 . He k n ew pp li ed hi m self i n eth a t if h e
a r n est t o th e w ork of a

ref orm a ti on , he shoul d ra i se every ba d pa ssi on i n a rm s a g a i n st hi m .

— MA C A L A Y
[ DUi rec t : I f I a pply m y self
. I sh a ll ra i se ,
etc ]
7 . He w a s plea sed to sa y th a t he sh ou ld lik e to h a ve th e a uthor in
h i s servi c e . CA L L E R Y
[ D i rec t I.sh ou ld l i k e]
8 . Mr . T ri stra m a t la st d ec la red th a t he w a s overc om e w i th f a tig ue,
d
a n d shoul be h a ppy to si t d ow n . HE NRY JA M E S .
[ D i rec t : I s h ou ld
be h a ppy ]
9 Sh e . vow ed th a t unless h e m a de a g rea t m a tc h , she shoul
d n ever
di e ea sy T A . E A H CK R Y [ D irec t . : Un less y ou m a ke a g rea t m a tc h , I
sh a ll n ever d i e ea sy ]

1 0 Y ou th i nk n ow I
. ll g et i n to a sc ra pe a t h om e You th in k I sha .

sha llsc rea m a n d plun g e a n d spoi levery thi ng GE E EL T [ D i rec t . ORG IO .

S h e w i ll g et i nto a sc ra pe, etc ]

11 Y ou i n a m a n n er i m pose upon th em th e n ec essity of bei ng silen t,
.

by d ec la ri n g th a t y ou w i ll be so y ourself . C OWPE R .
[ D eterm i n a ti on : I
w ill be silent]

12 . He [ Sw ift] tells th em th a t he w i ll run a w a y a nd lea ve th em ,

if
th ey d o n ot i n sta n tly m a ke a provi si on f or h i m . JE F F R E Y [T hrea t
. I
w ill run y]
a w a

13 . T h e k i ng d ec la red th a t he w oul
d n ot reprI eve h er f or on e da y .

M A CKIN T OSH [ D i rec t : I w ill n ot] .

1 4 Hora c e d ec la res th a t he w ould not f or

. a ll th e w orld g et i n to a bo a t
w i th a m an w ho h a d d i vulg ed th e E leusi n i a n m y steri es — C OWP E R .

[ D i rec t I w ould n ot ]
15 . I lled up Si rbok o, a n d told h i m
ca ,
if he w oul
d li bera te th is on e

m a n to plea se m e,
he s hould be n o loser . S PE K E .
[ D i rec t : I f y ou w ill
li bera te, etc ou h ll be n o l er ]
’
, y s a . os

16 . W e c on c lud ed th a t, if w e d i d n ot c om e a t som e w ter i n ten d a y s

a

ti m e, d return
w e w oul . D E FO E .
[ D i rec t : I f w e d o n ot, etc , w e w ill .

return
]
17 . W ith a th ea tri c a l g esture a nd th e rem a rk th a t I shoul
d see, he
Open ed som e c a g es a n d relea sed h a lf a z
d o en c a ts — W . J . L OC K E .

[ D i rec t : Y ou sh a ll see]
1 80 ME ANING S OF S U B O RD INATE CL AU SE S

443 I n direct question s a re usua lly n oun cla uses T hey m a y

. .

be used in va ri ous n oun c on struct i on s : ( 1 ) a s obj ect of som e verb

‘

of a sk i ng or th e lik e a s subj ect

( )
2 ( )
3 a s predi c a te nom i na tive
, , ,

4 5 a s obj ect of a preposi t i on

( ) a s a ppositi ve
( ) ,
.

T h e ski pper a sk ed w ha t ha d bec om e of the c ook [ O b j ec t] .

He w a s a sk ed w ha t his p rof essi on w a s [ R eta i n ed o b j ec t a f ter the .

pa ssi ve 25 3 ,
H ow w e c oul de sc a p e w a s a di ffi c ult q u esti on .
[ S ub e c t j .

T h e problem w as how they should fi nd f ood .

[ P re di c a t e n om i n a ti v e] .

T h e qu esti on w ho w a s to bla m e h a s n ever been settled . A

[ pp osi ti on
w i th questi on ]
T h ey a ll f elt g rea t perplexity a s to w ha tthey shoul
d do .
[ O j ec t of
b a
reposi ti on
p ]
An i n d i rect questi on m a y be a n a d v erbia l c la u se .

T h ey w ere un c erta i n w ha tc ourse they should ta ke .

[ T h e c la use m odi fi es

unc erta i n ]
E d m un d here he should sp end the
w a s i n d oubt w ni g ht .
[ T h e c la use

j
m od i fi es th e a d ec ti ve ph ra se i n doubt]

444 . S in c ethe pron oun s w ho, w h i c h, ha t m a y be either

a nd w

i n t errog a ti v e or
“
rela t i ve ,
a n i n di rect questi on ma y closely re
sem ble a rela
ti ve cla use T hese tw o c on structi on s however, .
,

a re sha rply di st i n g ui shed A rela ti ve c la use a lwa y s a sserts som e

.

thin g An in d irect quest i on on the c on tra ry ha s a n i nterrog a ti ve

.
, ,

sen se whi ch m a y be seen by turn i n g th e quest i on i n t o th e d i rec t

form .

T h e sa i lor w ho sa ved the c hi ld i s T h c la use w ho sa ved

a P ortug uese .
[ e
the c hi ld i s a rela ti ve c la use, f or i t m a k es a di sti n c t a sserti on a bout the
sa ilor, n a m ely , th a t h e sa ved th e c h i ld . Who is a rela ti ve pron oun
a n d sa i lor i s i ts a n tec ed en t
]
I a sk ed

I do n ot k n ow
w ho sa ved the Chz ld
I t i s still a questi on
I t i s d oubtful

[ Here th e c la use w ho sa ved the c hi l

d ma k es O n th e c on
n o a sserti on .

x
tra ry , i t e presses a qu esti on w hi c h m a y ea si ly be put i n a d i rec t form

w i th a n i nterrog a ti on poi n t : W ho sa ved th e c hild Who i s a n i nter

rog a ti ve pron oun . I t ha s n o a n tec ed ent ]
 IND IRE CT Q UE S T IONS 81

The f oll
on ex a m p les fur t h er illu stra t e the d i fferen c e be

tween these tw o c on structi on s

1 . I f oresee th e c ourse w hic h he w i ll ta ke [ R

. ela ti v e c l a u s e]
I foresee w hi c h c ourse he w i ll ta ke .
[ I n d i rec t q u e st i o n ]
I h ea rd ha t he id R l i Wha t
c la use
“th a t
2 . w sa .
[ e a t v e .

I w ond ered w ha t he sa id .
[ I n d i rec t q u esti on W ha t i s a n i n terr
. og a

ti ve pron oun ]
3 . T hi s i s th e m a n w ho broug ht the new s .
[ R ela ti v e c la use]
T he ki ng a sk ed w ho broug ht the new s [ I n d i rec t questi on ] .

4 . Here i s a pa per w hi c h y ou m ust sig n [ R ela ti ve c la use] .

T he c le k w i lltelly ou w hic h p a p er y ou m ustsig n [ I n di rec t questi on ]

r .

N OT E In suc h a senten c e a s
. T om k n ow s w ho sa ved the c hi ld , th e in !

d i rec t q uesti on m a y a t fi rst a ppea r to be a rela ti ve c la use w i th a n om i tted

a n tec ed ent ( the m a n , or the p erson) I f , h ow ev er, w e i n sert suc h a n a ntec e
.

d ent T om k n ow s the m a n w h o sa v ed th e c h ild th e m ea ni n g is c om

'

pletely In th e ori g in a l senten c e, i t i s

c h a n g ed . sta ted th a t T om k n ow s th e
a n sw er to th e q uesti on , W h o sa v ed th e c h ild In th e n ew form of th e sen
ten c e, i t i s sta ted th a t T om i s a c q ua i nted w ith a c erta i n person , a n d to thi s i s

a d d ed a n a sserti on a bout th i s person i n th e f orm of a rela ti ve c la us e .

44 5 ; An i n direct quest
i on is tim es ex pressed by m ea n s
s om e

of a n i n terrog a ti v e pron oun or a d v erb f ollow ed by a n i n fi n i ti v e .

Whom to c hoose i s a seri ous q u esti on .

[ D i rec t q u esti on : W hom sh a ll
w e c h oose

John a sk ed w ha t to do .
[ Joh n
’q u e ti on s s w a s : W h a t sh a ll I do
I k n ow here to g o [ D i rec t qu esti on
w . W h ere sh a ll I g o

T ell m e w hen to stri ke the bell .

I w a s a t a loss how to p ly
re .

I a m i n d oubt how to beg i n this essa y .

I n the fi rst four ex a m le th e i t li c i z ed hra s e i s u sed a s a

p s a p
th r a s su bj ect
ei or obj ect I n the fi fth , th e phra se how
n oun
( e
) .

to re l
p y i s a d v erb i a l m od i fy i n g ,
the a dj ecti ve phra se a ta loss .

446 . T he subj un cti ve w a s f orm erl y com m on i n in direct ques

tion s ,
a nd is s till oc ca si on a lly u sed a ft er if or w h eth er .

I d oubt i f i t be true .

E lton questi on ed w h eth er th e pro ec t w ere w i se j .

1 82 MEANING S OF S U B O R D IN AT E CLAU S E S

447 . T he rule for s ha ll (shou ld) ) a nd w i ll ( w d

ou l in in di rect
question s i s to reta in the a ux ili a ry used i n the d irect questi on
, ,

m erely c ha n g in g the t en se (sha ll to s hou ld ; w i ll to w ou ld

)
when n ecessa ry

I . ME R E FU T U R I T Y

1 . D IR E C T W h a t sha llI do
I NDIR E C T I w on d er w ha t I sha ll d o .

You a sk m e w h a t y ou sha ll d o .

He a sk s m e w h a t he sha lld o .

I w on d ered w ha t I shoul
d do .

Y ou a sk ed m e w h a t y ou should d o .

He a sk ed m ew h a t he should d o .

2 . D IR E C T S ha ll y ou lose y our posi ti on

I NDIR E C T I a sk
ou if you sha ll lose your posi ti on
y
He a sk s
.

I a sk ed
y ou i f y ou should lose y our posi ti on
He a sk ed
.

3 . D IR E C T Wi ll C ha rles lose hi s posi ti on

I NDIR E C T I a sk i f C ha rles w i ll lose hi s posi ti on .

I
Y ou a sk ed i f C ha rles w oul
d lose hi s posi ti on .

T om

II . VO L I T I ON

Wi ll y ou h elp m e
Y ou a sk if I w i ll h elp y ou .

He a sk s if I w i ll h elp hi m .

Y ou a sk ed if I w oul
d h elp y ou .

He a sk ed if I w ould h elp hi m .

I a sk ed hi m h elp m e .

Y ou a sk ed hi m if he w oul
d h elp y ou .

T om a sk ed hi m J L h elp hi m .

NOT E . T h ere i s a si n g le e xc eption to th e rule in 447 . Wh en , in c ha ng in g

from a d i rec t toi n d i rec t q uesti on , th e thi rd person w i th w i ll or w ou ld be
a n

c om es th e fi rst, sh a ll or sh ou ld i s substi tuted unless v oli ti on i s ex pressed .

Thus , John sa y s to T h om a s , Wi ll Ch a rles d i e of hi s w oun d ? C h a rles ,

’
reporting John s q uesti on , sa y s, John a sk ed T h om a s w h eth er I shou ld d i e of
C om pa re § 438 , n ote
!
m y w oun d . .
 S T R U CT U RE OF SE N T EN CE S

SI M PL E SE NT E NC E S

45 0 . T he followin g t t
s a em en t is a si m ple sentence, for i t c on !

ta in s but one subj ect a n d one predi ca te 4 6)

T h e pola r bea r li ves i n th e A rc ti c reg i ons .

The fra m work or sk elet on of thi s sim ple sen ten c e c on si sts
e

of the su bj ect n oun bea r the si m ple su bj ect a n d th e predi c a te

( )
v erb li ves (the sim ple predi ca te) T o m a k e the com plete subj ect .
,

bea r t a k es a s m odi fi ers th e tw o a dj ecti ves the a n d p ola r to

m a k e the c om plete predi ca te li ves ta k es a s m odifi er the a d v erbia l
,

h ra se i n th e Arc ti c reg ions

p .

B y a tta c hin g a n other si m ple subj ect to bea r w e m a ke a

c om pound subj ect S im ila rly, w e m a k e a com pound

.
predi ca te by
a dd i n g a n oth er v erb

T h e pola r bea r a nd th e w a lrus li ve a n d thri ve i n the A rc ti c reg i ons .

Th e c om poun d subj ect i s bea r a n d w a lrus the c om poun d

p r ed i c a t e i s li ve a n d thri ve B ot h v erb s a re m od i fi ed by th e
.

a d v erb ia l phr a se i n th e Arc ti c reg ion s The sen t en c e it self i s .

st ill a si m ple sen t en c e .

I n ea ch of the follow in g si m ple sen t en c es eith er th e subj ect

or th e pred i c a t e or both a re c om poun d

G a m es a n d c a rols c losed th e busy d a y . R OG E RS .

T he sta rs lea p f orth , a n d trem ble, a n d reti re bef ore th e a d va n c i ng

m oon . G ORG
E E M E R E DI T H .

M a d a m e D ef a rg e k n i tted w i th n im ble fi n g ers a n d stea dy ey ebrow s,

a n d sa w n oth i ng . D I C K E NS .

W ork or w orry h a d left i ts tra c es upon hi s th i n , y ellow f a c e D LE . OY .

C row s flutter a bout th e tow ers a n d perc h on every w ea th erc oc k .

I RVING .

He g a i n ed th e d oor to th e la n d i n g , pulled i t Open , a n d rush ed f orth .

L YT T ON .

C oun try m en , butc h ers, d rovers, h a w k ers, boy s, th i eves, i d lers, a n d

va g a bon d s of every low g ra d e,
w ere m i n g led tog eth er i n a d en se m a ss .

D ICK E NS .

T h ere stood th e broa d -

w h eeled w a i ns a nd th e a n ti q ue plow s a nd th e
ha rrow s . L ONGF E L L OW .
 C O MP O U N D S EN TE N CE S 1 85

B oth Aug ustus a n d P eters j oi ned w i th h i m i n h i s d esig n a nd i n si sted

upon i ts i m m edi a tely bei ng c a rri ed i n to effec t . P OE .

W om en a n d c hi ld ren , f rom g a rrets a lik e a n d c ella rs, throug h i n fi n i te

-

L on d on , look d ow n or look up w i th lovi ng ey es upon ou r g y a ri bbons

a n d our m a rti a l la urels . DE QU INC E Y .

C O MP O UND SE NTE NCE S

45 1 . If w e a tta ch a no ther sim ple sen t en ce to t ha t in 45 0

the result i s a c om pound sentenc e

T h e pola r bea r li ves i n the A rc ti c reg i on s,

I] but [Ii t som eti m es

rea c h es tem pera te la ti tud es .

T hi s is m a ni fes tly a c om pound s enten c e, f or it c onsi st s of tw o

codrdi na te c la uses , j oi n ed by the

con j un ct i on bu t
T he fra m ew ork of th e sec on d cla use c on si st s of th e subj ect
i t a n d the sim ple predi ca t e rea c h es T o m a k e the c om plet e .

i c t h v erb rea c h es t a k es n ot only a m od ifi er h

p r ed a e t e
, ( t e

a d v erb som eti m es

) but a c om plem ent
,
th e d irect obj ect la ti ,

tu d es wh i c h c om plet es the m ea n i n g of th e v erb

,
Thi s n oun i s .

i t self m odi fi ed by th e a dj ect i v e tem p era te B oth c la us es a re .

si m ple f or ea c h c on ta i n s bu t on e su bj ect a n d on e pred i ca t e

,
.

452 O b v i ously a lm ost a n y num b er of sim ple sen ten c es m a y

.
,

be j oin ed (w i th or w ithout c on j un ct i on s) to m a k e on e c om poun d

s en t en c e .

T h e qui et A ug ust n oon h a s c om e

S
A lum berous si len c e fi lls th e sky
T h e fi eld s a re still, th e w ood s a re d um b
I n g la ssy sleep th e w a ters li e . B RYA NT .

Sta tes f a ll, a rts f a d e, but Na ture d oes n ot di e . B YRON .

The c ourt w a s si tti ng ; t h e c a se w as

‘

h ea rd ; th e udg e h a d fij n i sh ed ;
a n d on ly th e verdi c t w a s y et i n a rrea r. DE QU INC Y
E .

He softly blushed h e si g h ed h e h oped h e f ea red h e d oubted he

som eti m es y i eld ed to th e d eli g h tf ul id ea . T HA CK E RA Y .

A m pb a ppea red bef ore th e w i n d ow , a sm a rt ra p w a s h ea rd a t th e

d oor, th e boy s ha llooed , a n d th e m a id a nn oun c ed M r GrenVllle — C . . OWPE R .

Hi s h ea lth h a d suffered f rom c on fi n em en t ; h i s h i g h spi ri t h a d been

c ru elly w ound ed a n d soon a fter hi s li bera ti on h e di ed of a brok en h ea rt .

MA C A U LA Y .
 S T R U CT U RE OF SE N TE N CE S

CO M P LE X SE NT E NC E S

45 3 . T he sim ple sen t en ce in 4 5 0 m a y be m a de c om plex by

m ea n s of a subordi na te c la use u sed a s a m odifi er

T h e pola r bea r, w hi c h li ves i n the A rc ti c reg i ons, som eti m es rea c h es

tem pera te la titud es .

T h e pola r bea r som eti m es rea c h es tem pera te la ti tud es w hen thei c e drifts
southw a rd .

I n the fi rs t ex a m l
p ,e t h e si m ple s u bj ect ( bea r
), b esi d es i ts tw o

a dj ect i ve m od ifi ers
( th e a n d p ola r , ta k es a t hi rd , the a dj ecti v e
)
c la u se w hi c h li ves i n th e Arc ti c re
g i ons T he t
sen en e, c
then ,
is c om plex : the m a in cla u se i s the p ola r bea r s om eti m es

rea c hes tem p era te la ti tu d es the su bordina t e cla use is w hi c h

li ves i n the Arc ti c reg i ons .

T he se on d
c sen en e t c is a lso c om plex ; T he m a in cla use is
the sa m e a s i n the
first ( the p ola r bea r som eti m es rea c hes tem
p era te la ti tu d es
) T h e su b ord i n a t e c la use i s w h en the i c e dri ts
.
f
sou thw a rd a n a dverbi a l m odi fi er of the red i c a t e v erb rea c h es
, p .

COMP O UND A ND C O M PL E X C L A USE S

454 . Tw o or m ore c oordi na te c la uses m a

y be j oin ed to m a ke
on e c om pound c la use .

T h e pola r bea r, w hic h li ves i n the A rc ti c reg i ons a nd w hosep hysic a l c on

sti tuti on is ly a
w onder ul f d a p ted to tha t f ri g id c li m a te, som eti m es rea c h es

tem pera te la ti tud es .

T h e pola r bea r som eti m es rea c h es tem pera te la ti tud es w hen the floes
brea k up a nd w hen the i c e drifts southw a rd .

I n th e first ex a m l
p ,e the i t a li c i z ed w ord s form a c om pound
a j
d ective c la use, m od i fy i n g the n oun bea r It c on sist s of tw o
.

c ofi rdi na te a j
d ecti ve c la uses j oin ed by a nd . These cla uses a re

coordina te b eca use they a re of the sa m e order or ra nk in th e

ea ch b ei n g if a ken si n g ly a n a dj ect i v e
sen t en c e
( t )
m od i fi er of the n oun .

I n the sec ond ex a m ple the predi ca te verb rea c hes i s m od i

,

fi ed by a c om pound a dverbi a l c la use si m ila rly m a de up ,

.
 ANAL Y SIS OF SE N T E N GE S

C HA P T E R I I

ANALY S I S OF S ENT ENCE S

SI M P L E S E NTE NCE S

45 8 . In a na lyz in g a si m ple sentenc e, w e fi rst d i v i de i t i n t o

th e c om plete j
sub ect a n d the c om plete pred i c a te . Th en w e poi n t
out the si m ple sub ect j w ith i ts m odifi ers , a n d th e sim ple predi ca te
with its m odi fi ers a n d c om plem ent (if there is on e) I f either the .

subj ect or the predi c a te i s c om poun d w e m en ti on the si m ple ,

subj ect s or pred i ca t es t ha t a re j oin ed .

1 . T h e pola r bea r li ves i n th e A rc ti c reg i on s .

T hi s i s a si m
p le se n te n c e T h e c om .
p l ete su b ec t i s the p ola r b eajr ; th e
c om plete pred i c a te i s li ve s i n th e A rc ti c reg i on s T h e si m p le su b e c
. t i s j
S
th e n oun bea r ; th e i m ple pred i c a te i s th e verb li ves B ea r i s m od i fi ed .

j
by th e a d ec tives the a nd p ola r ; li ves i s m od i fi ed by th e a d verbi a l phra se
“

i n the A rcti c T hi s phra se c on si sts of th e preposi ti on i n ; i ts

reg i ons .

j j
ob ec t, th e n oun reg i ons ; a n d th e a d ec ti ves the a n d A rc ti c , m od ify i ng

reg i ons

2 . T he pola r bea r a nd th e w a lrus li ve a nd thri ve i n th e A rc ti c reg i on s .

T he plet ec om
sub e c t i s the p ola r bej
a r a nd the w a l
r us T w o si m pel .

j j
rus) a re oi n ed by th e c on un c ti on a nd to m a k e a
s ub ec ts (bea r a n d w a l j
j
c om poun d sub ec t, a n d tw o si m ple pred i c a tes ( li ve a n d thri ve) a re oi n ed j
by a nd to m a k e a c om poun d pred i c a te L i ve a . nd thri ve a re both m odi fi ed

by th e a d verbi a l phra se i n the A rc ti c reg i ons .

C O M P O UND SE NT E NC E S

459 . In a na lyz i n g a c om pound s entenc e w e fi rst di vide it in t o

its c obrdi na te c la uses , a nd then a na lyz e ea ch cla use by i tself .

Thu s, —l
T h e pola r bea r lives i n th e A rc ti c reg i ons , but i t som eti m es rea c h es

tem pera te la ti tud es .

T his i s a c om poun d sen ten c e c on si sti n g of tw o c o ordi n a te c la us es oi n ed j

j
by th e c on un c ti on but: ( 1 ) the p ola r bea r li ves i n the A rc ti c reg i ons a n d
( )
2 i t som eti m es rea c hes tem p era te l
a ti tud es T h e c om plete s ub ec t of th e . j
 C O MP LE X SE N TE N GE S 1 89

fi rst c la use i s thep ola r bea r a n d so on , a s i n [ 458 , a bove] . j

T h e sub ec t of th e
sec on d c la use i s it p lete p rth e
e di c a t
c om
e i s som etim es rea c hes tem p era te
la titudes . T he sim ple pred i c a te i s rea c hes, w h i c h i s m odifi ed by th ea d verb
som eti m es a n d is c om
p leted by th e d i rec t ob ec t la ti tudes j . T he c om ple

m ent l
a titudes i s m od i fi ed by th e a d j ec ti vetem p era te .

CO MP L E X S E NT E NC E S

460 . In a na lyz in g a c om plex sentence, w e first di v i d e i t i n t o

the m a i n cla use a nd th e subordi n ate c la use .

1 . T h e pola r bea r, w hi c h li ves i n th e A rc ti c r e

g i on s ,
som eti m es rea c h es

tem pera te la titud es .

T hi s is a c om p x
le sentenc e . T he m a in c la use is the p ola r bea r som e

ti m es rea c hes tem p era te la ti tudes ; the subord i n a te c la use i s w hic h li ves i n
the A rc tic reg i ons T h e c om plete sub ec t of th e senten c e i s the p ola r bea r,
. j
i ves i n the A rc tic reg i ons ; th e c om plete predi c a te i s som eti m es
w hi c h l

rea c hes tem p era te la titudes T h e si m ple sub

. j ec t i s bea r hi h i s m odifi ed
,
w c

j
by th e a d ec ti ves the a c n d p ola r a n d by th e a d
w j e tive c la use hic h lives i n the
A rcti c reg i ons T h e si m ple pred i c a te i s rea c hes, w hi c h i s m odi fi ed by th e
.

a d verb som eti m es a n d c om pleted by th e d i rec t ob ec t l a titudes T his c om j .

p le m en t,
la titud es ,
i s m odi fi ed by th e a d ec ti v e tem p era te T h e s ub or d i n a te j .

c la use i s i ntrod u c ed by th e rela ti ve pron oun w hic h [ T h en a n a ly z e t h e .

subord i n a te c la use ]
T h e pola
2 . r bea r rea c h es tem pera te la ti tud es w h en th e i c e d ri fts
southw a rd .

T hi s i s a c om l
pe x senten c e . T he m a i n c la use i s the p ola r bea r rea c hes

tem p era te la titudes ; th e subord i n a te c la use i s w hen the ic e drifts southw a rd .

j
T h e c om plete sub ec t of th e sen ten c e i s the p ola r bea r ; th e c om plete
predi c a te i s rea c hes tem p era te la titudes hen the i c e drifts southw a rd T h e
w .

Sim ple subj ec t i s bea r, w hi c h i s m odi fi ed by th e a d ec ti ves the a n d p ol j

a r .

T he si m ple pred i c a te i s rea c hes, w hi c h i s m od i fi ed by the a d verbi a l c la use

w hen the i c e drifts southw a rd, a n d c om pleted by th e n oun l a titudes (the

d i rec t j
ob ec t of rea c hes
) . T he by th c om plem en t
e la titudes i s m odi fi ed

j
a d ec ti ve tem p era te T h e subordin a te c la use i s i n trod uc ed by the rela ti ve
.

a d verb w hen [ T h en a n a
. ly e th e subord i n a te c la use] z
T h e pola r bea r, w hi c h lives i n th e Arc ti c
3 . reg i on s w h en i t i s a t
hom e, som etim es rea c h es tem pera te la ti tud es .

T hi s i s a c om plex sen ten c e . The m a in c la use i s the p ola r bea r som e

ti m es rea c hes tem p era te la titudes th e subord i n a te c la use i s w hic h li ves i n

the Arctic reg i ons w hen i t i s a t hom e, w p lex
hi c h i s,
si n c e i
c omt c on ta i ns
th e a dverbi a l c la use w hen it is a t hom e, m odifyi ng the verb l i ves .
 ANAL Y SIS OF SE N TE N CE S

4 . He sa y s th a t th e pola r bea r lives i n th e A rc ti c reg i on s .

Thi s i s a ple
c om x T h e m a i n c la use i s he sa ys th e subordina te
senten c e .

c la use is r bea r li ves i n th e A rc ti c reg i ons

tha t thep ola T h e sub ec t of th e sen . j
ten c e i s he, th e c om plete predi c a te i s sa ys th a t thep ola r bea r li ves i n theArc ti c
reg i ons Th e si m ple pred i c a te i s sa y s, w h i c h i s c om pleted by i ts d i rec t ob ec t,
. j
th e n oun c la use th a t reg i ons, i ntrod uc ed by th e j
c on un c ti on th a t
.
[ en
T h
a na z
ly e th e subordin a te c la use ] .

5 . T ha t th e pola r bea r som eti m es rea c h es tem pera te la ti tud es i s a

f a m i li a r fa c t .

Th i s i s a
p le c om
sen ten c e x T h e m a i n c la use (
. i s a f a m i li a r f a c t) a ppea rs a s

a pred i c a te only , si n c e th e subord i n a te c la use ( th a t the p ola r bea r som eti m es

rea c h es tem p era te la ti tu d es) i s a n oun c la use u sed a s th e c om plete sub ec t of j

th e senten c e T h e si m ple predi c a te i s i s, w hi c h i s c om pleted by th e pred i c a te
.

n om i n a ti v ef a c t Th i s c om plem en t i s m odi fi ed by th e a d ec ti v es a a n d f a m i li a r
. j .

Th e subordi n a te c la use, w h i c h i s u sed a s th e c om plete sub ec t, i s i ntrod uc ed j

j
by th e c on un c ti on th a t .
[Th en a na z
ly e th i s c la use .
]

CO M P OUND C OMP L E X SE NTE NC E S

46 1 . In a na lyz i n g a c om pound c om plex t

sen en e, c w e first
di v i de i t i n t o the i ndependent (
c la uses S i m ple or com plex ) of
wh i c h it consi st s a n d then ,
a n a lyz e ea c h of t hes e a s i f it
were a sen tence by i t self .

See the ex a m ples i n 4 5 6, 4 5 7 .

1 92 M O D I FI E R S

N OT E . j
Th e term s a a d j ecti ve a re n ot sy n ony m ous
d ecti ve m odi fi er a n d All .

a d j ec ti ves a re a d j ec ti v e m od i fi ers but a ll a d j e ti ve m od i fi ers a re n ot a d j e

’
c
’
, c

tiv es Th us i n
. Hen ry s sk a tes a re rusty
, th e possessi v e n oun Hen ry s i s ,
!

a n a j
d ec ti v e m odi fi er, si n c e it li m its th e n oun sk a tes a s a n a j
d ec ti ve m i g ht d o .

465 . A g roup of words used a s a m odi fier ma y be ei t h er a

phra s e or a c la use 40

A ble m en
~

M en of a bi lity ca n L a lw a ys fi n d em l
p oy m en t .

M en w ho ha ve a bi lity J
thoug htlessly .

I spok e w ithout thi nki ng .

bef ore I thoug ht .

A phra se or a c la use used a s a n a j

d ec tive m od ifi er i s ca lled a n a dj ec
tive phra se or cla use .

A phra s e or a c la use used a s a n a dverbi a l m od ifi er i s c a lled a n a dverbi a l

ph ra se or c la use .

Adj ecti v e a n d a d verbia lcla uses a re a lwa ys subordi na te, beca use
they a re used a s pa r s of t
spee ch

1 M OD I FI E R S or T HE SUB JE CT

466 . An y su bsta n ti ve i n
y t a k e a n a the sen t en c e m
dj ect i v e a

m od ifi er but m odi fi ers of the subj ect a re pa rt i c ula rly i m porta n t

,
.

T he sim ple su bj ect m a y be m odi fi ed by ( 1 ) a n a dj ecti ve a n ,

a dj ecti ve phra se or a n a dj ecti ve c la use ;

, ( )
2 a pa rti c i ple ;
( )
3 a n

in fi ni ti ve ; ( 4) a pos sessive ; ( 5 ) a n a ppositi ve .

I . ADJE CTIVES , ADJECTIVE P HRAS ES , ADJECT IVE CLAUS E S

467 . Th e sim ple su bj ec t m a y be m od i fi ed by a n a j

d ective,
a j
d ective phra se, or a n a j
d ective cla use .

I vory tri nk ets

T ri n k ets of i vory l la y sc a ttered a bout .

T ri nk ets w hi c h w ere c a rved f rom ivory )

Treeless spots 1
Spots w i thout trees Lw ere pla inly vi si ble .

Spots w here no trees g rew ]

 M O D IFIE R S OF THE S U B JE CT 193

In these g roups of sen ten c es the subj ect of the fi rst

ea ch of ,

sen t en c e i s m od i fi ed by a n a dj ecti ve t ha t of th e sec on d by a n ,

a dj ecti ve phra se t ha t of th e t hi rd by a n a dj ecti ve c la us e

,
.

M ost a d j ecti v e phra ses a re prepositi ona l a s i n the

ex a m ples .

468 An . a j
d ecti ve c la use m a y b e i n t rodu c ed by a rela ti ve pro
noun or a rela ti ve a dverb . For li st s, see 3 77 .

I . RE L A T IV E P R ONOUNS

T he a rc h i tec t w ho d esig ned this c hurc h

m a n of g eni us w a s a .

T h e pa i n ter w hom Ruski n Of tenest m entions i s Turn er .

A pi ec e of a m ber w hic h i s rubbed bri skly w ill a ttra c t bi ts of pa per .

T he d a y tha t I drea ded c a m e a t la st .

T h e pla i n throug h w hic h this ri verflow s is m a rv elously f erti le

T h e book f rom w hi c h I g ot thi s i nf orm a tion i s a lw a ys reg a rd ed

a uth on ta ti ve .

A fri en d i n w hom one c a n trusti s a trea sure bey on d pri c e .

T h e boys w i th w hom he a ssoc i a tes d o hi m n o g ood .

II . R E L A T I V E A D V E RB S

T h e spot w here the Old Gua rd m a de thei r la st sta nd is m a rk ed by a

bron e ea g lez .

T he m orn i ng w hen I a rri ved i n R om e i s

yp lea sa on e of m n test m em ori es .

Th e y ea r a fter A shton left hom e broug ht f resh d i sa ster .

T h e la n d w henc e c ld drif ted i n hi s m a g i c boa t w i ll n ev er be k n ow n .

N OT E . A preposi ti on a nd a rela tiv e pron oun m y often repla c e a rela ti v e

a

a d v erb . Thu s, in th e sec on d e xa m ple , on w hi c h m i g ht be substi tuted for w h en .

II . P ART I CIP LE S

469 . Th e su bj ect y b
m ae m od i fied by a pa rti c i ple
( w i th
without m od i fier or com plem en t) .

1 . S m i li ng , th e c hi ld h i s h ea d
sh ook .

2 . My a un t, rea ssured , took up h er book a g a in .

3 . T h e pri son er sa nk ba c k ex ha usted .

4 . E x a sp era ted bey on d en d ura n c e, th e c a pta i n c ut th e rope .

5 . John , obey i ng a sud d en i m pulse, took to h i s h eels .

 M O D I F IE R S

6 Ha vi ng broken on e c a r, Robert h a d to sc ull

. .

7 Th e n a ti ves, f ea ri ng c a pti vi ty a bove a ll th i ng s, lea ped i n to th e ri ver .

8 . Albert left th e room ,

looki ng ra th er sullen .

I n the f ourt h ex a m le th e rt i ci le i s m odi fi ed by a n a d v er

p pa p
bia l p h ra se ; i n th e fi fth a n d si x th, it ha s a n obj ect ; in the
sev en t h, i t ha s b ot h bj ect a n d a m odi fier ; in the ei g ht h
a n o ,

i t i s follow ed by th e pred i ca t e a dj ect i ve su llen I n a n a ly si s .

,

the wh ole pa rt i c ipi a l ph ra se ( c on si st in g of the pa rt i c i ple a n d

a cc om pa n y i n g w ord s m a y be t rea t ed a s a n a dj ec t i ve phra se
)
m od ify i n g th e su bj ec t ; but i t 1 s si m pler to reg a rd the pa r

ti c iple a s th e m odifi er a n d t hen to en u m era t e its m odifi ers

, ,

etc sepa ra t ely

. .

T hus, i n the seven th e xa m ple ,

th e S lm ple sub ec t n a ti ves i s m odi fi edjby
th e pa rti c i ple f ea ri ng , w hi c h h a s f or a c om plem en t c a p ti vity (th e d i rec t
j
ob ec t) a n d i s m od i fi ed by th e a d verbi a l ph ra se a bove a ll thi ng s .

NOT E . A pa rti c iple, th ou g h a j

m od i fi er of th e sub ec t, h a s a t th e sa m e ti m e
a pec uli a r rela ti on to th e p ed i c a
r te, bec a use i t m y ta k e
a th e l
p a c e of a n a d v er
bi a l c la use T h us, i n th e sev enth e a
. x m ple, f ea ri ng i s pra c ti c a lly equi v a len t to
th e c la u se bec a use th ey f ea red , w h i c h , if substi tuted f or th e pa rti c iple, w ould
of c ourse m od i fy b h e pred i c a te verb lea p ed
t T h i s d ua l offi c e of th e pa rti c i ple.

c om es f rom i ts tw ofold n a ture a s (1) a n a j

d ec ti v e a n d (2) a v erb I n a n a ly i n g , . z
w e trea t th e pa rti c i ple a s a n a j
d ec ti v e m od i fi er of th e n oun to w hi c h i t be
lon g s ; b ut i ts f un c ti on a s a su bsti tute f or a n a d verbi a l c la use i s a n i m porta nt

m ea n s of sec uri n g v a ri ety i n sty le .

III . INFINITIVE S

4 70 . T he su bj ect m a y be m odi fied by a n i nfi niti ve .

E a g ern ess to lea rn w a s y oun g L i n c oln ’t s s rong est pa ssi on .

D esi re to tra vel m a d e T a y lor restless .

T h e w i sh to suc c eed prom pted hi m to d o hi s best .

Abili ty to w ri te ra pid ly i s a va lu a ble a c c om pli shm en t

’
.

How a r d u
s nw i lli n g n ess to d esert a f ri end c ost hi m h i s li f e .

I n the fourth ex a m l
p ,e th e i n fi n i t i v e h a s a n a d v erbi a l m od i
fi a n d i n the fi ft h , i t ha s a c om plem en t , i ts obj ec t
er ( ra
p i d ly)
(f ri en d
) . In su ch i n sta n ces ,
tw o m e th ods of a na ly si s a re a llow
a ble a s i n the c a se of rti ci i a l phra ses
, pa p
1 96 M O D I FI E R S

4 73 . A noun c la use may be used a s a n a ppos i ti ve ,

a nd so

ma y be a n a dj ecti ve m odi fier

T he questi on w hether A ntoni o w a s a c i tiz en w a s settled i n th e a ffi rm a

tive [ Here th e i ta li c i z ed c la use i s used a s

. a n oun in a pposi ti on w i th
questi on .
]
T h e sta tem ent tha tw a ter f reez es seem s a bsurd to a na ti ve of th e torrid
z on e [Th e c la use tha t w
. a ter f reez es i s i n a pposi ti on w i th sta tem ent ] .

An d j e ti v e i n th e ppositiv e posi ti on i s often c a lled a n a pposi ti ve a d ec ti ve j

’
a c a

A sw ord , k een a n d bri g h t, fl

a sh ed f rom th e sold i er s sc a bba rd
!
.

M O D I FI E R S O F T HE P RE D I CATE

4 74 The si m ple predi ca te,

. bei n g a verb or v erb phra se -
,
ca n
ha v e on ly a dverbi a l m odifi ers .

The sim ple predi c a te m a y be m odi

fied by ( 1 ) a n a bverb a n ,

a dverbi a l phra se, or a n a dverbi a l c la use 2

( ) a n i nfi ni ti ve
, ( )
3 an ,

a dverbi a l ob ective, j ( )
4 a nom i na ti ve a bsolute 5
( ) a n i ndi rect obj ect, ,

6
( ) a cog na te ob ectj .

I . ADVERB , ADVERBIAL P HRAS E , ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

4 75 . The sim ple pred i c a t e m a y be m od i fi ed by a n a dverb,

a n a dverbi a l phra se, or a n a dverbi a l c la use .

T h e la n dlord c ollec ts hi s re thefi rst o f every m onth .

en thefi rst of the m onth c om es .

there .

T h e old sc h oolhouse sta n d s a tthe c ross roa ds -

.

w here the roa ds m eet .

W e left th e h a ll before the la st sp eec h .

e the la st sp eec h w
w hi l a s bei ng d eli vered .

In ea ch of
these g roups the sim ple predi ca te of the first ,

sen t en c e i s m odifi ed by a n a d v erb t ha t of the sec on d by a n ,

a d v erbi a l ph ra se a n d t ha t of the t hi rd by a n a d v erb i a l c la use

,
.

M ost a d verbia l phra ses a re prepositi ona l

 M O D I FIE R S O F THE P RE D I CATE 1 97

A DV E RB A DV E RBI A L P HRA S E A DV E RBI A L P HRA S E

w i th speed a t a ra pi d ra te
in a ski lf ul m a nn er
w i th fury
w i th skil
l
of la te on th e i nsta nt
in a n i n sta n t on th e m orrow

th ere i n th a t pla c e a g a i n st m y w ill

P eculia r a dv erb ia l phra ses a re

to a n d fro, n ow th en , up a n d d ow n , a g a i n a nd a g a i n , fi rst a n d la st
a nd

full speed , f ull ti lt, h i t or m i ss, m ore or less, h ea d fi rst, upsi d e d ow n ,

in si d e out, si nk or sw im ,
c a sh d ow n .

476 . An a d verbi a l cla use tha t m od i fi es a verb ma y be i n t ro

duc ed by (1 ) a rela ti ve a dverb, or ( )

2 a subordi na te j
c on uncti on .

I . RE L A T IV E A D V E RB S

Our c olon el w a s a lw a y s f oun d w here thefi g hti ng w a s fi erc est .

When I g i ve the sig na l, press th e button .

Whenever I c a ll, y ou refuse to see m e .

M iller a rri ved fter the p la a

y ha d b e g un .

E verybodyli sten ed w hi le the va g ra n t told hi s story .

M y un c le la u g h ed unti l the tea rs c a m e .

T h e pr1 son er h a s n ot been seen si nc e he m a d e hi s esc a p e .

H S U B O R DI NA T E C ONJ UN C T I ONS
.

Arc h er resi g n ed bec a use hi s hea lth f a i led .

I w ill g i ve th e dd ress if y ou w i ll let m e c hoose m y

a sub ec t j .

B ra n d on i n si sted on w a lk in g , a lthoug h the roa ds w ere da ng erous .

T h e c hi ld ra n w ll h er m i g ht lest she should be too la te

i th a .

I g a ve y o u a fron t sea t i n order tha t you m i g ht hea r .

T h e tow n li es a t th e ba se of a lofty c li ff so tha t i t i s sheltered from the

north w i nd .

H . INFINITIVE

477 . T he si m ple pred i ca te m a y be m odi fied by a n i nfi ni ti ve

( g
He la y d ow n to rest .

I stopped to li sten .

T h e fi re c on ti n ued to burn .
 M O D I FI E R S

T he w in d beg a n to subside .

Ja c k w ork ed h a rd to f ell th e tree .

W ill d id hi s best to w i n th e pri e z .

Ka te beg a n to w ee
p bi tterly .

T h a t d ra ug htsm a n seem s to be rem a rk a bly ski lful .

Th e i n fi n i t i v e ma y ha v e a c om plem en t or a m od i fier , a s in
the la s t four ex a m ples .

In . ADVERBIAL OBJE CTIVE

478 . The sim ple predi ca t e m a y be m odi fied by a n a dverbi a l

j
ob ecti e v
I h a ve w a i ted a g es .

W e ha ve w a lk ed m i les .

A rthur pra c tised w eeks .

T he a ddit ion of m odi fi ers to th e a d verb i a l o bj ecti ve ma kes

a n a d v erbi a l phra se .

W a lter ra n the enti re di sta nc e .

He sta y ed hole d a y
a w .

I w ill f org i ve y ou thi s ti m e .

He c a m e a t m e f ull ti lt .

T h e w i n d blew ll nig ht
'

a .

C om ew i th m e a li ttle w a y .

I n th e fi rst t
sen en e, c the a dv erbia l phra se the en ti re d i s ta nc e

m odi fi es the v erb ra n a s a n a dv erb w ould do . T hi s phra se

c on si st s of the n oun d i s ta nc e wi th i ts a dj ecti v e m od i fi ers , the

a n d en ti re .

IV . NOMINATIVE AB S OLUTE

479 . T he si m le
p p red i ca t e m a y be m od i fied by a nom i na ti ve
a bsolute

A su bsta n ti ve i n th e a bsolute c onstructi on m a ke

s wi th its
m odi fiers a n a dv erbia l phra se .

The ship ha vi ng a rri ved , w e a ll em ba rk ed .

W e sh a ll sa il on T uesd a y , w ea ther p erm itti ng

’
.

Tha t done, repa i r to P o m pey th e t e

s a r .

The brid g e a c ross the c ha sm bei ng on l

y a sing l
e tree trunk , w e h esi ta ted
to a ttem pt th e pa ssa g e.
 C OM P LE ME N T S

C HAP T E R I V

COMPLEMENT S

482 . 1 . S om e verbs ha v e a m ea n i n g t ha t is c om plete i n i tself .

S uc h a v erb bj ect When t hi s ha s been sup

n eed s on l y a su .

p li ed w e
,
h a v e a sen t en c e f or the m ere v erb w i t h ou t a n
y, ,

a ddi ti on a l w ord or w ord s i s c a pa ble of b ein g a pred i ca te ,

.

B i rd s fly . The m a n sc ow led .

Fi sh es sw im . T h e g i rl la ug hed .

T he sun shi nes . T he ow ls hooted .

T he m oon rose . T he c loc k ti c ked .

Verb s of thi s ki n d a re som e tim es ca lled c om plete verbs ,

or verbs
of c om plete predi c a ti on .

2 . O ther v erbs a re n ot, by them selves ca pa ble of ,

serv i n g a s

redi a c tes T h us,

p .

T h e I n di a ns k illed T om i s
Mr Ha rris m a k es
. T he m a n seem ed

T hese t c for the pred ic a t e of ea c h i s un fi n

a re n ot sen en es,

i shed T he v erb requires the a d di ti on of a su bsta n ti v e or a n

.

a dj ect i v e to c om plet e i ts sen se .

T h e I n di a n s killed deer . T om i s c a pta in .

Mr Ha rri s
. m a k es shoes . T he m a n seem ed sorry .

Verb s of t hi s ki n d a re of en t ca lled i nc om plete verbs , or verbs of

i nc om plete predi ca ti on .

N OT E The m ea n i n g of th e v erb d eterm i n es to w hi c h of th es e c la sses it

.

belon g s Ac c ord i n g ly , th e sa m e v erb m a y belong to th e fi rst c la ss i n som e of

.

i ts sen ses a n d to th e sec on d i n oth ers 2 12

4 83 . A substa ntive or a d j ective a dded to th e predi c a te verb to c om

plete i ts m ea ni n g i s ca lled a c om plem en t .

Com plem ents a re of four k i nds , the di rect ob j ect , th e predi c a te

j
ob ecti e, v the predi c a te nom i na ti ve, a nd th e pred i ca te a j
d ecti ve .
 TH E D I R E C T O B JE C T 2 01

I n the ex a m pl es i n 4 8 2 ,
d eer a n d s hoes a re di rect obj ects ,

the f orm er d en ot i n g the recei ver of th e a c t i on , the la tt er .

d en otin g the product ; c a p ta in is a predi ca te nom i na tive, den ot

i n g the sa m e person a s the su bj ect T om s orry is a

p red i c a
t e a dj e ct i v e d es c ri b i n g the subj ect m a n .

Com plem en t s m a y of c ourse be m od i fi ed I f they a re sub

, ,
.

sta n ti ves t hey m a y t a k e a dj ect i v e m od i fi ers

,
i f a dj ecti v es th ey ,

m a y t a k e a d v erbi a l m odi fi ers 464 ,

484 For c on v en i en c e th e defi n i ti on s of the four ki n ds of

.
,

c om plem ent s a re here repea ted, wi th ex a m ples .

1 . T HE D I RE CT OB JE C T

4 85 . S om e verbs m a y be follow ed by a s u bsta n ti e d enoting th a t v

w hich rec eives the a c ti on or i s produc ed by i t T h ese a re c a lled tra n .

si ti ve verbs . All other verbs a re ca lled i ntra nsiti ve .

A substa nti ve tha t c om pletes the m ea ni ng of a tra ns itive verb i s ca lled

i ts direct ob j ect
T h e di r e t obj e t i
c c s often c a j
lled th e ob ect c om plem ent, or m erely th e j
ob ect
of the v erb .

A lfred h a s brok en hi s a rm .

M orse i n ven ted th e elec tri c teleg ra p h .

B la c k fo es x c om m a n d ah ig h p ric e .

Y ou h a ve a c c om pli sh ed a ta sk of g rea t difi c ulty .

Ha ve y ou lost th e dog w hi c h y our un c le g a ve y ou

He a s k ed m e th e new s .
[ T w o di rec t ob ec ts j
M ost of these obj ect s a re m od i fi ed ,
a rm by the possessi v e
his teleg ra h by th e a n d elec tri c ri c e by a a n d h ig h ta sk
p p
by th edj ecti v e phra se of g rea
a t d ifi lc u lty
‘
d og by the a n d by
th e a dj ect i ve cla use w hi c h y ou r u n c le g a ve you .

48 6 A n oun c la u se m a y be
. u sed a s th e d irec t obj ect of a

ver b
Y ou prom i sed tha t m y c oa t should be rea dy to d a y -
.

T h e m a y or ord ered tha t the street should be c losed f or three hours .

I beg g ed tha t m y p a ssp ort m i g ht be return ed to m e .

For further ex a m le
p ,s s ee 4 07, 4 3 2 , 4 3 9 , 4 4 1 .
 C O MP LE ME N T S

2 . T HE P R E D I C ATE OB JE C T I VE

48 7 . Verbs of c hoosing , ca lling ,

na m ing ,
m a king ,
a nd thinking m a y ta k e
tw j
o ob ec ts referri ng to th e sa m e person or th i ng .

T h e fi rst of these i s the d i rec t ob ec t, a nd th e sec ond , j w hi ch c om pletes

th e sense of the predi c a te, i s ca lled a pred i c a te ob ec ti ve j

T h e predi c a te ob ec ti ve i s j Often ca lled th e c om plem enta ry ob ec t or j th e
j
ob ec ti ve a ttribute .

T he people h a ve elec ted C h a m berla i n g overnor .

P eter c a lls Ri c h a rd m y sha d ow

’
.

T he c ourt ha s a ppoi n ted y ou th e c h ild s g ua rdi a n .

Joh n thi nk s hi m self a hero .

488 . An a j
d ecti ve m a y serv e a s a predi ca te ob j ective . T h us ,

I th oug ht y our d ec i si on ha sty

I ca ll th a t a n sw er i m p erti nent .

j
T h e ury f oun d th e pri son er g ui lty .

Y our letter m a d e h i m j oyf ul .

Ca re sh ould be t a k en n ot to con fuse a d verb s w ith a dj ec t i ves

i n ly -
ser vi ng a s pr ed i c a t e obj ect i v es .

Y ou ca lled hi m si c kly .
[ A d ec tijv e ] .

Y ou ca lled hi m ea rly .
[ A d ve rb ] .

Aft er the pa ssi v e, a pred i a c t e obj ecti ve bec om es a pred i c a te

nom i na ti ve

3 . T HE P RE D I CA T E N OM I NAT I VE

4 89 . A substa nti ve sta ndi ng i n the predi c a te, but des c ri bi ng or defi n

i ng the sub ec t, j a g rees w ith the sub ect in j c a se a nd is ca lled a pred i c a te

nom i na ti ve 88,

A predi c a te n om i n a ti v e i s often c a lled a sub ec t c om j plem ent or a n a ttri bute .

T he predi c a t e n om i n a t1 v e i s
c om m on a ft er is a n d other c opula
ti ve v erb s a n d a ft er c erta i n t ra n sit i ve verb s in th e pa ssi v e v oic e
,
.

C h em i stry i s a useful sc i enc e .

B oston i s the c a p i ta l of M a ssa c husetts .

Jefferson bec a m e P resi dent .

 C O M P LE ME N T S

John w a s a ng ry .

My k nife i s g row i ng dull .

T h e ta sk seem ed very ea sy .

T he report p roved f a l
se i n every pa rti c ula r .

T h e boa t w a s thoug ht unsa f e .

T he c over w a s m a d e perf ec tly tig ht .

In som e of these ex a m ples the predi ca te a dj ecti ve ha s a

,

m od ifi er .I n the thi rd ea sy i s m odifi ed by the a d v erb very

,

i n the fourth f a lse i s m odi fi ed by the a d verbia l phra se i n every

,

p a rti c u la r i n th e la s t ti g h t i s m o
,
d i fi ed by p f
er ec tly .

49 3 An a dj ecti ve phra se m a y be used a s a predi c a t e a dj ec

.

ti ve Thus
.
,

Ri c ha rd w a s out of hea lth [ C om pa re Ri c h a rd w

. a s i ll ]
.

R a c hel seem ed i n a p a ssi on [ C om pa re seem ed . a ng ry .

]
T hi s a c t is a g a i nstm y i nterests .
[ C om pa re i s ha rm ful to m e ] .

T he a dj ect i ve phra se m a y c on si st of a n i n fi ni t i v e w i th
w ithout p pre osi ti on a bou t

I w a s a bout to sp ea k .

T hi s h ouse i s to let .

I a m to sa i l to m-
orrow .
 M O D I FIE R S O F C O MP LE ME N T S 2 05

C HAP T E R V

MODIFIE R S OF COMPLEMENT S AND OF MODIFIE RS

C O MP L E M E NT S M O D I FI E D

49 4 Com plem en t s, b ein g either sub st a n tiv es or a dj ecti v es,

.

m a y be m od ifi ed i n v a ri ou s wa y s, m ost of w hi ch ha v e been n ot ed

i n Cha pt er III .

1 . A substa nti ve u sed as a c om plem ent m a y h a v e th e sa m e

k in ds of m odi fiers tha t w i t h th

a re u sed
e s ubj ect

2 . An a d j ective c om plem ent a dm it s on ly a dverbi a l m odifi ers .

49 5 . T he followi n g sen en c es t i llustra te the m odi fiers of

su bsta n ti v e com plem en ts

Herbert lost a g ol
d w a tc h .
[ T h e d i rec t j
ob ec t ( w a tc h) i s m odi fi ed by
th e a d j ec tive s a a nd g ol
d .
]
T h e duk e built tow ers of m a rbl
e .
[ T h e di rec t ob ec t ( towjers
) i s m odi fi ed

by th e a d j ec tive ph ra se o f m a rble
_ .
]
My f a th er built the house i n w hic h I w a s born [ T h e d i rec t ob ec t . j
( house i s m odi fi ed by th e a d ec ti v e the a n d th e a d ec ti ve c la use i n w hi c h
) j j
I w a s born .
]
I sa w a m a n runni ng a c ross th e fi eld .
[ T h e d i rec t j
ob ec t ( man ) is
m odi fi ed j
by th e a d ec tive a a n d th e pa rti c iple runni ng ]
Y ou h a v e f orf ei ted y our rig ht to vote [T h e d i rec t . j
ob ec t (ri g ht) i s
m od i fi ed by th e possessi ve pron oun y our a n d th e i n fi n i ti ve to vote ]
’
.

I h a ve een H enry broth er [ T h d i t j

ob ec t ( b th ) i m odi fi ed
’
s s . e rec ro er s

by th e poss ss o r se iv e n un H en y ] .

I m ust a sk m y broth er, th e m a y or .

[ T h e d i rec t ob ec t j ( brother) i s

m od i fi ed by th e possessi ve pron oun m y the a pposi ti ve m a y or ] a nd .

T h e g ui ld h a s elec ted W a lter honora ry presi d en t [T he predi c a te ob .

j ec ti ve ( president) i s m odifi ed by th e a d ec tive honora ry ] j .

Her husba n d i s d soldi er

a n ol [.T h e pred i c a te n om i n a ti ve (sol
di er ) is
m odi fi ed by th e a d ec ti ves j a n a n d old ] .

Her son s a re v etera n s o f the F ra nc o-P russi a n w a r .

[ T h e pred i c a te
n om i n a ti ve (
vetera ns ) is m odi fi ed by th e a j
d ec ti ve ph ra se of the F ra nc o

P russi a n w a r .
]
T h ey a re ri va ls i n busi n ess .
[ T h e pre d i c a t e n om i n a ti v e ( ri va l
s ) is
m odi fi ed by th e a j
d ec ti ve ph ra se i n busi ness
]
 M OD I FI E R S O F C O MP LE ME N T S

T h e a uth or i s W i ll Jew ell, w ho w a s f orm erly edi tor of The P i on eer .

!

[ T h e p red i c a te n om i n a ti v e ( Will J ew ell) i s m od ifi ed by th e a j

d ec ti ve
c la use w ho w a s f orm erl y edi tor, etc ] .

B a ld w i n i s the m a n sta ndi ng un d er th e tree [ T h e pr e d i c a te n

. om i n a

ti ve (m ) a n is m byodifi ed
th e a j
d ec ti ve the a n d th e pa rti c i ple sta ndi ng ] .

Y our c hi ef f a ult i s y our i n c li n a ti on to p roc ra sti na te [T he predi c a te .

n om i n a ti v e (i n c li na ti on) i s m od i fi ed by th e possessive pron oun y our a n d

th e i n fi n i ti ve to procra sti na te ]
T hi s m an i s Gr et hen
[ T h ’
ebroth e
cred i a tesn om i n ti v e ( b rthe )
p
’
c a ro. r

is m od i fi ed by th e possessi ve n oun Gretc hen s ] .

T h e fi rst to f a ll w a s the bug ler, John Wi lson [ T h e predi c a te n om

‘

i n a ti ve (bug ler) i s m od i fi ed by th e a j
d ec ti ve the a nd th e a pposi ti v e
John Wi lson ] .

49 6 . Adj ective c la uses a re v ery c om m on a s m od i fiers of sub

sta n ti ve c om plem en t s (of .

’
Ha ve y ou lost th e w tc h tha t y our c ousi n g a ve y ou
a

T hi s i s th e v ery spot w here the tem p le of S a turn stood .

T he g en era l i ssued a n ord er tha t a ll n on c om ba ta nts -

shoul
d be trea ted
w ell .

W e ha ve a bun d a n t proof tha t duri ng hi s sta y on the C onti nent, B a c on

di d n ot neg lec tlitera ry a nd sc i entifi c p ursui ts .

49 7 . An a d j ective used a s a c om plem en t m a y be m od i fi ed

by a n a dverb, a n a dverbi a l phra se or a n a dverbi a l c la use .

i od i fi ed by th e d verb very a nd
I a m very sorry f or y ou .
[ S orry s m a th e
a d verbi a l phra se f or y ou .
]

C h a rles seem s

T h e roa d i s ro
a rere
p a i ri ng i t .

T he w h ole tribe a ppea red ea g er f or w a r .

He g rew en vi ous of hi s suc c essf ul ri va l .

Be z ea lous i n every ri g hteous c a use

’
.

T he c hi ef fs a ce look ed d a rk w i th p a ssi on .

He w a s selfi sh bey ond beli ef .

[ T h e pred i c a te a j
d ec ti ve (sel
fi )
sh i s m odi

fi ed by th e a d verbi a l ph ra se bey ond beli e

f ] .

E llen seem ed d esi rous tha t her f ri ends should a dm i re her .

T h e sec reta ry a ppea red un w i lli n g to resi g n .

[ S ee 32 1 , n ote .
]
 M O D I F I E R S OF M O D I FI E R S

I V Adverbs
. or a dverbi a l phra ses m a y be m odi fi ed by a d verbs
or by w ord s or g rou s of
p wo rds used a d verbi a lly .

Ja n e pla y s very w ell .

R obert spok e m ost hopefully

a l .

S h e a n sw ered quite a t ra n d om .

I w ri te to hi m a t lea st on c e a yea r.

499 . An a dj ecti ve m a y be m odi fied by a n i nfi niti ve

Un a ble to m ove, I suffered torm en ts of a n xi ety .

T h e sa i lors, ea g er to rea c h th e i sla n d , plung ed i nto th e sea .

R eluc ta nt to a c t, but unw i lli ng to sta nd idle, B urw ell w a s i n a pi ti f ul

sta te of i nd ec i si on .

500 Adj ect i ve

. a nd a d verbia l cla uses a re very c om m on ,
a s

m odi fi ers of m odi fiers ( c f .

Geronim o a n old c hi ef w ho bore thesc a rs of m a ny ba ttles

, ,
led th e a tta c k .

h a dj ec tive c la use m od i fi es th e a pposi tive c hi e

f ]
[ T e .

T h e serva nt, a ng ry bec a use he ha d been rebuked, sla m m ed the d oor a s

h e w ent out
T h e hun ter c onfi d en t tha t the deer ha d not hea rd hi m ,
took d elibera te
a im .

T h e fug iti ve, i n a pa n i c lest he should be overta ken, m a d e f ra nti c efi orts

to sc a le th e c li ff .
[ T h e a d verbi a l c la use m odi fi es th e a d j ec tive phra se
in a pa ni c .
]
 IND E P E ND E N T E LEM EN T S 209

C HAP TE R VI

I NDEP E NDE NT ELEMENT S

5 01 . Aw ord or g roup of w ord s tha t h a s no g ra m m a ti c a l c onnecti on

w ith the sentenc e i n w h i c h i t sta nds is ca lled a n i ndependent elem ent .

I ndependent elem ents a re of four k i nds , j

i nter ecti ons , voc a ti ves ( or

nom i na tives by direct a ddress ) , x

e c la m a tory nom ina ti ves, a nd pa ren

th eti ca l ex pressi ons .

A h ! w hy d i d I un d erta k e thi s ta sk
Help a rrived , a la s ! too la te .

Y ou a re a stra ng e m a n , A rthur .

Ma ry , c om e h ere 1
P oor C ha rles I a m sorry f or h im .

C lothes 1 c lothes y ou a re a lw a y s w a n ti ng c loth es .

L uc ky she ! w e a re a ll en vi ous of h er prospec ts .

T he first tw o sen en t c es con ta i n j

i nter ecti ons the
c
se on d tw o, voc a ti ves ( or n om i n a t i v es by d irect a d d ress
)
th e la s t x three
tory nom i na ti ves 88 ,
e c la m a ,

When the i n d epen den t word ha s a m odifi er (a s in the fi fth

a n d sev en th ex a m ples h e wh ole phra se m a y be trea t ed a s
) t ,

a n i n d epen d en t elem en t .

5 02 . Aw ord or g roup of w ord s a tta c hed to or i nserted i n a sentenc e

a s a m ere c om m ent, w ithout belong i ng ei ther to th e j

sub ec t or th e
pred i ca te, i s sa i d to be pa rentheti c a l .

T he m a rk et, i ndeed , w a s a lrea dy c losed .

P eter, to be sure, w a s n ot very trustw orthy .

T h e h ouse, a t a ll events, i s sa fe .

T he roa d i s, I a dm i t, v ery h illy

’
.

L utt ell m ethod

r s ,
i t m ust be c onfessed , w a s a li ttle di sa ppoi n ti n g .

R i c h a rd w a s n ot a ba d f ellow ,
a f ter a ll
.

503 . In a n a l si s, a ny i n d epen d en t elem en

t i s m en tion ed by
it self, a nd n ot a s a pa r t of the c om plet e su bj ec t or the c om

plete pred i c a t e .
 10 C O M B INAT IONS OF CL A U S E S

C HAP T E R VI I

COMBI NAT I ONS OF CLAU S E S

5 04 . T he useb ordi n a te cla uses a s c om plem en ts a n d

of su

m od i fi ers a n d a s m od i fi ers of c om plem en t s a n d of m od i fiers m a

, y ,

rod u c e sen t en c es of g rea t len g t h a n d c om li c a t ed t ructure

p p s .

S uc h sen ten c es i f skilfully c om posed a re n ot ha rd to follow

, , .

T h eir a na ly si s requires m erely th e in t elli g en t a ppli c a t i on of a

few si m ple prin c iples whi c h ha v e a lrea dy been ex pla i n ed a n d
,

i llustra t ed .

505 T hese pri n c i ples m a y be sum m ed up a s follows

.

I All c la uses a re eith er i ndependent or subordi na te A cla use

. .

i s sub ordi n a t e i f it i s u sed a s a pa rt of speec h ( n oun a dj ect i ve , ,

or a d v erb ot herw i se i t i s i n d epen d en t

) ,

II Coordi na te m ea n s of the sa m e ra n k in the sen ten c e

.
'

1 . Tw o orm ore i ndependent c la uses i n the sa m e sen en e a re t c

m a n i fes tly c oordin a t e .

Thefir
e bla z ed a n d the w ood c ra c k led [ T d ec la ra ti ve c la uses ]
’
. w o

Wha t i s y our na m e ,
a nd w here w ere y ou born 2 [I n terrog a ti ve c la uses ]
S it dow n a nd tell m e y our story .
[ p
I m era ti ve c la uses ]

2 . Tw o or m ore s ubordi na te c la uses a rec oordin a te w i th ea c h

oth er when they a re u sed t og ether i n the sa m e c on st ruct i on ,

a s n ou n s a dj ect i v es or a dv erb s
, ,
.

S uc h a g rou
p m a y be reg a rd ed a s form in g on e c om pound
subordi na te c la use .

T h e truth i s, tha t I ha ve no m on ey a n d tha tmy f ri ends ha ve f orsa ke n

me .
[ N oun c la uses ]
T he I n dia n s, w ho w ere a rm ed w i th long la nc es, a n d w ho show ed g rea t
ski ll i n usi ng them ,
m a de a furi ous a tta c k on th e c a va lry .
[ A d j e ti ve
c

c la uses ]
When he ha d spoken , but before a vote ha d been ta ken , a stra ng e tum ult
h ea rd i n the outer room [ A d rbi a l c la uses ]
‘

w as ve ,
 C O MB INAT IONS O F C LA U SE S

T he proc esses used i n su ch c om bin a tion s ,

a s w e ha v e seen ,

a re rea lly but tw o I n n um b er a n d subordi na

'

,
c oordi na ti on ti on .

Coordi na ti on of c la uses prod uc es c om pound sentenc es or c om pound

c la uses ; subordi na ti on of one c la use to a noth er prod uc es c om plex sen

tenoes or c om plex c la uses .

508 . E very sen en e,t c h owev er lon g a nd c om pli ca ted belon g s

,

( i n t
s ru cture) to on e of the three c la sses ,
si m le
p , c om pound ,

SI MP L E S E NT E NC E S

509 . A sim ple sen t en c e m a y ha ve a com pound sub ect or j predi

b t h a n d m a y a lso i n c lu d e a n um b er of m odi fi ers a n d
ca
(
te oor
) ,

com plem en ts .

O bvi ously then a sim ple sen ten ce n eed n ot be short I t

, ,
.

rem a i n s si m ple i n structure so lon g a s i t c on ta i n s but on e si m ple

or c om poun d subj ect a n d on e sim ple or c om poun d predi c a t e .

T hus,

1 . Y ou lea E
e Gla sg ow in
boa t, g o d ow n th e Cly d e f ourteena stea m

m i les, a n d th en c om e to D um ba rton C a stle, a hug e roc k fi ve or si x hun

dred f eet hi g h , n ot c onn ec ted w i th a ny oth er hig h la n d , a n d w i th a
fortress a t th e top — W E BS T E R . .

The len g th of th i s sen ten c e i s

d ue pa rtly to i ts c om poun d pred i c a te, pa rtly
to th e m od i fi er a ( n d m odi fi ers of th e m odi fi er) a tta c h ed to th e n oun D um ba rton

2 . He w a s li ttle di sposed to x
e c h a ng e h is lordly repose f or th e i nsec ure

a nd a i t ted li f e of a c on spi ra tor, to be i n th e pow er of a c c om pli c es, to

’
g a

li ve i n c onsta n t d rea d of w a rra n ts a n d ki ng s m esseng ers, n a y , perh a ps,

to en d h i s d a y s on a sc a ffold , or to li ve on a lin s i n som e ba c k street of

th e Ha g u e MA A L A
. C U Y .

T hi s sentenc e i s len g th en ed by m ea n s of a seri es of i nfi ni ti v es used a s

a d v erbi a l m od i fi ers of th e c om plem ent d i sp osed ( a a rti c iple used a s a n a d j ec
p
ti v e) E a c h of th ese in fi niti ves ta k es a c om plem ent or a m od i fi er (or both) .

3 . T he C h a rles I , th e bold sc h em es of Stra fford ,

a rbi tra ry m ea sures of

a n d th e i ntolera n t big otry of L a ud , prec ipi ta ted a c olli si on betw een th e

Opposite prin c iples of g overnm ent, a n d divi ded the w hole c ountry i nto
Ca va li ers a nd R oun d h ea d s .
— MA Y .
 C O MP O U N D S U B J E CT AND P RE D I CATE 21 3

Both th e j poun d E a c h of th e th ree noun s

sub ec t a n d th e pred i c a te a re c om .

in th e c om poun d sub ec t h a s m od i fi ers j

T h e tw o v erbs i n th e c om poun d .

pred i c a te h a v e ea c h a c om plem en t, a n d th e se c on d h a s a n a d v erbi a lm od i fi er

( a p a se)
h r .

4 . T w enty of th e sa va g es n ow g ot on boa rd a nd proc eed ed to ra m ble

over every pa rt of
th e d ec k a n d sc ra m ble a bout a m ong th e ri g g i ng , m a k
i ng th em selves m uc h a t h om e a n d e a m i n i ng every a rti c le w i th g rea t x
i n qui si ti ven ess P OE . .

Th e pred i c a te i s c om poun d . Th e sen ten c e is x

by th e use of pa rti
e ten d ed
c iples ( m a k i ng a n d ex a m i ni ng ) , w h i c h m odi fy th e sim ple sub ec t tw en ty j .

5 . Sh e w a s tum bled ea rly , by a c c i d en t or d esig n , i n to a spa c i ous

c loset of g ood Old E ng li sh rea d i ng ,

w i th out m uc h selec ti on or proh i bi
ti on , a n d brow sed a t w ill upon th a t fa i r a nd w h olesom e pa stura g e .

LA MB .

6 . T h e m erm to g li d e a long th e w a ters,

a id w a s still seen a nd m ing li ng
h er voi c e w i th th e sig hi n g bree e, w a s often h ea rd to si ng of z subterra n ea n

w on d ers, or to c h a nt proph ec i es of f uture even ts S TT . CO .

7 . W ith ea rly da w n , th ey w ere un d er a rm s, a n d , w i thout w a i ti n g f or

th e m ovem en t of th e Spa n i a rd s, poured i n to th e c i ty a n d a tta c k ed th em
i n th ei r ow n qua rters — P E TT . R SCO .

8 . A rm i ng a despera te troop of sla ves a nd g la d i a tors,

h e overpow ered

th e f eeble g ua rd of th e d om esti c tra n quilli ty of R om e, rec ei ved th e h om a g e

of th e S en a te, a n d , a ssum i n g th e ti tle of A ug ustus , prec a ri ously rei g n ed

duri ng a tum ult of tw en ty eig ht d a y s -

. G IBBON .

N OT E . A sim ple sentence w i th pound pred i ca te O ften d i ff ers very sli g h tly
c om
from pound sentenc e
a c om .
—
x
Th us i n e a m ples 4 7 th e i n serti on of a si n g le pro
n oun ( they , she) to serv e a s a sub ec t f or th e sec on d v erb j ( proc eeded brow , sed ,

etc .
) w ill m a k e th e senten c e c om poun d .

CO M P O UND A ND C O M P L E X SE NT E NC E S

5 1 0 E v ery . t c
sen en e tha t is n ot si m ple m us t be ei ther
com pound or c om plex .

A sen en e i s c om
t c pound if i t c on si st s of tw o or m ore i n d epen d

en t cla u ses ; con si st s of on e i n depen den t (m a in )

c om ple x ,
i f it
c la u se a n d on e or m ore sub ord i n a t e c la uses .

5 1 1 An ordi n a ry c om pound sentenc e c on si st s of tw o or m ore

.

c oordin a te si m ple cla uses .

 C O MB IN AT IONS OF CL AU S E S

S uch ,
a sen en e m a t c y be of g rea t len g th ( a s in the la st ex

am ple b elow) ,
but i ts t
s ru cture i s u sua lly tra n spa ren t .

A c ri c k et c h i rps on th e h ea rth , a nd
l w e a re rem i n d ed of C h ri stm as

g a m bols lon g a g o .
-
HA ! I
L TT .

T he m om en ts w ere n um bered ; th e strif e w a s fi n i sh ed ; Ith e vi si on

w a s c losed — DE . Q U INC E Y .

T he old k i ng h a d reti red to h i s c ou c h tha t n i g ht i n on e of th e strong

est tow ers of th e A lh a m bra , I but hi s restless a n xi ety k ept hi m f rom
repose . I RVING .

T h e c loc k h a s j ust struc k

th e e pi ri n g ta per ri ses a n d si n k s i n
tw o x
th e soc k et th e w a tc h m a n f org ets h i s h our i n slum ber th e la bori ous a n d
th e h a ppy a re a t rest a nd n othi n g w a k es but m ed i ta ti on , g uilt, revelry,

a nd d espa i r . G O DSMI H L T .

T h e presen t, i n d eed , i s n ot a c on test f or d i sta n t or c on ti ng en t ob ec ts j ;

f or a c q ui si ti on of terri tory ; it is f or
“

it is n ot a c on test n ot a c ontest

pow er a n d g lory a s li ttle i s i t c a rri ed on m erely f or a n y c om m erc i a l

a dva nta g e, or a ny pa rti c ula r f orm of g ov ern m en t ; but i t is a c on test

f or the sec uri ty , th e tra n quilli ty , a n d th e very exi sten c e of G rea t B rita in ,

c onn ec ted w ith tha t of every esta bli sh ed g overn m ent a n d every c ountry

i n E urope . PITT .

5 12 . A c om plex sentenc e, in i ts m os t elem en a r t y form ,

c on

si s s of on e si m
t ple i n depen den t ( m a in
) c la use a n d on e si m ple

su b ordin a te c la use .

x
T he g a s e plod ed w h en I struc k a m a tc h .

T h oug h h e i s idle, h e i s n ot la y z .

T h e c a rpen ter w h o f ell f rom th e roof h a s rec overed from hi s i n j uri es .

T h ei r ey es w ere so f a ti g ued w ith th e etern a l da zzle a n d w hiten ess,

th a t th ey la y d ow n on th ei r ba c k s upon d ec k to reli eve th ei r Sig ht on
th e blue sk — KE AT
y . S .

T h e shouts of th ousa n d s, th ei r m en a c i ng g estures, th e fi erc e c la shi ng

of th ei r a rm s, a ston i sh ed a n d subdu ed th e c oura g e of V etra n i o, w h o
stood , a m i d st th e d ef ec ti on of hi s f ollow ers, i n a n i ous a n d silent x
suspense . G IBBON .

5 13 . B oth t c c om plex sen ten ces a d

c om poun d sen en es a n d
m i t of m u c h va ri ety n st ru cture a cc ord i n re a n d
i g to th e n a t u ,

the rela t i on s of the c la u ses t ha t c om pose t hem .

21 6 CO MB I NAT IONS OF CL AU S E S

8 . Ma la g a possessed a g bra ve c om a n d num erous a rri son , a n d th e

m on people w ere a c ti ve, h a rdy , a n d resolute ; but th e c i ty w a s ri c h
a n d c om m erc i a l, a n d un d er th e h a bi tua l c on trol of opulen t m erc h a nts,

w h o d rea d ed th e rui n ous c on sequen c es of a si eg e .

—I RVING .

T h e Spa n i a rd s w ere n ot to be ta k en by surpri se a n d , bef ore the

9 .

ba rba ri a n h ord e h a d c om e w ithin th ei r li n es, th ey O pened su c h a d ea d ly

fi re f rom th ei r h ea vy g un s, supported by th e m usk etry a n d c rossbow s,
th a t th e a ssa ila n ts w ere c om pelled to f a ll ba c k slow ly , but f ea rfully
m a ng led , to th ei r f orm er pO Slt Il — P E TT . R SCO .

1 0 Her c h eek s w ere a s pa le a s m a rble, but of a c old , unh ea lthy , a sh en

.

w hi te y h a nd m
ea r t a c h ed to t h i n k t h a t th ey h a d been blea c h ed ,
m ost

H OOD
'

prob a bl b
y, y bi tte r a n d c on ti n u a l t ea rs .

S
1 1 T h e h a w k , h a vi ng i n pi ra l m oti on a c hi eved th e upper flig ht, f ell
.

lik e a thun d erbolt on th e ra ven , stunn ed hi m w i th th e blow ,

c lutc h ed hi m
i n hi s ta lons, f old ed h i m i n hi s w i n g s, a nd, th e h a w k un d erm ost, th ey
tum bled d ow n li k e a bla c k ba ll, ti ll w i thi n a Sh ort di sta nc e f rom th e
ea rth . T R E L A WNY .

In thi s sen ten c e they w ere i s un d erstood a fter till .

VA R I E T I E S OF T HE C O M P L E X SE NTE NC E

516 A c o plex t c b d d ei
ther by c om
.

m sen en e m a
y e e x
pa n e

p oun d i n g the m a in cla use or ,

by in c rea sin g the n um b er of su b

ord in ate cla uses . Both m eth od s m a y be u sed i n the sa m e

sen t en c e .

5 1 7 T h e i ndependent ( m a i n)
. c la use of a c om plex sentenc e m a y be

c om pound .

W hen th ey sa w th e Sh ip ,
they shouted f or j oy a nd som e o f them burst
i n to tea rs .

A s th ey turn ed d ow n f rom th e k n oll to j

re oi n th ei r c om ra d es, the sun
dipp ed a nd di sa pp ea red , a nd the w oods f ell i nsta ntly i nto the g ra vi ty a nd

g ra y n essf the ea rly nig ht

o ST E V E NSON . .

The ey e of the y oung m ona rc h ki nd led a nd hi s d a rk c heek flushed w i th

sudden a ng er, a s h e li sten ed to prOposa ls so hum i li a ti n g — P E . R SCO T T .

S ha rp e w a s so ha ted i n S c otla nd duri ng hi s lif e, a nd hi s d ea th w on hi m

so m a ny f ri ends, or p yi ng
i t observers, th a t i t i s n ot ea sy to w ri te of him
w i th out pre udi c e j or f a vor .
—A . LA NG .

A S h a s been th e c a se w i th m a n y a n oth er g ood f ellow of hi s n a ti on , hi s

lif e w a s tra c ked a nd hi s substa nc e w a sted by c row ds of hung ry beg g a rs a nd

la z y d ependents . T HA CK E RA Y .
 VAR I ET IE S OF T H E C O M P LE X S E N TE N CE 21 7

Note tha t the bordi n a te cla use depen ds

su on the c om poun d
m a in cla use ,
n ot upon ei ther of its m em b ers .

T hus, i n th e fi rst e a mx ple, th e subord i n a te c la use (w hen they sa w the

ship
) d epen ds upon th e c om poun d m a i n c la use, they shouted f or j oy a nd

som e of them burst i nto tea rs . I t is a n a dverbi a l m odi fi er of both shouted

a nd burst .

5 18 . com plex sen ten c e c a n ha ve but on e (S im ple

T houg h a

or c om poun d m a i n c la use there i s i n t heory n o li m i t to th e

) , , ,

n um b er of sub ordi n a te cla uses .

5 1 9 S ub ordi n a te c la u ses m a y be a tt a ched to the m a in c la use

.

( )
1 a s sepa ra te m odi fi ers or c om plem ents ; ( )
2 i n a c oordi na te seri es

of c la uses , a ll i n the sa m e c on structi on ,

a nd f orm i n g on e c om

i seri es of
pound cla use ;
( )
3 n a succ es si vely subordi na te c la uses ,

form i n g on e c om plex c la use .

520 T w . o or m ore subord i na te c la uses m a y be a tta c h ed to the m a in

c la use sepa ra tely , ea c h a s a d i sti nct m odifi er or c om plem ent .

T h e brid g e, w hi ch ha d been w ea ken ed by the i c e, f ell w i th a c ra sh w hi le

the loc om oti ve w a s c rossi ng it
.
[ T h e fi rst subord i n a te c la us e i s a n a d j e tive
c

m Od i fi er of bri dg e; th e sec on d is a n a d verbi a l m od i fi er of f ell ]

T he a rc hi tec t w ho drew the p la ns sa ys tha t the house w i ll c ost ten thou
sa nd dolla rs .
[ T h e fi rst subordi n a te c la use is a n a j
d ec ti ve m odi fi er of

a rc hi tec t; th e sec on d i s a c om plem en t, bei n g th e ob ec t of j ys ]

sa

I sa bella ,
w hom every i nc i dent w a s su fi i c i ent to di sm a y, h esi ta ted w hether
she shoul
d p roc eed . H W A L PO L E
. .

A s th e boa t d rew n ea rer to th e c i ty , th e c oa st w h i c h th e tra v eller h a d

j u t lef t s
s a nk behi n d him i n to on e lon g ,
low ,
sa d -
c olored li n e . R U SKIN .

T hose d a n g ers w hi c h , i n th e vi g or of y ou th ,
w e h a d lea rn ed to d espi se,
a ssum e new terrorsg a s w e row old . G O L DSMI T H .

W h en F a rm er O a k sm iled , th e c orn ers of hi s m outh Sprea d ti ll th ey

w ere w i thi n a n un i m porta n t d i sta n c e of hi s ea rs . HA RDY .

A s Flori a n D elea lw a lk ed , on e h ot a ftern oon , h e overtook by th e w a y

si d e a poor a g ed m a n , a n d , a s h e seem ed w ea ry w i th th e roa d , h elped h i m
on w i th th e burd en w hi c h h e c a rri ed , a c erta i n d i sta n c e — P A T E. R .

W hile Joe w a s a bsen t on th i s erra n d , th e eld er W i llet a nd h i s th ree

c om pa n i ons c on ti n u ed to sm ok e i th prof oun d g ra vi ty a n d i n
w a d eep
silen c e, ea c h ha vi n g hi s ey es fi x ed on a h ug e c opper boi ler tha t w a s sus

pen d ed ov er th e fi re. — I) I C K E N S .
21 8 CO MB INAT IONS O F CL AU S E S

52 1 . Tw o or m ore subordi na te c la uses i n the sa m e c onstructi on,

form ing one c om pound c la use, m a y be a tta c hed to the m a in c la use a s a

m od ifi er or c om plem ent .

1 . T h e truth w a s tha t L eona rd ha d oversle

p t, tha t he ha d m i ssed the
tra i n , a nd tha t he ha d f a i led to keep hi s a pp oi ntm ent .

2 . T h e g ui d e told us tha t the roa d w a s i m p a ssa ble, tha t the river w a s

i n flood , a nd tha t the bri dg e ha d been sw ept a w a y .

3 E lli s, w hose p oc kets w ere em pty a nd w hose c oura g e w a s a t a low ebb,

.

sta red d i sm a lly a t th e pa ssi n g c row d .

4 B efore the ba ttle w a s over a nd w hi le the result w a s sti ll i n doubt, th e

.

g en era l ord ered a retrea t.

5 . After w e ha d a rri ved a tthe hotel, butbef ore w e ha d eng a g ed our room s,

w e rec ei v ed a n i nvi ta ti on to sta y a t th e c a stle .

6 . My fi rst th oug h t w a s, tha t a ll w a s lost, a nd tha t m y on l

y c ha nc e or f
ex ec uti ng a retrea t w a s to sa c rifi c e m y ba g g a g e . DE Q U INC E Y .

7 . T he a uthor f ully d ers tha t they w ere a ra c e of

c on vi n c ed his rea

c ow a rds a nd sc oundrels, tha t nothin g c ould sa ve them , t ha t they w ere on the

poi nt of bei ng ensla ved by thei r enem i es, a nd tha t they ri c hly deserved thei r
f a te. MA C A U L A Y .

first a n d sec on d ex a m ples three c oordin a te n oun

I n the ,

cla uses a re j oi n ed to m a k e on e c om poun d cla use whi ch i s used ,

a s a co p e e t
m l m n — a s a pred i c a t e n om i n a t i v e i n the fi rst sen
,

ten c e a s the di rect O bj ect of told i n th e sec on d

,
.

I n the thi rd ex a m ple a c om poun d a dj ect i v e cla use m odi fi es

,

E llis I n the fourth a n d fi fth a c om pou n d a d verbia l c la u se

.
,

m od i fi es the pred i c a t e v erb ord ered rec eived n the s ev en th

( ) I ,
.
,

four tha t cla u ses un i te i n on e c om poun d c la u se

-
.

522 T w . o or m ore suc c ess i vely subord i na te . c la uses , form i ng one

c om plex c la use, m a y be j oined to th e m a i n c la use a s a m od i fi er or
c om plem ent .

In su ch a b ordin a te cla use i s a tta ched di

seri es, th e fi rst su

rec tl to the m a i n cla u se the sec on d IS su b ord i n a t e to the fi rst

y ,

the t hi rd to th e sec on d a n d so on i n su c c essi on ,

.

In th e c ourse of m y tra v els,

I m et a g ood - n a tured old g entlem a n ,

( ) a w ho w a s born i n the vi lla g e ( )

b w here m y p a rents li ved ( )
c bef ore they
ca m e to A m eric a .
 C O MB INAT IO N S OF CL A U S E S

SP E C I A L CO MP L I C AT I O NS

524 T he proc esses of c oordi na ti on a nd

. subordi na ti on 51 4
5 23 ) m a y be S O uti li z ed in on e a n d the sa m e sen en c e a st to

prod u e a v ery c om pli ca t ed structure

c .

Ex a m ples of su ch sen t en c es a re g i v en below for referen c e ,

5 25 Thei r structure h owev er ela b ora t e i s a lwa y s , ,

ei th er c om plex or c om pound c om plex .

I . IN COMP LE X S ENTENCES

525 . T he follow in g sen ten c es a re c om plex . T hey c on ta i n

ei ther c om pou n d or c om plex cla uses, or b oth .

1 . S
T h ey pref erred th e i lver w i th w h i c h th ey w ere f a m i li a r, a n d
w h i c h th ey w ere c on sta n tly pa ssi n g a bout f rom h a n d to h a n d , to th e
g old w hi c h th ey h a d n ever bef ore seen , a n d w i th th e va lue of w hi c h th ey
w ere un a c qua i n ted . MA C A U L A Y .

The m ai n c la use of thi s c om plex sentenc e i s they p ref erred the si lver to the
g old . To th i s a re sepa ra tely a tta c h ed 5 20) tw o a d ec tiv e c la uses, both c om j
pound : i th w hi c h
( )
1 w ha n d , m odify in g si lver ; (2) w hi c h they h a d una c

q u a i n ted ,
m o d i fy g g
i n old .

2 . All L on d on c row d ed to sh out a n d la ug h roun d th e g i bbet w h ere

hun g th e rotti n g rem a i n s of a pri n c e w ho ha d m a d e E n g la n d th e d rea d
of th e w orld , w h o h a d been th e c hi ef f oun d er of g h er m a ri ti m e rea tn ess
a n d of h er c olon i a
l em pi re, w h o h a d c on qu ered S c otla n d a n d I rela n d ,
w ho h a d hum bled Holla n d a n d Spa i n .
-
MA C A U L A Y .

The senten c e
plex T is
h e m
c om
a i n c la u se i s a
. ll L on d on c row d ed to sh ou t
a n d la ug h rou n d th e g i bbet T h e rest of th e sen ten c e ( w h ere
. Sp a i n) form s
on e lon g c om ple x j
a d ec ti v e c la use, m od ify i n g g i bbet I n th i s c om ple c la use, . x
th e fi (
rst c la u se w here ) d epen d en t o n i
p ri n c et aha
c om pso un d a d ec ti ve j
c la u se (m od ify in g p ri n c e) , m a d e up of four c oOrd i n a te c la u ses , ea c h beg in n i n g

w i th w h o T h e subord i n a ti on of th i s c om poun d c la use to th a t w h i c h prec ed es

.

(w here p ri n c e) prod uc es th e lon g c om ple subord i n a te c la use w here x

Sp a i n .

3 . As w e c a n n ot a t presen t g et Mr . Joseph out of th e i nn , w e Sh a ll

lea ve h i m i n i t, a n d c a rry our rea d er on a fter P a rson Ada m s, w h o, hi s
m ind bei n g perf ec tly a t ea se, f ell i n to a c on tem pla ti on on a pa ssa g e i n
JEsc hy lus, w hic h en terta i n ed h i m f or three m iles tog eth er, w i th out sufi er
i ng hi m on c e fl
to re ec t on hi s f ellow -
ll
t a ve e
r r — . F I E L DING .
 C O M P LE X SE N TE N CE S 22 1

In th i s com plex sentence, tw o subord in a te c la uses a re sepa ra tely a tta c h ed

to th e m a i n c la use : ( 1 ) th e a d verbi a l c la use a s i n n ; (2) th e a d ec ti v e j
l
c a u se w h o f e llow -t ra vel l
e r T hi s la t te r c la.u se i s c o m ple , si n c e i t c on x
ta in s t e a d ec
h t i v e c laju se w hi c h f e llow -
tra ve ller , d epen d ent on w ho

E schy lus, a n d m odify i ng p a ssa g e .

4 . A s I si t by m y w i n d ow thi s sum m er a fternoon , ha w k s a re c i rc li ng

a bout m y c lea ri n g th e ta nti vy of w fl

i ld pig eons, y i ng by tw os a n d th rees
a th w a rt m y vi ew , or perc hi ng restlessly on th e w hi te pi n e boug hs beh i n d

m y h ou se, g
i ves a voi c e to th e a i r ; a fi sh h a w k d i m ples th e g la ssy surf a c e

of th e pon d a n d bri ng s up a fi sh a m i n k stea ls out of th e m a rsh bef ore

m y d oo r a n d sei es a f rog by z th e h ore ; th e se d g e i s ben diSn g un d er t h e

w -
fl
ei g h t of th e reed bi rd s i tti n g hi th er a n d hi th er a n d f or th e la st h a lf

h our I h a ve h ea rd th e ra ttle of ra i lroa d c a rs, n ow d y i ng a w a y a nd th en

rev vi ng li k e th e bea t of a pa rtri d e
g , c on ve i
y gn tra vellers f rom B oston to
the c oun try .
-
T HORE A U .

T hi s senten c e i s c om plex I ts m a i n c la use i s c om poun d , c on si sting of a seri es

.

of S ix c oOrd i n a te si m ple c la uses T h e w h ole of thi s lon g c om poun d m a in c la u se

.

i s m od i fi ed by th e a d verbi a l c la use w i th w hi c h th e senten c e beg ins ( a s

a f ternoon) .

5 .T h a t th ey h a d sprun g f rom obsc uri ty , th a tth ey h a d a c qui red g rea t

w x
ea lth , th a t th ey e hibi ted i t i n solen tly , th a tth ey spent i t e tra va g a n tly , x
th a t th ey ra i sed th e pri c e of every thi ng i n th ei r n ei g h borhood , f rom f resh
eg g s to rotten boroug hs th a t th ei r li veri es outsh on e th ose of d uk es, th a t
th ei r c oa c h es w ere fi n er th a n th a t of th e L ord M a y or, tha t th e ex a m ples
of th ei r la rg e a n d ill- g overn ed h ouseh olds c orrupted h a lf th e serva n ts i n
th e c oun try ; th a t som e of th em , w i th a ll th ei r m a g n i fi c en c e, c ould n ot
catc h th e ton e of g ood soc i ety , but i n spite of th e stud a n d th e c row d of
m en i a ls, of th e pla te a n d th e D resd en c hi n a , of th e ven i son a n d th e
B urg un d y , w ere sti ll low m en , — th ese w ere thi n g s w hi c h e c i ted , both x
i n th e c la ss f rom w hi c h th ey ha d sprun g ,
a nd i n th a t i n to w hi c h th ey
attem pted to f orc e th em selves, th a t bi tter a versi on w h i c h i s th e efi ec t of
m i n g led envy a n d c ontem pt — MA A L A . C U Y .

T hi s c om plex sentenc e, th oug h v ery lon g

i s perfec tly ea sy to follow , It .

beg in s w i th a lon g c om poun d n oun c la use (c on si sti n g of ni n e c oii rdi n a te th a t

c la uses) . j
T hi s w ould be th e sub ec t of th e m a i n pred i c a te v erb w ere, but for
th e fa c t th a t th e pron oun these i s in serted to a c t a s th e sub ec t ( referrin g ba c k j
to th e c om poun d noun c la use a n d sum m in g i t up i n a i ng le w ord ) T o th e S .

j
c om plem ent thi n g s i s a tta c h ed th e a d ec ti v e c la use w h i c h ex c i ted c on tem p t .

x
Thi s c la use i s c om ple , for i t c on ta i n s th ree a d ec ti v e c la uses, (1 ) f rom w hi c h j
they ha d sp ru ng (m od i fy in g c la ss) , (2) i n to w hi c h them selves (m od ify i n g
tha t) , a n d (3) w hi c h i s c on tem p t (m od i fyi n g a versi on) All three a re sepa .

ra tely a tta c h ed to th e c la use on w h i c h th ey d epen d , w hi c h ex c i ted th a t bi tter

a versi on T h us a ll th a t porti on of th e sentenc e w hi c h follow s thi ng s form s
.

on e c om ple x
c la use, m od ify ing th a t n oun .
222 CO MB IN AT IONS OF CLAU S E S

6 . T ha t I m
y t h e i m pu t a ti
a on of tha voi d
row i n g out,
e v en pri va tely;
a ny loose, ra n d om i m puta ti on s a g a i nst th e publi c c on d uc t of a g en tlem a n

f or w h om I on c e en terta i n ed a very w a rm a ffec ti on , a n d w h ose a biliti es

I reg a rd w i th th e g test a d m i ra ti on , I
ill put d ow n , di sti n c tly a n d
rea w

a rti c ula tely , som e of th e m a tters of ob ec ti on w h i c h I f eel to h i s la te j

d oc tri n es a n d proc eed i ng s, trusti ng th a t I sh a ll be a ble to d em on stra te
to th e f ri en d s w h ose g ood opi ni on I w ould sti ll c ulti va te, th a t n ot levity ,
n or c a pri c e,
n or less d ef en si ble m oti ves, but th a t very g ra ve rea son s,

fl
i n uen c e m y j udg m ent — . B U RK E .

T hi s i s a
pl e fi
of a l
ne e a m
on g , b ut x
w e ll-
c on struc ted c om p lex sentence .

T h e m a in c la use i s I w i llp u t d ow n , d i sti n c tly a n d a rti c u la tely , som e of the

m a tters of ob j ec ti on Upon th i s sim ple c la use, every th i n g else in th e sentenc e
.

d epen d s i n on e w a y or a n oth er .

11 . IN COMP OUND COMP LE X S ENT ENC E S

526 . Any c om plex sen en e, t c h ow ev er ela b ora t e m a y be ,

used a s on e of th e c oordi na te c om plex c la uses t ha t m a k e up a

c om pound c om plex sentenc e .

1 . W hile the ki n g w a s trea ted a t th i s rud e ra te, C rom w ell, w i th hi s

a rm y, w a s i n Sc otla n d , obstruc ti ng th e m oti on s th a t w ere m a k i ng i n h i s
fa vor ; but on the a pproa c h of th e S c ots, w ho w ere m uc h superi or in
n um ber, h e w as f orc ed to reti re tow a rd s D un ba r, w here h i s shi ps a n d

provi si on s la y .
— B U RN ET .

it

In th i s c om pound c om plex sentenc e, both c oord i n a te c la us es a re c om ple In x .

ea c h , th e m a i n c la use ha s tw o subord i n a te c la u ses a tta c h ed to i t sepa ra tely

5 20)

2 T h ey h a d seen m e out th e c a bles, a n d th oug ht m y d esig n w a s only

.

to let the Shi ps run a d rift, or f a ll f oul on ea c h oth er ; but w h en th ey

per c ei ved th e w h ole fl eet m ov i n g i n ord er,

a n d sa w m e pu lli n g a t th e

en d , th ey set up suc h a sc rea m of g ri ef a n d d espa i r a s i t i s a lm ost i m

possi ble to d esc ri be or c on c ei ve . SWI F T .

In thi s pound c om plex sentenc e, both of th e tw o c oord i n a te c la u ses a re

c om

c om ple x
T h e fi rst c onta i n s th e n oun c la use [ th a t] m y d esi g n
. ea c h other,
j
u sed a s th e Ob ec t of thoug h t T h e sec on d c on ta i n s tw o ubord i na te c la uses ,
. S
sepa ra tely a tta c h ed to th e m (t y
h e set d esp a i r) Fao r h e i
in c la
t n fi n i tiv e
u se .

c u t, see § 322 T h e in fi ni ti ve to let i s used a s a pred i c a te n om i n a tiv e

. 49 1 )
j
i t h a s a s i ts ob ec t th e i n fi n i ti v e c la use the ship s ea c h other, c onta in in g
tw o i nfi ni ti v es, ru n a n d f a ll
3 . W hile thi ng s w en t on q ui etly, w h ile th ere w a s n o Opposition ,
w h i le
every thi n g w a s g i v en by th e f a vor of a sm a ll ruli ng j unto ,
Fox ha d a
 E L L IP T I CAL SE N T E N CE S

C HA P T E R VI I I

ELLIP TI CAL S ENTE NCE S

527 . G ood
g u sa t h a tea l
l send oes
t en c es S h l
n ot
a l d em a nd

be a bsolut ely c om plete I t oft en a llow s ( a n d som et im es re

.

quires) the om i ssi on of w ords tha t thoug h n ecessa ry to the ,

c on structi on a re so ea sily supplied by the m i n d tha t i t w ould

,

be m ere wa st e of t i m e to utt er th em .

5 2 8 T h e om i ssi on of
. a w ord or w ord s nec essa ry to th e g ra m m a ti c a l
c om plet enes s of a c la us e or s enten c e i s c a lled elli ps i s .

A cla use or sentenc e tha t sh ow s ellipsi s i s sa i d to be elli pti ca l .

Elli psi s i s a Greek w ord m ea n i n g om i ssi on .

I n the follow m g ex a m ples the om i tt ed w ords a re suppli ed

in bra ck et s .

[ ]
I th a n k y ou .

I
[ ] p ra y d o ot [ m
y ou] m ove .

[ Y ou ] p a ss m e th a t book .

Her h a i r i s li g ht, h er ey es [ a re] d a rk blue .

Som e of th e stra ng ers Spok e Fren c h ,

oth ers [ s pok e ] Spa n ish .

S om e of
th e pa tri ots w ere a rm ed w i th old flin tloc k s, oth ers [ w ere

rm ed w i th sw ord s, still oth ers [w ere a rm ed i th pi tc hf ork s

a ] ] w .

W h en [h e w ]
a s a y outh ,
h e tra velled i n th e E a st .

T h oug h [ h e i s] ti m i d ,
he is n o c ow a rd .

T h ey w ere a m used , th oug h h

[ y
t e w
]
ere som ew h a t ve ed x .

W hile [w e w ere] d rifti n g d ow n strea m ,

w e g rou nd ed on a sa n d ba r .

I f [ i t i s] possi ble ,
sen d m e w ord to- n ig ht .

Y ou sh a ll h a ve th e m on ey thi s w eek , if [ i t i s
] n ec essa ry .

T h ey m a rc h ed Slow ly a s if th
[ y e w ere ] w orn out .

W hy [ a re] th ese tea rs

W hy [ a re y ou] so d ej ec ted
He w ten y ea rs of a g e, hi s broth er [w a s] ei g ht [y ea rs of a g e]
a s .

I h a v e m ore c on fi d en c e i n Ja m es th a n [ I h a ve] i n E d m un d .

M a ry i s y oung er th a n G eorg e [is y oung ] .

Tom lik es y ou better th a n [ h e li k es] m e .

You li k e hi m better th a n I d o [ li k e him ] .

 E L L I P T I CAL S E N TE N CE S 225

I li k e hi m better th a n C h a rles d oes [ lik e hi m ] .

T hi s ra c k et i s n ot so h ea vy a s th a t [ i s h ea vy ] .

Y ou a re n ot so old a s I [ a m old ] .

P ea c e [ be] to hi s m em ory

T hi s i s th e only pen c i l th a t [ ] I h a ve .

h om hi red y esterd a y
I s th a t th e boy [ w ] y ou

y [ h re g oi n g to E urope soon
T h ey sa t a t] y ou a .

529 The ex a m le s i n 5 28 show tha t m ost ca ses of ellipsi s

.
p
fa ll u n der tw o h ea d s
1 . To titi on words a re often om itted in on e pa rt
a v oid repe ,

of the sen t en c e w hen t h ey occ ur i n a n ot her pa rt .

2 P ron oun s the c on j u n cti on tha t a n d som e f orm s of th e

.
, ,

v erb i s a re oft en om i tt ed wh en t h ey a re rea di ly suppli ed

,
.

U n der the sec on d hea d c om e ( 1 ) the ellipsi s of the subj ec t

n i m pera t i v e sen t en c es a t of rela
( th ou or you
) i ( )
2 t h
ti v e pron oun s i n the obj ec ti ve ca se 3
( ) t h a t of i s a re , ,

etc ( w i t h the su bj ec t pron oun

.

) i n su b ord i n a te c la u ses i n t ro

duc ed by w hen thoug h if, a n d th e lik e ,

3 9 7 39 9 , , ,

N OT E . Th e so-c a lled teleg ra phi c sty le om i ts I w i th a ny v erb or w i th

a ll v erbs . I t sh ould be c on fi n ed to teleg ra m s , w h ere spa ce is m on ey .

5 30 Ad v erbs i n di c a ti n g d irect i on
.
(lik e f orw a rd , ba c k ) a re

of en u sed
t without a v erb i n im pera t i v e sen en c es t .

F orw a rd, bra v e c om pa n i on s

D ow n on y our k n ees
Up , g u a rd s, a nd a t th em

N OT E . In old er E n g li sh , th e om i ssi on of th e v erb of m oti on w a s c om m on ,

ev en in sen ten c es n ot im pera ti v e, in th e follow i n g x

e a m ples from J u li u s
“W e ’
‘

a s

Om a n — 11 a lon g ourselv es, a n d m eet th em

!
Sh a ll w e on , a n d n ot
;
d epen d on y ou ? !

53 1 Th e ellipsi s of the sub ordi n a t e c on j un ct i on tha t i s

. v er
y
c om m on , espec i a lly i n i n di rec t d i sc ourse 3 8 8,

I k n ow [ tha t] y ou a re m y f ri en d .

Ja c k sa i d [ tha t] th e boa t h a d sun k .

He told m e [ tha t] h e w a s sorry .

 E LL I P T I CAL SE N T E N OE S

532 . Ma n y c on struct ion s, tica l ha ve bec om e ori g in a lly ellip ,

est a bli shed i d i om s i n W hi c h n o ellipsi s i s felt

A

I n suc h ca ses .

it i s u sua lly b etter to ta k e the sen t en c e a s it sta n d s a n d n ot ,

to supply th e om itt ed w ords .

T hus, i n He ea ts a s i f he w ere f a m i shed th e i ta li c i ed z w ords a re

ro
p p erly trea ted a s a subord i n a te c la u se m od i fy i n g ea ts a n d i ntrod uc ed
j
by th e c om poun d c on un c ti on a s if Y et i n stri c tn ess thi s c on stru c ti on i s .

a n elli psi s f or He ea ts a s [ he w ould ea t] i f h e w ere f a m i sh ed !

.

5 33 . Va ri ous elli pses a re illu stra t ed i n the f ollow i n g sen

ten c es

1 . Alth oug h i n a f ri en d ly c oun try , th ey m a rc h ed a lw a y s a s if in a

la n d of en em i es .

2 . T he a spec t of thec ountry w a s a s w ild a nd d rea ry a s th e c li m a te .

3 . Do n ot seri ous a n d ea rn est m en di sc uss Ha m let a s th ey w ould

C rom w ell or L i n c oln -
L OWE L L .

4 . Not so w i th th e oth ers .

5 . T h oug h ra th er sh y a nd d i strustful of th i s new a c q ua i n ta n c e, Ri p

c om p li ed w i th h i s u su a l a la c ri ty .

6 A rra s w a s f a m ed f or i ts ri c h ta pestri es, B russels f or i ts c a rpets,

i

C a m bra i f or i ts fi n e c a m bri c , L i sle f or i ts threa d a n d th e f a bri c s w oven

x
f rom i t .

7 . E very d a y bri n g s i ts ta sk , w hi c h , if n eg lec ted , i s d oubled on th e

m orrow .

8 . I t is n ot ea sy to rec over a n a rt w h en on c e lost .

9 . I w i sh y ou w ould g o d ow n w i th m e to New stea d .

1 0 T h e m en
. a re a ll sold i ers, a nd w a r a nd th e c h a se th ei r sole

oc c upa ti on .

11 . W hile i n thi s sta te of i rresoluti on , sh e w a s sta rtled by a low k n oc k .

12 . T h e h ouse w a s ta ll, th e sky lig h t sm a ll a n d d i rty , th e d a y bli n d

w i th f og .

1 3 I li ttle th oug ht y ou w ould h a ve d eserted m

. e.

1 4 He i s th e best O ri en ta l sc h ola r I k n ow
. .

15 . C rom w ell w a s evi d en tly la yi n g ,

th oug h m a n i rreg ula r m a nn er,

th e f oun d a ti on s of a n a d m i ra ble sy stem .

16 . He w a s a f oot ta ller th a n I .

17 T h is c on c ern s y ou ra th er th a n m e .

18 . My f a ther loved Si r R ow la n d a s h is soul .

 E X E R C IS E S

2 . Write ten in t errog a t i ve sen en est c c on c ern i n g ea c h topi c .

Reply i n decla ra ti v e sen en es t c

‘

( )
1 T h e A m eri c a n R evoluti on ( )
2 th e P i lg ri m F a th ers 3
( ) th e h i story
of y our ow n sta te 4
( ) th e g th e Un ited S ta tes ; ( 5) h yg i en e
overn m ent of

h n uf a c tures (or oth er i n d ustri es) of y our tow n or c i ty

( )
6 t e m a .

3 . W rite ten i m pera ti v e t

sen en es, c ea ch g i v i n g an order

c on c ern i n g
( )
1 th e pla y i n g of a g a m e ; ( )
2 th e b u i ld i n g or sa i li ng of a boa t ; 3
( )
th e c a re of th e h ea lth 4
( ) th e m a n uf a c ture of som e a rti c le of c om m on
use ( )
5 th e w ri ti ng of a busi n ess letter .

4 . Write ten ex c la m a t ory c

sen en est T ell whether . ea ch is
d ecla ra ti ve, i n terrog a ti ve, or i m pera t i v e .

E XERCIS E 2
— —
6 2 5 , pp 3 1 1 ) .

1 . T ell the pa rt s of spee ch (i n cludin g v erb phra ses) -

.

1 . T he i n pa ttered upon th e
ra roof a n d th e sk y g loom ed throug h th e
\
d usty g a rret W i n d ow s HA T . W HORN E . 2 M a k e y ourself n ec essa ry to
.

so m ebod y
— E M E RSON . . 3 . I ha ve a reg a rd f or every m a n on boa rd tha t
Ship ,
f rom th e ca pta i n d ow n to th e c rew . 4 . An a rti st,
!
sa id Mi c h a el
A ng elo, m ust h a ve hi s m ea suri n g tools n ot i n th e h a n d , but i n th e
ey e .
!
E M E RSON . 5 . T im e h a d w i n tered o
’
e hir s loc k s . 6 . Must w e in ,

a ll thi ng s look f or th e h ow ,
a nd th e w hy , a nd th e w h eref ore 7 . P ow er
dw ells w ith c h eerf uln ess . E M E RSON . 8 . W ha t hurra hs ra ng out I

9 . He sn ea k ed a bout w i th a gallow s a ir . 1 0 So .
y ou see th i ng s g o on

a s w h en y ou w ere w i th us .

1 1 R ig by . a nd h i s broth er hi reli n g s f ri g hten ed th em w i th hi d eous f a bles

a n d ug ly w ord s .
— D ISR
AE L I
1 2 T h ese a re pri e pea c h es
. . 1 3 Ha ha z . .

1 4 O A n tony , beg n ot y our d ea th .

d bec a use
he household
w h ere c om f ort a n d c ulture w ere sec ured w i th out di spla y .

Sh a k e h a n d s w i th thi s k n ot of g ood f ellow s

16 . 1 7 He ha d been . .

d eserted by th e M od era tes 1 8 T h e m od era te L i bera ls h eld a m eeting

. .

very ea rly i n th e stru g g le 9 After a d rea d f ul n ig h t of a n xi ety , per

.
1C
l i d i l h d k h i h I th h t h d l t d a n etern i ty,
’
p ex ty, a n per ,
t e a r n e ss,
w c oug a a s e

slow ly d i sa ppea red T R E L A w Ni . .

 INFI NI T IVE S AN D P AR T I CI P L E S 22 9

2 . U se the follo words in t

sen en c es of y our ow n

Sleep ( noun, verb ) a dj ec ti ve, verb, noun ) very ( a dverb, a dj ec ti ve) ;

e xpress (noun ,
verb,

noun ) f uture ( a dj ec ti ve,

( noun ; to—m orrow) noun , a dverb) ; ow er (noun, fl
verb) fi sg vereig n (noun a dj ec ti ve) sum m er noun
( , ,
verb, a dj ec t
i ve) ; d ouble
( a dj ec ti ve a d v erb v erb )
, ; w ell ( a dj é t i,ve a dv erb) ; f a st ( a dj ecti ve a dverb , ,
\
noun verb) ; c on ten t (noun a dj ec ti ve verb) ; la st ( a dj ec ti ve a dve
, rb verb
, , , , ,

noun) ; d ow n (a dverb p re p osi ti on) ; f or ( p rep ositi on c onj unc ti on) ; d ow n

, ,

ri g ht ( a dj ec tive a dverb) ; h om e ,

a dverb verb) i ron (noun a dj ec ti ve verb) ;

, , ,

up (a dverb pre p ositi on ) h

,
i g h ( j
a d e c ti v e ,

ti ve, v erb ; soun d

) noun , verb, a
( dj ecti ve, bla c k
( noun , verb, a dj ec ti ve) ; a ll (noun , a dj ec ti ve, a dverb) ; open ( noun , a dj ec ti ve,
verb ) w hi le ( noun, verb ) .

X
E E RCIS E 3

26 43 , pp 1 1 13) .
—

P oi n t out the in fi n i ti ves a d the pa rti c iples . T ell w hen they

o cc ur in v er b phra ses. U sethem
- in sen en c es t .

3
1 . I di d w rong to sm i le . 2 .
3

L uttrell a j
d ured m e w i th m oc k pa th os
to spa re hi s blush es . 3 . I beg g ed m y f ri en d S i r R og er to g o w i th
m e i n to h er h ovel 4 I a s w on d erf ully plea sed to see th e w orki n g s
’fi
. . w

of i n sti n c t i n a h en f ollow ed by a brood of d uc k s . 5 . A m an s rst

c a re Should th e reproa c h es of hi s ow n h ea rt — A
be to a voi d DDISON .

6 I w a s h ig hly en terta in ed to see th e g en tlem en of th e c oun ty g a th

.

eri n g a bout m y old f ri en d , a n d stri vi n g w h o sh ould c om pli m en t hi m m ost .

7 . He w a s let loose a m on g th e w ood s a s soon a s he w a s a ble to ri d e on

horseba c k . 8 . P luta rc h sa y s v ery fi n ely th a t a m a n sh ould n ot a llow

him self to h a te ev en hi s en em i es . 9 . I t g ives m e a seri ous c on c ern to
see suc h 3 . Spi ri t of d i ssen si on i n the c oun try .

10 It . w as hi s i n ten ti on to rem a i n th ere f or tw o or th ree d a y s . 11 .

E very pa rt of ev ery c a rri a g e h a d been c lea n ed , every h orse h a d been

g room ed 1 2 L i bera ted
. f rom th e em b
.a rra ssm en ts of th e c i ty, a n d
i ssui n g i nto th e broa d un c row d ed a v en ues of th e n orth ern suburbs,
w e soon beg in to enter upon ou r n a tura l pa c e of ten m i les a n h our .

13 T h e beg g a r, rea ri n g h i m self a g a i n st th e w a ll, f org ets hi s la m en ess

'

. .

14 . T hree m iles bey on d B a rn et, w e see a pproa c h in g a n oth er pri va te

c a rri a g e . 15 . We sa w m a ny li g hts m ovi ng a bout a s w e d rew n ea r .
23 0 E XE R C IS E S

X
E ERCIS E 4
— —
3 4 3 9 , pp 1 3 15 ) .

1 . Men ti on th e si m
p l e su bj ect a nd the si m
ple pred i c a t e of
ea ch t c in sen en e E x erc i se 1 (p . T ell whether the si m
p le s u bj e ct i s a n ou n or a pron oun a n d w h et her the si m ple ,

red i c a t e i s a v erb or a v erb phra se

p
-
.

2 S tu dy i n the sa m e w a y y our ow n sen t en c es i n E x erc i se 1

. .

3 D i v ide ea c h sen t en c e i n t o the c om plet e subj ect a n d the

.

c om plete pred i ca te I f the sen ten c e ha s a c om poun d subj ect

.
,

m en t i on th e sub st a n ti v es t ha t c om pose i t ; i f the sen t en c e ha s

a c om pou n d pred i c a t e m en t i on th e v erb s

( or v erb ph ra ses
) ,
-
.

1 . T he Queen a nd P ri n c e Albert ca m e to L on d on f rom W i n dsor on

S a turd a y m orn i n g . 2 . Y ou a nd L oc k ha rt m ust n ot a ba n d on th e g ood

c a use 3 . . I sa w th a t h e w a s w ea k, a nd took a d va n ta g e of a pa use to

rem i n d hi m n ot to f org et h i s d ri ve . 4 . Tw o or th ree of m y E n g li sh

bi og ra ph i es h a ve som ethi ng of th e sa m e h i stori c a l c h a ra c ter 5 L ord . .

Grey ,
C l a nri c a rd e,
L a bou c h ere,
V ern on S m i th ,
a n d S ey m our w ill fi ll up
th e pla c es 6 E very ch a ng e of sea son , every c h a ng e of w ea th er, i n d eed ,
. .

ev ery h our oh
th e d a y , prod uc es som e c h a ng e i n th e m a g i c a l hues a n d
sh a pes of th ese m o u n t a i n s — I 7 H e look e d roun d ,
a n d c ould RVING . .

see n oth i n g but a c row w i ng i n g i ts soli ta ry fl i g ht a c ross th e m ounta i n .

8 . T h ey sudd enly
d esi sted f rom th ei r pla y a n d sta red a t hi m 9 T he . .

sea fl a sh es a lon g th e pebbly m a rg i n of i ts silver bea c h , f orm i n g a th ou

sa n d li ttle ba y s a n d i n lets, or c om es tum bli ng i n a m on g th e c li ffs of a

roc k - boun d c oa st, a n d bea ts a g i n

a st i ts m a ssi ve ba rri ers w i th a di sta n t,
h ollow ,
c on ti n u a l roa r .
— L ONG F E L L OW .

10 A . w id e g
y a tew a ush ered th e tra veller i n to th e i n teri or of th e build

i ng ,
a n d c on d uc ted h im to a low -
roof ed a pa rtm en t, pa v ed w i th roun d

ston es . 11 . T h e stra n g e vi si ta n t g ru ffly sa luted m e, a n d , a fter m a k i ng

sev era l i n efi ec tu a l efforts to urg e h i s h orse i n a t th e d oor, d i sm oun ted

a n d f ollow ed m WHI T T I E R 1 2
e i n to th e room .
— . . T h e f ooli sh a nd th e
d ea d a lon e n ev er c h a ng e th ei r Opi n i on — L OW E L L . . 13 . T h ey w ill sli n k
i n to th ei r k enn els i n d i sg ra c e, or perc h a n c e run w i ld a n d strik e a lea g u e
w i th th e w olf a n d th e f ox . T HORE A U . 14 . Strong w ill a nd k een per
c epti on over ow p er old m a n n ers a n d c rea te n ew . E M E RSON . 1 5 Nei th er
.

A ri stotle, n or L ei bn i t z ,
n or Jun i us, C h a m polli on h a s set d ow n th e
n or

g ra m m a r-rul
es of th i s d i a lec t . 16 . Hi s m a ntle a n d h ood w ere of th e best
F la n d ers c loth , a n d f ell i n p la m
e a n d n ot u n g ra c ef ul f old s . 17 . A d eep
f osse or di tc h w a s d ra w n roun d th e w h ole build i ng .
 E XE R C IS E S

E XERCISE 6
— —
43 5 1 , pp . 16 2 1)

1 . Tell whether ea ch sen en e t c W ,

co
w nd , or c om

plex . I f the sen en e t c is c om poun d ,

d i v i de i t i n t o i ts in depen d ~

en t cla uses t i on the si m ple subj ect (n oun or pron oun )

,
a n d m en

a n d th e sim ple predi c a t e v erb or v erb phra se of ea c h c la u se

( ) -
.

I f the sen t en c e i s c om plex d i vi de i t in t o the m a i n ( in de ,

d t d h b rd i n a t e c la u se a n d t ell w het h er the la t

p en en
) a n t e s u o ,

ter i s used a s a n a dj ect i ve or a s a n a d verb .

1 . T h e g rea t g a te slow ly open ed , a n d a stew a rd a nd severa l servi ng

m en a ppea red 2 T h e vi c tors set fi re to th e w ig w a m s a n d th e fort the
. .

w hole w a s soon in a z
bla e ; m a ny of th e old m en , th e w om en , a n d th e
c hild ren peri sh ed in th e fl a m es 3 Nig ht c losed i n , but sti ll n o g u est
. .

a rri ved . 4 . Th e bla c k w a ves rolled by tli em , a n d th e lig ht a t the h ori z on

beg a n to f a d e, a nd th e sta rs w ere c om i ng out on e by O IlC — W I L L I A M .

B L A CK . 5 . Mr Ni c k leby
. c losed a n a c c oun t book w hi c h la y on hi s d esk .

6 . By c ea seless a c ti on a ll th a t i s subsi sts — . C OWI E R >

. .
7 . W h en th e
m orn i n g brok e, th e y h a d va n i sh ed 8 A t m i d n i g ht Moorish
,
w h en a rm . .

th e tow n w a s hush ed i n sleep, they a ll w en t qui etly on boa rd 9 For.

. .

’
tun e h a d c a st hi m i n to a c a vern , a n d h e w a s g ropi n g d a rk ly roun d .

1 0 I pa c ed nth e d eserted c h a m bers w h ere h e h a d c om posed hi s poem

‘
. .

1 1 I strove to spea k m y voi c e utterly f a iled m e

. 1 2 T h e only a ven ue . .

by w h i c h th e tow n c ould be ea sily a pproa c h ed , w a s p otec ted

r by a ston e

w a ll m ore th a n tw en ty f eet hi g h a n d of g rea t thi c k n ess .

13 . T he n ig
ht f ell tem pestuous a n d w a n d n o vesti g e of th e h a pless ild ,
Sloop w a s ever a f ter seen 1 4 T h e si m ple m a esty of thi s a n ec dote c a n
. . j
g a i n n othi ng f rom a n y c om m en t w hi c h w em ig h t m a k e on i t R a leig h
. 15 .

spea k s th e la n g ua g e of th e h ea rt of hi s c oun try w h en h e urg es th e E ng li sh

sta tesm en to c olon i e z Gui a n a .
— F RO U DE . 16 . M en , i n th ei r y outh , g o
to push th ei r f ortun e i n th e c olony th ey su c c eed th ey a c q ui re property

th ere ; th ey return to th ei r n a tive la n d ; th ey c on ti n ue to d ra w th e

i n c om e f rom th ei r c olon i a l esta tes — . B RO U GH A M . 17 . Th e m oon li g ht
g li sten ed upon tra c es of th e g i ld i n g w hi c h h a d on c e c overed both ri d er ~

a n d steed 1 8 W h ile th i s bri ef c onversa ti on pa ssed , D on a tello h a d

. .

on c e or tw i c e g la n c ed a si d e w i th a w a tc hf ul a ir . 19 . P ra y f or us,
Hild a ; w e n eed i t .

2 . D i v i de the c om pou n d c om plex sen t en ces i n t o th eir c oordi “

na t e cla uses . T ell wheth er ea c h of these cla uses when sta n d ,

‘

in g a lon e, i s a si m ple or a com plex sen ten c e .

 NO U NS 33

1 . It w ould be d a rk bef ore h e c ould rea c h

th e villa g e, a n d h e h ea ved
a h ea vy si g h w h en h e th oug ht of en c oun teri n g th e terrors of D a m e Va n
W i nkle . 2 . La ng u a g g d
e u a llra
y v a ri es,
a n d w i th i t f a d e a w a y th e w ri t

i ng s of a uth ors w ho h a ve li ved th ei r a llotted ti m e 3 T h e ta lle st a n d

= . .
l

h a n d som est m en w h om E ng la n d c ould prod uce g ua rd ed th e pa ssa g e

from th e pa la c e g a te to th e ri ver- i d e, a n d S a ll seem ed in rea din ess f or
th e queen s c om i ng f orth ,
’ a lth oug h th e h our w a s y et so ea rly . 4 Ed w
. a rd

th e C onf essor d i ed on th e fi f th of Ja n ua ry , 1 066, a n d on th e f ollow i ng

da y bly of th e th a n es a n d prela tes presen t i n L on d on , a n d of
a n a ssem

th e c i ti ens of th e m etropoli s, d ec la red th a t Ha rold sh ould be th ei r k i ng

z .

E XERCISE 7
— —
5 4 64, pp 2 7 30) .

1 . P oi n t out a ll the c om m on n ou n s a n d a ll the proper n oun s .

Men t i on a ll th e ex a m ples of personi fic a ti on .

1 . T h ere G ui lt hi s a n x i ous revel k ept .

— S CO T T . 2 . The fi rst vessel

w e f ell i n w i th w a s a sc h oon er, w hi c h , a f ter a lon g c h a se, w e m a de out

to be a n Am
Y ou w i ll be sa un teri n g i n S t
eri c a n . 3
a ps, . .
’
P eter s perh
or sta n di ng on th e C a pi tol w hile th e sun sets 4 I a m very d eep i n m y
’
. .

A ri stoph a n es 5 I sa w a m ost lovely Si r Josh ua a t C hri sti e s a w eek

. .

a g o — F1 Tz
. E RA L D G
6 I h ea r th ere i s sc a rc e a villa g e i n E n g la n d
. . -

th a t h a s n ot a M oll W hi te i n i t .
— A DDISON . 7 . S uc h a spi ri t i s L iberty .

A t ti m es sh e ta k es th e f orm of a h a tef ul reptile Sh e g rovels, sh e hi sses,

.

sh e sti n g s . B ut w oe to th ose w h o i n di sg ust sh a ll ven ture to c rush h er !

— MA C A U L A Y . 8 . R oug h W ulfsta n e tri m m ed hi s sh a f ts a nd bow .

S CO T T T o da y. 9 . w e h a ve been a d eli g h tful d rive throug h E ttri c k

F orest, a n d to th e rui n s of New a rk — th e h a ll of New a rk , w h ere th e
la d i es ben t th ei r n ec k s of sn ow to h ea r The L a y of th e L a st M i n strel .
!

— MA RI A E DG E WOR T H .

1 0 The . s am e w a ves w a sh th e m oles of th e n ew -

bui lt C a li f orni a n

tow ns, a nd la ve th e f a d ed but sti ll g org eous sk i rts of A si a ti c la n d s, old er

th a n Abra h a m ; w hi le a ll betw een fl oa t m i lky - w a y s of c ora l i sles, a nd

low -
ly i n g ,
en d less, un k n ow n A rc hi pela g oes
i m pen etra ble Ja pa ns a nd .

ME L e 11 T h e d uc h ess sa i d h a ug htily th a t sh e h a d d on e h er best

’
LE . .

f or th e E sm ond s . 1 2 T o see w i th on e s ow n ey es m en a n d c ountri es i s

.

better th a n rea di n g a ll th e book s of tra vel i n th e W O I ld —T H A CK E RA Y

’
‘

. .

13 . D ef ea t a nd m orti fi c a ti on ha d only h a rd en ed th e ki ng h e rt
s a .

14 O c ea n , Ai r, beloved broth erh ood

E a rth , SH E L L E Y 1 5 T he
’
. . .

i ron ton g u e of St P a ul s h a s told tw elve 1 6 T h e I n d i a ns, bra n

. . .

di shi ng th ei r w ea pons, a nsw ered only w i th g estures of a ng ry d efi a n c e .

2 34 EXE R CISE S

2 . P oi n t ou t a ll the a bstra ct ,
a ll th e c ollecti v e ,
a nd a ll the
c om poun d n oun s .

T he poet bi n d s tog eth er by pa

1 . ssi on a n d k n ow led g e th e va st em pi re
of hum a n soc i ety — W T . ORDSWOR H . 2 . T h e c oun try i s n ow sh ow i ng
sy m pto m s of g reenn ess a n d w a rm th 3 . . W h en th e publi c a re g on e w e ,

a t on c e put up th e g rea t i ron hutters S 4 W a sh i n g ton return ed to

’
. .

h ea d qua rters a t New bury . 5 . T h e B ruc e b

s a nd m oves sw i f tly on .

S CO T T 6 He sh a ll w i th
. . Speed to E ng la n d — S A . H KSPE R E . Soon 7 .

w ere d i sm i ssed th e c ourtly th ron g . S CO T T . 8 . Si c k n ess, d eserti on , a n d

th e loss susta i n ed a t Guilford C ou rth ouse h a d red uc ed h i s little a rm y .

9 . A d eta c h m en t w a s sent a g a i n st th em . 1 0 Never bef ore thi s sum m

. er

h a ve th e k ing bi rd s, h a n d som est of fly c a tc h ers, built i n m y orc h a rd .

11 T h e y oun g sudd en ly d i sperse

. on y ou r a pproa c h , a s if a w hi rlw i n d

h a d sw ept th em a w a y — T EA . HOR U
T hi s lig h th ouse, k n ow
. 12 . n to our

m a ri n ers a s C a pe C od or Hi g hla n d L i g ht, i s on e of our pri m a ry sea c oa st

li g h ts .
!
13 . W e h a ve som e sa lt of our y outh i n us .
—S H A KSPE R E .

14 . T h ou h a st g n or y outh n or a e — . S H A KSP E R E .

1 5 T h e pa ssi on f or h un ti n g h a d revi ved w i th W a sh i ng ton on return

.

i n g to h i s old hun ti ng g roun d s 1 6 A c i rc le th ere of m erry li sten ers . .

st a n d — B YRON
1 7 T h e a c t of th e C on g ress of Vi enn a rem a i n s th e
. .

etern a lm on um en t of th ei r d i plom a ti c k n ow ledg e a n d poli ti c a l sa g a c i ty .

-
D ISR A E L I . 18 . L ee un d ertook th e ta sk w i th a la c ri ty 19 A . . row
'
of surf boa ts a n d c a n oes la y a lon g th e bea c h . 2 0 T h e si tua ti on h e h a d
.

h eld a s a ide de - -
ca m p to th e c om m a n d er- i n —c h i ef h a d g i v en h i m a n oppor
tun i ty of observi n g th e c ourse of a ffa i rs . 21 . T h e g roun d w a s f ro en to z
a g rea t d epth . 22 . He w a s a w a re of hi s un popula ri ty . 23 . T h e stem
old w a r- g od s sh ook th ei r h ea d s . E M E RSON .

24 . Frec k led nest eg g s th ou sh a lt see

Ha tc hing i n th e h a w th orn tree . KE AT S .

Fa i r m orn a sc en d s, a n d sunn y Jun e h a s sh ed

A m brosi a l od ors o r ’
e th e g d bed ,
’
a r en -

A n d w ild bees seek th e c h erry s sw eet perfum e

O r c luster roun d th e full blow n -

a pple bloom -
. C A MPB E L L .

For i n th ei r look s d i vi n e
T he im g a e of th ei r g lori ous M a k er sh on e ,

T ruth , w i sd om ,
sa n c ti tud e severe a n d pu re . M I L T ON .

27 . Steer, h elm sm a n , till y ou steer our w a y

B y sta rs bey on d th e li n e C A MPB E L L . .

Sa y I sen t th ee th i th er
I , th a t h a ve n ei th er pi ty , love, n or f ea r . S HA KSPE R E .
23 6 E XE R CIS E S

the li ttle Mi ss Sm i th s f rom M a ster B row n

’bi s rth d a
y pa rty , Sh e i s n a r
row ly questi on ed a s to th ei r beh a vi or 16 . . Of a ll our fl eet, c on si sting
of a h un d red a n d fi fty sa i l, sc a rc e tw elve a ppea red S MO L L E T T 1 7 Hi n . . .

d oos, R ussi a n s, C hi n ese, Spa n i a rd s, P ortug uese, E ng li shm en , F ren c hm en ,

Gen oese ,
Nea poli ta ns, Ven eti a n s, Greek s ,
T urk s, d esc en d a n ts f rom a ll th e
build ers of B a bel, c om e to tra d e a t Ma rseilles, soug ht th e sh a d e a lik e
D ICK E NS 1 8 T h ere li es th e port th e vessel puffs h er sa il
. . T E NNYSON . .

19 I a
. h d d e si r e to see th e old f a m i ly sea t o f th e L u c y s — I RVING . .

20 T h e M
. i ss L a m bs w ere th e be l les o f li ttle B ri ta i n — I RVING 21 . . .

L ord C ullod en a t leng th a ppea red w i th hi s d a ug hters, L a d i es Flora a nd

G ri z ell — D ISRA E L I 22 Still hi s h oni ed w ea lth Hy m ettus y i elds

’
. . . .

B YRON . 23 . Joseph i n e h a s been m a de x

e ec utri x of h er f a th e e t te
rs s a .

24 . G eorg ette c rouc h ed by th e fi re, rea d i ng a w on derful ta le of k i ng s,

pri n c esses,
en c h a n ted c a stles, k n i g h ts a n d la d i es, m onk s a n d n un s,

w i z a rd s a nd w i tc h es . 25 . Sh e w a s a vi x en w h en sh e w en t to sc h ool .

S H A KSP E R E 2 6 K eep a g a m . . ester f rom th e d i c e a nd a g ood stud en t

i
f rom h s bOO k — S H A KSPE R E . . 27 . T h ey a re sh eep a n d ca lves w hi c h
i n th a t — S H A K S I> E R E
seek out a ssura n c e 28 A sc ore of ood ew es
’ g
’
. . .

m a y be w orth ten poun d s — S A H KSP R 29 L et m no s a nd

’
a ee
’ y
E E . . . s s

n o s seem a y s — GA Y . .

30 . Sh e Cla sps a bri g ht c hild on h er upg a th ered k n ee

I t la ug h st th e li g htn i n g , a i t m oc k s th e m i ed thun d er x
Of the a i r a n d th e sea S . HE LLE Y .

E XERCISE 9

— —
71 84, pp 3 4 39) .

1 . Writ e sen ten ces in whi ch the f ollow in g w ords ,

letters, or

fi g ures a re used i n the plura l n um b er

G erm a n , ra d i us, len s, m oose, w h a rf , i n d e x , pi a n o,
th esi s,
4 ,
5 00, p, q ,

a n d , sy lla bus, sta ff, di e, s, t, sera h

p , h ero, sti m ulus, c ri si s, elf , h ea th en ,

broth er i n - la w -
,
July , M a rc h , spoonf ul, m em ora n d um ,
M i ss Allen , M a s
ter A llen , M r Ha y es, . Gen er l R a y m on d , Kn ig h t T em pla r, h ea d (of
a

ca ttle) , a n i m a lc ule, pota to, v a lley , f orm ula , penn y , c urri c ulum , d w a rf ,

m a n - c h i ld .

2 . W ri te c es in s en en t w hi c h the f ollowi n g n oun s a re u sed

in th e si n g ula r n um b er

stra ta , p
h en o m e n a ,
a lum n ae,
a lum ni, c a n d ela bra ,
spec i es, c h erubim ,

erra ta ,
ba c teri a , Ja pa n ese, bea u x ,
vertebrae, M essrs ,
th eses, oa ses .
 N O U NS 37

E XERCISE 10

88 , pp .

Men ti on tha t a re i n the n om in a t ive

a ll the e a nd n oun s ,

ru ct i on f h — m i
g i v e th e c on st ( or sy n ta x
) o ea c a s pu p ,

ca t e n om in a ti ve v oc a ti ve ( or n om ina ti ve of d irec t a ddress) 3

, ,
‘
fex c la m a tory n om i n a ti ve orfi om in a tiv e i n a ppositi on 1
,
.

1 A w ea ry lot i s t
. hi n e, f a i r m a id — S T T 2 A t la st, our sm a ll . CO . .

a c q ua i nta n c e, Ned Hi g g i n s, tru dg ed up th e street, on h i s w a y to sc h ool .

HA WT HORN E . 3 . T he soil i s i n g en era l a ? rrioi st a n d reten ti ve c la y .

4 R um
. ors a lon e w ere th ei r g ui d e s th roug h a Wild a nd d esola te c oun try .

— L ONG F E L L OW . 5 . Y oun g m a n, h a ve y ou C h a rles th e

cha lleng ed
w restler —
Ralph SH A x e RE . 6 .
W on bo , a nd é g p pg
y b g
g i n n

robust a n d sh rew d , a sw i m m er a n d a c ri c k eter Here Ha rold w a s

.

rec ei ved a w elc om e g u est — S CO T T 8 Th e ta ll Hig h la n d er rem a i ned . . .

obdura te 9 T h e bea m s a n d ra fters, roug hly h ew n a n d w i th strips of

. .

ba rk sti ll on th em ,
a nd th e rud e m a son ry th e c h i m n ey s, m a d e th e
of

g a rret look w ild a nd un c i vi li ed z . 10 . D ea thlik e th e ilen c e seem ed S .

11 . Sorrow a n d silen c e a re stron g ,

ti
a nd
en t en d ura n c p
eai s g od li k e .

L ONG F E L L OW . 12 . Fly , fly , d etested th oug hts, f orev er f rom m y vi ew !

-
B E A TT I E . 13 . T i m e m ust n ot be c oun ted by ca len d a rs, but by sensa

ti on , by thoug ht .
T D I S R AE L I .

14 . T hi s i s th e h i story of C h a rlotte C ord a y 1 5 T h e n a bobs soon . .

bec a m e a m ost un popula r c la ss of m en 1 6 B ef ore hi m stretc h ed th e

. .

lon g ,
la bori ous
d ,
d r y, em t
p y, a n d
roaw hi te — HA 1 7 W i th th e . RDY . . .

g re a t m a ss of m a n ki n d ,
th e tes t of i n te g ri ty i n a publi c m a n

ten c y — M A A L A C U
1 8 T h ese a re tri fl es, M r P rem i um
Y 1 9 My :
’
. . . . . .

th a n k s a re d u e to y ou f or y our trouble a nd c a re 20 Here s m y g rea t . .

un c le, Si r R i c h a rd R a veli n 2 1 R ow ley , m y old f ri en d , I a m sure y ou . .

g
c on ra D
tula te m e a vi d , y
ou a re a
. c ow a rd 22
2 3 H er e c.om e oth er .

P y n c h eon s, th e w h ole tri be, i n th ei r h a lf a -d oz en g enera ti on s 24 Un c le -

. .

Venner, trun dli n g a w h eelba rrow , w a s th e ea rli est person sti rri ng i n th e
n ei g hborh ood 2 5 Up th e c hi m n ey ro a red th e fi re, a n d brig hten ed th e
. .

room w i th i ts broa d bla z e 2 6 L i berty f reed om tyra nn y i s d ea d

’
. .

S H A KSP E R E 2 7 T h e h ostess s d a ug h ter, a plum p F la n d ers la ss, w i th

. .

lon g g old pen d a n ts i n h er ea rs, w a s a t a sid e w i n d ow I R v I NG . .

28 . Horses ca n th ese be h orses th a t boun d off w i th th e a c ti on a n d

g esture of leopa rd s — DE Q U INC Y E . 29 . P ea c e ! silen c e ! B rutus

spea ks . 3 0 T he. ra i n s, f rosts, a nd tem pests spli nter th e c ha lk a bove
a nd th e w a v es g na w it a w a y below . GE e E .

1 O r pa rse th e n om ina tives a c c ord in g to th e m od els in 112 .

 EXE R C ISE S

E XERCISE 11
— —
8 9 96 , pp 43 4 7)
.

1 . P oi n t ou t a ll the n oun s i n th e possessi ve c a se, a nd pa rse

them a c c ordi n g to the m od el i n 112 .

1 Ja m e
’ s s a rli a m en t c on ta i n ed
m ost un usua l proporti on of n ew a
p
’
.

m i n i sters 2 I li ve i n g en era l qui etly a t my broth er- i n - la w s i n Norf olk

’
. .

( 3 T h ere i s a sm a ll c otta g e of m y f a th er s c lose to th e la w n

‘

see
’ ’
.

g a tes . 4 . W e h a d f oun d ,
i n th a t d a y hse p a of ea rth , a
bout fi fty poun ds
ei g ht of old d ust — D E F OE 5 Muc h th e m ost stri ki ng i n c i d ent i n
’
w g . . .

j ourn ey
.

A s to f rea k s li k e thi s
‘

B urn s li f e i s hi s to Ed i n burg h 6 of
’
s . .

M iss B roo ke Mr s, s C a dw a lla d er h a d no a ti en c e w i th th em G E ORG E

p
’
. .

EL IO T 7 Hom ew a rd th ey bore hi m th roug h th e d a rk ood s l m

’
. . w g oo .

M O RRIS 8 T h e ey e tra vels d ow n t O xf d t

o e —A RNO D
or 9 I ow rs
’
. . s . L . .

obey ed a ll m y b oth e m ili t mm d i th th e utm t d i li ty

’
an
’
r r s a r y co s w os oc
’
.

1 0 T ellson s w a n ted n ot elbow roo m T ell ted li g h t T ell

’
son s w a n no
’
.
, ,
son s

a n ted n o em belli shm en t Noa ke C m i g ht o Sn k B th e or oo s

’
w . s . s ,
ro rs

m ig ht but T ellson s th a n k h ea ven D ICK E NS .

i n the possessi v e c a se i n 1 (a b ove) ,

2 . Ex a m
i ne the n ou n s

a nd tell whi c h of the pos sess i v es m i g h t be repla c ed by a n

Men ti on pa r t i cula rly t hose pa s sa g es in wh i c h the

possessi v e would n ot be used i n m odern prose .

3 . Write sen ten ces c on ta in in g the possessiv e sin g ula r of

Hen ry , Ja m es, T h om a s, M r Fox , c hi ld , C h a rles P ri c e, Mrs Gi bbs,
.
~
.

E dw a rd , Gen er a l E dw a rd s, h orse, Horten se, M i ss B ellow s, f a th er i n la w , - -

M a j or E lli s c om m a n d er i n ,
- -
c hi ef , T h om pson a n d How a rd ( a fi rm ) , E usti s

a n d M orri s ( a fi rm ) , M essrs C a rtw . ri g ht a nd R obbi n s, Apollo, B rutus,

Ulysses .

4 . Wri te sen t en ces c on ta in i n g the possessi ve plura l of

E n g li sh m a n, fi rem a n , w a sh erw om a n , f ox ,
sh eep, h orse, ox ,
c hi ld ,

em peror,
em press ,
robi n , Norm a n, Germ a n, ha w k, K n i g h t T em pla r,

la dy , sa i lor, h ei r, h eiress, tea c h er, w h a le, w a lrus, c ri ti c , poet, vi reo .

5 which of the sen t en c es tha t y ou ha ve writt en (un der

. In
u s i
3 a n d 4) w ould i t be pos si ble to s b t t t e a u n of f h ra se f or the
p
-

w i f t h i f w ld t h i s phra se be
po s sessi v e I n h c h o em
( a ny
) ou

prefera ble W h y
9
 E X E R C IS E S

X
E ERCI S E 1 3

—
9 7 1 1 0, pp 4 7 53) .
-

1 . Writ e fi fteen sen en es, ea c h

t c c on ta i n in g a tra n si ti ve verb
a nd i ts direct o bj ect 99
2 . S ubstit ute a pron oun for ea ch n oun in the obj ecti ve c a se .

3 . Write ten sen ten ces c on ta in i n g both a d irect obj ec t a n d a

redi a
c t e obj ect i ve
p
4 U se i n sen t en c es fi fteen of the v erb s i n the li st in
. 1 05 ,
ea ch w i t h b oth a d i rect a n d a n i n di rect obj ect .

5 For ea ch i n di rect obj ect su b sti tute to wi th a n obj ect

.
, .

Cha n g e the order i f n ec essa ry ,

.

6 Wri t e ten sen ten c es, ea c h Con ta in in g a c og n a te obj ect

.

7 Write ten sen ten ces ea c h c on ta in i n g d verbi a l obj ec

"

.
, an a

ti ve 1 09 )
8 . Write ten senten ces ea ch c on ta i n in g a ,
n ou n in a ppos i ti on
wi th a n oun i n the obj ecti ve c a se

X
E ERCISE 1 4

5 4— —
1 1 2 , pp 2 7 5 4) .

P a rse every n oun , a cc ordin g to the m odels i n 1 1 2 .

1 . P enn on a nd ba nn er i
w a ve n o m
g n ed th e u
,
t ore . 2 .
Th ey soon a ~

m ost verg e of th e f orest, a n d entered th e c oun try i n h a bi ted by m en Wi th

out vi c e G
O L DSMI T H 3 O ur a venue i s Strew n w i th the w hole c rop of
’
. . .

a utum n s w i th ered lea ves — HA W T HORN E 4 He i s th e ri c h m a n w ho

. . .

ag ian c a lled a n d w h i stled a f ter h i s d og 7 S h e . . ressed a

hurri ed n ote 8 T h e lig h t a n d w a rm th of th a t

. .

w ith m e sti ll . 9 . Vi olet a nd pri m rose g i rls, a nd o m i li ta ry

m on k ey s, a n d sy stem a ti c ba n d s very d eterm i n ed
fi lled th e a tm osph ere ME R E DI T H . .

c h eek 11. . G
ive us m a nn ers, vi rtue,

a nd ta k es a w a y the h a rd n ess of i ts outli n e.

 P R ONO U NS 41

1 3 I tra velled th e Wh ole f our hund red m iles betw een this a nd M a d ra s
’ ’
.

on m en s sh ould ers 1 4 H ere w e set up tw elve li ttle huts lik e soldi ers
. .

ten ts .Sw i ftly th ey g li d ed a w a y , li k e th e sh a d e of a c loud o n the

15 .

p ra i ri e 1 6 A. th en s, even lon g a f ter th e d ec li n e of th e R om a n em pi re

.
,

sti ll c on ti n ued th e sea t of lea rn i n g , poli ten ess, a n d w i sd om O L DSMI T H . G .

1 7 F our ti m es th e sun h a d ri sen a n d set

. 1 8 Spea k spea k th ou . .

f ea rf ul g uest ! 1 9 T h e oa k rose be f ore m e lik e a pi lla r of d a rkn ess

. .

2 0 A n oth er long bla st fi lled th e old c ourts of th e c a stle w i th i ts ec h oes,

.

a n d w a s a n sw ered by th e w a rd er f rom th e w a lls 2 1 Soun d , soun d th e . .

l
c a ri n
o , fi ll t h e fi f e — S CO T T 22 Now , F a lsta ff, w h ere h a ve y ou been . .

a ll thi s w hile 2 3 Soun d s

. of a h orn th ey h ea rd , a nd th e d i sta n t low i ng
of c a ttle . 24 . Hom er w a s a lw a ys hi s c om pa n i on n ow 2 5 F org i ve m e . .

j
th ese i n uri ous suspi c i on s
2 6 O , prid e p d e i t d ec ei ves m e w i th th e
i
’
. . r

subtlety of a serpent 27 I m a d e M r W ri g h t s g a rd en er a presentj pf

. . .

fi fty sorts of pla n t seeds 28 our m oth er a n d I la st w eek m a d e a trip

. . Y
to G a y hu rst, th e sea t of Mr W rig ht, a bout f our m iles off
. . 29 . B en ea th
th e shelter of on e hut, i n th e bri g ht bla z e of th e sa m e fi re ,
sa t th i s va ri ed

g roup of a d venturers . 30 The . c a res of to- d a y a re seld om th e c a res of

to- m orrow . C OWP E R .

E XERCI SE 15

— —
1 1 5 1 2 9 , pp 55 62 ) .

1 . P a rse the person a l pron ou n s, u sin g the m od els in 1 68 .

1 . Sh e peeped f rom th e w i n d ow i nto th e g a rd en . 2 . T h e li ttle m a r

qu i s i m m ed i a tely th rew hi m self i n to th e a tti tud e of a m a n a bout to tell

a long story . 3 . I t pours a nd i t thun d ers, i t lig h ten s a m a in — S . CO T T .

4 M a ster, bout y ou ! 5 L eonti n e, w i th hi s ow n

m a ster, look a nd
’
. a .

h is w ife s f ortun e, boug ht a f a rm of th ree hu n d red a y ea r — A . DDISON .

6 T h e T ori es c a rry i t a m on g th e n ew m em bers six to O IlO

. S .
-
WI F T .

7 I w rote to hi m , but c ould tell h i m n othi n g

. . O n th e n ext m orni ng
8 .

a f ter brea kf a st th e m a or w en t out f or a w j a lk by hi m self 9 T h eir . .

h ea rts qua k ed w i thi n th em , a t th e i d ea of ta k i ng on e step f a rth er

’ ’
.

1 0 M rs F orrester s surpri se w a s equa l to

. . ours . 11 . It t s w en ty y ea rs

si n c e he w en t a w a y f rom h om e 1 2 I sea ted m y self i n . a rec ess. of a

la rg e bow w i n d ow . 1 3 A t th e la st m om en t hi s h ea rt f a iled h i m ,
. a nd

h e look ed roun d hi m f or som e m od e of esc a pe 14 A f ri en d of m ine

’
. .

ha been spen d i ng som e ti m e a t S i r W a lter S c o tt s

’
s .

15 S en d m e a letter d i rec ted to m e at M r W a tc h a m 16 I ha ve

’
. . s . .

lately rec eived from m y book seller a c opy of m y subsc r i ber s n a m es

’
.

1 7 W e c a m e i n our fi rst m orni ng s m

. a rc h to very g ood spri ng s of f resh
 E X E R C IS E S

ter 18 We both of i n c li n ed to be a li ttle too positi ve

’be t t
w a . . a re us .

19 . Heyn e s s ea c h er w a s hi m self — C A R L Y L E
. .

20 A spa si a , y ou h a ve li ved but f ew y ea rs i n th e w orld , a n d w i th only

.

hi l h — lf 2 1 I t t th i d i ti t h
’
on e p os p e
o r y o u rse g o o e s e n m e o see a ug e . .

li n er s d i m sh a pe sli d e by lik e a street a t n i g ht ; sh e w ould h a ve been

i n vi si ble but f or h er row of lig h ts . 22 . T he ca ta ra c ts blow th ei r trum
pets f rom th e steep .
— W ORDSWORT H . 23 . I a m h e th ey c a ll Old C a re .

— PEA COCK 24 T he sh a rp a n d eevi h ti n kle of th e sh op- bell m a d e

. .
p s

i tself a ud i ble . 25 . T h e h eroes th em selves y, sa a s of ten a s n ot, th a t

fa m e i s th ei r ob ec t j . 26 . He seem s to h i m self to touc h thin g s w i th
m uffled h a n d s . 27 . Sh e took c oun sel w i th h erself w h a t m ust be d on e .

28 . T h e h ea d of th e P y n c h eon s f oun d hi m self i nvolved i n seri ous fi na n

c ia l diffi c ulti es . 29 . Ha ! h ere i s H z i b
epa h h erself

2 . Writ e whi ch the person a l pron oun of the

sen en es t c in
first person i s used a s d irect obj ect a s indirect obj ect a s , ,

pred i c a t e n om i n a t i v e
; I n the possess i v e s i n g ula r w i t h a n oun ;
in the possessi ve S I n g ula r w ith out a n oun .

3 Fill the bla n k s w it h person a l pron oun s of the fi rst or the

.

th ird person .

1 He th oug ht th e burg la rs w ere

.

2 He m i Stp ok th e burg la rs f or
.

3 . W illi a m i s better a t hi s lesson s th a n

4 . It is
5 . T h ese a re

6 . Nobody volun teered ex c ept E d w a rd a n d

boy s h a ve f orm ed a d eba ti n g c lub .

M r Jon es i s oi ng to g i ve boy s ba seba ll fi eld

'

.
g a .

W h o i s th ere
B etw een y ou a nd I a m n ot sorry th a t he ha s resig n ed .

I f I w ere I w ould stu dy a rt .

A rth ur lik es y ou better th a n

B ehi n d R uth a nd ca m e th e g uest of h on or .

A uto nobiles a re n ot f or suc h a s

j
It w a s th a t Joseph m ea n t .

tw o a re a lw a ys tog eth er .

Ri c h a rd d i sli k es every body , m ost of a ll

.

4 . Writ e sen t en ces f in w hi c h m ys el , f you rs el ,

ou rs elv es ,
hi m
s el
f, h l h l i v ly refl ex i v ely
ers e f t e m s e v es a re u s
,ed ( )
1 n t en si e
( )
2 ,

a s d irec t O bj ec t refl ex i v el a s i n d i rect O bj ect

( )
3 y , .
244 E XE R CIS E S

2 . Fill ea ch bla n k with a person a l pron oun

1 . Ea ch of us sh ould do best .

2 . E very body thi nk s ow n w a y i s w i se .

3 . If a ny body ha s a better pla n, n ow i s th e tim e for to spea k .

4 . It w a s a n old -
f a shi on ed pi c n i c ,
every person f urn i shi n g sha re

th e provi si on s .

5 . W hen a ny body i s ta lk ing ,

i t i s ba d m a nn ers to i nterrupt

X
E ERCIS E 1 7

— —
1 43 1 56 , pp 66 7
.1 )
1 . P a rse the rela ti ve pron oun s ,
usi n g the m odels in 1 68 .

1 T h e lig hts i n th e sh ops c ould h a rdly strug g le throug h th e hea vy

.

m i st, w hi c h thi c k en ed every m om en t 2 I sh a ll n ot budg e f rom th e . .

posi ti on th a t I h a ve ta k en up . 3 . T h e la n d of li tera ture i s a f a i ry la n d

to those w h o vi ew it a t a di sta n c e — I RVING . 4 I h a te people w ho
.

m eet T i m e h a lf y
-
w a .
—L A MB . 5 . T he w ea th er, w h i c h h a d been storm y
a n d unsettled , m od era ted tow a rd th e eveni ng . 6 . He tha t on c e i n d ulg es
i d le f ea rs w i ll n ever be a t rest .
— JOHNSON . 7 . The only
f ord by w hi c h
th e tra vellers xc ould c ross w a s g ua rd ed by a pa rty o f m i li ti a 8 On e . .
‘

d a rk un ruly ni gh t sh e i ssu ed sec retly out of a sm a ll postern g a te of th e

hi c h th e en em y h a d neg lec ted to g ua rd

c a stle, w 9 I pa used to c on . .

tem pla te a tom b on w h i c h la y th e effig y of a k n i g ht i n c om plete a rm or

’
.
,

1 0 He w ho loves th e sea loves a lso th e shi p s routi n e — C

. A . ONR D .

11 . T h ere w eretw o or three i n d efa ti g a ble m en a m ong th em ,

by w hose
c oura g e a nd i n d ustry a ll th e rest w ere uph eld — D E F E . O .

1 2 T h ou h a d st a
. voi c e w h ose soun d w a s lik e th e sea . W ORDSWORT H .

13 . T h ey sla n d er th ee sorely w ho sa y th y v ow s a re fra il . M OOR E .

14 . T he fi rst g rea t poet w h ose w ork s h a ve c om e d ow n to us, sa ng of w a r

lon g bef ore w a r bec a m e a sc i en c e or a tra de — . MA C A U L A Y . 15 . T he

g usts th a t d rove a g a i n st th e h ig h h ouse seem ed rea dy to tea r i t f rom i ts f oot
h old of roc k . 16 . A t i ts w estern si d e i s a d eep ra vi n e or va lley , throug h
w hi c h a sm a ll s trea m rush es . 17 . A h o perpetua lly
w ea k m oth er, w

th rea ten s a n d n ever perf orm s,

i s la yi ng up m i seri es both f or h erself a n d
f or h er c h i ld ren . S P E NC E R . 1 8 As th ey a pproa c h ed , a ra ven , w h o sa t
.

upon th e topm g i n s th e b ri
ost ston e, bla c k
t g h t blu e sk y, fl a ppe d la z ily
a a

a w ay K INGS L E Y
. 1 9 T o suc h of h er n eig hbors a s n eed ed oth er a tten
. .

ti on , sh e w ould g i ve h er ti m e, h er a ssi sta n c e, h er ski ll 2 0 I t w a s suc h a . .

ba ttle a x e a s R ustum m a y h a ve w i eld ed i n fi g ht upon th e ba n k s of O xus

- .

21 .
I may n ei th er c hoose w h om I w ould , n or refuse w h om I di slik e .
 RELAT IVE P R ONO U NS 24 5

2 . P oi n t out the desc ri pt i v e a nd the res ri t cti ve rela t iv es in

1 (
a bov e
) .

3 . W rite c ten ch c on ta i n in g a descript ive rela

t
sen en es, ea

ti v e ; ten sen ten ces ea ch c on ta i n in g a restri c t i ve rela t ive

,
.

4 Fill the bla n k s w i th rela ti v es I n th e fi rst ei g h t sen ten c es

. .
,

a t lea st use w ho or w hom

,
.

T hi s i s th e boy m rec om m en d ed .

T h e boy M I rec om m en d ed is a Sw ed e .

h
T e boy
-fl d ? broug h t th e letter i s n ot th e on e
e -L ifl fifi I rec om m en d ed .

I told A nn a ,
I kn ew w k eep m y
ould sec ret .

I told A n n a ,
I k n ew I c ould trust .

I told A nn a ,
I k n ew to be tru stw orthy .

I told A nn a ,
I k n ew i n ti m a tely .

No on e y ou k n ow li ves i n thi s street

All I c a n sa y i s, I a m sorry .

Give m e th e sa m e h orse I h a d y esterd a y .

A d og , sh ow ed hi s teeth a n d g row led , bloc k ed th e w a y .

C h oose th e pa rtn er y ou lik e best .

T h e poli c em a n w a s lea d i n g a li ttle c hi ld h a d lost i ts m oth er.

T a k e suc h m ea sures y ou d eem n ec essa ry .

Ta ke m ea sures seem n ec essa ry .

T a k e th e m ea sures seem to y ou n ec essa ry .

My ha t i s of th e sa m e si e z y ours .

T h i s i s th e pi c ture I a m so proud of

T hi s i s th e pi c ture of I a m so proud .

T he m a n i s ta lk i n g to Hen ry i s th e on e ow n s thi s h ouse

5 . S upply th e rela t i v es t ha t a re un d ers ood t

1 . It w a s a d
bol step Sh e h a d ta k en .

2 . I a m n ot a ltog eth er u n qu a li fi ed f or th e busi n ess I ha ve in h a n d .

3 . Hi s ta ste of book s i s a li ttle too ust f or th e j a g e h e li ves i n .

4 . C en sure i s th e ta x a m a n pa y s to th e publi c f or bei ng em i n ent .

5 . W ho i s th e w i tti est m a n y ou k n ow
6 . Morton w a s th e only f ri en d I h a d .

7 . T h a t son a ta w a s th e fi rst pi ec e I lea rn ed .

8 . T en d olla rs i s th e pri c e h e a sk s .

9 . A re y ou th e m an I boug ht th e c oa t of
1 0 T hi s i s th e book
. w e a re rea di n g even i ng s .

11 . Ta ke a ny sea t y ou lik e .

12 . F a ust i s th e only opera I c a re f or .

13 . I h a ve d on e a ll I ca n .
 46 E X E R C IS E S

E XERCIS E 18
— —
1 5 7 1 62 , pp 7 . 1 73 )

P a rse th e rela ti ves .

1 . W h a tever w i sd om a n d en erg y c ould d o W illi a m d i d 2 W h a tever . .

i s d on e ski lfully a ppea rs to be d on e w i th ea se 3 W e m ust suspec t . .

w ha t w e see, d i strust w ha t w e h ea r, a n d d oubt even w ha t w e f eel

M ISS B U RN Y E . 4 . W h oever ha s been i n a sta te of n ervous a g i ta ti on ,

m ust k n ow th a t th e lon g er i t c on ti nu es th e m ore un c on trolla ble i t g row

’
s .

— I Rv 1 NC . 5 . T i m e ha th ref t w ha te e r m y soul en oy ed j .
— B YRON .

6 . T h e g a lla n t m a or sh ow ed n o h esita ti on j w h a tever . 7 . W hoever h a s

m a d e a voy a g e up th e Hud son m ust rem em ber th e K a a tsk ill M oun ta i ns .

8 . A rec ollec ti on of w ha t I h a d seen a n d f elt th e prec edi ng n ig ht still

h a un ted m y m i n d . 9 . Ha rd w ork w a s w h a t h e n eed ed n ow 1 0 W ha t . .

ever reg rets Mrs T h orverton. m ig ht i n dulg e i n sec ret, sh e h a d ha d th e

streng th of m i n d to hi d e th em . 11 . L ik e a ll w ea k m en , th ey ha d re

c ourse to w h a t th ey ca lled stron g m ea sures . 12 . W e see i n him a f reer,

purer d evelopm en t of w h a tever i s n oblest i n ourselves . 13 . Si r R og er
w a s w h a t y ou ca ll a fi ne g en tlem a n . 14 . Sw eet pri n c es,
w h a t I di d , I
di d i n hon or SH A KSP E R E 1 5 He w a s rea lly i n terested i n w h a t
. . .

C on i ng sby ha d seen a n d w h a t h e h a d f elt 1 6 W ha t w a s to be seen a t . .

Na ples, A ddi s n sa w
p .

E XERCIS E 19
—
1 63 1 68 , pp 73 74) .
-

P a rse the in terrog a t i ve pro ti on in g g en der num

n oun s, m en
,

ber, person , a n d c a se I f . the i n t errog a ti v e w ord i s a n a dj ect i v e ,

tell wha t n oun i t lim it s .

1 . W ho w ould n ot si n g f or L y c i d a s 2 . W ha t th a t sig h m ea n t I
c a n n ot sa y . C olu3
m n s,
a.rc h es, py ra m i d s,
w h a t a re th ey but h ea ps of
sa n d 4 W h i c h of th e tw o w a s d a ug h ter to th e d uk e
. 5 W h om .

xt sh a ll w f rom th e d usty d ea d — MB W hy
'

e sum m on LA 6 P eg g y ,
’
ne
’
. .

w ha t ha ve y ou broug ht usA f a n c i ed lif e i n oth ers 7 . W ha t f s a m e

brea th — P OP E . 8 T o w h a t sh a ll I c om pa re i t
. 9 A n d w h a t a rt
. .

th ou, O m ela n c h oly voi c e SH E L L E Y 1 0 P roud sufl erer, w ho a rt

’ ’
. .

th ou 11 Sw W ha t orm er pursui ts I c a n W ha t i g by f t tell

’
. s w ere .

need w e c a re Ha d n t h e fi ve hun dred a y ea r Ay , th a t h e h a d .

T H A CK E R A Y 1 2 W h a t d oes i t m a tter ?
. 1 3 W hi c h w a y h a ve y ou
. .

look ed f or M a ster C a i us 1 4 W h a t busi n ess h a d th ey i n P russi a .

24 8 E X E R C IS E S

m i n e, the m ost c om pa n i on a ble a n d d om esti c Mr C . . 18 . Grea t i s th e

po w er of th e m a n w h o h a s n oth i n g to lose . D OY L E . 19 . E a c h h a m let

sta rted a t th e soun d . 20 L ook. on m e w i th th i n e ow n ca lm look .

21 . Mr Rig by . w a s n ot a m a n w h o ever c onf essed hi m self a t f a ult .

22 . T h ey w ere c onv ersi n g w i th m uc h ea rn estn ess a m ong th em selves .

23 . He h ea rd th e d eep beh i n d h im ,
a nd a c ry bef ore . 24 . W hen D eer
sla y er rea c h ed th e fi re,
h e f oun d hi m self surroun d ed by n o less tha n ei g ht
g ri m g sa va es . 25 . Min e hostess, i n d eed , g a ve m e a long hi story how the
g obl et h a d been h a n d ed d ow n f rom g en er a ti on to g en era ti on 2 6 T h e . .

un c le a nd n eph ew look ed a t ea c h oth er f or som e sec on d s w i th out spea ki ng .

27 . We h a d y et seen n o w ild bea sts, or, a t lea st, non e th a t c a m e very

nea r us .
-
DE EOE . 28 . W e envy y ou y ou r s ea -
bree es z . 29 . W hi c h is
h e th a t killed th e d eer 3 0 T h ere w
. a s th e c h oi c e, a n d it w a s still open

to h i m to ta k e w hi c h si d e h e plea sed 3 1 T h ere i s . . a lw a y s som eth i ng

to w orry y ou . I t c om es a s reg ula rly a s sunri se .

E XERCISE 22

—
169 1 8 —
8 , pp 75 82) .

1 . P oin t out e er v y a dj ec t i v e . T ell wheth er it i s descripti va

or defi n it i ve 1 69 a nd m en ti on the su s a n bt ti ve to
whi ch it b elon g s I f th e a dj ecti ve . ca n be c om pa red , g i v e i ts
1
three deg rees of c om pa rison .

T h e old , unpa i nted sh i ng les of th e h ouse w ere bla c k w i th m oi sture

1 . .

2 “
.
! “
My very d og , sig h ed poor R ip, h a s f org otten m e ! !
3 L oud .

w a s th e li g htsom e tum ult on th e sh ore —B 4 Sw eet a re th e S hy . YRON . .

rec esses of th e w ood la n d 5 R ow s of pew ter a n d ea rth en d i sh es g li t . .

tered a long th e d resser . 6 . The m a j or spok e in a m a tter- of f a -

ct w a
y .

7 . T he Sheep a n d th e c ow h a ve n o c uttin g teeth , but on ly a h a rd pa d

i n th e upper j a w .
— H LE UX Y
8 T h e f a i nt, f og g y d a y li g ht g lim m ered
. .

di m ly on th e ba re floor a n d sta i rs . 9 . He w i ped hi s seri ous, er

p p le ed x
fa c e on a red ba n d a nn a h a n d k erc h i ef , a sh a d e lig h ter th a n hi s c om plex
i on . 1 0 T h ey ellow m
. oon lig ht sleeps on a llth e hillS .
— B E AT T IE . 1 1 The
.

y oun g h ostess seem ed to perf orm h er offi c e w i th a c erta i n d eg ree of d es

pera te d eterm i n a ti on . 12 . T hi s w a rn i ng is m ea n t i n a f ri en dly pi ri t S .

13 . T he h ouse rem a i n ed un ten a n ted f or th ree y ea rs . 14 . Num ber

less torren ts, w i th c ea seless soun d , d esc en d to th e oc ea n . 15 . T he c on

test betw een th e tw o bra n c h es of th e leg i sla ture la s ted som e d a y s long er .

1
For e erc i ses i n th e use x of th e c om pa ra tiv e a nd th e superla tive, see

2 49 —25 0 252
pp .
, .
 AD JE C TI VE S 24 9

W ri te fi ve sen ten c es c on ta i n in g d esc ripti v e a dj ec t iv es ;

2 .

fi ve c on ta i n i n g d efi n i ti v e a dj ecti v es .

3 W ri te sen ten ces c on t a i n in g dem on stra ti v e i n d efin i t e rela

.
, ,

ti v e a n d i t errog a t i ve a dj ect i ves

n ,
.

4 W rit e sen t en c es i n whi ch the i n d efi n i te a rti c le i s d i rectly

.

f ollow ed by

h on ora ble, y outhful, y ew , ew e, euph on i ous, h i stori c a l, hi story , hym n ,

‘

h um ble, hi la ri ous, un i versi ty , e press, h orti c ultura l, ora tori o, a utom a ti c , x

heri ta g e, h a rm on i ous .

E XER CIS E 23

— —
1 81 1 8 7, pp 79 82) .

P oi n t out th e c om pa ra t i v es a nd the superla tiv es M en t i on

.

a n y superla tiv es u sed f or em pha si s

1 . T h e G overn or -
Gen e a l i s r th e fra n k est a nd best- n a tured of m en .

2 . T he c om
gy a
p yn ew m erri er a n d loud er a s th ei r j ok es g rew d uller .

3 . A k n oc k a la rm ed th e ou ter g a te
. 4 . At
th ere c a m e th e po on c e

li test a n d 5 . M a ny a poet h a s been p oorer th a n B u rn s,

but no on e w a s e
ver prou d er — . CA R L Y L E 6 T h e la st ty ra n t ever . .

proves th e w orst — . P OPE . 7 . T h e prof oun d est sec rec y w a s observed i n

th e w h ole tra n sa c ti on . 8 . E a rth h a s n ot a n y thi n g to sh ow m ore fa ir
.

9 . T h e n a tura l pri n c i ple of w a r i s to d o th e m ost h a rm to our en em y

i th th e lea st h a rm to ourselves — I R v I N C 1 0 D uri n g th e rest of th e
’
w . . .

j ourn ey ,
R ose w a s i n th e stra n g est sta te of m i n d . 11 . T he e n r s ot a

n obler m a n i n R om e th a n A n ton y . 12 . L i ttle h e a te, a nd less h e spa k e .

13 . j
Our ourn ey hi th er w a s throug h th e m ost bea uti ful pa rt of th e fi n est
c oun try i n th e w orld 1 4 M ea n w hi le th e thron g w i th out w a s c on sta n tly
. .

bec om i n g m ore n um erous a n d m ore sa va g e 15 . . V a in a re hi s w ea on

p s,
va i n er i s hi s f orc e 1 6 S h e m i g ht h a v e been m leni en t
’
. . ore .

17 . Y u ll h
o a ve to be m ore pra c ti c a l 1 8 How d oes a love of g a i n . .

tra nsform th e g ra v est of m a n k i n d i n to th e m ost c on tem pti ble a n d ri d i c u

lous — G O DSMI H
L T . 19 . M ost a uthors spea k of th ei r fa m eas if i t w ere

q ui te a pri c eless m a tter .

20 . L oveli est a n d best th ou li ttle k n ow

’t s

T h e ra n k , th e h on or, th ou h a st lost S CO TT .

21 . O f tw o su c h lesson s, hy f org et w

T h e n obler a n d th e m a nli er on e B YRON .

 EXE R C IS E S

E XERCISE 24
— —
1 8 9 1 9 8 , pp 83 8 7) .

dv erb ng whether it i s a n a dverb of

or a n d by m en t i on i n g the v erb
‘

,
‘

d v erb h od i fi es C om pa re the a d v erb s

'

or a w .

ca pa ble of c om pa ri son .

1 A g t pa rt of th e i sla n d i s th r level 2 T h ey h a d ork ed

. rea ra
e .

7 . w

very h a rd a n d very c h eerf ully . 3 . W h en spa ke I suc h a w ord ? \

4 . We
ca n ill spa re th e c om m a n d i n g soc i a l ben efi ts of c i ti es .
—E M E RSON . 5 . Sh e
look ed up a n d m et hi s ey es, a n d th ereupon both bec a m e very g ra ve .

6 T h e silen c e of th e pra i ri e a t n i g h t w a s w ell n i g h terri ble

. 7 Fa r i n -
. .

th e W est th ere li es a d esert la n d 8 T h e w hi stli ng ploug hm a n sta lk s . .

a fi eld . 9 . Sw i ftly th ey g li d ed a long . 1 0 He h a

. s on ly j ust a rri ved in
E n g la nd . 1 1 F a st th e w h ite
. roc k s f a d ed f rom hi s vi ew . 12 . W hole
ra nk s i n sta n tly la i d d ow n th ei r i k d k 1 3 T hi c k c loud s of
~

p es a n m us ets . .

d ust a fa r a ppea red . 14 . B itter sobs c a m e thi ck a nd f a st . 15 .

lon g a re y ou g o i n g to be i n P a ri s 1 6 T o—m o rro

’
w I i n te n d to .
W
a g i n a 1 7 . . A n sw er m a d e Ki n g A rthur, brea th i ng h a rd 1 8 S om e . . of

us la ug h ed h ea rtily . 19 . T h ey h a d spok en si m l
py a n d open ly a boutth a t
f rom th e ver sta rt
y .

2 . Form a n a d verb of m a n n er from ea c h of the f ollow i n g a d

j ec ti v es . U se ea ch a d v erb i n a sen en e t c . Tell wh a t i t m od i fies .

P roud , c a reless, veh em en t, ten d er, vi g orous, d a i nty , bra v e, f orm a l,

c ourteous, blun t, sh a rp, k een , w e sk i lful, leg i ble .

3 . bla n k w i th
Fill ea c h a n e m od if yin g the
a dj ecti v e Or th e a d v erb .

O g i lvi e w luc k th a t d a y
a s
y .

T h ey w ere th oug ht to be f a sh i on a ble people .

Sh e m a d e her ob ec ti on s j d eli c a tely a s sh e c ould .

July h a s been h ot .

C a rly le w a s d a i n ty a bout h is f ood .

Ja c k d i d n ot c om e ea rly to fi n d a sea t
.

T h e ti d e run s f a st roun d th i s poi nt .

T h e ba lloon soa red h i g h th a t i t d i sa ppea red .

T h e f ug iti ve rea c h ed th e pi er la te to ta k e th e stea m er .

[T h e bea r g row led g sa va ely th a t th e d og s w ere fri g hten ed .

Y ou w ri te m ore leg i bly th a n I

[ .
 E X E RC ISE S

E XERCISE 26
— —
1 9 7 203, pp 8 7 8 9) .

1 . P oin t out the c o

m pg
a a ti ves a n d superla ti ves . Tellwhet her
ea ch is a n a dj ect i ve or a n a d verb .

1 . I thoug ht i t the m ost pru d en t m eth od to li e sti ll . 2 . W h en th e

eo
p p le observed I w a s q ui et,
th ey d i sc h a rg ed n o m ore a rrow s . 3 . You
k n ow y our ow n f eeli ng s best
ta ller th a n a ny of th e th er . 4 . He w a s O
three w ho a tten d ed hi m 5 T h e song a n d th e la ug h g rew less a n d less
. .

f requen t 6 T h e h a rd er I try to forg et i t, th e m ore i t c om es i nto m y

. .

m in d . 7 . T h e ni g h t g rew d a rk er a nd da rk er th e sta rs seem ed to si nk

d eeper i n th e sk y . 8 . I a n sw ered in a f ew w ord s, but i n a m ost subm i s

si v e m a nn er . 9 . T h ei r m ore a c ute th a n ours . 1 0 T he .

by d eg rees
n a ti ves c a m e eh en si ve of a n y da ng er from m e .

11 . W hoever perf orm s th e m ost a g i li ty, a nd ,

h olds out

lon g est i n lea pi ng ,

is rew a rd ed w i th th e blue -
c olored Silk . 12 . It re

c ei ved less d a m a g e t h a n I p x pec ted 1 3 L ong live th e m ost pui ssa nt . .

k i ng of L illiput 1 4 F a st a re th e fly i n g m om ents, f a ster a re th e h oofs

.

of our h orses 1 5 Nig h c om e th e stra n g ers a n d m ore n i g h

. . S CO T T . .

Write“sent en c es c on ta i n in g either
2 . the c om pa ra t ive or the
superla ti ve Of the follow i n g w ord s fi

m erry n orthern , old (both f orm s), f a r, in ,

out, ea rly , li ttle (a dj ec ti ve) , li ttle ( a dverb) , ba d ly , often , w orth y , w on d erful,

a c c ura te, f a r, n i g h , top, m uc h , severe ~

.

sen en t c es c on ta in in g a dverbs whi c h a re in ca pa

om
pa ri son ; si x c on ta i n i n g a dj ecti v es whi ch a re inc a
pa e of c om pa ri son .

E XERCIS E 27

2 04 208 , —
pp
l8 9—9.0)
1 . Write fi ve sen ten ces i n whi ch c a rdi na lfl llm em ls a re a dd i “M “ i n g ,

ti v es, fi ve in whi ch they a re n ou n s . U se the sa m e n um era ls in

th e ord i n a l form a s
 VE RB S 25 3

X
E E RCIS E 28

—
209 21 5 , pp 9 1 9 3)
-
.

1 . P oin t out a ll the v er s a n d v er

b b phra ses T ell whether
-
.

ea c h is tra n siti ve or i n t ra n sit i v e . T ell whi ch a re c opula t i v e ;

w hi c Men ti on a ny ex a m ples of the C opula .

la rg e return . 2 . We m ust n ow return

'
to th e
in ha bi ta T h oug h I look lold , y et I
n ts . 3 .

a m strong a nd lusty 4 T h e sf fi Shi n e m i g h t n ow be seen stea li ng d ow n

‘

. .

si te h ouse . 5 . He sa t a pa rt f rom th em a ll, a nd

m ela n c h di y ,
h a ug h ty c ounten a n c e w h i le th e rest
la ug h ed , a nd th e room ra n g . 6 . You c a n n ot re v

orm en ts I suffer 7 O n e g a i ns n oth

“h
. .

i n g by ttem pti ng to hut out th e spri tes of th e w e t

a S i

w
i

a t th e k eyh ole ; they pe d ri ppI g a n eS t ey i n si n ua te

th em selves throug h /
th e c revi c es of th e c a sem en t, or plum p th em se lv es

d ow n c him n ey a strid e of th e ra i n d rops — . W HI T T I E R . 8 A la rg e la m p

.

th rew a strong m a ss of li g ht u on th e
p g roup . T h e ba ron pa rd on ed
9 .

th e y oung c ouple on th e spot . 1 0 E very . n ow a n d th en h e w ould turn hi s

h ea d Slow ly roun d .

11 . T h e rive
r sleeps a lon g i ts c ourse a n d d rea m s of
th e Sk y a n d of th e
c lusteri n g f oli a g eA severe g a le c om p
. 12 . elled hi m to seek sh elter .

13 M iss B etsy B a rk e
r d ri ed h er ey es a n d th a n k ed the C a pta i n h ea rti ly
‘

. .

14
kn o
.

i
ra

C LA
y y ou ,
Q
R lor i ous 16
a s
n ot sa

ti m e toT n d o n
d
Af te
e elf
. 15
r a ll,
. I
it is
a m

a
! y et w ha t I a m w ho
'
c a res, or

w ‘ w
g
E .
p . s
‘

in a rea l g a le of
w i n d , i n a big shi p, w i th n ot a roc k to run a g a i nst w i thi n

W e w i ll ta lk Overa ll thi s a n oth er

‘

a th ousa n d m i les i

ti m e
K INGS L E Y
18 W ha
jt i s ro re
.

M ovem en t B ut w h a t i f i t be m ovem ent

. .
p g ss .

i n th e w ron g d i fec ti on -
D ISR A E L I . 19 . T h ey sa y y ou a re a m ela n
c holy f ellow . 2 0 T h e va li a
. nt Cli fford i s n o m ore . 2 1 T he w
. rec k ha d
evi d en tly d ri fted a bout f or m a ny m on th s ; c lusters of sh ellfi sh ha d
f a sten ed a bout i t, a nd long sea w eed fl a un ted a t i ts sid es . — I Rv I N G .

22 . T i m es g rew w orse a nd w orse w i th R i p V a n W i nkle a s y ea rs of

m a tri m ony rolled on .

2 . Fra m t c ch c on ta i n in g a verb phra se

e tw en ty sen en es, ea -
.

U se the a ux ili a ri es m en t i on ed i n 21 0 L et som e of the sen .

ten c es be i n t errog a t i ve .

3 Ma ke a li st of twen ty v erbs th a t a re t ra n si ti v e in on e
.

sen se in t ra n si ti v e i n a n other
, U se these verbs in
sen ten c es .
 E X E R C IS E S

e the a b solute use of tra n si tiv e verb s by fra m i n g

ten t
sen en es c
5 . Ma ke a li st of si x C opu la ti ve verbs U se t hem i n
c
sen en est . Fra m e sen en c es t i n whi c h the sa m e v er s a re n ot b
c opula ti ve
6 . C opula
U se th e 2 1 4) i n twen ty sen t en c es ,
v
se era l of

whi ch sha ll illu stra t e its use i n v erb phra ses -

.

E XERCISE 29
— —
2 1 7 22 5 , pp 9 4 99) .

1 . W rite ten sen en es t c in ea ch of wh i c h a w ea

(k or reg ula r
)
v erb is i n the pa st ten se ; ten , in ea c h
u sed of whi ch a t
s ron g

( or irreg ula r) v erb i s used i n th e pa st t en se .

2 . Con st ru ct sen en es t c in
the pa st t en se of ea ch of
whi ch
the follow in g verb s i s u sed : dri n k , li e, s ow , g et, w a k e, dw ell,
L
li g ht, berea ve, bu i la rider lm eg sw i m
-
;
ri n g , w ea ve, thri ve sp i n , tre
d i vefflee, fly , sw i ng , w et, fli n ,
g fin eel ,
let,
3 P oi n t out a ll th e v erb s ( ex
. c ep t the Copula a n d a ux ilia ries)
in E x er c i se 28, 1 , a nd c on j u g a t e them i n the presen t a n d the
t ten se T ell w hi c h ea k (reg ula r a n d whi c h a re stron g
pa s . a re w
)
( i rreg ula r
) . Acc oun t for the person a n d n um ber .

E XERCIS E 30
— —
226 232 , pp 1 00 1 02) .

1 . Fill ea ch bla n k wi th a m ,
i s, or a re
N
1 . E n g la n d a n d th e Un ted S ta tes z —
i d a t pea ce .

2 Neith er A rth ur n or John A 3 4 ri g ht .

3 . E i th er a sa w or a n a x e _Q _n ec essa ry
, .

4 . E i th er y ou or D orothy g oi ng .

5 . Y ou a n d I 6 3 h g oi ng .

‘ w
6 . Y ou a nd he g oi ng

7 . I s it Mr Allen . or i s it hi s c hi ld ren w ho
8 . E ith er h e A M g oi ng or y ou M
 25 E XE R CI

X
E ERCIS E 3 I

ll in the follow m g

ever f org e y ou h a vé dbn e f or us . 2 . You oug ht

“
sa i d th e g en era l, a s L otha i r entered ,

th eref ore 3 I ti t I i ll
‘

y ou .a m ry pza . en ; w
"

4 I f I d o return , I ill vote ag a i n st th em Bu I ill n ot return

’p
. w . w .

5 . I w i ll sen d y ou Jenn i n g s s oem , if

‘

m a ke a d ra w i ng a n d a n esti m a te, a n d
h er f or m e, w ill y ou ?

vi n c ed , a n d on re ec ti on fl y
7
my j ourn ey
to R oc h d a le, y ou sh a ll h a ve du e m ti be w h e re to a d d ress m e 13 I c on . .

’
si d er m y self a fi rst- ra te sh ot, a n d y ou sh a ll, pra c ti se w i th m e 1 4 Sh a ll . .

I ev er f org et th a t D eron d a

on e of h er
hold th em ,
a nd th ey s a y th a t n o o n e ever sells so m uc h .

u “ .
D I SR A E L I .
‘ ’
18
I
. W ill y be g ood en oug h to k eep a n a c c oun t of a ll the
l
f

; ef p frii séi on
i

m a n usc ri pts y ou rec ei ve, hr f ea r fl

1 9 O rest y e, brother .

m a ri n ers, w e w ill n ot w a n d er m ore . TE NNYSON 20 W i lly ou f orw a rd

. .

th e i n c losed i m m ed i a tely to C orbet, w h ose a dd ress I d o n ot ex a c tly re

m em ber 21 . B y ron w a s n o c om m on m a n y et if w e e a m i n e h is x poetry

w i th th i s vi ew ,
w e Sh a ll fi n d it fa r en oug h f rom f a ultless .
— CA R L YLE .

22 I sh a ll be i n tow x
by S un d a y n e t, a n d w illc a ll a n d h a ve som e c onver
’
. n

sa ti on on j
th e sub ec t of W esta ll s proposed d esig n 23 W i ll y ou g o . .

d ow n, d ea r I w i ll f ollow y ou in a m om en t . 24 W ill n ot y our trip to

.

B a th fford y ou a n pportun ity to ta k e a peep

a O a t W eston ? 25 Never .
,

a s lon g a s I li ve, w i ll I spea k to y ou a g a I n , n or sh a ll Ha rry , w h om y ou

\
h a ve hum i li a ted
26 . Y et he f or w h om I g ri eve sh a ll n ever k n ow it 27 Sh a ll y ou let . .

h i m g o to I ta ly 28 P ron e to th e d ust O ppressi on sh a ll be h urled

’’
. .

CA E LLMPB 29 Y ou sh a . . n tg o on w i th th i s a ffa i r, I telly ou, Ha rry . 30 I .

sh a ll proba bly return ,

i ll
thi s even i ng
see y ou bef ore I go T but I w . RO L
L OPE 31
. . I n th e i nteri m I sh a ll lea ve tow n on Sun d a y I sha ll set out

for Hereford shi re, from w h en c e, w h en w a n ted , I w i ll return . 32 . If m y

f a th er d oes n ot return w ith m e i n th e spri ng ,
it sh a ll n ot be f or w a nt of

urg i ng on m y pa rt . C OOPE R .
 ea ch bla nk with w i ll or s ha d
y“
W
.
w
.

a .

I e g la d to see y ou .

We - LL be o blig ed to g o h om e ea rly .

2
M
I3 33 h elp y ou W h en eve y ou w i
I prom i se th a t be trouble y ou a g a in z
‘

m —
u
w

M
.

Y ou be ki n d en oug h to ta k e y our sea t .

a r .w w . .

We fi fn i ss our tra i n , I f ea r
M
.

I m ust h urry or P be la te .

R obert w ha ve a s m uc h a s i s g ood f or hi m .
. . w

A rthur ey m e i n spi te of a ll I c a n d o . {1 c. w

Ar thur y ou ,
I a m su re .

A rthur obey m e, or I i sh hi m
'

pun .

If w e re ec t j th ese offers, w e reg ret i t .

I no long er en dure hi s i n solen c e .

th ey return i n sea son f or d i n n er

h a v e to e x c use y ou thi s tim e ,
I suppose .

g la d ly see yt a ny ti m e
ou a .

n ot lea ve thi s room un ti l y ou h a ve c on f essed .

g i v e y ou th e m on ey , I f eel c on fi d ent .

g i ve y ou th e m on ey , or I ha ve n o m ore to d o w i th hi m .

w e a llow th em to d o a s th ey plea se

decla ra t iv e sen en es, t c usi n g w i ll or s ha ll i n the

( sin g ula r Or plura l) to ex press a threa t ,

a prom i se,
resoluti o 1 ,i c on sen t desire d eterm i n a ti on sim ple futurity
, , ,
.

4 . Fill the bla n k s i n the follow i n g q uest i on s w i th w i ll or

sen t en c es u si n g w i ll or s h a ll i n a n sw er
( ) .

m i se to d o better
3
pro

m a k e a n y prom i ses if h e i n si sts 1L 3 V ,

w
.
e m i ss ou r t a
r i n 9 .

w e g o Just a sk us !
I g o n ow 9 I f ea r I a m w ea ryi ng y ou
. .

I tell y ou w h a t I rea lly th i n k

lea se

y ou see m e if I ca ll a t on e ’l
o c oc k

w e see y ou th i s even i n g

y ou be ki n d en oug h to Open th a t d oor ,

or

y ou m i ss y our broth er
w ew a i t h ere, or y ou relen t a n d let us w i th y ou 9
w e a llow th i s evi l to c on ti n u e

y ou f org i ve m e
25 8 E XE R C ISE S

2 1 06 1 —

1 . a m e a ll the c om pl ( or c om poun d) t en ses a nd

[
i n th e ti m es of th e w a r
ti ve . LO NG F E L L OW . T he
hi s n a tive c oun try . 3 .

w a lls a n d c eili ng s . 4 .

h a d been blow n dow n .

a t a d elig h tful i n n by th
n ote ) .
— FI T z G RA D
E L . 6 . In
ha d d eterm i n ed to pa ss th e n sbbrn es a
Copy of th e E leg y on K ea ts . 9 . Our
vi si ts to th e i sla n d s h a ve been m ore lik e drea m s th a n rea liti es 10 We
’life
. .

a re here a rri ved a t th e c ri si s of B urn s s . 11 . T he c h i lls of a long

w i n ter h a d sudd en ly g i v en w a y th e n orth w ind ha d i ts la st g a sp
spent

a nd a m i ld a i r c a m e stea li n g f rom th e w est . 1 2 T h e offi c er a t la stturn ed

.

a w a y, h a vi ng sa ti sfi ed hi m self th a t th e room w a s em t
py . 1 3 C a rson
. w ill
h a ve rea c h ed Sh elter long before thi s .

2 . c in whic h the v erbs in E x ercise

Con strh c t ten sen en es t
‘
2 9 2 a re used I n the perfect t en se
,
.

3 Turn the v erbs i n these sen t en c es i n t o the pl

. uperfec t

t en se ; in t o the future perfect ten se W rit e senten c es i n which .

the sa m e v erb s a re used a s perfect pa rt ic iples ; a s perfec t

i nfi n iti v es .

E XERCIS E 33
— —
1 07 1 1 2
246 2 54, pp .

W
h th
e er ea ch verb i s i n the a ct i ve or the pa ssi ve

I f the verb is a c tive cha n g e it to the pa ssi v e a n d m a ke

, ,

o ther cha n g es a s m a y be n ec essa ry I f the v erb i s a cti ve .

,

g iet to t h e p a ssi v e .

Con j ug a t e ea c h v erb in the tense i n which it occurs .

26 0 E X E R C ISE S

follow in g verbs in a ct ive a nd

the future, a nd th ( or presen t

bri ny, tea c h, dri n k , yet, la y, lea ve, fi n d,

6 . U se ea c h of the v erbs in 1 05 i n the cti v e v oic e of the a

pa st ten se with both a d i rect a nd a n i n d irect obj ect Cha n g e .

to the pa ssi ve .

E ER
X CIS E 3 4

— —
2 55 2 6 1 , pp 1 1 3 1 1 4)
.

1 . P oin t ll the prog ressiv e a n d

out a a ll the em pha t i c verb
phra ses . M en ti on the a n d v oi c e of ea ch N ote . a ny in
n ot em ph a t i c .

1T hus did _
. theJ ong sa d y ea rs g li d e on
_ 2 Now pra y in . .

E n g la n d 3 M ea nw hi le, I g o a bout i n m y li ttle ship, w h ere w

. . h i nk
I h a ve tw o h on est f ellow s to d e
,

a l w i th 4 I rem em ber I d o i n d eed . . .

rem em ber — too w ell ! 5 . Not u nti l i t w a s broa d d a ylig ht d i d I quit

th e h a un ted h ouse D o but look on h er . 6 . e es
y 7 R ola n d rea c hed
. .

j
th e boa t ust a s th e g a n g pla n k w a s bei ng h a uled i n 8 . . W e a re being
en terta i n ed by th e A rc h ers 9 T h e m a n a t our w h eel w . . a s spi nn i ng hi s
spok es d espera tely to a void ba n g i ng i n to vessels w e c ould n ot see, but
w h ose bells w ere ri ng i ng ev ery w h ere a bout us . 10 . W ild w eed s a re

g a th eri ng on th e w a ll . 11 . I did a c tua lly pi c k up a Fren c h c row n pi ec e,

w orth a bout a d olla r a n d si x c en ts, n ea r h ig h w a ter m a rk
-
12 I w a s . .

loi teri ng a bout the old g ra y Cloisters of W estm in ster A bbey . 13 . T he

f riend s of C on i n g sby w ere n ow h ourly a rri vi ng . 14 . My ey es ha ve
been lea vi ng m e i n th e lurc h a g a i n .

15 . tim e pa ssi ng th roug h n a rrow g org es of

T h ey h a d been f or som e

th e m oun ta i n s, a long th e edg es of a tum bli ng strea m 1 6 W e a re ust . . j

si tti n g d ow n to d i n n er w i th a plea sa n t pa rty 1 T h e la rg e N ew f oun d .

/
la nd h/ouse d og w -
a s sta n d i ng by th e d oor 18 D o th ou, sa id B er
. .
! ~

tra m
"
lea d th e w a y
! — S CO TT 1 9 M usi c i n hi s ea rs hi s bea ti ng h ea rt
/
. . .

did m a ke . 2 0 O ver th e hillsi d es th e w i ld k n ell i s tolli ng

. . HO L M E S .

Write sen ten ces in whi ch the verb tea c h i s used i n the
2 .

presen t r
p go r es s i v e pa s t ro
p g ressi v e f ut u re ro
p g res si
,
v e per , ,

rog ressi ve lu erfect rog ressi ve a n d fu ture erfec t

p p p p , p ,

si ve t en ses of th e a c t i v e v oi c e .
 IMP E RAT IVE AN D S U B J U N CTI VE

E XERCIS E 35
—
26 2 286, pp .

P oin t out a ll the ver s b i n the i m pera ti ve or th e su bj un cti ve

m ood T ell the subj ec ts of th e i m pera ti v es a n d ex la i n the
.
g p
form s a n d u ses of the sub j unntism a -
7

1 . An d n ow d i spa tc h
y lor ds S A E Ew e tow a rd th e c ourt, m
'
. H KSP R .

2 . I thi n k y ou h a d better spea k to L a dy C ori sa n d e y ourself

,

3 . My d ea r boy , G od bless th ee a th ousa n d ti m es over ! th a t the

d esert w ere m y d w elli n g pla c e ! 5 R est . w e h ere, !
M a tild a sa i d .

S CO T T 6 . . Go Wh ere thy d esti ny c a lls th e ? !

7 . Now Hesper g uid e m y
f eet — A K E N S 1 D E
. . 8 . 0 th a t su c h hi lls uph eld a f reeborn ra c e

B YRON . 9 .P eri sh th ose ri c h es w h i c h a re a c qui red t th e e pen se of m y

a x "

hon or or m y hum a n i ty — L GO DSMI H T . 10 . W ould a ll w ere w ell ! but

th a t w i ll never be f S HA KSPE R E T h e di sta ff w ere m of e fi m
‘

. .

y ou . 12 . R obert h esi ta ted , a s if he w ere i n c li n ed to refuse . 13 . Do

w h h
a t t ey m i g h t,
th e h O/( l
k w a s i n th ei r g ills — E E M E E T . G ORG R DI H .

1 4 Fa re y ou w ell, f a i r g en tlem en — S A
. E E 1 5 S uffi c e i t to sa y , . H KSP R . .

th e robbers w ere d ef ea ted 1 6 D i sc lose thy trea c h ery , or di e ! 1 7 L et. . .

us n ot be i n u en c ed fl by a ny a ng ry f eeli n g s . 18 . B e th a t a s i t m a y , Ki dd
n ev er return ed to rec over hi s w ea lth
’
.

19 . I w ould to G od m y h ea rt w ere fli n t ,
li k e E dw a r d s . S H A KSPE R E .

20 . M ove w e on S CO T T
. 21 . . M a rk th a t th e sig n a l g un -
be duly fi red .

-
B YRON . 2 2 T h e h ull d ri ves
. on , th oug h m a st a n d sa i l be torn 23 I. .

a m g la d th a t y ou lik ed m y son g, a n d ,
i f I lik ed th e oth ers m y self so w ell
a s th a t I sent y ou, I w ould tra n sc ri be th em f or y ou a lso .
— C OWP E R .

2 4 I beseec h y ou , pun i sh m
. e n ot wi th y our h a rd th oug hts S A E E . H KSP R .

2 5 I f th ere be c h a n g e, n o
. c h a n g e I see — L A 2 6 B e i t a s th ou . NDOR . .

w i lt . 27 . W eep y ou n o m ore, sa d f oun ta i n s 2 8 I f th ou lea ve thy . .

"

f a th er, h e w ill di e . W ORDSWORT H . 29 . C om e th ou n o m ore f or ra n som ,

g en tle h era ld — S HA KSPE RE . 3 0 L ea rn th ou h i s purpose

. 3 1 C om e, . .

g i
o w e
n proc essi on to th e vi lla g e S HA KSP E R E. 32 T h e d estru c ti on
-
. .

of property w hi c h took pla ce w i thi n a f ew w eek s w ould be i n c red ible,

if it w by w i tn esses un c onn ec ted
ere n ot a ttested w i th ea c h oth er a n d

a tta c h ed to very d i fferen t i n terests .

33 . I w i sh I w ere a s I h a ve been ,
Hun tin g th e h a rt i n f orest g reen . S CO T T .

34 . C om e w h a t c om e m a y ,
T i m e a n d th e h our ru ns th roug h th e roug h est d a y .
— SH A KSPE R E .

35 . B uri ed be a ll th a t h a s been d on e,
Or sa y th a t n a ug h t i s d on e a m i ss . C RA BB E .
 E X E R CIS E S

E XERCISE 36
— —
272 2 8 6, pp . 1 1 8 1 23 )

Fill ea c h bla nk with a v erb in the a ppropria te form .

1 . 0 th a t h e «efi fi h ere f

2 . W ould th a t I th ere
3 . I f he a li ttle old er, I sh ould ta k e h im in to pa rtn ershi p .

y ou a sk ed m e to g o, I sh ould ha ve refused .

5 .
y ou to a sk m e, I should refuse .

6 I f y ou th ere, I sh ould h a ve seen y ou .

7 . I a m g la d I sa w th e pla y , even i f I a little d i sa ppoi n ted .

I should h a ve been g la d to see th e pla y , even i f I a li ttle

K
(
S .

di sa ppoi nted .

9 I sh ould be g la d to see th e pla y ,

. even if I — I a li ttle d isa ppoi nted .

1 01 1 sh a ll be g la d to see th e pla y , even i f I

"
a li ttle di sa ppoi nted .

a 1 1 T h oug h h e
. to i n c rea se m y sa la ry , I sh ould n Ot rem a i n i n his
s
em l
p yo [ Us e th e
. c opula .

1 2 Unless h e
. to i n c rea se m y ‘
sa la ry , I sh ould n ot rem a i n i n his
Use th e C opula
em ploy : [ .
]
W h en e
“

. T om sa w y ou , y ou loc k ed a s if y ou a ng ry .
[ Use th
a

14 . W h en T om I suppose y ou w ill look a

sees y ou ,
s if y ou a ng ry.

15 .
‘
I m ust rem i n d h im to post th i s letter, lest be it .

E XERCISE 37

28 7 —
1 24 1 2
pp . 7)

E x pla in the m ea n in g
ch t b phra se a nd of ea o en tia l v er
p
-
,

pa rs e the
ph ra se I n pa rsi n g suc h a phra se d esc ri b e it m erely
.
,

a s a pot en t i a l verb ph ra se a n d t ell th e t en se v oi c e person a n d

-
, , ,

n um b er, wi thou t a ssi g n in g i t to a n y m ood .

1 E n oug h ! Y ou m d t 2 M h u ld t el 3 W h t m u t
’
. ay ep a r en s
. o ra.v a s . .

be sh a ll be . T ha t s a c erta i n tex t —S A E E. H KSP R

4 A t ti m es, w i th a . .

stron g effort, he w ould g la nc e a t th e open d oor w hi c h still seem ed to

repel h i s ey es . 5 . Nothi n g
bri n g y ou pea c e buty ourself
ca n E E . M RSON .

6 . It w a s som eti m es sa d en oug h to w a tc h hi m a s h e sa t a lon e He w ould .

h a ve a book n ea r h i m , a n d f or a w h ile w ould k eep i t i n h is h a n ds .

T RO L L O PE . 7 . O, my fri en d m ay I beli eve y ou Ma y

k to y ou 9 I spea

8 . P resen tly h e f a c ed A d ri a n , c ry i n g ,
An d I m i g ht h a ve stopped i t ! 1 1

9 . Nothi n g i s i m possible to th e m an w h o c a n w i ll — E M E RSON. 10 A . .

 64 E X E R C IS E S

E XERCISE 39

— —
2 9 7 3 08 , pp 1 2 7 1 32)
.

1 Justi fy the u se of the ilia ry

. a ux
( s hou ld or w ou ld
) . In
som e of the sen en t c es ,
s h ou ld m i g ht be su b st ituted for w ou ld .

W hi c h a re t hey
1 . If I w ere y ou ,
I w ould n ot dw ell too m uc h on thi s fa nc y of y ours .

2 . I ha ve n ei th er serv a n ts n or c loth es, a n d , if i t h a d n ot been f or th ese

g ood l
p p e,
eo h a ve h a d f
I oodShould
3 I sh ould d eli g h
n ot
t i n h a vi n g . .

h er f or a si ster i n la w 4 I sh ould h a rd ly w i sh to g o out bef ore Fri d a y

’ ’
- -
. . .

5 I should n t w ond er if th i s m a d e hi m set hi s teeth 6 W ell, th a t s

’
. . .

ov er ! a n d I m sure n ei th er Oli ver n or I w ould g o throug h i t a g a i n f or

a m illi on of m on ey . 7 . If I
y ou, I w ould turn i t over i n m y m i n d
w ere .

8 . I sh ould be a f ra x
i d to e press m yself i n thi s m a nn er, i f th e m a tter w ere
n ot c lea r a n d i n di sputa ble . B U RK E . 9 . I sh ould lik e to rem a i n w h ere I
a m f or ten d a y s 1 0 W ould y ou d o m e th e f a vor to look
a n oth er w eek or . .

a t a f ew spec i m en s of m y portra i t pa i n ti n g — D E 11 W ould -

ICK NS . .

y ou c om e s h e sa i d ,
w i th a seri ous,
sea rc h i n g g la n c e,
a n d i n a k i n d
of c oa i ng m a nn er x “ I sh ould be a n i ntrud er, m y d ea r la d y ,
.
!
sa i d

T h eod ore d ec li n i n th e su esti on — D

gg , g AE L . ISR I .

1 2 I should n ot li k e to be out of m y sea t w ere th e House i n sessi on

. .

W J L OCK E
. 13 I f I w ere y ou I w ould n ot tem pt F a te by rem a i n i ng
. . .

h ere d a y long era W E N 14 C a n d i d a tes w ould ra th er, I

.
-
. . ORRIS . .

suppose, c li m b i n a t a w i n d ow th a n be a bsolutely Ox Clu d ed — C E . OWP R .

1 5 I m pey w ould n ot h ea r of m erc y or d ela y 1 6 I sh ould n ot be sur

’
. . .

p ri sed i f h e w ere h ere i m m ed i a tely 1 7 T h ere s a p la n ta ti on of sug a r . .

c a n es a t th e f oot of th a t roc k : sh ould y ou lik e to look ? — GE ORG E EL IO T .

2E x pla i n the u se of the a ux ilia ry

.
( s ha ll, s hou ld , or w i ll,
ou ld i n ea c h sub ordi n a t e c la u se
w
) .

1 . W i th th i s purpose i n vi ew , h e sen t a ski lf ul a rc hi tec t to build hi m

Suc h a pa la c e a s sh ould be fi t f or a m a n of his va st w ea lth to li ve i n .

2 . T h ei r m a j esti es c om m a n d ed m e to subm it to w h a tever B oba di lla Should

ord er Sh ould y ou fi n d y ourself a ble to push on to
i n th ei r na m e 3
’
. .

B ra em a r, y our vi si tw i ll be m ost w elc om e 4 I t s a si m ple a ffa i r en oug h ,

’j
. .

i f y ou 11 ust lea ve i t a s i t sta n d s 5 F ea ri ng to a w a k en Joseph a sec on d . .

ti m e, lest h e sh ould a g a i n h a z a rd a ll by hi s th oug htlessn ess, h e c rept

d a y to d a y
‘

sof tly out of th e W i g w am . 6 . I w a tc h ed th e g ra pes f rom

ti ll th ey should h a ve sec reted sug a r en oug h f rom the sunbea m s 7 If . .

a n old proph ec y sh ould c om e to pa ss, w e m a y see a m a n , som e tim e or

 S H OUL D AN D WO UL D 2 65

other, w i th e xa c tly suc h a fa ce a s th a t . 8 . He k ept h i s h ea rt c onti nua lly

open , a nd thus w a s sure to ca tc h th e blessi ng f rom on hi g h , w hen i t
sh ould c om e . HA W T HORN E . 9 . T hi s la w
th a t th e presi d en c y provi d ed
"

of B eng a l sh ould x
e erc i se a c on trol over th e oth er possessi on s of th e

C om pa ny 1 0 I t i s ti m e tha t w e should proc eed

. . .

11 I t i s n ec essa ry th a t h e sh ould h a ve som e w ork to d o

. 1 2 I sha ll . .

be th a n kf ul _ i f y ou w ill c on d esc en d to enlig hten m y i g n ora n c e

Ii
13 I t . .

w a s n a tura l th a t th e lea d i n g auth ors sh ould a ffec t a sty le of levi ty a n d

deri si on JE F F R E Y
.
-
14 I w i ll ta k e c a re th a t y ou sh a ll n ot be troubled
. .

by hi m a g a i n 15 T h a tth e D uk e of W elli n g ton sh ould c ord i a lly a pprove

. .

i s si n g ula r en oug h 16 B oy s, i n terrupted W i ld er,

. i t i s n ow proper
.
!

th a t y ou sh ould k n ow som ethi ng of m y f uture m ovem ents ! — C E . OOP R .

1 7 W e a ll stood rea dy to suc c or th em i f th ere sh ould be oc c a si on

. .

DE EOE 1 8 Y ou a re so w ell qua li fi ed f or th e ta sk y ourself th a t i t i s

. .

i m possi ble y ou sh ould n eed a ny a ssi sta n c e ; a t lea st, i t i s h a rdly possi ble
tha t I should a fford y ou a ny C OWPE R 1 9 T h e bra ve sufferer refused . . .

to purc h a se li berty , th oug h liberty to hi m w ould h a ve been lif e, by rec og

ni z ing th e a uthori ty w hi c h h a d c on fi n ed hi m . 20 I. m ea n t th a t h e sh ould
w a lk ofi ,
but h e di d n ot c h oose to un d ersta n d m e . 21 . W hen ti m e sh a ll
serve, y ou Sh a ll h a ve th e frui t of m y la bors . C OWP E R .

22 I sh a llbe so g la d if y ou w i ll tellm e w
. h a t to rea d . G ORGE E EL IO T .

23 . I protest a g a i n st suc h a c om ba t, until th e ki n g of E n g la n d sh a ll h a ve

repa id th e fi f ty th ousa nd be z a nts . S CO T T . 24 . Unless som ethi ng sh ould

I fl a tter m yself th a t th e perf orm a n c e w ill eli c i t y our g en erous

‘

g o w ron g ,

a pproba ti on 25 A sea t i n th e c a bi n et w a s
. . offered to hi m , on c on d i ti on

th a t h e w ould g i ve effic i en t support to th e m i ni stry i n P a rli a m ent . 26 T he

.

pro osi ti on w hi c h h e m a de w a s, th a t F ox sh ould be S ec reta ry of Sta te .

T h a t ni g ht h e put f orth a proc la m a ti on , di rec ti n g th a t th e posts .

sh ould be stopped , a n d th a t n o person sh ould, a t hi s peri l, venture to

h a rbor th e a c c used m em bers — M A A L A 28 Hy d e i nterf ered , a nd . C U Y . .

r
p p o ose d t h a t th e q u esti on sh ould be di vi d ed 29 I a m sorry th a t y ou . .

sh ould be both ered i n thi s w a y . 30 I . a m sorry th a t M urra y should

g roa n on m y a c c oun t — B YRON . 31 . T h ere a re old bra ss a n d i ron s, w a it

i n g un ti l ti m e sh a ll reven g e th em th ei r pa ltry substi tutes 32 Sh ould on . .

h e be a c qui tted , th a t, I i m a g i n e, sh ould en d th e m a tter 33 A rum or w a s . .

c i rc ula ted th a t som e n ew pa g ea nt w a s a boutto be e hibi ted , w hi c h sh ould x

put a fi tti n g c lose 34 I f thi s new purpose of
to th e splen d i d f esti vi ti es . .

c on qu est sh a ll be a ba n d on ed , R i c h a rd m a y y et bec om e K i ng of Jerusa lem

by c om pa c t S CO T T 35 S a la di n d esi res n o c onverts sa ve th ose w h om

. . .

th e h oly proph et sh a lldi spose to subm i t th em selves to his la w 3 6 P ri d e

’
. .

n ow c a m e to M on te um a s a i d , a n d , si n c e h e m ust g o, h e pref erred th a t

z
i t sh ould a ppea r to be w i th h i s ow n f ree w ill . 37 . God forbid tha t I
sh ould reg ret th ose g if ts
 E X E R CIS E S

X
E E RCI S E 40

—
309 323 ,
—
pp 1 2 1 3 7)
. 3
1 . c h i/n fin it iv e a n d ex pla in its c on str
P oi n t out ea on a s

n oun a s c om pl mefi fi ry i n fi n i t i v e a s i n fin i t i ve of u r ose a s

, g p p , ,

m od ifi er of a n oun or a n a dj ect i ve or a s pa rt of a v erb phra se ,

-

( w i t h a n a ux i lia ry
) .

2 P oi n t out a n y m odi fi ers or obj ect s of in fi n iti ves

. .

1 . To a d va n c e tow a rd L on d on w ould h a ve been m a d n ess . 2 . T o tra c e

th e e xa c t boun d a ry betw een rig htful a n d w rong ful resista n c e is i m possi
ble . MA C A U L A Y 3 I w a s too y oung to k eep a n y j ourn a l of thi s voya g e
. . .

4 . T h e ba ron h a sten ed to rec ei ve hi s f uture son- i n- la w . 5 . It w a s h er

h a bi t to g o over to th e d ea n ery 6 He c ould n ot c on sen t to turn .

hi s ba c k upon a pa rty of h elpless tra vellers 7 T h e fi ed purpose of . . x

th ese m en w as to brea k th e f orei g n y ok e 8 . . Here ri se n o c li ffs th e va le
to sh a d e . 9 . T h ey sa w th e g lea m i n g ri ver sea w a rd fl ow 1 0 Sh e
.

perc eived on e of th e ey es of th e portra i t m ove 1 1 Hi s fi rst sc h em e w a s . .

to sei e B ri stol z
1 2 T h e fi rst busi n ess of th e C om m on s w a s to elec t a
. . ,

Spea k er . 13 . T he old m a n f req uently stretc h ed h i s ey es a h ea d to g a e z

over th e tra t h e h a d y et to tra verse
c t th a 14 . . W h en oth er thing s sa nk
broodi ng to sleep, th e h ea th a ppea red slow ly to
“
a w a ke a nd ; li sten .

“
HA RDY . 15 .
All w ere a n xi ous to h ea r th e
th e m y steri ous pi c story of

16 . I see th e li g hts of th e villa g e g lea m th roug h th e ra i n a n d th e

17 . T h en th e bi sh op rose f rom hi s c h a i r to pea k S .

T o d ism i ss h im from hi s hi g h post w a s to em a n c i pa te hi m from a ll

in t 1 9 T his i s n ot a ti m e to h esita te 20 B urg h ers h a sten ed to
’
. . . .

M an th e w a ll . 21 . I f elt L e li esh s a nd trem ble on m y 2

a rm2 He . .

h ea rd a ig hty bow stri ng tw a ng — M

m 23 M r ORRIS . . . R a lph Ni c k leby
sa t in hi s pri va te offi c e on e m orn i ng , rea dy d ressed to w a lk a broa d . 24 . I
put d ow n th e letters,
a n d beg a n to m use over th ei r c on tents . 25 . W a ves
of c lea r sea a re, i n d eed , lovely to w a tc h . 26 . Ha lif a x h a d n ow n othi ng

to g i ve 27 . . T he nei g hborh ood seem ed to brea th e a tra n quil prosperi ty .

28 I t i s a lw
. a ys peri lous to a x
d opt e pedi en c y a s a g ui d e . 29 . Soldi ers
w ere d ra w n up to k eep th e pa ssa g e c lea r .

Write sen t en c es c onta i n in g a n i n fi n it i v e used a s su bj ect ,

a s

i c a te n om i n a t i ve, ti ve a s the obj ect of a preposi

a s a pposi ,

a s a n a d j ect i v e ; a c om plem en t a ry i n fin i t i v e ; a n in fi n i ti v e

a n i n fi n i t i v e u sed w i t h s h a ll w ith w i ll wi t h m u s t , ,
.

a ny m od i fiers or obj ect s t ha t y ou ha ve u sed wi th

the i n fi n iti ves .

 E XE RC IS E S

EX ERCISE 42
—
329 3 43 , pp 1 40 1 43)
-
.

1 . P oi n t out a ll the pa rti c iples, presen t a n d pa st, a n d t ell

w ha b st a t su n t i v e ea ch m od ifi es Men t ion such a s a re used a s .

pu re a dj ect i v es M en ti on a n
y m odi fi ers
. f pa rt i c iples .

1 . T h e sh ip i s a n c h ored sa fe a n /d sounfi fi s a nd d on e .

WHI M AN . E ven th e tig h t

2 . w i n d ow s a nd k en c urta i n s

d ra h c lose c ould n ot shut ou et . 3 . od ol G

h i n w a s n ot a rea d ing m a n ver a fter hi m,
p .

elbow ed h i s w ay th r oug h th e thi c k est of th e c row d 5 B etr a y ed ,

d e . .

serted , di sorg a z
n i ed , unprovi d ed w i th resourc es, beg i rt w i th en em i es, th e

n oble c i ty w a s still n o ea sy c on quest . 6 . T hus reg retted a n d c a uti on ed

on a ll h a n d s, Mord a un t took lea ve of th e hospi ta blei i ouseh old

7 Fa r . .

a w a y , a n a n g ry w hi te sta i n un dy Q t i g
n o n th e su rf a c e of ste ely g ra y
-

f
w a ters, Sho t w i th g lea m s of g reen , di m i n i sh ed sw i ftly , w i th out a hi ss,
'
'
-

li e
k a p a tc h o f p ur e sn ow m elti n g i n th e s un — C ONR A D 8 I s et h er . . .

on m y pa c i n g steed KE AT S . .

9 B ut th e poo r tra veller pa used h ere ba rely f or a m i nute, a n d th en

.

w ent on , stum bli ng th roug h th e m ud , strik i ng h i s i ll c overed f eet a g a i n st -

th e roug h ston es i n th e d a rk , sw ea ti n g i n hi s w ea k n ess, a lm ost totteri ng

a t ti m es, a nd p a lc ula ting w h eth er hi s rem a i n i ng streng th w ould serv e to

c a rry h im h om e . T RO L L OPE . 1 0 Hi s teeth
. a re set, hi s h a n d i s c len c h ed .

11 . Pa ssi ng throug h th e ra vi n e, th ey c a m eJ m a h ollow ,

lik e a sm a ll
a m ph i th ea tre . 12 W h § rg hhe
€h 0 to d ec
ay
— th e roof f a llen

i n, th e w i n d ow s sh a ttered , a n d th e d obrs off th e h i n g es 13 And n ow

/
. .
,

si r, w h en y ou n e t g x
o to th e B ri ti sh M u seum ,
look f or a poet n a m ed
V a ug h a n . 14 . A h ea vy sea stru c k us on our sta rboa rd qua rter, a lm ost
throw i ng us on our bea m -
en d s . 15 . He stood c hu c k li ng a n d rubbi ng hi s
h a n d s, a n d sc a rc ely
h ea ri ng a w ord th e pa rson sa i d 1 6 T h e lig ht . .

strug g les d i m ly th roug h w i n d ow s d a rk en ed by d ust 1 7 W e sa iled . .

m erri ly f orw a rd f or severa l d a ys, m eeti ng w i th n othi ng to i n terrupt us .

“
2 . Write c on ta i n i n g the pa st pa rti c iples of six
sen en es t c
wea k v erbs ; of six stron g v erb s
W rite sen ten ces c on ta i n i n g a pa rt i c iple u sed a s a pure
ti ve ; a pa rti c i ple u sed a s a predi c a t e a dj ecti ve ; a pa rti
rt i c i ple t
’
c i ple m odi fi ed a d v erb i a lly ; a k i bj ct
'

p a a n g a n o e .

4 W rite ten sen t en c es ea c h c ont a in i n g a perfect pa rt i ciple

. .

S ubsti tute for ea ch a cla use in troduced by w hen .

 W e
P AR T I C IP IAL NO U NS

E XERCIS E 43

1 44)

E x pla in a ll ex a m ples of the n om i n bsolute Sub sti tu te

‘

/
M
.

a m odi fy i n g c la use i n ea c h sen ten c e lv

-
W
m
.

1 A by h a lf a d z en h orses, c a mefi rivi n g a t a furi ous

rria n

z
. ca

ra te, thhf poshi li on s sm a c ki ng th ei r h ips li k e m a d 2 A S f a r a s th e ey e

y
. .

c ould ré a c h , th e sea i n ev ery d i rec ti on w a s of a deep blue c olor, th e

un n i n h ig h a nd f resh , a n d spa rk l
ing i n th e li g ht 3 F or
!

w a ves . . som e

y ea rs pa st th ere h a d been a diffi c ulty a bbut the rent, th i ng s n ot ha vi n

g
W
r

g on e a t th e D ra g on of th ey h a d used to g o 4l a n tly a s sm oothly a s .

/
beg a n to ta lk ra pid y , a ll d i ffi d en c e subdued 5 Noon c om i ng , a n th e
j
D oc tor n otYeturn i n g , M r L orry a d vi sed w i th Luc i e 6 T h esec on d m a te .
. .

. .

l
f a lli n g i ll d ui i n g th e pa ssa e, I rom oted to ofli c er of th e tc h
g w a s p w a .
'

T h e dog n ow roused hi m sélf a pg

l

n d sa t on hi s h a un c h es, h i s ea rs ovi
p
q ui c k ly ba c k w a rd a nd f orw a rd . 8 . T his d on e, M a z eppa sprea d hi s
c loa k 9 Sh e w a s sea ted a lon g h er a rm s on th e ta ble, h er h a d ben t
. .
,
’ q
d ow n . 10 T h ere bei n g
. som e ti m e u pon hi s h a n d s, h e left hi s lug g a g e a t
th e c loa k -
roo m a nd ,
w en t o n fb ot, a long B edf drd S treet to th e c hurc h .

IS E 44
—
pp 1 45 1 4 7
.
)
1 . P oin t out th e presen t pa r ti ci ples ,
a nd a lso the v er

n oun s i n i ng (pa rti c i pi a l n oun s)

-
. S how th e differen c e .

'

t i on a n y m odifi ers or c om plem en t s used w i th ei ther

1 . T he c on stern a ti on w a s e xtrem e . S om e w ere f or elosm N
I T
;
g t
a n d resi sti n g ; som e f or subm i tti n g ; som e f or tem pb ri z m g . 2
of stra n g ec h
g ra y h ea d 3 T h e w i c k e
.t pen ed on a ston
. e sta i rc a s e lea d i n g upw a rd O .

4 W a tc h i n g a n d toil w ere to me plea sure, f or m y bOdy w a s stron g , a n d

.

m y spi ri ts w i n g ed . T h e li n g eri ng s of d ec en t pri d e w ere vi si ble i n h er

5 .

a ppea ra n c e . 6 . H i s d eep ba ss voi c e h a d a qua veri ng i n i t, h i s ey es look ed

di m ,
a nd th e li n es on hi s f a cew ere d eep 7 T h ere w ere severa l F ren c h
. .

pri v a teers h overi ng on th e c oa st . 8 . He d oes n ot lik e ta lk i ng of th ese

m a tters to stra n g ers . 9 . M i ss M a tty c a red m u c h m ore f or the c i rc um
sta n c e of h er bei ng ood d l y er 1 0 Hi s d i sc ourse
’telli
a very g c a r -
p a . . w as

brok en by h i s m a n s
o ff n g h i m h e h a d c a lled a c oa c h 1 1 Sw a llo w s . .

a n d m a rten s sk i m m ed tw i tteri n g a bout th e ea ves 12 I ha ve loved ,

’
. .

li ved w i th , a n d left th e sea w i thout ever seei n g a shi p s ta ll f a bri c of

sti c k s, c obw ebs, a nd g ossa m er g o by the boa rd . C ONRA D
2 70 E X E R CIS E S

13 . T h e se ton x w a s a m eek , a c qui esc i ng li ttle m . a n , of a bow i ng , low ly

h a bi t y et h e ha d
pl e a
a sa n t tw i n kl i n g i n h i s ey e . 14 . T h e ra i n a lw a ys
m a de a poi n t of setti n g i n u st a s h e h a d sj
om e outd oor w ork to d o .

15 I h a ve been em ploy ed th i s m orn i ng i n c om posi ng a L a ti n m otto f or

’
.

th e k i ng s c loc k 1 6 T w o m ore of th e boa ts w ere lost by bei ng stove

. .

a n d sw a m ped a lon g si d e . 17 . I h ea rd th e ri pple w a shi n

g i n th e reed s .

18 A fter a n d eri ng th roug h tw o th ree I f oun d m y w a y to

streets,
’
or
’
. w

Sha k s pe e b
ri s rth pla c e . 19 . R ip h e
s a rt d i ed a w a y a t h ea ri n
g of th ese
sa d c h a n g es i n hi s hom e a nd f ri en d s . 20 T h e fi sh d i d n ot bi te f reely ,
.

a nd w e f requ en tly
fi shi ng g roun d w i th out betteri ng our
c h a ng ed our

luc k 21 L a d y Ni ton sa t blink i ng a n d speec hless

. . 22 I c a nn ot h elp . .

hea ri ng thi ng s, a n d rea d i n g thi n g s, a n d observi ng thi n g s, a n d th ey fi ll

m e w i th d i sq ui etud e . 23 . Here w a s c i rc um sta n c e a f ter c i rc um sta nc e

goa di n g m 24 I sa t sta ri n g a t a book of m y ow n m a k ing

e on w a rd . .

25 . T h a t th oug ht a c tu a lly d rove out of m y h ea d th e m ore pressi ng d a ng er .

2 . Wri t e t
sen en es c in w hi c h ( )
1 a v er a b l n ou n a n d
( )
2 a

p resen t pa r ti c i ple a re form ed from

run , h un t, lea p, sw i m , strik e, fi nd , spea k, S ing Shout , ,

l
p y,
a sk a te,
blow ,
spen d , li sten , ea t, m ove, tra n sla te, rec i te, m urm ur, w hi sper, rea d ,
ta lk , c om pla i n , pa i nt, bui ld , ive, brea th e, tea c h , fl ow sh in e
g , .

3W hen ever it i s possi ble sub st itute either a n oun or a n

.
,

i n fi n i t i v e for ea c h v erb a l n oun in y ou r sen t en c es .

4 S elect t hree of these v erba l n ou n s a n d wri t e other sen

.
,
'

t en oes i n whi ch ea ch i s used ( 1 ) a s a subj ec t (2) w ith a direct ,

a n d a n i n d i re ct obj ec t ( 3 ) with a n a dj ec ti ve m odifi er (4) with

, ,

a n a d verbi a l m od ifi er .

E XERCISE 45

—
4 — 4
3 5 4 3 71 , pp 1 8 .1 5 )
1 . P oi n t out a n d th e preposi t i on s a n d c on j un cti on s
pa rse .

obj ect , a n d 2 the w ord

I n pa rsi n g a re osi t i on , t ell 1
p p ( ) th e
( )
to whi c h the preposi t i on sh ow s the rela t i on of th e o bj ect .

I n pa rsi n g a c on j un cti on , i n di c a t e th e w ord s or g rou s of

p
w ord s whi ch i t c on n ect s t ell whether ,
it i s c oOrd i n a te or sub

ord i n a t e a n d m en t i on i ts c orrela t i v e
,
3 69 ) i f it ha s one .
 72 E X E R C IS E S

EXERCIS E 4 6

— —
3 72 3 75 , pp . 1 55 1 56)

P oin t out a ll i n terj ect i on s,

ther pa rt s of speech used a ll o

here in ex cla m a t i on a n d a ll ex cla m a t ory phra ses ,

.

1 R i ng th e a l
. a rum bell Murd er a n d trea son S H A KSPE R E 2 Ki p
-
. .

li ng i s by f a r th e m ost prom i si ng y oung m a n w h o h a s a ppea red si n c e

a h em — I a ppea red ST E V E NSON 3 O , to be i n E ng la n d
. 4 C our . . .

a g e h e sa id , a n d poi nted tow a rd th e la n d —T E NN Y S 0N 5 Ah m y . . .

lord Arthur, w hi th er ll I g o
sh a 6 . A la s f or
y m c red ulous fa ncy !
7 T ut, m a n w
. e m ust ta k e thi ng s a s th ey c om e 8 0 d a y , th e la st of
. .

a ll m y bli ss on ea rth — MA R L OW E . 9 A di eu, f a i r C a d i z y ea , a lon g

.

a di eu —B YR 0N . 1 0 P ea c e,
. si ster, pea c e ! 1 1 F i e,
fi e ,
m y b roth
. er !
12 . How n ow ,
T h ersites h a t, lost i n th e la by ri n th of th y fury
w

13 . F a rew ell for th e presen t, m y d ea r si r 1 4 O Jupiter ! h ow w ea ry . .

a re m spi ri ts S H A KSP E R E 15 l d u i lGuilty

t ! I nf e my
’
y .
,
o r , g
.
y c o ss ,

I c onf ess ! 16 . Hen c e, y ou l o n g legg d sp i nn ers

-
,
h en c e ! 1 7 0 m o n .

strouS ! O stra ng e ! w e a re h a unted ! 1 8 Fa i th , h e i s g on e unto th e .

ta m i n g sc h ool . 19 . B ut, sof t w h om h a ve w e h ere

20 A T ory !
. a T ory a spy a refug ee h ustle hi m y w i th h i m !
aw a

21 . W ha t
th i s g en tlem a n w ill outta lk uS a ll 22 Up, up, Glen ta rk i n
. .

rouse th ee, h o S oo rr ' '

. 23 . An d n ow g ood b e
y , m y d e
-
a r f ellow .

24 . Ah em y ou rem em ber, f ri en d Gra n d trium phs those ,

eh

E XERCIS E 47
— —
3 76 3 9 2 , pp 1 5 7 1 62) .

1 . Con stru ct ten whi ch the sim ple subj ect (n oun
sen en est c in
or pron oun
) i s m odi fi ed a n a dj ect i v e c la u se ; ten i n whi c h by
the sim ple predi c a te i s m odi fi ed by a n a d v erbia l cla use .

2 T ell the c on struct i on (a s subj ec t predi ca t e n om in a ti ve

.
, ,

obj ect etc

) of ea c h n oun cla use i n
,
. 3 9 2 M en t i on the si m ple .

su bj ect a n d pred i c a t e of ea ch cla u se .

E XERCISE 48
— —
39 5 402 , pp 1 63 1 65 ) .

1 whether ea ch of the sub ord i n a t e cla uses ex presses

. T ell
la c e t i m e c a u se or c on c essi on I s the c la use a dj ect i ve or a d
p , , ,
.

verbia l 9 Wha t in troduc es it ? Wha t does it m odify ?

.
 CLAU SE S or P LACE , T IME , E T C . 2 73

1 T houg h often m isled by pre udi c e a n d pa ssi on , h e w a s em pha ti c a lly

. j
a n hon est m a n 2 W h en a pri son er fi rst lea ves hi s c ell, h e c a nn ot bea r
. .

th e lig ht of d a y 3 A S I w a lk ed th roug h th e w ild ern ess of thi s w orld ,

. .

— B NYA N U
,

i l
I li g hted on a c erta n p a c w h d 4 He post
‘

e ere w a s a en . . .

pon ed hi s fi na l d ec i si on till a fter th e P a rli a m ent sh ould ha ve rea s sem bled .

5 T h ey g a ve a d i sm a l c roa k or tw o, a n d h opped a si d e i nto th e d a rk est

.

S
c orn er, i n c e i t w a s n ot y et th ei r h our to fl a p d uskily a broa d 6 C a lm ly .
,
.

a n d sa dly sh e w a i ted , un ti l th e proc essi on a pproa c h ed h er . 7 . Ha lf th e

ta sk w a s n ot 8 How ever I m i g ht be
d one w h en th e sun w en t d ow n . .

di sposed to trust h i s probity , I d a re n ot trust hi s pre udi c es 9 After j . .

a li ttle m ore c on versa ti on w e strolled to th e sta ble, w h ere m y h orse w a s

sta n di ng 1 0 A s w e a pproa c h ed th e h ouse, w e h ea rd th e soun d of m usi c ,

. .

a n d n ow a nd th en a burst of la ug h ter . 11 . Hi s f a c e w a s n ot c ruel, th oug h

it w a s d espera te .

12 . We g a a i n set out for th e hut, a t w hi c h w e d eposi ted our

g old en
burd ens . 13 I tw i ll be m i d ni g ht bef ore w e a
. rri ve a t our i nn . 1 4 T h oug h
.

I w a s n ot pa rti c ula rly w ell suppli ed w i th m oney , I h a d en oug h f or th e

e xpen ses of m y j ourn ey . 15 T h e d a y , th oug h i t beg a n brig htly , h a d
.

long been overc a st . 16 . AS th ere w ere n o m en i n th e c om pa n y , th e g i rls

d a n c ed w i th ea c h oth er . 17 . A lth oug h w i th out f ea r, I d i d n ot n eg lec t
to use ll proper prec a uti on s
a . 1 8 W h en I return , I sh a ll fi n d thi ng s
.

settled 1 9 C li fi ord , a s th e c om pa n y pa rtook of th ei r li ttle ba n quet,

. .

g rew to be th e a
g y est o f th em a ll 2 0 T h e m ill w h ere W ill li ved w i th . .

hi s d opted pa rentS Stood i n a f a lli n g va lley betw een pi n ew oods a n d g rea t

‘
'

m oun ta i ns 21 A S I c h a bod a pproa c h ed th i s f ea rful tree, h e beg a n to

. .

w hi stle 22 Inf ec ted .b e th e a i r w h

. ereon th ey ri d e l— S A E E H KSP R .

23 S o th ey w ere f orc ed to g o, bec a use h e w a s stron g er th a n th ey

. .

24 Si n c e y ou w ill n ot h elp m e, I m ust trust to m y self

. 25 W h en . .

th ey beh eld h i s f a c e, th ey rec og n i z ed B a si l th e bla c k sm i th 26 T h i s i s . .

th e thi rd d a y si n c e w e c a m e to R om e 27 A m sterd a m w a s th e pla c e . .

w h ere th e lea d i n g S c otc h a n d E n g li sh a ssem bled 28 T h ese c onsi d era . .

ti on s m i g ht w ellh a v e m a d e W i lli a m unea sy , even i f a llth e m ili ta ry m ea n s

of th e Uni ted P rovi n c es h a d been a t hi s a bsolute d i sposa l . A lth oug h
29 .

th e bree e h a d n ow z utterly c ea sed , w e ha d m a de a g rea t d ea l of w a y

duri n g th e ni g ht .

2 . Illustra te cla uses of pla ce tim e ca use

, , ,
a nd c on cessi on by ,

c on stru ctin g twen ty sen ten ces fi v e for ea c h ,

.

3 Tell w hether the cla u ses a re a dj ecti ve or a d v erbi a l Wh a t

. .

d oes ea ch m od i fy
4 See i f y ou ca n repla c e y our c la u ses of ti m e by pa rt i c iples
.

or a d verbi a l h ra ses
p .
2 74 E XE R CIS E S

X
E ERCISE 49

403 —4 1 —
0, pp . 166 16 7)

1 . P oin t out the cla u ses of u

p pr ose a n d those of resul t .

1 . T he w ea th er w a s so ba d I c ould n ot em ba rk th a t ni g ht 2 She . .

open ed th e c a sem en t th a t th e c ool i r m ig h t blow upon

a h er throbbi ng
tem ples 3 S O i n tent w
. . ere th e serva n ts upon th ei r sports, th a t w e h a d
to ri ng repea tedly bef ore w e c ould m a k e ourselves h ea rd 4 T h e c on . .
.

sequen c e w a s th a t, a c c ord i n g to th e rules of th e House, th e a m end m ent

lost 5 T h eref ore I a m oi ng thi s I told y ou , th a t I m a y

’f
w as . .
g w a y, a s

be ri d of my burd en . 6 . T ess s ri en d s li ved so f a r off th a t n on e c ould

c onveni en tly h a ve been presen t a t th e c erem ony . 7 . Som eti m es I w a s

a f ra S
i d lest I h ould be c h a rg ed i th i ng ra titud e 8 a n
w . . T h ere i s suc h
-

ec h o a m on g th e old rui n s a n d va ults th a t, i f y ou sta m p but a li ttle loud er

th a n ordi n a ry , y ou h ea r th e soun d repea ted A DDISON 9 T h ey durst . . .

n ot Spea k
i th out prem ed i ta ti on , lest th ey sh ould be c on vi c ted of d i s
w

c on ten t or sorrow 1 0 My purpose w a s, to a d m i t n o testim on y of li v

. .

i ng a uth ors, th a t I m i g h t n ot be m i sled by pa rti a lity , a n d th a t n on e of

m c on tem i m ig ht h a ve l i — J to c om OHNSON 11 It
’
y pora r es p a rea son
n . . .

i s K i ng Ri c h a r d s plea sure th a t y ou d i e un d eg ra d ed .

2 . W rite fi ve sen t en ces c on ta in i n g

“ ea ch a cla u se of u
p pr os e ;
''
of resul t ; a ri in fin it i ve cla u se ex pressin g ur ose
p p .

3 Wri te ten sen t en c es in whi c h the

. in fi n i ti ve ( w i thout a

subj ect
) ex presses purpose .

4 R ev i ew E x erci se 4 0
. .

X
E ERCIS E 5 0

—4 —
41 1 27, pp 1 6 7 1 72)
.

1 . c on diti on a l cla uses in

T ell w hether the the follow in g sen

ten oes a re n on c om m i tta l or c on tra ry to fa c t

-
,
a nd whether t hey
represen t resen t t or future c on d i t i on
p pa s , ,
.

1 . Sh ould Ha y ley be w i th y ou, tell h im I h a ve g iven m y f ri en d

Mr . R ose a n i n trod uc tory letter to hi m 2 I f th e udg m ent a g a i n st . . j
h im w a s i lleg a l, i t oug ht to h a ve been reversed I f i t w a s leg a l, th ere .

w a s no g roun d f or rem i tti ng a ny pa rt of it . 3 . I f I ever sa w h orror i n

th e h um a n f a c e, i t w a s th ere . 4 . Hi s a fi li c ti on w ould h a ve been i n support
a ble, h a d n ot h e been f orted by th e d a ily
c om vi si ts a n d c on versa ti on s of

his f ri en d . 5 . W e peri sh i f th ey h ea r a shot . S CO TT . 6 . C a n Freed om

2 76 E XE RC IS E S

f oun d i t to th e m ysteri ous f ounta i ns of th e Nile

rea c h 5 I w i ll bec om e . .

a s li bera l a s y ou 6 T h e trium ph w a s a s d estru c ti ve to th e vi c tori ous a s

. .

to th e va n qui shed 7 T h e publi c c ond uc t of Mi lton m ust be a pproved

. .

or c on d em n ed , a c c ord i ng a s th e resi sta n c e of th e people to C h a rles th e

Fi rst sh a ll a ppea r to be ustifi j a ble or c ri m in a l . 8 . T h ere w a s n o on e in
a ll Cla veri ng w ho rea d so m a ny n ovels a s Ma d a m e F ri bsby . 9 . No ki nd
of pow er i s m ore f orm id a ble tha n th e pow er of m a k i ng m en ri di c ulous .

MA C A U L A Y .

10 T h e lea d er of th e orc h estra

. w a s sa w i ng a w a y a t hi s vi olin a s sa v
ag ely a s if h e w ere c a lling on hi s c om a
p yn to rush up a n d sei e a z ba ttery
f
o g un s — B L A CK 1 1 He sh outs a s if he w ere try i n g hi s voi c e a g a i nst
. . .

a n orthw est g a le of w i n d 1 2 T h e pla y g roun d seem ed sm a ller tha n . .

w h en I used to Sport a bout i t 1 3 T h e blood i n m e ra n c old , a n d I d rew . .

i n m y brea th a s if I h a d been struc k . 14 . T h ere a re f ew thi ng s m ore

\
f orm id a ble th a n th e unw onted a ng er of g a ood- n a tured m a n . MI L L E R .

1 5 Nor w a s L oc h i el less d i sti ng uish ed by i n tellec tua l tha n by bodi ly

.

vig or 1 6 He Show ed less w i sd om th a n vi rtue

. . 1 7 He w a s a s c our . .

a g eous a n a n i m a l a s ever sc oured th e w ood s 1 8 A S fi erc e a bea k a nd . .

ta lon a s ever stru c k — a s strong a w i n g a s ever bea t, belong ed to Sw ift .

TH A CK E R A Y
’
.

1 9 Hom er s d esc ripti on of w

. a r ha d a s m uc h truth a s poetry requi res .

M A C A U L AY 20 O f a ll th e . . Obj ec ts I h a ve ever seen , th ere is n on e

w h i c h a fi ec ts m y i m a g i n a ti on so m uc h a s th e sea .
—A DDISON . 21 . Som e;
body m ust g o f
m urm ured Mrs Hea th c li ff, m ore kin dly th a n I expec ted
!
. .

22 W e d o n ot SO Often d isa ppoi n t oth ers a s ourselves — JOHNSON

. . .

23 T h e ba ttle ra g ed a s fi erc ely on th e la k e a s on th e la n d

. 24 T he . .

y oun g m a n look ed d ow n o n m e f rom th e c orn er of hi s e es

y , f or a ll th e
w orld a s i f th ere w ere som e m orta l f eud un a ven g ed betw een us .

E B RON T E
. .

2 . Writ e ten sen t en c es c on ta i n i n g a s if wi th a subj un cti ve

3 . In sert person a l pron oun s of the fi rst or thi rd person .

You a re m u c h strong er th a n
Your a ng er hurts y ourself m ore th a n it hurts
Y ou a re n ot so studi ous a s

He w a s qui te a s m u c h to bla m e a s

I bla m em y self ra th er th a n
Y ou sh ould th er bla m e y ourself th a n
ra

How m uc h old er a re y ou th a n
I S Ja c k m ore a m bi ti ous th a n
D O y ou w i sh to plea se y ourself m ore th a n
Y our c on duc t w a s less c ensura ble th a n
 IND IRE C T D IS CO U R S E 77

X
E ERCIS E 5 2

— —
430 43 6, pp 1 73 1 76) .

1 . Cha n g e th e di rect s a t t em en ts to i n d i rect d i sc ourse, prefi x

m g H e s a id . Thu s,
Supper w a s a n n oun c ed sh ortly a fter m y a rri va l .

He sa i d th a t supper w a s a n n oun c ed S h ortly a f ter h i s a rri va l.

Be ca reful to m a k e the proper c h a n g es i n person a nd t en se .

Supper w a s a nn oun c ed sh ortly a fter m y a rri va l 2 Mi sery loves

1 . . .

c om pa n y 3 I ron fl oa ts i n m erc ury

. . 4 T h e g ri m e a n d sordi d n ess of . .

th e House of th e S even G a bles seem to h a ve va ni sh ed 5 Nothi ng i s to . .

be seen 6 S tra w s Sh ow w hi c h w a y th e w i n d blow s

. . 7 I rem a i n ed . .

un d ec i d ed w h eth er or n ot to f ollow m y serva n t 8 R est of m i n d a n d . .

body seem s to h a ve reesta bli sh ed m y h ea lth 9 T h e f orti fi c a ti ons c onsi st . .

of a Sim ple w a ll overg row n w i th g ra ss a n d w eed s 1 0 Fi re i s a g ood serv

. .

a nt but a ba d m a ster . 11 . Not a c h eer w a s h ea rd n ot a m em b er ven

tured to sec on d th e m oti on . 12 T he m
. ost ri g id di sc i pli n e i s m a i n ta i n ed .

13 . W ithout our c on sent ,

su c h a n e xpediti on c a nn ot leg a lly be un d erta k en .

14 . T h e new spa pers w i ll h a ppily sa v e m e th e trouble of rela ti n g m i nute

pa rti c ula rs .

15 T h e ri n g i n g of
t a n en d ; th e rum bli ng of th e c a rri a g es
bells i s a
-

h a s c ea sed ; th e pa tteri n g of f eet i s h ea rd n o m ore 1 6 My m i n d h a s . .

been m u c h di sturbed , a n d too a g i ta ted f or c on versa ti on 1 7 W hi le a ll . .

thi s i s ta ki n g pla c e w i th i n th e T ow ers, va st bod i es of people a re a ssem

bli n g w i th out 1 8 T h e spelli n g a n d h a n dw ri ti n g a re th ose of a m a n
. .

i m perf ec tly ed u c a ted 1 9 I h a ve a n un c on qu era ble repug n a n c e to return

. .

to m y c h a m ber 20 I lik e to see a m a n k n ow h i s ow n m i n d

. . .

2 . Ch a n g e i n t o a d irect t tem en t ea ch cla use t ha t i s in th e

s a

i n di rect d i sc ourse . Men t i on the c on stru cti on of the cla u se (a s

su bj ect ,
bj ect
o ,

T h e boom i n g of a g un told th em th a t th e la st y a c ht h a d roun d ed

1 .

th e li g h tshi p 2 All of a sudd en sh e th oug h t sh e h ea rd som ethi ng m ove

. .

behi n d h er . 3 . T h oug h th ey spok e F ren c h fluently ,

I per c ei v ed th a t i t
w a s n ot th ei r n a ti ve la n g u a g e 4 I soon . . f oun d th a t, i n m a kin g th e
a c qua i nta n c e of th e y oun g m a n , I h a d i n d eed m a d e a v a lua ble a c qui si
l j
ti on 5 I th a n k ed him , but sa i d th a t D r Johnson h a d c om e w i th m e
. . .

f rom L on d on , a nd I m ust retu rn to th e i n n a nd d ri n k tea w i th hi m th a t

my na m e w a s B osw ell, a nd I h a d tra v elled w i th hi m i n th e Hebri d es .

6 I di sc overed th a t h e
. w a s w on d erf ully f on d of i n terf eri n g w i th other
2 78 E XE R C IS E S

e
p ple
’
obu i s I ha d h ea rd th a t h e h a d been unh a ppy , th a t h e
s n ess . 7 .

h a d roa m ed a bout, a f evered , d i stem pered m a n , ta k i n g plea sure i n n oth

i ng 8 I h a d observed th a t th e O ld w om a n f or som e ti m e pa st h a d
. .

sh ow n m uc h less a n x i ety a bout th e book 9 I lea rn ed tha t ti m es h a d . .

g o n e h a rd w i th h er 1 0 I perc ei ved th a t.th e O b ec t

.s w h i c h h a d ex c i ted j
m y c uri osi ty w ere n ot trees, but i m m en se upri g ht ston es .

11 . leg a lly prom i se w h a t h e c a nn ot leg a lly perf orm

T ha t no m a n ca n

i s a self evi d en t proposi ti on — MA CKIN T OSH

-
1 2 T h a t th ere a re som e
. . .

d uti es superi or to oth ers w ill be d en i ed by n o on e 1 3 I t c a n h a rdly be . .

O
d oubted th a t th e hig h est bli g a ti on of a c i ti en i s th a t of c on tributi ng to
'

z
pr ese rv e th e c om m un i ty 14 R epor ts h a d been br.ou g h t ba c.k th a t si x

Ch ri sti a n s w ere li ng eri ng i n c a ptivi ty i n th e i nteri or of th e c ountry .

15 .I f i t be tru e th a t, by g i vi ng our c on fi d en c e by h a lves, w e c a n sc a rc ely

h ope to m a k e a f ri en d , i t i s equa lly true th a t, by w i thd ra w i ng i t w h en
g i ven ,
w e sh a ll m a k e a n e n em y
— P E T T 1 6 H e c on c lud ed. w i thR SCO . .

th e a ssura n c e th a t th e w h ole fl eet w ould sa il on th e f ollow i ng d a y .

17 . P en protested th a t h e h a d n ot c h a n g ed i n th e lea st .

3 . W rit e fi t c i n whi ch
ve sen en es in di rect di sc ourse i s ex

p ressed by a n i n fin i t i v e c la u se

E XERCIS E 53

43 6 , p 1 76)
.

1 . Cha n g e ea c h of the sen en tc es quot ed a t the en d of 4 3 6

in t o on e of th e o ther tw o pa s si v e c on stru ct i on s d esc ri bed i n

t ha t cti on se .

2 W ri te ten sen t en ces in ea ch

. of whi ch a c la use i n the
i n di rect di sc ourse i s the su bj ect of a pa ssi v e v erb .

X
E ERCIS E 5 4

—4 —
438 39 , pp 1 77 1 78 )
.

E x pla i n the u se of s ha ll, s hou ld, w i ll, or w ou ld in

1 . ea ch
in sta n c e Ch a n g e the i n di rect d i sc ourse to th e direct
. .

1 . I beli eve I ll house ust outsi d e a plea sa nt

sh ould lik e to li ve i n a sm a j
E ng li sh tow n a ll th e d a y s of m y li f e — F 1 T z E AL 2 T he sulta n . G R D . .

sa i d h e w ould obli g e us w i th d on k ey s or a ny th i ng else i f w e w ould on ly

28 0 E X E R C ISE S

E XERCISE 55

440 44 5 , pp —
1 79 1 8 1 )
-
.

1 . S om e ,
but n ot a ll, c on ta in in of the f ollowi n g sen en es t c
direct questi on s P oin t out these questlon s a n d tell wha t .

i n trodu c es them (i n terrog a t i v e pron oun i n terrog a t i ve a d verb , ,

sub ordin a t e c on j un cti on

) M en t i on the c on st ru ct i on of ea c h .

in terrog a t i v e c la use ( a s subj ect obj ect , ,

2 Turn ea c h i n direct questi on i n t o a d irect quest i on

. .

3 P oin t out such rela ti ve cla u ses a s y ou fi n d i n the sen

.

ten oes Are t hey a dj ect i ve or a dverbia l m od i fi ers

.

1 . W a rri ng ton did n ot k n ow w h a t hi s c om ra

’
de m e s a n s w ere . 2 . He
c ould sc a rc ely tell w h eth er sh e w a s i m bued w i th sun sh i n e, or w h eth er i t
w as a g low of h a ppi n ess th a t sh on e out of h er . 3 . I sta rted th e ques
ti on w h eth er d uelli ng w a s c on si sten t w i th m ora l d uty — B E LL . OSW .

4 .T h e pi lg ri m s th en beg a n to i n qui re i f th ere w a s n o oth er w a y to th e

g a te 5 H .e k n ew n.ot w h a t to m a k e of th e letter 6 I h a rd ly h ea rd . .

w h a t h e sa id 7 E very on e k n ow s pra c ti c a lly w h a t a re th e c o

. . n sti tuen ts

o f h e a lth or o f vi rtu e — NE A . WM N
8 T hi n k c a lm ly over w h a t I h a ve . .

n Sh e a sk ed hi m w h en c e h e w a s a n d w h i th er h e w a s g o
w ri tten 9, T h e .

i ng a nd he-
ntold h er . 10 . W h a t to expec t ,
h e k n ew n ot . 11 . T h eseus
w on d ered h a t th i s im m en se g i a n t c ould be
w . 12 . Ha c k sa ys it w a s

Mrs . B un g a y w h o c a used a ll th e m i sc h i ef 13 . T h e qu esti on w a s h ow

.

best to e tri c a te th e x a rm y f rom i ts pe ri lou s posi ti on 1 4 A d d i son w a s

. .

a d eli g h tful pa n i on c om w h en h e w a s a t h i s ea se . 15 . I d oubt w heth er

th e w i sest of us k n ow w h a t our ow n m oti ves a re .

16 . zz
I pu led m y h ea d f or som e ti m e to fi n d out w hi c h of th e tw o
c a ses w a s th e m ore a ppli c a ble . 17 . I return ed to th e stud i es w hi c h I h a d
n eg lec ted . 18 . I c a n n ot tell h ow I da red to sa y w ha t I d i d . 19 . How
long h e slept h e c ould n ot sa y . 20 Fa nn y , i n
. d i sm a y a t suc h a n unprec

ed en ted q uesti on , d i d n ot k n ow w hi c h w a
y to l ook ,
or h ow to b e p re

pa red f or a n a sw e
n r — . M I ss A U S T E N . 21 W h a t m y c ourse of li f e w ill
.

be w h en I return to E ng la n d i s very d oubtf ul 22 I c a n n ot tell y ou h ow . .

va i n g lori ously I w a lk ed th e streets 23 T h en I told w h a t a ta ll, up . .

ri g t, g
h ra c ef ul perso n th ei r g rea t-
g ra n d m oth er F i eld on c e w a s 24 W h en . .

th e be a n -
vi n es beg a n to fl ow er o n th e poles, th ere w a s on e pa rti c ula r

va ri ety w h i c h bore a vi vi d sc a rlet blossom 25 I k n ow n ot w hi c h w a y . .

I m ust look . 26 . W hy sh e subm i tted , M rs . T urpi n c ould n ot ha ve told

y ou . 27 I beg a nto bec om e c on sc i ous w h a t a stra n g e d en th a t sa n c tum

w as 28 How
. . F erg u son esc a ped , w a s, a n d still i s, a m y stery 29 HOW . .

f a r h e f elt th e f orc e of th i s obli g a ti on w ill a ppea r i n th e sequel .

 IN D I RE C T Q U E S T IONS 28 1

4 . Writ e sen ten ces c on ta in in g

question s i n troduced i n di rec t
by w ho w hic h w ha t w hen how w hy w hether if
, , , , , , ,
.

5 Fill the bla n ks w i th w ho or w hom

. Tell i n ea c h sen teIi c e .
, ,

whether w ho or w hom is a n i n terrog a ti ve or a rela ti ve pron oun .

1 . I k n ow it w a s th a t brok e th e w i n d ow .

2 . I k n ow it w a s th a t y ou sa w .

3 . I k n ow y ou sa w .

4 . I k n ow th e person y ou sa w .

5 . I a sk ed if th e m a n w e sa w w a s D oug la s .

6 . I i f th e boy
a sk ed brok e the w i n d ow w as A rc her .

7 . I k now i t w a s y ou overh ea rd .

8 . T ell m e i t i s th a t I resem ble .

9 . T ell m e I resem ble .

1 0 T ell me
.
y ou th i nk I resem ble .

1 1 T ell m e if I
. resem ble a n y body y ou k n ow .

6 . Turn a ll the i n di rec t questi on s whi ch y ou ha v e j ust

ten i n t o di rect
questi on s .

7 Con stru ct sen ten c es i n whi c h ea c h of the v erb s ( or verb

.

hra ses i s followed by a n in d i rect quest i on

p )
tell, i n q ui re, i s lea rn i ng , see, m ig ht d i sc over, h a d h ea rd , ha ve
a sk ed ,

f oun d , d oubt, h a ve perc ei ved , i s thi nki ng , w on d ers, k n ew , w a s told , un d er

sta n ds, to c om preh en d , i s, c ould a sc erta in , ha s reported , w i ll a nn oun c e .

X
E ERCISE 5 6

447, p 1 8 2) .

1 . Turn ea ch i n direct questi on in t o the d i rect form . Ex

pla i n the use O f sh a ll, s hou ld , w i ll, w ou ld .

1 . I d oubt, !
sa i d D on a tello, w h eth er th ey w i llrem em ber m y voi c e

now .
!
2 . I did n ot k n ow w h eth er to resen t hi s la ng ua g e or pursu e m y
e xpla n a ti on s . 3 . I c la m bered to i ts a pe x ,
a nd th en f elt m uc h a t a loss
a s to w h a t sh ould be n e t d on e x . 4 . How w e sh a ll li ve I c a nn ot i m a g i n e.

5 . W h en I Sh a ll g et to tow n I c a n n ot di vi n e, but i t w i ll be betw een thi s

a nd C hri stm a s . 6 . I sc a rc ely k n ow w hi c h of u s th ree w ould be th e
sorri est . 7 . I ca n f eel f or y ou, bec a use I kn ow w ha t I sh ould f eel i n th e
sa m e Situa ti on . 8 . L et us see if sh e w i ll k n ow y ou . 9 . I w ond er how
28 2 E X E R CIS E S

y ou w ill a n sw er m e a y ea r h en c e . 10 I . a sk ed if G eorg ia na w ould a o

c om h er 11 Y ou m ust see th e c a rri a Ja n e, a n d tell m e if y ou

’ p y
a n g e,
’
. .

d on t thi nk i t w ill sui t Mrs R oc h ester

. x
e a c tly , a n d w h ether S h e w on t
look li k e Queen B oa d i c ea ,
lea n i n g ba c k ag i n
a st th ose purple c ushi ons .

C B RON T E
. 1 2 C a th erin e h a d n o i d ea
. . w hy h er f a th er sh ould be c rosser

or less pa ti ent i n hi s a ili ng c on d i ti on th a n h e w a si n his pri m e 13 Mr

’
. . .

Hi n d ley w i ll h a ve to proc eed to extrem i ti es, see i f h e w on t

2 . Fill the bla n k s w ith the proper a ux ilia ry (sha ll shou ld , ,

w i ll, w o uld
) . T h en cha n g e ea ch i n direct quest i on to the d irect
form .

T om a sk ed m e li k e to g o w i th h im
if I .

T h ey i n qui red w h eth er I p ref er to g o or to sta y .

Sh e a sk ed m e if I h elp h er .

T ell m ew h eth er h e c on sent or n ot .

He w ish es to k n ow if y ou rec om m en d him .

I i n d oubt w hether I suc c eed or f a il

’
w a s .

I d o n ot k n ow w h eth er y ou fi nd h er a t hom e or a t h er un c le s.

He i s i n d oubt w h eth er or n ot h e g et th e a i
pp ntm en t
o .

W e think w e lik e to sa i l on th e tw enti eth .

He thi nk s he lik e to be a f a rm er .

XERCISE
E 57

448 453 , pp— —

1 83 1
. 86)

1 . Men ti on b sta n ti ves t ha t m a k e up the com poun d

th e su

subj ec t s a n d the v erb s t ha t m a k e u p th e c om poun d pred i c a t es

in 4 5 0; i n E x erc i se 4 .

2 See i f y ou c a n m a k e a n y of th e sen t en ces c om poun d by

.

i n sertin g person a l pron oun s a s subj ect s .

3 D i v i de ea c h c om poun d sen ten c e i n § 4 5 2 a n d in E x er

.

c i se 6 in t o the i n d epen den t c oordi n a te cla u ses tha t c om pose i t .

4 Ma k e ea c h sen ten c e i n
. 4 5 0c om plex by i n sert i n g or a dd
i n g a su bord in a te c la use I S y our cla u se a dj ecti ve ora dv erbia l
.

W ha t does it m odify
5 D i v i de ea c h c om plex sen t en c e i n E x erc i ses 1 7 2 5 3 9
.
, ,

—
4 8 5 1 i n t o the i n depen den t ( m a in ) cla use a n d the subordi n a te
,

cla use .
 84 E XE R CISE S

5 . Con struct ten S im ila r to those i n 5 4 7 0 (with

sen en es t c
infi n iti ves m odi fy m g the si m ple subj ect) .

6 Wri te ten sen ten c es c on ta in in g n oun s or pronoun s i n the

.

o e i v e c se u sed s m od i fiers of the subj ect

p ss ss a a

7 W ri te ten senten c es c on ta i n i n g n oun s i n a pposi tion wi th

.

the subj ect 8 8 5 ; 4 72) fi ve in whi ch a n oun cla use i s thus

,

used 38 6,

X
E ERCISE 6 0

— —
4 74 48 1 , pp 1 96 1 99 ) .

1 . P oin t out a ll the a dv erbs used to m odi f y the S i m ple predi

c a te S ubstitut e for ea ch
. a n a d v erb i a l phra se or Cla us e .

1 . T h e w i tn ess c h ose his w ord s d elibera tely . 2 . The Old m a n m oved

slow ly d ow n th e street ki ng tha t prom i se

. 3 . I c a refully a voi d ed m a .

4 D o n ot pea k so loud
. S
5 I a m ea g erly look i ng f orw a rd to y our visit
. . .

6 T h a t g olf ba ll m ust h a ve hi t hi m h a rd
. 7 A lla n h a s pla y ed i n publi c . .

tw i c e ll c a ll y ou ea rly
. 8 . I 9 W e ften see y our ec c entri c f ri en d
sh a . . O .

1 0 T h e pri est sh ook hi s h ea d d oubtfully

. 1 1 Y our f a th er ba rely esc a ped . .

d row n i ng . .C h ester a w ok e la te
1 2 T he n e t m x orn i ng
1 3 T h e a c c i d ent . .

h a ppen ed hére 1 4 T h e c a pta i n h a d g on e below

. . 1 5 M a ri on refuses . .

to g o by c oa c h un less Sh e c a n Si t outsi d e 1 6 F ra n k left h om e th ree . .

y e a rs a o
g , a n d h a s n ot been h ea r d f rom S i n c e 1 7 L oo k y on d er a n d t ell . .

uS w h ere th e pa th li es .

18 . We w ere th en presen ted to Govern or Gore . I ha ve n ot been

19 .

th ere si n c e A pril 2 0 B ruc e w a s . . a fterw a rd a sh a m ed of hi s di sc oura g e

m en t 2 1 T h e sun w ill soon set

. . . 22 . Y ou a re e xpec ted to a rri ve i n

g ood sea son h erea fter . 2 3 A li c e c a nn ot Spell c orrec tly

. . 2 4 T h e I n di a n
.

sud d en ly d i sa ppea red . 2 5 T h e g i rl la ug h ed c a relessly

. . 2 6 T h e m oose
.

f ell h ea vi ly to th e ea rth . 2 7 He pa . ssi on a tely lon g s to see I ta ly . 2 8 A ll

.

f orei g n ers seem to spea k ra pi d ly . 2 9 E d i th li sten ed

. a tten ti vely .

Write ten sen t en c es in whi ch the sim ple predi ca te i s m odi

2 .

fi ed by a n i n fi n i t i v e 3 2 3 4 77) by a n a dv erbi a l obj ecti ve ,

or by a
p hra se c on ta i n i n g on e 1 09 4 7 8 ) by a n om i n a ti v e ,

ab solute 3 45 by a n i n direct obj ect,

by a c og n a t e O bj ect 1 08 4 81 ) ,

3 P oi n t outth e c om plem en ta ry m fi n iti v es a n d th e in fi n iti ves

.

Of purpose i n E x erci se 4 0 a n d tell wha t v erb ea c h m od ifi es ,

.
 ANAL Y SIS 28 5

E XERCISE 61

482 49 3 , pp 200 204)

- —
.

1 . c om plem en t s
P oin t out the a nd ch (a s direc t
desc ri be ea

obj ec t pred i c a te n om i n a t i v e
, ,
An a lyz e the sen t en ces .

1 . T he m ost a m a zi ng w on d er of th e d eep i s i ts unf a th om a ble c ru elty .

— C ONRA D 2 M usi c i s L ove i n sea rc h of a w ord — L A NI E R

. . 3 T he . . .

d esti n a ti on of th e fl eet w as still a m a tter of c on ec ture 4 T h e reports j . .

f rom th e f ron t m a d e W a sh i ng ton a n xi ous 5 P la to sa y s th a t the pun . .

i shm en t w hi c h th e w i se suff er w h o refuse to ta k e pa rt i n th e g overn m en t,

r h
i s, to li ve un d e t e g o e
v rn m e t
n of w orse m en — . E M E RSON .6 I th oug ht
.

y our book i m posture ; I thi n k i t a n i m posture

a n still — J . OHNSON .

7 . Moses c h ose a ble m en out of a ll I sra el a n d m a d e th em h ea d s over

th e people . 8 . T he old g ra y porter ra i sed hi s torc h . 9 . T hi s y ou w i ll

ll i m pud en c e 1 0 Fi rm a nd i rrevoc a ble i s m y d oom 1 1 I n return
’
ca . . . .

for m ere boa rd a nd lod g i ng ,

T oph a m bec a m e Mr Sta rk ey . s a ssi sta nt .

12 . It w a s th ey w ho a tta c k ed us .

13 . S eren e w ill be our d a ys a nd bri g h t . 14 . W a rw i c k thoug h t th e

si tua ti on a but he h eld hi s pea c e
w kw a rd , 1 5 I f th ere w ere n ot too . .

g rea t a ri sk of th e d i spersi on of th ei r ee t,
I sh oul d thi n k th ei r putti n g fl
to sea a m ere m a n oeuv er to d ec ei ve — I Rv 1 NG “
1 6 I th oug h t A la d . . .

din c a pi ta lf un ST E E N . V SON
1 7 T h e f a c es of th e f a th er a n d m oth er . .

ha d a g la d
sober
n ess ; th e c hi ld ren la ug h ed ; th e eld est d a ug h ter w a s th e

i m a g e of Ha ppi n ess a t seven teen ; a n d th e a g ed g ra n d m oth er, w h o sa t

kn i tti ng i n th e w a rm est pla c e, w a s th e i m a g e of Ha ppi n ess g row n old .

18 . Hi s h a t f ri g h ten ed people w orst of a ll

stori es w ere w 1 9 T h e old . .

m a n w a s n erv ous, fi d g ety , a n d very pa le a m g row i n g old , the .

re
g y h a i rs thi c k en upon m e ,
m y o i n ts a re less supp ,le a n d ,
i n m i n d a s j
w ell a s body , I a m less en terpri si n g th a n i n f orm er y ea rs — S T E . OU H Y .

w a s un ea sy a bout m y letter 22 C on fi d enc e 1s . . a lm ost every thi n g

in w a r . 23 . He thi nk s m e a troublesom e f ellow .

24 . At th e en d of thi s stra n g e sea son , B urn s g loom i ly sum s up hi s

g i n
a s a nd losses . 25L i ttle fi re g row s
.
g rea t w i th li ttle w i n d . S HA H
SPE RE . 26 . As h e rose to w a lk , h e f oun d h i m self stifl i n th e joi n ts .

27 . Noi se h a d been m y 2 8 I c a ug ht ta nta li z i ng g li m pses

n a ti v e elem en t . .

of g reen fi eld s, sh ut f rom m e by d ullli n es of hi g h S pi k ed pa li n g s 29 One -

. .

h ouse i n a ba c k street w a s bri g h t w i th th e c h eerful g la re of li g hts .

2 . Writ e p le s en t en c esten
,
e a c h c on t a si m
i n i n g th e d i r e ct
obj ect of a v erb a predi c a t e O bj ec ti v e ; a redi c a t e n om i n a t i v e ;
p
a predi c a t e a dj ec t i v e An a lyz e y our sen ten c es . .
28 6 E X E R CIS E S

X
E ERCISE 6 2

— 0 —
494 49 7 , pp.2 5 2 06 )

1 . P ointout a n y m odi of
c om plem ent s in the sen ten ces
fiers
ca lled for in E x erci se 61 2 I n trod uc e oth er m odi fiers of c om
,
.

p lem en ts i f y o u c a n w i t h ou t i n j uri n g th e sen t en c es .

2 W ri t e sen t en c es S I m ila r to t hose i n

. 4 9 2 t a k ing c a re to ,

in clude i n ea ch a c om plem en t m odi fi ed .

3 W rit e ten s en t en c es ea ch c on t a i n i n g a sub sta n ti ve c om

.
,

l t d i fi d by n a dj ect i v e c la use 4 9 6 a dj ect i v e

p e m en m o e a
) a n

c om plem en t m odi fi ed by a n a d verbia l cla use An a lyz e

y our sen ten c es .

4 P oi n t out a ll m odi fi ers of c om plem en t s i n Ex erm ses 1 2

.

a nd 22 .

5 . An a lyz e the sen t en c es in 49 5 .

E XERCISE 63
— —
49 8 5 00, pp 2 07 2 08).

Writ e ten sen ten c es illustra ting a dj ecti ves ( or a dj ecti ve

'
1 .

ph ra ses
) m od i fi ed ei t h er by a d v erb s or by
g rou ps of w ord s u s ed
a dverbia lly .

2 . Write t c
ten ch c on ta in i n g a possessi ve n oun
sen en es, ea

m odi fi ed a n a pposi t i v e m odi fi ed a n a dv erb i a lphra se m odi fi ed .

3 W ri te ten sen t en c es illu stra t i n g the use of a dj ect i ve or

.

a d v erb i a l c la u ses a s m od i fi ers of m odi fi ers .

4 An a lyz e the sen t en c es in

. 498 .

E XERCISE 64

5 01 5 03 , p 2 09)
-
.

P oin t out th e in depen den t elem en t s . T ell w hether ea c h i s a n

i n t erj ec ti on ,
v oca ti ve (n om i n a t i ve by d irec t a ddress) a n ex
a ,

cla m a tory n om i n a ti ve, or a pa ren theti ca l ex pressi on Ana lyz e .

th e sen t en c es .
2 88 E XE R C IS E S

—
52 7 5 33 2 24 22 6) -
, pp .

1 . An a lyz e the t
sen en es c in 528 . Ex pla i n the ellipsi s in
ea ch c t
sen en e .

2 S upply the w ord or w ord s om itted in ea ch of the ellipt i c a l

.

sen t en c es i n § 5 3 3 E l i h
(p x
p a n t e ell S I s. I n e a c h
sen t en c e .

3 An a ly z e the sen t en c es in
. 5 33 .

4 Writ e fi v e sen ten c es illustra t in g ea c h of the followin g

.

k in ds of elllpS I S the subj ect of a n im pera t i v e ; ( 2) a

n j un ct i on tha t
rela t i ve
pron ou n ;
( )
3 th e c o
( )
4 t h e c op ul a

a n d i ts subj ect w i t h w hi le w h en thoug h, if ; i

( )
5 e l l ps i s i,n a ,

cla use with a s or tha n .

E XERCISE 68
— —
448 52 6, pp 1 83 223) .

c om poun d c om plex
The follow in g , ,
a nd c om pound c om plex
sen t en c es will g i v e further pra ct i c e i n a n a ly si s a n d i n study of

the rela t i on s O f c la uses .

1 D eersla y er h esita ted a Si ng le i nsta nt ere h e plung ed i n to th e bush es

. .

2 . T h e m i n d of m a n i s lik e a c loc k tha t i s a lw a ys run ni ng d ow n a nd

requi res to be a s c on sta n tly w oun d up .
-
HA ! I
L TT . 3 . He bec a m e sen
sible th a t hi s lif e w a s still i n i m m i n ent peril 4 A y oung a uth or i s . .

a pt to run i n to a c onf usi on of m i x ed m eta phors, w h i c h lea ve th e sense

di s j ointed ,
a nd d i stra c t the i m a g i n a ti on . G O DSMI H
L T . 5 . E very body
k ept hi s h ea d a s best h e m ig ht a n d sc ra m bled f or w h a tever h e c ould g et .

6 T h e d i a log ue h a d been h eld i n SO very low a w hi sper th a t n ot a w ord

’
.

of i t h a d rea c h ed th e y oung la dy s ea rs 7 T h e c a pta i n sc rew ed his . .

lips up, a n d d rum m ed on th e ta ble, but h e d i d n ot Spea k 8 P oor

’Sl
. .

A n d rew F ern h a d h ea rd th a t h i s tow n sm a n s oop h a d been ca ptured

by a pri va teer 9 T hroug h th e g roun d s w e w ent, a n d very pretty I
. .

th oug ht th em 1 0 He som eti m es m a d e d oleful c om pla i nt th a t there

. .

w ere no sta g ec oa c h es, now a d a ys .

1 1 L ig hts g lea m ed i n the d ista n c e, a n d people w ere a lrea dy a sti r

. .

1 2 T h a t f ew m en c elebra ted for th eoreti c w isd om live w ith c onf orm ity
.

to th ei r prec epts, m ust be rea d ily c onf essed — JOHNSON 1 3 D ow n . . .

w ent P ew w i th a c ry th a t ra ng hig h i nto the ni g ht . 14 . P luc k the dog

 ANAL Y SIS 28 9

O ff, lest he th rottle hi m . 15 . I k n ew th a t th e w orst of m en h a ve th ei r

g ood poi n ts . 16 . A rum or sprea d th a t th e en em
y pproa c i
h gn i n
w as a

g rea t f orc e . 17 . M r Hen ry

. w ent a n d w a lk ed a t th e low en d Of th e .

h a ll w i th out reply ; f or h e h a d a n e c ellent g ift of i len c e 1 8 I t is a x S . .

bri g ht bri sk m orni n g , a n d th e loa d ed w a g on s a re rolli n g c h eerfully pa st

m y w i n d ow 1 9 T h e m usi c i a n w a s a n old g ra y h ea d ed neg ro, w h o h a d
. .
-

been th e i ti n era n t orc h estra of th e n ei g h borh ood f or m ore th a n h a lf

’
a

c entury 2 0 A f ter h e h a d w a i ted three hours, th e g en era s a ti en c e

. . l p
w as exh a usted , a n d , a s h e lea rn ed th a t th e M ex i c a n s w ere busy i n prepa
ra ti ons f or d ef en c e, h e m a d e im m edi a te di sposi ti ons f or th e a ssa ult .

P R E SCO TT .

21 . AS I rod e a lon g n ea r th e c oa st, I k ept a very Sh a rp look out in th e

la nes a n d w oo d s . 22 . E very m a n d esi res to live long , but n o m a n w ould
be old .
— S WI F T . 23 . I f m y fa ce h a d been pa le th e m om en t bef ore, i t
n ow g low ed a lm ost to burn i n g . 24 T h e sen ti n els w h o pa c ed the ra m
.

pa rts a nn ou n c ed th a t th e va n g u a rd of th e h ostile a rm y w as in sig ht

.

25 . Her h ea rt w a s h a ppy a n d h er c oura g e rose 2 6 T h ere i s a report

. .

th a t C li fford i s to be sec reta ry 2 7 T h e sea son . . of w i n ter, w h en , f rom

S
th e hortn ess of th e d a y li g h t, la bor bec om es i m possi ble,
i s i n ! etla n d th e
ti m e of revel, f ea sti ng , a n d m erri m en t 28 E very log w hi c h i s c a rri ed . .

p a st us by th e c u rren t h a s c om e f rom a n u n d i sc ov ered c oun try 2 9 T h e . .

f a i r h ea ven s sh on e over th e w i n dy blue th e g reen i sla n d of

sea s, a n d

Ulva la y ba sk i n g i n th e __
sun li g ht . 3 0 T h e g rea test event w a s, th a t
.

th e M iss Jen ky nses h a d purc h a sed a n ew c a rpet f or th e d ra w i ng room .

31 . My g ra n df a th er m a d e a bow to the m otley a ssem bla g e a s h e en tered .

32 . T a lk to a m a n a bout hi m self , a n d h e i s g en era lly c a pti va ted .

3 3 P en. w a s a s ela ted a s i f som ebod y h a d lef t h i m a f ortun e . 34 . W h en

th e m orni n g d a th e k i n g g a ed w i th a d m i ra ti on a t th e c i ty , w hi c h
w n ed , z
h
h e op ed soon to a d d to hi s d om i n i on s — I Rv I NG 3 5 No on e d oubts . . .

S
th a t th e loth a n d th e a n t- ea ter, th e k a n g a roo a n d th e possum , th e ti g er O
a n d th e ba d g er, th e ta pi r a nd th e rhi n oc eros, a re respec ti vely m em bers
of th e sa m e ord ers H . UX Y LE . 3 6 T h e tra
. veller, a m a n of m i d dle a g e,
w ra pped
g y f ri e e c l
in
oa k , q
aui c k en ed h
ra i s pa c e w h en h e h a d rz
ea c h ed

th e outski rts of th e tow n , f or a g loom y e ten t of n ea rly f our m i les la y x

betw een hi m a n d hi s h om e 3 7 I t w a s a sc en e on w hi c h I h a d often . .

look ed d ow n, but w h ere I h a d n ever bef ore beh eld a hu m fi g ure

a n .

38 . He f oun d th a t h e h a d un d erta k en a ta sk w hi c h w a s bey on d hi s

pow er I n th e D utc h g a rd en i s a fi n e bron e bust
. 39 . z of Na poleon ,
w hi c h L ord Holla nd put up i n 1 8 1 7, w hi le Na poleon w a s a pri son er a t
S a i nt Helen a
’
.

4 0 T h e g ir s w
. l a s n ot on e of th ose n a tures w hi c h a re m ost a ttra c ted

by w h a t is stra n g e
!

a n d e c epti on a x l i n hum a n c h a ra c ter . 41 . M rs P en .

d en ni s w a s sure th a t h e w ould lea d h er d ea r boy i nto m i sc h i ef , if P en

w en t to th e sa m e c olleg e w i th hi m . 42 . I h a d been som e ti m e a t sea
 E X E R C IS E S

before I bec a m e a w a re of th e f a ct th a t h ea ri ng pla y s a perc epti ble pa rt

i n g a ug i n g th e f orc e of th e w ind . 43 . T he M a c ed on i a n c on qu eror,

w h en h e w a s on c e i nvi ted to h ea r a m a n th a t sa ng lik e a ni g hti ng a le,

repli ed w i th t
p , h a t h
c on tem
t e h a d h ea rd th e n i g hti n g a le h erself a nd

th e sa m e trea tm ent m ust every m a n e pec t, w h ose pra i se i s th a t h e i m i x

ta tes a n oth er — JO H N S O N 44 Tie a c ouple of stri n g s a c ross a boa rd
’
. . .

a n d set i t i n y our w i n d ow ,
a nd y ou ha ve a n i n strum en t w hi c h n o a rti s ts

h a rp c a n ri va l — E E 45 I w . M RSON . . a s on th e poi n t of a ski n g w h a t pa rt

of th e c oun try h e h a d c h osen f or hi s retrea t 4 6 T h a t n o m a n c a n la w
. .

f ully prom i se w h a t h e c a n n ot la w fully d o i s a self evi d en t proposi ti on

-
.

M A CKIN T OSH .

4 7 How f a r
. th e g overn or c on tributed th e e pen ses of th e
tow a rd s x
outfi t i s n ot very c lea r . 48 . x
T h e n e t epoc h i n th e history of Russi a
w a s th a t of P eter th e G rea t, w h ose g en i us ov erc a m e th e obsta c les c on se

q u en t on th e rem oten ess of i ts si tua ti on , a nd Open ed to i ts people the

c a reer of E uropea n i n d ustry , a rts, a nd a rm s AL ISON
. 49 A S . .
‘
th e
c h a se len g th en s, th e Sportsm en d rop O ff, till a t la st th e f orem ost h un ts
m an i s left a lon e, a n d hi s h orse, overc om e w i th f a ti g u e, stum bles a n d
d i es i n a roc ky va lley .
— JE F F R E Y . 5 0 T h e L ow la
. nd k n i g h t, th oug h
sta rtled , repea ts hi s d efi a nce a nd Si r R od eri c k , respec ti n g hi s va lor, by
a Sig n a l d i sm i sses hi S m en to th ei r c on c ea lm ent, a n d a ssures hi m a n ew

of hi s sa f ety . 51 . I stood a w e- stru c k — I c a n n ot tell h ow lon g — w a tc h

i n g h ow th e live fl a m e sn a k es -
c rept a n d hi ssed , a nd lea pt a n d roa red ,

a n d rush ed inlon g h ori z on ta l j ets f rom sta c k to sta ck bef ore th e h ow li n g

in d , a nd f a sten ed th ei r fi ery ta lon s on th e ba rn - ea ves, a n d sw ept over
'

th e pea k ed roof s, a nd hurled th em selv es in fi ery fl a k es i n to th e y a rd

bey on d - K INGS L E Y
. 52 W h en I w a s a t ra . . G n d C a i ro, I pi c k ed up

severa l O ri en ta l m a n usc ri pts, w hi c h I h a ve still by m e — A DDISON . .

5 3 Often h a ve I w on d ered a t th e tem eri ty of m y f a th er, w h o, i n Spi te

.

of a n h a bi tu a l g en era l respec t w hi c h w e a ll i n c om m on m a n if ested

tow a rd s h i m , w ould venture n ow a nd th en to sta n d up a g a i n st h i m i n
som e a rg um en t touc h i ng th ei r y outhf ul d a y s LA . MB . 54 . By a ll m ea n s

beg i n y our f oli o ev en i f th e d oc tor d oes n ot g i v e y ou a y ea r, even if he

h esi ta tes a bout a m on th , m a k e on e bra ve push a n d see w h a t c a n be
a c c om plish ed i n a w eek . S T E V E NSON .
29 2 AP P E ND I X

P R E S E NT TE NS E P A S T T E NS E PA ST PA RT ICIP L E
ben d bent ben t
1
berea ve beref t, berea ved bereft, berea ved

beseec h besoug ht besoug ht

bet bet bet
bid ( c om m a n d
) ba de bi dden
bi d ( m on ey
) bi d bi d
bi n d boun d boun d
bite bi t bi tten
bleed bled bled
bless ( see p 2
. 9 8 )
blow
brea k
breed
bring
build
burn ( see p 2
. 9 8 )
burst burst
bug boug ht
c a st c a st

ca tc h c a ug ht
c hi de c hi dden

c h oose c h osen

* c lea ve spli t
2
c lo ven , a
( ) clef,
t c lea ved
( dj .
)
c li n g c lun g

c om e c om e

c ost c ost

c ree
p c re
p t

c row
( p 2 9 9
see
) .

c urse see p 2 9 8
( ) .

c ut

da re
( see p.2 9 9 )
d ea l
di g
do
dra w

1 j
T h e a d ec ti ve form i s berea ved a s, T he berea v ed fa th er .

2 Cl to a d h ere, h a s c lea ved i n both th e pa st ten se a n d th e pa st pa rti

!
ea ve,
c i ple, a n d a lso a n a rc h a i c pa st f orm c la ve .
 L IS T S OF VE R B S 29 3

P RE SE N T TE NS E PA ST TE NS E PA ST PA RT ICIP LE
drea m
( see p 2 9.8 )
dress ( see p 2.9 8 )
dri n k drun k ( d ru n k en , a dj .

)
dri ve d ri v en
dw ell dw elt

ea t ea ten

eng ra ve ( see p 2 9
. 9 )
fa ll
f eed

f eel
fi g ht
fi nd
fl ee

fli n g
fly
forb ea r

forg et
forsa k e
freez e
rei see p 2 9 9
f g ht
( } .

g et

g i rd
( see p 2 9 8 ) .

g i v e

g o

g ra ve
( see p 2 9
. 9 )
roun d roun d
g g
rew row n
g g
2 2
h un g , ha n
g ed hun g , ha n g ed

ha d ha d
hea rd hea rd
h ov e, hea ved
3
h ov e, hea ved 3

hew ed h ew n

1 The i c pa rti c iple g otten i s used in th e c om poun d s beg otten a n d f or

a rc h a

g o tte n , a n d a s a n a d ec ti v j
e i ll g otten-
g a i n s M a n y g o od pe a k e r s a ls o u se S
i t in stea d of th e pa st pa rti c iple g ot, but g ot i s th e a c c epted m od ern f orm .

2 B a n ed i s used onl of e ec uti on b

g y x y h a n g i n g .

3 U sa
g e v a ri es w i th t h e c on t e t W e x
sa y, . T h e c rew h ove th e c a rg o o v er

boa rd , but N O T
!
Sh e hove a i g h S .
29 4 AP P E ND IX

P R E S E NT TE NS E PA ST PA RT ICIP L E
hi de hi d den
hit hit
h old held
hurt hurt
keep kept
kn eel ( see p 29 8 ) .

kn it ( see p 2 9 8 ) .

k n ow
1
la d e
la g
lea d
lea rn
( see p 2 9 8 )
.

lea ve

lend
let
2
li e rec li n e
( )
lig ht
lose
ma ke
m ea n

m eet

m ow ( see p 2 9 9
.
)
p a y
shut up 2 9 8
p en
( )( see p.
)
pu t

qu i t
( see p 2.9 8 )
rea d
* rea ve rea ved

1 L oa d h a s loa ded in both th e pa st tense a n d th e pa st pa rti c iple L a d en i s .

som eti m es used a s th e pa st pa rti c iple of loa d .

2 L i e “to tell a fa lseh ood ! h a s li ed i n both th e pa st ten se a n d th e pa st

, ,

pa rti c iple .

3 S o both li h t t k i d l !
d li h t li h Th e v erb a li g h t h a s
g , o n e , a n g t, o a g t .

usua lly a li g h ted in both th e pa st ten se a n d th e pa st pa rti c iple .

29 6 AP P E ND I X

P R E S E N T T E NS E P A S T T E NS E P A S T P A RT ICIP L E

sm i tten
sow ed, sow n

spea k spok en

sp eed
( seep 2 9 8 ).

sp ell see
( p 2 9 9.
)
sp en d

s
p ill ( see p 2 9 9 ) .

spI n

spi t

sp lit

sp oil see 2 9 9
( p )
.

sp rea d
Spri n g
sta n d

sta v e

sta g ( see p 2 9
. 9 )
stea l stolen

sti c k stuc k

sti n g stun g

sti n k a stun k
‘

strew n
‘

strew

stri de stri dd en

stri k e stru c k stri c k en , a

1
( dj .

)
stri n g strun g

stri ve stri ven

sw ea r sw orn

s w ea t see
( p 2 9 9 )
.

sw ee
p
sw ell sw ollen

sw im

1 S tri c ken i s a lso used a s a pa rti c i ple i n a fi g ura ti v e sen se Th us w e sa y ,

.

Th e c om m un ity w a s s tri c ken w ith pestilen c e, but T h e d og w a s s tru c k

'

!
w i th a sti c k .
 L IS T S OF VE RB S 29 7

P R E S E N T T E NS E PA S T T ENSE P A ST PA R T I C I P L E
thin k thoug ht thoug ht

throve, thrived thri ven , thrived

throw threw throw n
thrust thrust thrust

trea d trod trodden

w a ke w ok e, w a ked w ok e, w a ked
w a x
(g row
)( see p . 2 99 )
w ea r

w ea v e

w ed
( see p 2 9
. 9 )
w ee
p
w et

B ea brea k, dri ve, g et (beg et, f org et) , sp ea k , spi n, sti nk , sw ea r, tea r, h a ve
r,

a n a rc h a i c pa st ten se i n a ba re, bra ke, dra ve, g a t, sp a k e, etc .

e, brea k , f orsa ke, hi de, rid e, sha ke, sp ea k , w ea ve,

B ea t, beg et ( f org et) , bi t
w ri te, a n d som e oth er verbs h a ve a rc h a i c f orm s of th e pa st pa rti c iple li k e
th ose of th e pa st ten se T h e pa rti c i ples i n en , h ow ever, a re n ow
. th e a o

c epted f orm s Chid a n d trod a re c om m on pa rti c i pi a l f orm s

. .

B eg i n, dri nk , ri ng , shri nk, si ng , si nk, Sp ri ng , sw i m , often h a v e i n poetry a

u f orm (beg un , sung , etc ) i n th e pa st ten s
-
e a s w ell a s i n th e pa st pa rti c i ple
. .

Thi s f orm (th oug h g ood old E ng li sh) 1 h ould be a void ed i n m od ern peec h S S .

B end, beseec h, bet, bui ld , burst, ca tc h, dw ell, rend ,

sp l
i t, w et, ha ve a rc h a i c

or less usua l f orm s i n ed bended , beseec hed , betted , etc . B ui lded i s c om m on

i n th e proverbi a l He bui lded better tha n h e k n ew .

!
B ursted i s c om m on

as an a d j e tive
c a bursted bubble .
!

B id , to c om m a n d ,
!
h a s som eti m es bi d i n both th e pa st ten se a nd th e
i i l bi d, to O fi er m on ey , ha th ese f orm s reg ula rly
!
pa st pa rt c p e s .

B lend , lea p , lea n , h a ve usua lly blend ed , lea p ed , lea ned ; but blen t,
l
e a t
p ,
lea nt a re n ot un c om m on .

C lothe h a s c om m on ly c lothed ; but c la d i s c om m on i n li tera ry use, a n d

is j
reg ula r i n th e a d ec ti ves w ell c la d , i ll c la d (f or w h i c h ord i n a ry speec h
- -

ha s substi tuted w ell-

dressed, ba d ly or p oorl
y dressed) .

I t i s a rem n a nt of th e old pa st plura l I n An g lo- Sa on th e pri n c ipa l pa rts

1
-
. x
of beg i n w ere : presen t, beg i n ne p a st, beg a n ; pa st plura l, beg un non ; pa st
pa rti c iple, beg u n nen .
29 8 AP P E ND I X

D i ve h a s d i ved form ) i s c om m on i n Am eric a

but d ove (a n old .

P lea d h a s pa st ten se a n d pa st pa rti c iple p lea d ed P lea d (pronounc ed p led) .

i s a v oi d ed by c a ref ul w riters a n d spea k ers .

P rove h a s pa st tense a n d pa st pa rti c iplep roved Th e pa st pa rti c iple p roven .

sh ould be a v oi d ed
‘
.

Work h a s pa st ten se a n d pa st pa rti c iple w orked Wroug h ti n th e pa st ten se .

a n d th e pa st pa rti c iple i s a rc h a i c , but i s a lso m od ern a s a n a d ec ti v e (a s i n j

w roug h t i ron) .

Som e v erbs h a v e ra re or a rc h a i c w ea k form s a lon g sid e of th e stron g form s ;

th us di g g ed , shi ned , pa st ten se a n d pa st pa rti c iple of d i g , shi n e sh ow ed , pa st
pa rti c i ple of show .

Ate a n d ea ten a re preferred to ea t (pron oun c ed ét) .

Q uoth , sa i d , i s a n old stron g pa st ten se T h e c om pound bequea th h a s

!
.

beq uea thed only .

Mi sc ella n eous a rc h a i sm s a re th e pa st ten ses s a te f or sa t, trode for trod , sp a t

for sp i t; a lso w ri t f or w rote a n d w ri tten , ri d f or rode a n d ri d d en , strew ed a nd
strow n f or strew n .

II

T h e follow i n g v erb s v a ry b et w een ed a n d t

( )
d i n the pa st

t en se a n d the pa st pa rt i ci ple I n . som e of th em , th is v a ri a t i on

is a m ere d i fferen c e of spelli n g . In writi n g ,

th e ed f orm s a re pre

ferred i n m os t ca ses ; i n spea k in g , the t form s a re very c om m on .

“
h
blessed blest,
1

burn ed burnt,
2

1
c ursed, c urst

da red ( less c om m on l
y, durst)
drea m ed, drea m t

dressed, drest
2
g i rd ed , g i rt
2
k n eeled, k n elt
k n i t, k n i tted 2

3
lea rn ed, lea rn t
2
penn ed , pen t
2
q ui tted , qu i t
shredd ed, shred
2

2
sm elled, sm elt
2
sped, speed ed

1 j
T h e a d ec tiv es a re usua lly pronoun c ed blesse d , c u rsed C om pa re a lso the .

a j
d ec ti v e a c c u rsed .

2 B oth form s a re i n ood u se

g .

3 B oth f orm s a re i n
g oo d u se T h e a d ec ti.v e i s p ro n ouj
n c ed lea rn ed .
3 00 AP P E N D I X

CO NJ U GAT I O N O F T HE VE RB T0 BE

I ND I CAT I VE M OO D

P R E S E N T T E NS E
SINGU L A R P L U R AL

P A S T T E NS E

1 . I w a s .

2 . T h ou w a st
( w ert
) .

3 . He w a s .

FU T U R E T E NS E

1 . I ‘

sh a ll be . W e sh a ll be .

2 . T hou w i lt be . You w i ll be .

\
3 . He w m be . T h ey w i ll be .

PE RF E C T ( O R PR E SE NT P E RF E C T ) T E NS E

1 . I ha been
ve . W e h a ve b een .

2 . T h ou h a st b een . You h a ve been .

3 . He h a s been . T h ey h a ve been .

P L U PE R F E C T ( O R P A S T P E R F E C T ) T E NS E

1 . I ha d been W e ha d been .

2 . T hou h a d st b een . You h a d b een .

He ha d been . T h ey h a d b een .

FU T U RE P E R F E C T T E NS E

1 . I sh a been
ll h a ve . W e S h a ll h a ve been .

2 . T h ou w i lt h a ve b een . You w i ll h a ve been .

3 . He w i ll ha ve b een . Th ey w i ll h a ve been .
 C ON J U GAT ION OF T O B E 3 01

S UB JUNC T I VE M O OD

P R E S E N T T E NS E
SINGU L AR P L U R AL
If I be .

0
1 If th ou be .

I f h e be
3
0 .

PA S T T E N S E

H If I w ere .

2 . If th ou w ert .

3 . If he w ere .

P E RF E C T ( OR P R E S E N T P E R F E C T ) T E NS E

H If I ha ve been . If w e b een
ha ve .

0
1 I f thou h a ve b een . I f you h a v e b een .

If h e h a been I f th ey h a ve been
0
0 ve .

PL U PE R F E C T ( O R P A S T P E R F E C T ) T E NS E

1 . I f I ha d b een . If w e ha d been .

2 . I f th ou h a d st b een . If you h a d b een .

3 . I f he h a d been . I f th ey h a d been .

I M PE RA T I VE M OO D . P resen t . S i ng . a nd P l B e [ th ou
. or you
] .

I N F I N I T I VE . P resen t, to be ; P er f ec t,
to h a v e b een .

PA R T I CI PL E S . P resen t, b ei n g ; P a st, been ; P erf ec t, h a vi n g been .

C O NJ U GAT I O N O F T HE VE RB T O S TR I K E

A CTI VE VOI CE

I ND I C ATI VE M OO D

P R E S E N T T E NS E

1 . I strik e .

2 . T hou stri k est .

3 . He Stri k es .
3 02 AP P E ND I X

P A S T T E NS E
SINGUL A R PL U RAL
1 . I stru c k .

2 . Th ou struc k est .

3 . He struc k .

FU T U R E T E NS E

1 . I sh a ll stri k e . W e sha ll stri k e .

2 . T h ou w i lt stri k e . You w i ll stri k e .

3 . He w i ll stri k e . T h ey w i ll stri k e .

PER FEC T ( O R P RE SENT P E RF E C T ) T E NS E

1 . I ha ve stru c k . W e ha ve struc k .

2 . T h ou h a st struc k . Y ou h a ve struc k .

3 . He ha s struc k . T h ey h a ve struc k .

P L U P E RF E C T ( O R P A S T P E RF E C T ) T E NS E

1 . I ha d struc k . W e ha d struc k .

2 . Th ou h a d st stru c k . You h a d struc k .

3 . He lT
a d struc k . T h ey h a d stru c k.

FU T U R E P E RF E C T T E NS E

1 . I sh a ll h a ve struc k . W e sh a ll h a ve stru c k .

2 . T h ou w i lt h a ve stru c k . Y ou w i ll h a ve stru c k .

3 . He w i ll h a ve stru c k . T hey w i ll h a ve struc k .

SUB J UNC T I VE M O O D

P R E S E NT T E NS E

1 . If I stri k e . If w e strik e .

2 . I f thou stri k e . I f you stri k e .

3 . If he stri k e . I f they stri k e .

P A S T T E NS E
If I struc k . If w e struc k .

2 . If thou struc k . I f you stru c k .

3 . I f h e struc k . If th ey struc k .
3 04 AP P E N D I X

P L U PE R F E C T ( O R P A S T P E RF E C T ) T E NS E
SINGU L A R PL U RAL
1 . I ha d b een stru c k . W e ha d been struc k .

2 . T hou h a d st b een struc k . You h a d b een struc k .

3 . He ha d been stru c k . T hey h a d b een struc k .

F U T U R E P E RF E C T T E NS E

1 . I sh a been struc k
ll h a ve . W e sha ll h a ve been struc k .

2 . T h ou w i lt h a ve b een struc k . You w i ll h a ve been struc k .

3 . He w i ll ha ve b een struc k . T hey w i ll h a ve been struc k

S UB JUNC T I VE M OO D
P R E S E N T T E NS E
1 . I f I be struc k . If w e be struc k .

2 . If thou be struc k . I f you be stru c k .

3 . I f h e be struc k . If they be struc k .

P A S T T E NS E
1 . If I ere struc k . If w e w ere stru c k .

2 . If th o w ert stru c k . I f you w ere struc k .

3 . I f he w ere stru c k . If th ey w ere struc k .

P E RF E C T ( O R P R E S E N T P E RF E C T ) T E NS E

1 . If I ha ve b een stru c k . If w e ha v e b een struc k .

2 . I f th ou h a ve been struc k . If yo u h a ve b een struc k .

3 . I f he h a ve beén struc k . I f th ey h a ve been struc k .

P L U P E RF E C T ( O R PA ST PE RF E C T ) T E NS E

1 . If I h a d been stru c k . If w e b een struc k

ha d .

2 . I f th ou h a d st b een stru c k . If you h a d b een struc k .

3 . I f he h a d
,
been stru c k . I f th ey h a d b een struc k .

I M P E R A T IV E M OO D . P resen t . S ing . a nd Pl . Be [ th ou or you

]
stru c k .

I N F IN I T I V E . P resen t, to be struc k ; P erf ec t, to h a ve b een stru c k .

PA R T I C I PL E S . P resen t, b ei n g stru c k ; P a st, struc k ; P erf ec t, ha vi n g

been struc k .
 U SE OF CAP I TAL LE T TE R S 3 05

U SE OF CAP I TAL L E TTE R S

1 . E very sen ten c e beg i n s w i th a capi ta l lett er .

2 . E very li n e of poetry b eg i n s w ith a c a pi ta l letter .

3 . The fi rst w ord of every di rec t quota ti on b eg i n s w i th a ca pi ta l

letter .

N OT E . T hi s rule d oes n ot a l
pp y to q uoted f ra g m ents of senten c es .

4 . E very proper n oun or a bbrevi a ti on of a ro

p p er n o un beg i n s
w i th a c a pi ta l letter .

5 . M ost a d j ec ti ves d eri ved from proper n oun s b eg i n w i th ca pi ta l

letters ; a s, — A m eric a n , I n di a n , S w edish, Sp enseri a n .

N OT E . Som e a d j e ti
d eri v ed from proper n oun s h a ve c ea sed to be
c v es

c losely a ssoc i a ted i n th oug h t w i th th e n oun s from w hi c h th ey c om e, a n d

th erefore beg i n w i th sm a ll l t t
e e s r Th u s, — v olta i c , g a lv a n i c , m esm eri c ,
.

m a ud lin , sten tori a n .

6 . Every ti tle a tta c h ed to th e n a m e of a person beg i n s w i th a

ca pi ta l letter .

Mr . Sm ith
Th om a s C J Ad a m s, M D
. . . .

John W ilson , E sq P resi d en t G ra nt

Mi ss Allerton P rof essor Wh i tn ey
D r F E W ilson
. . . S i r W a lter Ra lei g h

7 . I n ti tles book s etc the fi rst w ord a s w ell a s

of ,
.
, , ev ery i m por
ta n t w ord th a t follow s b eg i n s w i th a c a pi ta l letter
, .

8 . T h e i n ter j ec ti on O a nd th e pron oun I a re a lw a y s w ri tten in

ca pi ta l letters .

9 P erson a l pron oun s referri n g to th e Deity a re

. often c a pi ta li z ed .

N OT E . U sa g e v a ri es : th e person a l pron oun s a re c om m only c a pi ta li ed z

w h en th ey ref er to th e D ei ty , th e rela ti ves less freq uently T h e rule i s often .

d i sreg a rd ed a ltog eth er w h en its observ a n c e w ould result i n a m ulti tud e of

c a pi ta ls , a s in th e Bi ble a n d in m a n y h y m n book s a n d w ork s of th eolog y .

1 0 C om m
. on n ou n s a n d a d j ec ti ves often beg i n w pii th
ta l letters ca

w h en th ey d esi g n a te th e topi c s or m a i n poi n ts of d efi n i ti on s or S i m i

la r sta tem en ts Suc h c a pi ta ls a re c a lled
. emp ha ti c
( or top i c a l) c a p ita ls .

N OT E E m ph a ti c (or topi c a l) c a pi ta ls a re a n a log ous to c a pi ta ls i n th e

.

ti tles of book s ( see Rule but th ei r use i s n ot obli g a tory T h ey a re espec i a lly .

x
c om m on i n te t-book s a n d oth er elem enta ry m a n ua ls .
3 06 AP P EN D I X

R U LE S OF P U N CT U AT I O N 1

The c om m on m a rk s of
ctua t i on a re the peri od the i nt erro
pun ,

ti on o i n t th e ex cla m a t i on o i n t t h e c om m th e em i c olon
g a p p ,
a s , , ,

th e c olon the d a sh m a rk s of pa ren thesi s a n d quota t i on m a rk s

, , ,
.

T he h yphen a n d the a postroph e m a y be c on v en i en tly trea t ed

a lon g w i th m a rk s of pun ctua t i on .

I
1 . The peri od, the i n terrog a ti on poi n t, a n d the ex c la m a ti on poi n t
a re u sed a t th e en d of sen ten c es Every c om plete sen ten c e m ust be .

follow ed by on e of th ese three m a rk s .

Th e en d of a dec la ra ti ve or a n i m pera ti ve sen ten c e is m a rk ed by

a peri od . B ut a d ec la ra ti ve or a n i m pera ti ve sen ten c e th a t i s li k e
x
se e c la m a tor y m a y be follow ed by a n ex c la m a ti on poi n t i n stea d

of a peri od .

’
The en d of a di rec t questi on 1 8 m a rk ed by a n i n terrog a ti on poi n t .

x
An tory sen ten c e i n the form of a n
e c la m a i n di rec t qu esti on i s fol .

low ed by a n ex c la m a ti on poi n t ; a s How a b solute th e k n a ve i s ! ,

2 A peri p d i s u sed a fter a n a bbrevi a ti on

. .

3 An ex cla m a ti on poi n t i s u sed a fter a n ex c la m a tory w ord or

‘

phra se .

N OT E
Thi s rule i s n ot a bsolute Most i nter ec ti on s ta k e th e e c la m a ti on
. . j x
poin t W i th o t
.h er w o rd s a n d w i th ph ra ses , u sa g e d i fi ers ; i f stron g f eeli n g is
x x
e pressed , th e e c la m a ti on poi nt i s c om m only used , but too m a ny suc h m a rk s
d efa ce th e pa g e .

T he c om m a is u sed

1 . After a n oun
( or a ph ra se
) of di rec t a ddress ( a voc a tive n om i n a

tive
) . Thu s,
John , tell m e th e truth .

Li ttle boy , w h a t i s y our n a m e

NOT E . I f the n oun is x

e c la m a tory , a n e c la m a ti on x poi n t m a y be u sed
i n stea d of a c om m a .

1
T h e m a i n rules of pun c tua ti on a re w ell fi ed a n d d epen d on im porta nt x
d i stinc ti on s in senten c e struc ture a n d c on seq uen tly i n th oug h t In d eta il, h ow .

ever, th ere i s m uc h v a ri ety of usa g e, a n d c a re h ould be ta k en n ot to i n si st on S

’
suc h un iform i ty i n th e pupils pra c ti c e a s i s n ot f oun d i n th e pri n ted bo oks
w h i c h th ey use If y oun g w riters c a n be in d uc ed to in d i c a te th e end s of th ei r
.

senten c es pr operly , m uc h h a s been a c c om pli sh ed .

 3 08 AP P E ND I X

Th ere w a s a n im pressi on upon th e publi c m i nd , na tura l enoug h from th e

,

c on ti nua lly a ug m entin g v eloc i ty of th e m a i l, but q ui te erron eous, th a t a n out

si d e sea t on thi s c la ss of c a rri a g es w a s a post of d a n g er — D E Q E . U INC Y .

NOT E 1 . Ma ny pa rti c i i
pa l a nd oth er a d j e tive ph
c ra ses c om e un d er thi s
h ea d . Thus,

Th e g eni us, seein g m e ind ulg e m y self on thi s m ela n c h oly prospec t, told m e
I h a d d w elt lon g en oug h upon i t A . DDISON .

N OT E 2 . If a n oun a n d . i ts pposi ti ve
a a re so c losely c on n ec ted a s to form
on e i d ea ,
n o c om m a i s used . Th us,

My fri en d Ja c k son liv es i n Sa n F ra nc i sc o .

NOT E 3 . An i nten siv e pron oun ( m ysel

f, etc .
) is n ot sepa ra ted by a c om m a
from th e substa ntiv e w hi c h it em ph a si z es .

NOT E 4 . A seri es of w ord s or ph ra ses i n a pposi ti on w i th a sin g le substa n

ti v e i s som eti m es set ofi , a s a w h ole, by a c om m a a nd a d a sh .

8 . To set ofi a su bordi n a te c la u se, espec i a lly on e i ntrod uc ed by

a d esc ripti ve rela ti ve . T hu s,
I a m g oi n g to ta k e a la st d inn er ith a m ost a g reea ble fa m ily , w h o h a ve
w

been m y only n ei g hbors ever si n c e I h a v e li v ed a t W eston C E . OWP R .

N OT E . No c om m a i s used bef ore a restri c ti v e rela ti ve . Th us,

I w a n t to m a ny th in g s w h i c h on l y ou c a n tell m e
k n ow
y .

P erh a ps I a m th e only m a n in E n g la n d w h o c a n boa st of suc h g ood fortune .

9 To f
set s ff a h se c on ta inin g i n a tive a b solu te T hu s,
‘

.
p ra a n om .

T h ey h a d som e d iffi c ulty i n pa ssi n g th e ferry a t th e ri versi d e, th e ferry m a n

bein g a fra i d of th em .
—D E F OE .

10 To . set off how ever, n evertheless, m oreover, etc .

, a nd i n troduc tory

phra ses li k e in thefi rst la c e, on

p the on e ha n d, etc .

11 . To set off a For thi s pu rpose c om

pa ren th eti c a l ex pressi on .

m a s, da sh es, or m a rk s of pa ren th esi s m a y be u sed .

W h en the pa rentheti c a l m a tter i s bri ef or c losely rela ted to the

rest of th e sen ten c e, it i s g en era lly set ofi by c om m a s . T hu s,
I e erc i sedx a pi ec e of hypoc ri sy for w hi c h , I h ope, y ou w ill h old m e
x
e c u sed . T HA CK E RA Y .

W hen i t i s lon g er a n d m ore i n depen den t, i t i s g en era lly m a rk ed

ofi by da sh es, or en c losed i n m a rk s of pa ren th esi s T h e la tter a re .

less frequ en tly u sed a t presen t th a n form erl y .

Th e c on n ec ti on of th e m ilw ith th e sta te a n d th e e

a xec utiv e g overn m ent
a c on n ec ti on obvi ous, but y et n ot stri c tly d efi n ed g a ve to th e w h ole m a il
esta bli shm ent a n offi c ia lg ra n d eur .
— DE Q U INC E Y .

NO T E . Br
a c k ets a re used to i n d i c a te in serti on s th a t a re n ot pa rt of th e te t x .
 RU L E S OF P UNCTUAT ION 3 09

III
T he c la u ses of a c om pou n d sen ten c e m a
y be sepa ra ted by c olon s,

sem i c olon s, or c om m a s .

1 . T he c olon is u sed

a . T o sh ow th a t th e sec on d of tw o c la u ses repea ts the su b sta n c e

of th e fi rst in a n oth er form , or d efi n es th e fi rst a s a n

a ppo si ti ve defi n es a n oun . T hu s,

Thi s w a s th e pra c ti c e of th e G rec i a n g sta e. B ut T eren c e m a d e a n i n n ova
ti on in th e Rom a n: a ll hi s pla y s RYD N
h a v e d ouble a i
ct o s
n — D. E .

b To . sepa ra te tw o g roups of c la u ses on e or b oth of w hi c h c on

ta i n a sem i c olon . T hu s,

At th a t ti m h a d h ea rd m i g ht h a v e been lon g in pen e

e, n ew s suc h a s w e
tra tin g so f a r i n to th e rec esses of th e m ounta in s ; but n ow , a s y ou k n ow , th e
‘

a pproa c h i s ea sy , a n d th e c om m un i c a ti on , i n sum m er ti m e, a lm ost h ourly

n or i s thi s stra n g e, for tra v ellers a fter plea sure a re bec om e n ot less a c tiv e,
a n d m ore n um erous, th a n th ose w h o form erly left th ei r h om es for purposes of

g a in . W ORD SWORT H .

N OT E . Th e c olon i s less u sed n ow th a n form erly . Th e ten d en c y i s to use

a sem i c olon or to beg in a n ew sen ten c e .

2T h e sem i c olon i s used w h en th e c la u ses a re of th e sa m e g en era l

.

n a ture a n d c on tri bute to th e sa m e g en era l eff ec t, espec i a lly i f on e or

m ore of th em c on ta in c om m a s . T hu s,

Th e Sk y w a s c loudless ; th e sun sh on e out bri g h t a n d w a rm ; th e son g s of

bi rd s, a n d h um of m y ri a d s of sum m er i n sec ts fi lled th e a i r ; a n d th e c otta g e
g a rd en , c row d ed w i th ev ery ri c h a n d bea utif ul ti n t, spa rk led i n th e h ea vy d ew

lik e bed s of g li tterin g je w els .

-
D ICK E NS .

3 . Th e c om m a m a y be u sed w hen th e c la u ses a re sh ort a n d si m ple

( see p.

N OT E T h e c h oi c e betw een c olon , sem i c olon , a n d c om m a i s d eterm in ed i n

’
.

m a n y c a ses by th e w ri ter s f eeli n g of th e c loser or th e looser c onn ec ti on of th e

x
id ea s e pressed by th e sev era l c la uses, a n d i s to som e e tent a m a tter of ta ste x .

IV
1 . In a c om plex sen ten c e, th e depen den t c la u se i s g enera lly sep
a ra ted from th e m a in c la u se by a c om m a . B ut w h en th e depen d en t
c la u se is sh ort a n d the c on n ec ti on c lo se, th e c om m a m a y be om i tted .

N OT E . A d esc ri pti ve rela ti v e c la use i s prec ed ed by a c om m a , a restri c tive

rela ti v e c la use i s n ot ( see p .

 10 APP E ND IX

2 . T he c la u ses of a seri es, w h en i n the sa m e depen den t c on struo

ti on , a re often sepa ra ted by sem i c olon s to g i ve m ore em pha si s to ea c h .

T hu s,

M
[ s
r B a ttle] w a s non e of y our luk ew a rm g a m esters, y our h a lf-a n d -h a lf
.

l
p ya ers , w h o h a v e n o ob ec ti on to ta k e a h a n d if y oj
u w a n t on e to m a k e up a

rubber ; w h o a ffi rm th a t th ey h a v e n o plea sure i n w in n i n g ; th a t th ey lik e to

w in on e g a m e a n d lose a n oth er ; th a t th ey c a n w h ile a w a y a n h our v ery a g ree

a bly a t a c a rd ta ble, but a re i n d i ff eren t w h eth er th ey pla y or n o ; a n d w ill

f

S
d esi re a n a d v ersa ry w h o h a s lipped a w ron g c a rd , to ta k e i t up a n d pla y
a n oth er . LA MB .

V
1 . A di rec t quota ti on i s en c losed i n qu ota ti on m a rk s .

N OT E . I f th e q uota ti on sta n d s by itself a nd i s pri n ted i n d i ff erent type,

th e m a rk s m a y be om i tted .

2 . A qu ota ti on w i thi n a q u ota ti on is u su a lly en c losed in si n g le

qu ota ti on m a rk s .

3 . In a q u ota ti on c onsi sti n g of severa

l pa ra g ra ph s, qu ota ti on m a rk s
a re put a t th e b eg i n ni n g of ea c h pa ra g ra ph a n d a t th e en d of th e la st .

NOT E . F or th e pun c tua ti on before a quota ti on , see p 307

.

4 . W hen a book , po em , or th e li k e, i s referred to, th e ti tle m a

y be

en c losed i n qii ota ti on m a rk s or i ta li c i z ed .

VI
1 . Su dden c h a n g es i n th ou g h t a nd feeli n g or brea k s i n speec h a re

i n di c a ted by d a sh es . T h u s,

Eh ! — w ha t -
w hy upon m y li f e, a n d so it i s — C h a rley , m y boy , so
’
it s
y ou i s it LE VE R .

2 . P a ren theti c a l expressi on s m a y be set off by d a sh es ( see p .

3 . A c olon , or c olon a nd d a sh , m a y prec ed e a n en u m era ti on , a di rec t

qu ota ti on , or a s a t tem en t form a ll i n trodu c ed,
y espec i a lly w i th a s

f ollow s, na m el
y , a n d th e li k e . B efore a n en um era ti on a c om m a a nd a

da sh m a y be u sed . T hu s,

Th ere a re eig ht pa rts of speec h n oun s, pron oun s, a d j e tive

c s, v erbs, a d
v erbs, preposi ti on s, c on un c ti on s, a j nd j
i nter ec ti on s . OR
T h ere a re ei g h t pa rts of speec h , n oun s, pron oun s , etc .

4 . T he d a sh i s som eti m es u sed to stren g then a c om m a

( a s i n th e
la st pa ra g ra ph bu t on e) .
31 2 AP P E ND I X

T he fi rst of th ese i s th e direct ob ect, j a nd th e sec on d, w hi c h co m

pletes th e sen se of the predi c a te, is ca lled a predi ca te ob ective j

11 . Som e verbs of g i vi n g , telli ng, re usin

f g , a nd th e li k e, m a y ta k e

tw o ob ects ,j a di rect ob ect a j nd a n i ndi rect ob ect j .

T he i n d i rec t obj ec t d en otes th e person or thi n g tow a rd w hom or

tow a rd w hi c h i s di rec ted the a c ti on e xpressed by the rest of the

redi c a
p te (p .

12 . A b tha t i s reg ula rly i n tra n si ti ve som eti m es ta k es a s obj ec t

v er

a n oun w h ose m ea n i n g c losel y resem bles i ts ow n .

A n oun i n thi s c on struc ti on i s c a lled the c og na te obj ect of the verb

a n d i s i n th e obj ective c a se p
( .

13 . A n ou n , or a g rou
p o f w ord s c on si sti n
g of a n oun a n d i ts m odi

fi ers, m a y be u sed a dverbi a lly . S uc h a n ou n is ca lled a n a dverbi a l

j
ob ecti e v (p .

14 . An a pposi ti ve i s i n the sa m e c a se a s th e sub sta n ti ve w hi c h i t

li m i ts ( p .

1 5 A pron oun
. m u st a g ree w i th i ts a n tec ed en t i n g ender, num ber,
a nd pers on (p .

16 . Rela tive pronouns c on n ec t d epen den t c la u ses w i th m a in c la u ses

by referri n g direc tly to a sub sta n ti ve I n th e m a i n c la u se .

T hi s sub sta n ti ve i s th e a ntec edent of th e rela ti ve ( p .

A rela ti ve pron oun m u st a g ree w i th i ts a n tec ed en t i n g ender, num

ber, a nd person .

T he c a se of a rela ti ve pron oun ha s n othi n g to d o w i th i ts a n tec ed

en t, but d epen d s on th e c on struc ti on of i ts ow n c la u se

(p .

17 . A rela ti ve pron oun i n the obj ec ti ve c a se i s often om i tted ( p .

18 . Th e rela
ti ve pron oun w ha t i s equi va len t to tha t w hic h, a n d ha s

double c onstructi on : 1 h e c on struc ti on of th e om i tted i m plied

a
( ) t or

a ntec edent tha t, 2

( ) th e c on struc ti on of the rela ti ve w hic h ( p .

19 . T he c om y i
pound rela
n c lu d e ti ve pronouns m a or i m ply th ei r

n a n tec eden ts a n d h en c e m a y h a ve a double c onstructi on p 7

ow
( .

T h e c om poun d rela ti ves a re som eti m es u sed w i th out a n a n tec ed en t

e x pressed or i m pli ed ( p .

2 0 An
. a j
d ec ti ve i s sa i d to belong to th e su b sta nti ve w hi c h i t d e
sc ri bes or li m i ts
5
( pp , .

21 . j
A d ec ti ves m a y be c la ssi fi ed , a c c ordi n g to th ei r po si ti on i n the
sen ten c e, a s a ttri butive, a ppositi ve,
a n d predi ca te a d j ecti ves ( p .
 RU LE S OF S YN TAX 31 3

1 . An a ttri butive a j
d ective i s c losely a tta c h ed to i ts n oun a nd

gula rly prec ed es it

.

2 . An a pposi ti ve a dj ective i s a dded to i ts n oun to e pla i n x i t, li k e

a n oun in a ppo si ti on .

3 A predi ca te a d
. j ective c om pletes t h e m ea n i n g of the predi c a te
v erb , but desc ri bes or li m i ts the subj ec t .

For th e u se of a n a d j ec ti ve a s predi ca te obj ective ,

see 48 8 .

22 . T he c om pa ra ti ve deg ree, n ot the superla ti ve, i s u sed i n c om pa r

i n g tw o er on s or thi n g s
p s .

T he superla ti ve i s u sed i n c om pa ri n g one person or thi n g w i th tw o

or m ore (p .

23 . Rela ti ve a dverbs i n trodu c e sub ordi n a te c la u ses a n d a re si m i la r

i n th eir u se to rela
ti ve pron oun s ( p .

24 . A verb m u st a g ree w i th i ts sub ec t i n num ber a j nd pers on

(p .

25 . A c om pound sub ec t w j i th a n d u sua lly ta k es a ver b i n th e plura l

num ber ( p .

26 . A c om pound sub ect w j i th or or n or ta k es a ver b i n th e si n g ula r

n um ber i f th e substa n ti ves a re Si n g ula r ( p .

27 . N oun s tha t a re plura l i n form but s i ng ula r in sense c om m on ly

ta k e a ver b
i n th e si n g ula r n u m b er ( p .

28 . Collecti ve nounr ta k e som etim es

“

a S i n g ula r a n d som eti m es a

lu ra l v erb
p .

W hen the person s or thi n g s den oted a re th oug ht of a s i ndivi dua ls,
th e plura l S h ould be u sed W h en th e c ollec ti on i s reg a rd ed a s a unit,
.

S S
th e i n g ula r h ould be u sed ( p .

b
29 A ver i s i n th e a c tive voi ce w h en i t represen ts the sub ec t
. j a s

th e doer of a n a ct
(p.

30 A . ver b i s i n th e pa ssi ve voi c e w hen i t represen ts th e sub j ec t a s

the rec ei ver or th e product of a n a c ti on (p 1.07
T he bj ec t of the a c ti ve verb bec om
o j ec t of the pa ssi ve es th e sub ,

a n d th e sub j ec t of th e a c ti ve v erb b ec om es i n th e pa ssi ve a n a d ver

bi a l phra se m odi fyi n g the predi c a te verb ( p .

3 1 W hen a verb ta k es b oth a di rect a n d a n indi rect obj ect on e of

.
,

the tw o i s often reta i n ed a fter th e pa ssi ve th e other b ec om i n g th e ,

j
sub ec t (p.

32 . T he i ndi c a ti ve i s th e m ood of sim ple a ssertion or i nterrog a ti on,

but i t i s u sed in oth er c on struc ti on s a lso (p .

33 . T he i m pera ti ve i s th e m ood of c om m a nd or request

(p .
314 AP P E ND I X

34 . Th e j
sub ect of a n i m pera tive i s seld om ex pressed u n less it i s
em ph a ti c .

Th e subj ec t, w hen e xpressed , m a y prec ed e the i m pera ti ve : a s,

You g o, You rea d (p .

35 . Th e j
sub uncti ve m ood is u sed in c erta in spec i a l c on struc ti on s
of W i sh , c onditi on, a n d the lik e ( pp 1 1 5.
,

—
For pa rti c ula rs a n d ex a m ples, see pp 1 1 9 1 23 .

—
For m od a l a u x i li a ri es, see pp 1 24 1 3 2 . .

36 . An i nfi ni ti ve, w i th or w i thout a c om p lem e n t or m o d i fi e rs , m a y

be u sed a s th e sub ect of j a sen ten c e, a s a pre d i c a te n om i na t i ve ,
or a s

a n a ppos iti ve ( pp 1 3 4, .

3 7 An i nfi ni tive m a y be u sed
. a s j
th e ob ect of th e preposi ti on s but,
ex c e t
p , a bout, (p .

38 . T he i nfi ni ti ve m a y be u sed a s a nom i na tive of ex c la m a ti on

39 . An i nfi ni tive m a y m odi fy a verb by c om pleti ng i ts m ea ni n g , or

by ex pres si n g the purpose of th e a c ti on ( p .

40 . An i nfi nitive m a y be u sed a s a n a d ective m odi fi er of j a noun or

a s a n a dverbia l m odifi er of a n a d j ective .

I n thi s u se th e i nfi n i ti ve is sa i d to depend on th e w ord w hi c h i t

m odi fi es

41 . A kin d of c la use, c on si sti n g b sta n ti ve i n the obj ec ti ve

of a su

c a se follow ed by a n i nfi nitive, m a y be u sed a s th e obj ec t of c erta i n

ver s b .

S uc h c la u ses a re c a lled i nfi niti ve c la uses, a n d the substa nti ve i s

sa i d to be th e su bj ec t of th e i nfi n i ti ve .

T he subj ect of bj ec ti ve c a se
a n i nfi niti ve i s i n th e o .

I nfi ni ti ve c la uses a re u sed ( 1 ) a fter verb s of w ishing c om m a nd ing , ,

a dvisin g a n d th e li k e a n d 2 a fter som e v erb s of believing dec la ri n g

, ( ) , , ,

a nd i i
p erc e v n g (p .

An i n fi n i ti ve c la u se m a b e th e ob j ec t of th e preposi ti on f or
y .

An i n fi n i ti ve c la u se w i th f or m a y be u sed a s a subj ec t, a s a predi

ca te n om i n a ti v e, or a s th eo bj ec t of a p repo si ti on
( pp 1 3.8
42 T h e pa rti c i ple i s
. a verb form w
-
hi c h h a s n o su bj ec t , but w hi c h
pa rta k es of th e n a ture of a n a d j ec ti ve a n d expresses a c ti on or sta te
in su c h a y w a a s to desc ri e b or li m i t a su b sta n ti ve ( pp 1 2 .
,

43 . A pa rti c i ple i s sa i d to belong to the sub sta n ti ve w hi c h i t de

sc ri bes or li m i ts 1
( pp ,2 .
 APP E N D I X

T HE E NG L IS H L ANG U AGE

En g li sh i s a m em b er of the g rea t In do Europea n -

Fa m i ly of
la n g u a g es, w hi c h i s so c a lled bec a use i t i n c ludes w elln i g h a ll the
-

la n g ua g es of E urope a n d the m ost i m porta n t of those foun d i n I n di a .

W i thi n
thi s fa m i ly, E n g li sh elon g s to the T euton i c
( b
or G erm a n ic
)
Group, w hi c h c onta i n s a lso G erm a n , Dutc h, the Sc a n di n a vi a n ton g u es
.

I c ela n di c , Da n i sh, N orw eg i a n , Sw edi sh a n d som e oth ers.

( ) ,

E ng li sh of the old est peri od is ca lled ei th er An g lo Sa x on or O ld

-

En g li sh . T hi s w a s th e speec h of c erta i n pi ra ti c a l tri b es w h ose hom e

w a s in n orth ern Germ a n y, on th e ea stern a n d south ern Sh ores of th e

N orth Sea , but w h o i n va d ed B ri ta i n a bout A . D . 4 5 0, a nd su bdued

th e C elti c i nh a bi ta n ts of the i sla n d i n a seri es of fi erc e w a rs . T he
m o st c on si dera ble of the i n va di n g tri b es th e An g les a n d th e
w ere

Sa x on s . T h ei r d om i n i on w a s w ell a ssured b
y th e e g i n n i n g of b
the seven th c en tury, a n d g th ei r la ng ua e, w hi c h th ey u su a lly ca lled
E n g li sh h a t i s, h e ton g u e of th e An g les d ll
( t t g ra u a y p
s rea d
throug h E n g la n d a n d m o st of Sc otla n d I n W a les, how ever, th e .

na ti ve B ri t n s h a ve m a i n ta i n ed th ei r ow n Celti c speec h to th e
q
presen t da y ; a nd i n th e Sc otti sh Hi g hla n d s Ga eli c — , w hi c h i s a ki n
to W elsh a nd pra c ti c a lly i den ti c a l w i th th e n a ti ve la n g ua g e of

I rela n d is sti ll e xten si vely u sed .

At the ti m e of the i n va si on , th e An g les a nd S a x on s w ere h ea then ,

a nd th e B ri ton s, w ho h a d b een for four
y c en turi es un der the sw a of

th e R om a n E m pi re, w ere C hri sti a n s, a n d m u c h m ore hi g hly c i vi li z ed

th a n th ei r c on qu erors I n d eed, th ey h a d a d opted m a n y fea tures of
.

Rom a n c ulture, a nd L a ti n w a s spok en to som e e xtent , a t lea st i n

th e la rg er tow n s . B y th e en d of th e seven th c en tury, h ow ever, th e
An g lo S a -
x on s a lso ha d em bra c ed Chri sti a n i ty a nd ha d m a d e rem a rk

a ble a d va n c es i n li tera ture a nd lea rn i n g . T h e la n g g ua e of the

B ri ton s x
e erted but sli g ht i n flu en c e upon th a t of th e An g lo S a -
x on s .

T he C elti c w ord s i n E n g li sh a re few i n n um ber, a n d m ost of them

w ere borrow ed in c om pa ra ti vely rec en t ti m es .

T h e Norm a n C on qu est ( 1 066) m a rk s a hi g hly si g n i fi c a n t d a te i n

th e hi story of o ur la n g ua g e. T h e Norm a n s w ere a S c a n di n a vi a n
b
tri e w ho h a d i n po ssessi on of N orm a n dy ( i n
b een n orth ern Fra n c e)
for a bout a hun dred a n d fi fty yea rs Th ey h a d . a b a ndon ed th ei r
 T H E E NG L IS H L ANG U A G E 31 7

na ti ve ton g u e, a nd Spok e a di a lec t of Fren c h . From 1 066 to a bout

th e yea r la n g u a g es w ere th erefore c om m on i n E n g la n d,
1 4 00, tw o

E n g li sh , w hi c h w a s em ployed by th e v a st m a ori ty of th e pep ple, j ‘

a n d Fren c h , w hi c h w a s th e la n g u a g e of th e c ourt a n d th e hi g h er

orders . Fren c h , h ow ev er, w a s n ev er a seri ou s ri v a l of E n g li sh for

suprem a c y i n th e i sla nd . It w a s th e speec h of a c la ss, n ot of th e
n a ti on , a n d i ts u se g ra du a lly di ed x
out, e c ept a s a n a c c om pli sh m en t .

B y th e ti m e of C h a uc er ( w ho w a s born a bout 1 3 4 0 a n d di ed i n
it w a s c lea r th a t th e E n g li sh ton g u e w a s h en c eforth to be reg a rd ed

th e on ly n a tura l la n g ua foer E n g li sh m en , w h eth er th ey w ere of

a s g
An g lo S a x on
- or of N orm a n ori g i n .

Sti ll, th e N orm a n c on qu est ha d a prof ou n d i n flu en c e upon En g

li sh . It i s n ot tru e — th ou g h often a sserted — th a t th e m u lti tu d e of

Fren c h w ord s w g hi c h our la n g ua e c on ta in s w ere d eri ved from th e

N orm a n di a lec t C om pa ra ti vely few of th em c a m e i n to E n g li sh un ti l
.

a fter 1 3 00, w h en N orm a n dy h a d been lo st to th e E n g l

i sh c ro w n fo r

a h un dre d y ea rs S i n c e 1 3 00 w e h a v.e borrov

y ed freely — n ot from

N orm a n , h ow ever, but from C en tra l ( or P a ri si a n ) Fren c h , w hi c h h a d

b ec om e th e sta hi c h th e E n g li sh d esc en d a n ts of th e N or
n d a rd to w

m a ns en d ea vored to c on form T h e efi ec t of th e C on qu est, th en , w a s

.

n otto fi ll E n g li sh w i th N orm a n term s . It w a s ra th er to bri n g En g

la n d i n to c lo se soc i a la nd li tera ry rg la ti on s i th Fra n c e, a nd thu s
‘

w
b

to fa c ili ta te th e a dopti on of w ord s a n d c on stru c ti on s from C en tra l

Fren c h .

Furth er, si n c e li tera ture w a s in th e m i d dle a g es d epen den t i n th e

m a i n u pon pri vate p a t ron a g e, th e e i sten c e of a r u li n g x c la ss w h o se
i n terest w a s i n Fren c h , di sc oura g ed th e m a i n ten a n c e of a n na ti on a l
y
o r g en era l sta n d a rd of E n g li sh c om posi ti on E very E n g li sh w ri ter .

h a d rec ourse to hi s loc a l di a lec t, a nd on e di a lec t w a s felt to be a s

g ood a s a n oth er .

B y 1 3 5 0, h ow ev er, th e di a lec t of L on don a nd th e vi c i ni ty h a d c om e,

app a ren tl
y, to be reg a rd ed a s som ew ha t m ore eleg a n t a n d poli sh ed
th a n th e oth ers All th a t w . a s n eed ed w a s th e a ppea ra n c e of som e

w ri ter of suprem e g eni u s to w h om thi s di a lec t S h ould be na ti ve .

C h a u c er w a s su c h a w ri ter, for h e w a s born i n L on don . T o be

“
sure, C h a u c er di d n ot m a ke m odern E n g li sh .
!
N on e the less,
he w a s a po w erful a g en t in settli n g the la n g ua g e
. Si n c e h i s ti m e,
“
a t a ll ev en ts, the fa c t of a sta n d a rd of li tera ry u sa g e ha s been
31 8 A P P E ND I X

un di sputed . Di a lec ts still ex i st, butthey a re n ot re

g a rd ed a s a uthori

ta ti ve . E duc a ted spea k ers a n d w ri ters of E n g li sh, the w orld over,

u se th e la n g ua g ew i th substa n ti a l un i form i ty .
1

M ea n ti m e ,
h ow ever, the E n g li sh of th e An g lo- Sa x on s ha d un der

gon e m a n y c h a n g es before Cha uc er w a s born Most of i ts i nflec ti on s

.

ha d been lost, a n d sti ll oth ers ha ve been d i sc a rded si n c e . Furth er,

th ere h a d been exten sive b orrow i n g from Fren c h a nd L a ti n , a nd th i s
c on ti n u ed throug h out th e fourteen th c en tury . Th e h a bi t, on c e

form ed, ha s proved la sti n g . O u r voc a bula ry h a s rec ei ved c on tri buti on s
from m a ny la n g ua g es, a n d is sti ll rec ei vi n g th em . Greek m a y be

m en ti on ed i n pa rti c ula r a s th e sou rc e of m a n y w ord s, espec i a lly i n

th e va ri ou s d epa rtm en ts of sc i en c e . B ut French a nd L a ti n rem a in
th e c h i ef forei g n elem en ts i n E n g li sh .

I n th e follow i n g ex tra c t from S c ott, m ost of the w ord s pri n ted i n

Rom a n type a re of An g lo Sa x on ori g i n , w herea s the i ta li c i z ed w ord s
-

a re d eri v ed from L a ti n or Fren c h .

It w a s n ot un ti l even i n g w a s n ea rly c l
osed th a t I va n h oe w a s restored

to c onsc i ousness of h i s si tua ti on . He a w ok e f rom a brok en slum ber, un d er

th e c onf used i m pressi ons w hi c h a re na tura lly a ttend a nt on th e rec overy
from a sta
_ e of i nsensibi li ty . He w a s un a ble f or som e ti m e to rec a ll ex a c tl
y
to m em ory th e c i rc um sta nc es w hi c h h a d p rec ed ed hi s f a ll i n th e li sts, or to
m a k e out a ny c onnec ted c ha i n of th e events i n w h ic h h e h a d been eng a g ed
‘

upon th e y esterd a y . A sense of w oun d s a n d i nj ury , j oi n ed to g rea t w ea k

n ess a n d ex ha usti on , w a s m i n g led w i th th e rec ollec ti on of blow s d ea lt a nd

rec ei ved, of steed s rush i n g upon ea c h oth er, overthrow i ng a n d overth row n ,

of sh outs a n d c la shi ng of a rm s, a n d a ll th e h e
a dy tum ult of a c on used f
fi g ht An fi brt to d ra a si d e th e c urta i n of h i s c ouc h w a s in deg ree
‘
. e w som e

succ essful, a lthoug h difi lc ult by th e p a i n of h is w oun d

‘
rendered .

E n g li sh h a sa lso d opted a g
a ood m a n y Sc a n di n a vi a n w ord s, thoug h
'

th ey form no su c h proporti on of i ts voc a bula ry a s Fren c h or L a ti n .

Da n i sh a nd N orw i a n pi ra tes b eg a n to h a rry th e c oa st i n th e ei g hth

eg

c en tury . P erm a n en t settlem en ts follow ed, a s w ell a s w a rs of c on f

q u est, a n d for a b out thi rty yea rs ( 1 01 3 —

l04 2 ) ,
a Da n i sh fa m i ly Oc c u
pi ed th e E n g li sh th ron e . Th ese even ts e xpla i n the Sc a n di n a vi a n

elem en t i n our la n g ua g e .

1 I t i s n ot m ea nt, of c ourse, th a t a n Am eri c a n or Austra li a n of th e present

x
d a y sh ould e ert h i m self to i m i ta te th e speec h of a m od ern Lon d on er Th e .

po i n t i s ,
th a t w h a t w e n ow c a ll E n g li sh i s ,
i n m ost respec ts ,
th e d i rec t do .

sc en d a n t of th e L on d on d i a lec t of th e fourteenth c en tury .

 R
[ f
e eren c es a re to p a g es f . si g n i fi es a nd f ollow i ng p a g e ff . si g n i fi es

a nd f ollow i ng

A f or on ( fi a ),
-
1 4 7,
1 4
shi ng 9 . . x
8 9 f ; i n e c la m a ti on s, 1 5 5 f ; a s .

A or a n , 77 ff ; di stri butive, 79 . . m od i fi er, 1 9 6 2 06, 208 .

A bout, w i th i n fi n i ti ve, 1 05 , 1 3 5 . A d verbi a l c la uses, 2 0f , 86, 1 5 8 f . .

A bsolute c onstru c ti on , 1 44 S ee .
p la c e o r t i m e ,
1 63 f c a u s a l,
1 64 ;
Nom i n a ti ve . c on c essi ve, 1 64 f p pu r o s e. o r r e
A bsolute use of tra n si tive verbs, 9 2 . sult, 1 66 f c on di ti on a l, 1 6 7 ff ;
. .

A bstra c t n oun s, 2 9 f . c om pa ri son , d eg ree, m a n n er, 1 73 ;

A c c usa ti ve, 52 . i n d i rec t qu esti on , 1 8 0; a s m odi
A c ti on , n oun s i n - i ng , 1 45 ff . fi ers of predi c a te, 1 96 f of c om .

A c ti ve voi c e, 1 07 ff S ee P a ssive . .
p l em en t,
2 0 6 ; o f m o d ifi e rs ,
2 0 7 f .

j
A d ec ti ve, 5 , 75 ff d esc ri pti ve a n d . j
A dverbi a l ob ec ti ve, 53 ; c la use a s,
d efi n i ti ve, 5 , 75 f . ro
p p , e r 7 5 ; . 1 58 f a s m od i fi er, 1 9 8
. .

c om poun d , 75 pr on o m i n a l ,
7 6 A d verbi a l phra ses, 1 6 , 5 3 , 1 42 , 1 58 ;
( of . 6 2 ff ) a t tribu ti v e, a pposi
. n um era l, 9 0; a s m od ifi ers of
ti v e, predi c a te, 76 f a rti c les, .
p r e di c a te ,
1 96 f ,
1 9 8 ff ; .o f c o m .

L
77 ff c om pa ri son , 79 ff , 8 8 f
. . .
p l em en t,
2 0 6 o f m o d i fi e rs ,
2 0 7 f .

A dvi si ng , verbs of , w i th i nfi ni tive

L
n um era ls, 8 9 f ; n oun a s a d j ec .

j
ti ve, a d ec ti ve a s n oun , 9 , 78 ; c la use, 1 3 8 .

p a rt i c i pl e a s,
1 4 3 ; a d ec t i v e i n j A ffi rm a ti v e, 8 5 .

ex c la m a ti on s, 1 5 5 f a s m od i fi er . A fi shing , etc , 1 4 7, 1 49 . .

j
of sub ec t, 1 9 2 f S ee A d ec ti v e . j Af ter, preposi ti on , 1 48 ; rela ti ve
p r on oun , P red i c a te a d ec ti v e j . a d verb, 8 6, 1 5 7, 1 64 .

j
A d ec ti ve c la uses, 20, 66, 8 6, 1 5 7 f . A g reem en t, of predi c a te n om i n a
l
p a c e or ti m e, l63 f ; a s m odi fi ers . ti v e w i th sub ec t, 4 1 , 5 7 f ; of j .

of sub ec t, 1 9 2 f ;j of c om ple . a pposi ti v e, 42 , 4 7, 5 3 , 5 7 of pro

m ent, 2 06 . n oun w i th a n tec ed en t, 5 5 , 65 ; of
j
A d ec ti ve ph ra ses, 1 6, 1 5 7 ; c om rela ti v e w i th a n tec ed ent, 68 , 1 0 2
p a ri son of , 8 9 , a s m od i fi ers of of v erb w i th sub ec t, 9 7, 1 00ff j .

j
s b ec t, 1 9 2
u ~
a s c om plem en ts, A ll, 6 5 .

2 04 ; a s m od i fi ers of m odi fi ers, Altern a ti v e c on d i ti on s, 1 68 ques

!

2 07 . ti on s, 1 79 .

j
Ad ec ti ve pron oun s, 62 ff d em on . A lthoug h .ee Thoug h .

stra ti ve, 62 fi ; i n d efi n i te .
,
6 4 f . A n a ly si s, 3 ff ; struc ture of sen
.

A dverb, d efi n ed , 7 ; c la ssi fi c a ti on , ten oes, 1 83 ff a n a ly si s,

. w i th
f orm s, a nd use, 83 ff rela ti ve or . m od els, 1 8 8 ff S
i m ple sen ten c es ,
.

j
c on un c ti ve, 8 6 ; i nterrog a ti ve, 1 8 8 ; c om poun d , 1 8 8 f ; c om ple , . x
86 ; c om pa ri son , 8 7 ff ; n um era l . 1 89 f c om poun d c om ple , 1 9 0
. x
3 22 INDE X
m od i fi ers, 1 9 1 ti ; c om plem en ts, . f orm , 1 1 4 ; repla c i ng ubj un c S
200ff ; m odi fi ers of c om plem ents
. ti ve, 1 2 3 ; i n poten ti a l verb
a n d of m od i fi ers, 205 ff ; i n d e . h
p a ses, 1 24 ff
r .

p e n d e n t e l em e n t s ,
2 0 9 c om b i n a

ti on s of c la uses, 2 1 0fi elli pti c a l . j

B e, 6 f , 9 3 c on ug a ti on , 9 9 , 1 1 8 f ,
. .

senten c es, 224 ff S ee furth er . 300f ; .a u i li a ry ofx pa ss i ve ,

un d er th ese severa l h ea d s . 1 08 ff of prog ressi ve f orm , 1 1 3 ;

.

A n g lo-S a x on , x v, 3 1 6 f . ellipsi s of , 1 1 4 , 1 44 , 1 64 f , 169 , .

A ni m a ls, n a m es of , g en d er, 32 ; 2 24 f pr. ed i c a te p ron o un a f te r,

p ro n ou n s ,
6 9 . 1 39 . S ee P red i c a te n om i n a tive .

A nother, 6 4 f . B ec om e, w i th predi c a te n om i n a ti ve
A ntec ed ent of pron oun , 4 ; a g ree j
or a d ec ti ve, 6 f , 76, 9 3 . .

m ent, 5 5 , 6 5 , 68 , 1 02 un ex pressed , B efore, preposi ti on , 1 48 ; rela ti ve

71 ff w ha t, 71 c om poun d rela
. a d verb, 8 6 , 1 5 7, 1 63 f ; w i th .

ti ves, 72 f . j
sub un c ti ve, 1 22 ; w i th shoul d,
A ny , a nythi ng , 64 f . 1 30 .

A pod osi s, 168 . B eli evi ng , verbs of , w i th i nfi n i ti ve

A postroph e, 43 ff , 5 6, 3 1 1 . c la use, 138 .

App ea r, w i th predi c a te n om i n a ti ve B i bli c a l sty le S ee S olem n. .

j
or a d ec ti ve, 6 f , 76, 9 3 . . B i d, w i th i nfi n i ti ve, 1 3 8 .

Apposi ti on , 42 S ee A ppositi ve . . B oth, pron oun , 64 .

A pposi tive, c a se of , 42 , 4 7, 53 , 5 7 B oth a nd , 1 5 , 1 53 .

w i th possessi ve, 4 7 i nfi n i ti ve a s, B ut, a d verb, 1 35 .

1 34 f c la u se a s, 1 5 9 ff , 1 6 7, 1 74 ,
. . B ut, c oOrd i n a te c on un c ti on , 1 52 ; j
1 8 0, 1 9 6 a pposi ti ve a s m od i fi er, subord i n a te, 1 53 f elli pti c a l .

1 9 5 f 2 07 . c on stru c ti on s, 1 54 .

Apposi ti ve a dj ec ti ve, 76 . B ut, preposi ti on , 1 48 w i th i n fi n i

A ppositi ve ph ra se, 1 9 5 . ti ve, 1 3 5 .

A rc h a i sm s, xvii S ee Old . .

A rti c les, 77 ff g e n er
. i c ,
7 7 r e C a lli ng , verbs of , tw o ob ec ts, 5 0; j
p e a te d ,
7 8 w i th v e r b a l n o u n ,
1 4 7 p r e d i c a t e n o m i n a ti v e a f te r p a s
A s, rela ti ve pron oun , 6 7 rela ti ve si ve, 1 1 1 .

a d verb, 86, 1 53 ; c on un c ti on , j C a n , c ould, 1 24 ff , 2 9 9 . .

1 53 i n c on c essi on , 1 65 ; i n c la uses C a pi ta lletters, 2 7 ff , 75 ; rules, 3 05 . .

of d eg ree, 1 73 . C a rdi n a l n um era ls, 8 9 f .

A s if , a s thoug h, 1 2 2 , 1 53 , 1 73 a s to, C a se, 40 ff n om i n a ti v e, 40 ff ;

. .

w i th i n fi n i ti ve, 1 6 7 .
p o ss e ss i v e,
43 ff ,
ob e c ti v e.
,
4 7 ff ; j .

A ski ng , verb of , tw o ob ec ts, 5 0; j of a pposi tives, 42 , 4 7, 53 , 5 7 .

reta i n ed ob ec t, 1 1 2 j w i th i n S ee P ron oun s .

di rec t q uesti on , 1 79 ff ( c f . . C a use, c la uses of , 1 64 n om i n a ti ve

A ssertion , 2 , 5 , 1 3 . a bsolute, 1 44 .

A ttri bute S ee P red i c a te a dj ec

. C h a u c er, x v, 43 , 49 , 8 5, 3 1 7 f .

ti ve, P red i c a te ob ec ti ve j . C hoosi ng , verbs of , tw o ob ec ts, j

A ttri butive a d ec ti ve, 76 j . 5 0; predi c a te n om i n a tive a fter
A ug ht, n a ug ht, 65 .
p a s si v e ,
111 .

A uthorshi p, 43 . Cla uses, i n d epen d en t a n d subordi

Auxili a ry verbs, 6, 9 1 ; i n future, n a te, 1 6 ff a s pa rts of speec h ,
1 02 ff i n c om poun d ten ses, 1 06 ;
. 1 9 ff , 1 5 7 ff
. i n fi n i ti ve, 1 3 7 ff
. .

i n pa ssi ve, 1 08 ff ; i n prog res . Sim ple, c om poun d , c om plex,

sive f orm , 1 1 3 f ; i n em ph a ti c . 21 0ff ; c om bi na ti on of , 2 1 0ff
. .
 IND E X
C on j un d efi n ed , 8 ; c la ssi fi c a
c ti on , D esi ri ng , verbs Of, w i th i nfi ni
ti on a n d use, 1 5 1 ff ; c oOrd i n a te . ti ve, 1 3 7 w i th n oun c la use, 1 60
,
or c oord i n a ti n g , 1 5 1 f subor 16 7
'

. .

d i n a te or subord in a ti ng , 1 51 , D i d S ee D o
. .

1 53 f ; c orrela ti ve, 1 53 f ; a d
. . D i rec t a d d ress, n om i n a ti ve i n , 42
verb, preposi ti on , a n d , 1 52 f ; . i n d epen d en t elem en t, 209 .

a n d a d verb, 1 5 0 . D i rec t di sc ourse, 1 74 ff .

j
C on un c ti ve a d verbs a n d pron oun s . j
D i rec t ob ec t S ee O b ec t . j .

S ee R ela ti ve . D i rec t quota ti on s, 1 73 f qu es .

C onsi d eri ng , 1 42 , 1 49 . ti on s, 1 79 .

C on struc ti on , x i v, 2 5 ff D o, did, i n qu esti on s, 1 1 4 ; i n em

’ .

’ ’
’
C on tra c ti on s : i t s, 5 6 ; I ll, w e ll,
’ ’ p h a ti c v e rb h
p ra ses, 1 1 4 ; i n im
-

"
1 26 ; I d , w e d , 1 3 0 ’
1 04 ; let s, 1 20; m a y n t, oug htn t,
.
p e ra ti ve, 1 1 7
som e oth er verb, 1 1 4
a s Substi tute f or
,
.

C ontra ry to f a c t, c on d i ti on s, 1 70f . D ouble c om pa ri son , 8 8 ; c on di

,

C oOrd i n a te (c oOrd i n a ti ng ) c onj un c ti on s, 1 68 .

ti on s, 1 51 f D oubti ng , verb of , w i th i n d i rec t

C o O r d i n a te c la u ses ,
1
- 7 ff ,
18 5 ff . .
q u est i on ,
1 79 ( of .

21 0ff .

C oOrdi n a tion i n sen ten c es, 2 1 0 ff . E a c h, ea c h other, 64 f .

S ee C oOrd i n a te . E d i tori a l w e, 5 7
C opula S ee B e
. . E i ther, 64 ; ei ther or,
C opula ti ve verbs, 6 f , 76, 9 3 S ee . . E lder, eld est, 8 1 .

Be . E lem en ts S ee Sub ec t, P redi c a te,

. j
C orrela ti ve con un c ti on s, 1 53 f j . M odifi ers, C om plem en ts, I n d e
C ould S ee Ga n
. .
pen d ent .

i
I E lli psi s, un derstood w ord s, etc , 3 , .

D a re, 13 7, 2 9 9 . 4 7, 58 , 63 , 69 , 71 , 1 1 4, 1 1 7, 1 1 9 f , .

D a sh , 3 1 0 . 1 21 f , 1 33 , 1 44 , 1 49 , 1 53 f , 1 55 ,
. .

D a ti ve, 5 2 , 60 . 1 60, 1 64 f , 1 69 , 1 73 , 1 75 , 224 ff

. .

D ec la ra tive sen ten c es, 2 E llipti c a l sen ten c es, 224 ff

D ec la ri ng , verbs of , w ith i n fi
.

n iti ve
’
em , 5 7 .
.

c la use, 13 8 . E m ph a si s, superla ti ve of , 8 8 .

D ec lensi on of n oun s, 40; of per E m ph a ti c verb ph ra ses, 1 1 4 ; i m -

son a l pron oun s, 5 5 f ; of sel f .

p era ti v e ,
1 1 7 .

p r o n ou n s,
6 0 of d em on stra ti v es ,
-
en , p lu ra l en d i n g of n o u n s,

63 of rela ti ves, 6 7 of c om poun d 3 5 ; Old plura l en d i n g of verbs,

rela ti ves, 72 of i nterrog a ti ves, 99 .

73 . E n d i ng s, i n i n fl ec ti on , 2 5 g en d er
D ef ec ti ve verbs, 2 9 9 . 33 ; n um ber, 3 4 ff ; c a se, 40 .

D efi n i te a rti c le, 77 ff .
p oss ess i v e,
4 3 f c o m p a r i so n .

D efi ni ti ve a d ec ti ves, 5 , 75 f j . 8 0ff , 8 7 a dverbs, 8 3 ff

. ten se .

D eg ree, a dverbs of , 8 4 c la uses of , 95 f p. e rs o n a l e n d i n s

g , 9 7 f .
,

1 73 See C om pa ris on
. . E ng li sh la ng ua g e, x i ff hi story of ,

D ei ty , w ord s f or th e, 3 05 . 3 1 6 ff .

D em on stra ti ve pron oun s a n d a d E rrors of speec h , 3 7, 4 5 , 5 6, 5 8 , 60,

j ec ti ves, 62 ft . 62 , 64 f , 74, 77, 8 8 , 1 02 ff , 1 2 6,
. .

D epen d ent S ee Subordi n a te . . 1 28 ff , 1 33 ff , 1 3 9 , 1 4 7

. . .

D esc ripti ve a d ec ti ves, 4 , 75 rela j E ven if , 1 53 , 1 6 4 f .

ti ves, 70f . E very , everybody , every thi ng , 64 f .

 INDE X 25

E x c ept, w i th i nfi n itive, 1 3 5 . G ra m m a r, n a ture a nd pri n c i ples

E x c la m a ti on , n om i n a ti ve i n , of , x i ff .

j
1 56 ; ob ec ti ve m e, 60, i n fi n i ti ve, Gra nted tha t, 1 68 .

1 3 6 , va ri ous pa rts of speec h ,

1 55 f ! ph ra ses 1 5 5 f ; c la uses,
.
°
. Ha bi tua l a c ti on , 1 27 .

1 69 ; a s in d epen d en t elem en t, H a d ra ther, etc , 1 2 3 .

; ha d to,
1 2 6 .

2 09 S ee I n ter ec ti on
. j .

E x c la m a ti on poi n t, 1 5 5 , 3 06 . Ha ve, ha d , 6 , 9 5 a u ili a ry i n c om x

E x c la m a tory sen ten c es, 2 f , 74 ; .
p ou n d te n s es ,
1 06 ff ,
1 4 1 . .

p h ra se s ,
1 55 f ; exp re ssi on s, . H e, 56 f or he or she, 6 5 .

1 5 5 f , 2 09 . S ee E x c la m a ti on ,
. H ea r, w i th i nfi n i ti ve, 1 36 .

j
I n ter ec ti on . H em , Old pron oun , 5 7 .

x —
E erc i ses, 22 7 2 9 0 S ee T a ble of . H i s, a s n euter, 5 6 .

C onten ts, v . H osen , 3 5 .

E x h orta ti on s, 1 2 0 . H ow , 8 6 .

x
E pec ta ti on , sub un c ti ve, 1 22 f ; j . H ow ever, 1 52 ; i n c on c essi ons, 1 65 .

shoul d, 1 3 0 . Hyph en , 3 0, 3 1 1 .

x
E pleti ve S ee I t, There
x
E ten t, possessi ve of , 46
.

.
.

’
I d ,
w
’
e d 13 0 ,
.

E y ne, 35 . I d i om s, n a tu re of, x v .

If , 1 53 i n c on diti on s, 1 68 ff ; i n .

F eel, w ith pred i c a te a d ec ti ve, 77 j w i sh es, 1 69 i n i n d i rec t qu es

w i th i n fi n i ti v e, 1 3 6 . ti on s, 1 79 .

F em i n i n e S ee G en d er
F ew , 6 5 .
. . I ll, 8 1 , 8 7
’
I ll, w e ll, 1 04’ .

F i g ures, plura l of , 36 . I m pera ti v e m ood , 1 1 6 ff ; i n ex .

j
F or, c on un c ti on 1 5 2 A . A
c la m a ti ons, 1 56 a s a c on di ti on
F or, preposi ti on , 1 48 , 1 52 ; w i th 1 69 .

i nfi n i ti v e, 1 3 5 , w i th i n fi ni ti ve I m pera ti v e senten c es, 2 f , 1 1 6 ff .

c la u se, 1 3 9 . j
sub ec t of , 2 , 1 1 7 .

F orei g n plura ls, 3 7 . I m person a l i t, 5 8 S ee I t . .

F ra c ti on a l pa rts, 9 0 . I n c a se tha t, 1 5 3 i n order tha t, 1 5 3 ,

Future c on diti on s, 1 71 f . 1 66 ; i n order to, 1 6 7 .

Future perfec t ten se, 1 06 . I n c om plete predi c a ti on , 2 00; v erbs,

Future ten se, 9 4, 1 02 ff S ee S ha ll, . 200 .

w i ll . I n d efi n ite a rti c le, 77 ff ; pron oun s .

j
a n d a d ec ti v es, 64 f n oun s, 65 .

G en d er, 3 1 ff ; of n oun s a n d pro. rela ti v es (w hoever, 72 f .

n oun s, 3 1 ; spec i a l rules f or I n d epen d en t c la uses, 1 7 f S ee .

n ouns, 3 2 ff ; of pron oun s, 56 ; . Cla uses .

of rela ti v es, 6 7 ff See P ersoni . I n d epen d en t elem en ts, 2 09 .

fi c a ti on . I n d epen d en t pa rti c i ples, 1 42 .

G enera lly sp ea ki ng , 1 42 . I n d i c a ti v e m ood , 1 1 5 f va ri ety .

G en eri c a rti c le, 77 of use, 1 1 6 ; i n sta tem en ts a n d

G eni ti v e S ee P ossessi v e
. .
q u e sti o n s o f f a c t,
1 1 6 ; i n c o m
G erun d , 1 4 6 . m a n d s, 1 05 , 1 1 8 i n c on c essi on s,
Gi vi ng , v erbs of , d i rec t a n d indi rec t 12 1 i n c on d i ti on s, 1 70, 1 72 .

j
ob ec t, 50 ; reta i n ed ob ec t, 1 1 2 j . I n d i rec t di sc ourse, 1 73 ff tenses .

Go S ee M oti on
. . i n , 1 75 pa ssi ve; 1 75 f sha ll, .

Goi ng to, 1 05 . shoul d , w i ll, w ould , 1 77 f .

32 6 INDE X
I n di rec t ob ec t, 50 f j reta i n ed . I n tra n si tive verbs, 48 f , 9 2 f . .

w i th pa ssi ve, 1 1 2 ; of pa rti c i pi a l voi c e, 1 1 1 i n pa ssi ve w ith prep

n oun s, 1 46 ; a s m od i fi er, 1 9 9 . osi ti on , 1 1 1 .

I n d i rec t q uesti ons, 1 79 ff i n fi ni . I nverted ord er, 3 , 8 5 , 1 2 1 f , 1 6 1 .

j
.

ti ve i n , 18 1 sub un c ti ve i n , 1 8 1 I rreg ula r verbs, 9 5, 9 9 ; pa rti c i

sha ll, shoul d , w i ll, w ould , 1 8 2 . l
p s, 1 41 ; li sts, 2 9 1 ff
e .

I n d i rec t q uota ti on s, 1 73 ff . I s S ee B e
. .

I n fi n i ti ve, 1 1 ff , 1 3 2 ff f orm s, 1 07,

. . I t, 56 ; i m person a l, 5 8 ; e pleti ve, x
1 33 j
ob ec t a n d m od i fi ers, 1 34 ; 5 8 , 1 3 5 , 1 61 , 1 75 f ; c og n a te ob .

uses, 1 3 4 ff a s n oun , 1 1 ff , 1 3 4
. .
j ec t,
58 .

j
a s ob ec t, 1 3 5 a s n om i n a ti ve of
x
e c la m a ti on , 1 36 ; a s m odifi er, K i nd, sort, 64 .

1 3 6 f , 1 9 4, 1 9 7 f
. w ith see, hea r,
. K i ne, 35 .

f eel, 1 36 ; c om plem enta ry , 1 3 7 ; K now i ng , verbs of ,

i nd i rec t d i s
of purpose, 1 3 7, 1 6 7 ; i n v erb c ou rse, 1 74 ; i n d i rec t questi on ,
p h r a se s , 1 2 ; i n f u t u re ,
1 0 2 ; i n 1 79 .

em ph a ti c f orm s, 1 1 4, 1 1 7 in
p o t e n t i a l v e r b p h r a s
-
e s ,
1 2 4 ff ; . L a ng ua g e, n a ture of , x i ff ; E ng .
e

w i th oug ht, ten ses, 1 2 6 ; i n i n d i li sh , 3 1 6 ff .

/
rec t questi on s, 1 81 i n verb L ess, lea st, 8 1 , 8 7 .

p h r a se s ,
s e e F u t u r e ,
F u t u r e L est, w i th sub un c tive, 1 22 ; pur j
p e r f e c t ,
E m p h a t i c ,
P o t en t i a l .
p o se ,
1 22 ,
166 .

I n fi n i ti ve c la use, 1 3 7 fi a s ob ec t, . j L et, w i th i n fi ni tive, 13 8 ; letus, 120 .

. j
1 3 8 f ; a s sub ec t, 1 3 9 predi c a te L etters, plura l of , 3 6 .

p ro n o u n i n ,
1 39 ; e p r e s s i x
n g p u r L i ke, should li ke, 1 2 9 .

p o s e ,
1 67
3 i n d i r e c t d i sc o u r s e ,
L i ke, w i th ob ec tive, 5 2 j .

1 75 .
.

j
L im i ti n g a d ec ti ves, 5 S ee D efi n i .

I n fi n i ti ve ph ra se, 1 9 4 . ti ve .

I n fi ec ti on , n a ture a n d f un c ti on of , L ook, w i th predi c a te a d ec tive, 77 j .

x i i i f , 2 5 ; sum m a ry of , 2 6 ; of
.

n oun s, 3 0ff of pron oun s, 5 5 ff

. M a in c la use ,
ly s i 17f
s ,
1 8 4 ff. a na .

j
of a d ec ti ves, 79 ff of v erbs,. 2 1 3 ff c om poun d , 2 1 6 f
. .

9 4 ff .li sts of v erb f orm s, 2 9 1 ff -

. j
M a esty , plura l of , 5 7 .

i ng , verba l n oun s i n , 1 45 ff S ee . M a ke, w i th i n fi ni ti ve, 1 3 8

P a rti c ipi a l n oun s . M a king , verbs of , tw o obj ec ts, 50;
I ntensi ve pron oun s, 61 f .
p r e d i c a te n om i n a ti ve a fter pa s
j
I n ter ec ti on s, d efi n ed , 8 ; use, 1 5 5 f . si ve, 1 1 1 .

a s i n d epen d en t elem en ts, 2 09 . m a n , w ord s en d i ng i n , plura lof , 3 5

-
.

I n terrog a ti on poin t, 3 06 . M a nn er, a d verbs of, 8 3 c la uses

I n terrog a ti ve a d verbs, 8 6 ; w ith of , 1 73
c la uses, 1 5 7 i n i n d i rec t ques M a ny , 65 .

ti on s, 1 79 ; w ith i n fi n i ti ve, 1 8 1 . M a sc uline S ee en der . G .

I nterrog a tive pron ouns, 73 f ; a s . M a y , m i g ht, a u ili a ry , 1 20fi x re .

j
a d ec ti ves, 74 w ith preposi ti on s, p la c i n g su b u n c ti v e,
1 2 3 j f orm ,

1 50; w ith c la uses, 1 5 7 ; i n i n 2 99 .

di rec t questi ons, 1 79 ff w i th . M ea sure or e tent, possessiveof , 46 x .

i nfi n itive, 1 8 1 . M eseem s, m ethi nks, 60 .

I nterrog a ti ve senten c es, 2 f ord er . M ig ht, a u ili a ry , 1 23 fi

x repla c i ng .

i n , 3 ; d o, d id i n , 1 1 4 ; d i rec t j
sub un c ti ve, 1 2 3 m i g ht better,
a n d i n di rec t u esti on s, 1 79 ff
q . 1 23 S ee M a y
. .
32 8 IND E X
Ob j ec tive 4 7 ff of servi c e,
c a se, . C la uses) i n fl ec ti on a n d sy n ta x ,
51 f ; a dverbi a l, 5 3 ; i n a pposi
. 2 5 ff S ee Noun , P ron oun , etc
. .

ti on , 5 3 ; of pron oun s, 55 f , 60, . P a ssi ve voi c e, 1 07 ff ; f orm of , .

63 , 6 7, 69 , 72 , 73 f ; i n e c la m a . x 1 08 ff use of , 1 1 0 ff
.
p edi c a te
r .

ti on , 60; sub ec t of i n fi n i ti ve, j n om in a ti ve w i th , 1 1 1 ; reta i n ed

1 38 f S ee O b ec t
. j . j
Ob ec t w i th , 1 1 2 i n prog ressive
j
O b ec ti ve c om plem en t, 5 0 S ee . f orm , 1 1 4 i n i m pera ti ve, 1 1 7 ;
P redi c a te ob ec ti ve j . j
i n su b un c ti ve, 1 1 9 i n tra n si ti ve
O bsolete w ord s, etc , x vi f S ee Old . . . verbs w i th preposi ti on , 1 1 1 p a s
Of m i ne, 4 7, 59 . si ve d i sti ng ui sh ed f rom be w i th

Of ph ra se, 4 5
-
.
p a rti c i ple u se d a s a d e c ti ve,
1 4 3 ; j
Old or poeti c a lf orm s a n d c on struc c la use a s reta i n ed ob ec t, 1 60; j
ti on s, 2 8 f , 3 2 , 3 5 , 3 9 , 43 , 4 5 , 52 ,
. i n di rec t d i sc ourse, 1 75 f .

56 ff , 59 ff , 62 f , 6 7, 69 , 73 , 78 ,
. . . P a st c on di ti on s, 1 69 ff ; n on c om .
-

8 2, 8 4 i , 8 8 , 9 0, 95 ii , 99 , 1 00,
. . m i tta l, l7of ; c on tra ry to f a c t,
.

1 1 4, 1 1 6 f , 1 1 8 , 1 20, 1 22 , . 1 71 .

P a st pa rti ci ple, 1 06 , 1 40f ; .

2 9 7 ff .
p r
‘
edi c a te a d e c ti v e,
1 4 3j .

On c ondi ti on tha t, 1 68 P a st perf ec t ten se, 1 06 , 1 09 ; su b

’
One, on e s, one s self , 60, 6 5 ; one ’ .

j un c ti v e, 1 2 1 f 1 71 prog ressi ve,

a n other, 64 f 1 2 5 ; i n c on diti on s, 1 2 1 , 1 70f ; .

Or, ei ther or, 1 5 , 1 53 f n um . i n i n d i rec t d i sc ourse, 1 75 .

ber w i th or, nor, 1 00 . P a st ten se, 9 4 ff ; person a l en di n g s,

.

Ord er S ee I n verted
. . 9 7 ff ; pa ssi ve, 1 08 ; prog ressi ve,
.

Ord ers, w i lli n , 1 05 S ee C om m a n d . . 1 1 3 f ; em ph a ti c , 1 1 4 ; subj un c

.

Ordi n a l n um era ls, 89 f . ti ve, 1 1 8 , 1 2 1 ff , 1 71 f ; i n d i c a . .

Other, a nother, 3 4 f ,
ti ve a n d sub un c ti ve i n c on di j
Oug ht, 1 2 6 f . ti on s, 1 70ff ; i n i n di rec t di s
.

Oursel f , 60 . c ourse, 1 75 .

Ow e, oug ht, 1 2 6 , 2 9 9 . P endi ng , 1 42 , 1 49 .

Ow n , 61 . P er, p er c ent, etc , 79 , 1 49 . .

P erc ei vi ng , verbs of , w i th i n fi n i ti ve
P a i ns, 1 01 . c la use, 1 38 ; i n di rec t d i sc ourse,
P a rsi n g , m od els f or, 5 4, 74, 8 2 , 1 74 i n d i rec t questi on , 1 79 .

2 43 , 2 5 0f , 2 62 , 2 70 . . P erf ec t i n fi n i ti v e, 1 07, 1 3 3 ; w i th
P a rt, p brti on , 1 02 . oug ht, 1 2 6 ; pa rti c i ple, 1 07, 1 40i .

P a rti c i pi a l n oun s, 1 45 ff ob ec t of , . j P erf ec t (or presen t perf ec t) tense

1 46 f m od i fi ers of , 1 46 ; a s a d
.

j ec ti v e ,
1 4 6 f ; w i th a rt i c le
.
,
1 4 7 . P eri od , 3 06 .

P a rti c i pi a l phra se, 1 9 4 . P erm i ssi on , 1 2 5 f , 1 2 9 . .

P a rti c iples, l1 f , 1 40ff ; presen t, . . P erson of substa n ti ves, 3 9 of pro

p a st , p e rf ec t,
1 2 ,
l 06 f ,
1 4 0 f ; . . n oun s, 5 5 ii ; of rela ti ves, 68 ;
.

c on struc ti on s, 1 42 ff ob ec t a n d . j of verbs, 9 7 ff , 1 00ff . .

m od i fi ers of , 1 42 f ; a s preposi . P erson a l c on stru c ti on , 1 76 .

ti on s, 142 , 149 ; a s a d ec ti ves, j P erson a l en d i ng s, 9 7 f .

1 43 ; w ith n om i n a ti ve a bsolute, P erson a l pron oun s, 55 ff ; i n fl ec .

1 45 a s m od i fi ers, 1 93 f , 205 . . ti on , 55 ff g e n d er .a n d n um ber ,

P a rts of speec h , d efi n ed , 3 ff ; sa m e . 56 f ; c a se, 5 7 ff ; sel

.
fp ron ou n s, .
-

w ord a s di fferen t, 9 ff ; substi . 60ff ; a s pred i c a te n om i n a ti ve,

.

’
tutes f or, 1 5 ff ( see P h ra ses, . 41 .
 IND E X 3 29

P erson ifi c a ti on , 2 8 f , 32 . . P redi c a te, 2 i n verted ord er, 3 , 8 5,

P hra ses, 1 6 ; k i n d s of , 1 6 (see Noun 1 21 f , 1 6 1 ; sim ple a n d c om plete,
.

p h r a s e s ,
A d e c ti v e ph rja s es ,
A d 1 4 f , 1 83 f ; c om poun d , 1 5 , 1 84 f ,
. . .

verbi a l phra ses, V erb ph ra ses) ; -

2 1 2 f ; possessi ve i n , 5 9 ; a n a ly
.

a s preposi ti on s, 1 49 a s c on j un c si s, 1 83 ff m od i fi ers of , 1 96 ff
. .

ti on s, 1 5 3 x
e c la m a tory , 1 55 ; i n c om plem en ts, 2 0 0ff S ee C om .

a n a ly si s, 1 9 1 ii ; a s m od i fi ers of .
p le m e n t s ,
M o d i fi e rs .

sub ec t,j 1 92 f ; of p r ed i
. c a te ,
j
P redi c a te a d ec tive, 76 f 9 3 pa r
1 9 6 f ; a s c om plem ents, 2 04 ; a s
. ti c i ple a s, 1 43 ; a n a ly si s, 2 03 f .

m od i fi ers of c om plem ents, 2 05 f . a s c om plem en t, 2 0 3f h

p a se a s,
r .

of oth er m odi fi ers, 2 07 f S ee . 204 m od i fi ers of , 2 06 .

P rog ressi ve, E m ph a ti c , P oten P redi c a te n om i n a ti ve, 4 1 , 49 , 9 3 ;

ti a l, A pposi ti ve, I n fi ni ti ve, P a r of pron oun s, 58 ; a fter pa ssi ve
ti c i pi a l, P reposi ti on a l, V erba l 111 i n fi n i ti ve a s, 1 3 4 f ; i n fi n i .

n oun ph ra ses -
. ti ve c la use a s, 1 3 9 ; n oun c la use
Pla c e a n d ti m e, a d verbs of , 8 3 ff . a s, 1 59 f , 1 74 , 1 8 0 i n a n a ly si s,
.

c la uses of , 1 63 f . 2 02 f ; a s c om plem en t, 2 02 f ;
. .

P luperf ec t ten se, 1 06 , 1 09 ; sub m od i fi ers of , 2 05 f .

j
un c ti v e, l21 f , 1 71 p g es
r o r
. j
P redi c a te ob ec ti ve, 5 0, 1 1 1 ; a d
si ve, 1 2 5 ; i n c on di ti on s, 1 2 1 , j ec ti ve a s, 5 0; i n a n a ly si s, 2 0 2; as
1 70f i n i n d i rec t di sc ourse, 1 75
. . c om plem en t, 2 0 2 ; m od ifi ed , 205 .

P lura l of n oun s, 3 4 ff ; i rreg ula r, . P redi c a te pron oun a fter to be, 1 39 .

3 5 ti ; of c om poun d s, 3 6 ; of f or P redi c a ti on , c om plete a n d i n c om

‘

ei g n n ouns, 3 7 of proper n a m es p ete, 200

l .

a n d ti tles, 3 5 , 38 of possessi v e, P reposi ti on , d efi n ed , 8 ; li st a n d

43 f ; of pron oun s, 56 f , 60,
. . uses, 1 4 8 ff ; ob ec t of , 8 , 4 7,
. j
62 fi ; of rela ti v es, 6 7 f ; of
. . 1 5 0ff ; w i th i ntra n siti v e v erb,
.

verbs, 9 7 ff ; plura l of m a esty ,. j 1 1 1 ; w i th pa ssi ve, 1 1 1 ; ph ra se

57 used a s, 1 49 a t en d of c la use,
P oeti c a l f orm s a n d c on struc ti on s 1 49 ; f ollow i ng th e ob ec t, 1 49 ; j
xvii . S ee Old . om i tted , 1 49 p a rti c i ple a s,
1 4 9
P orti on , p a rt, 1 02 . j
i n fi n itiv e a s ob ec t of , 1 3 5 ; c la use
P osi ti ve d eg ree, 79 , 8 7 j
a s ob ec t of , 1 6 1 , 1 8 0 .

P ossessive c a se of n oun s, 43 ff use, . P reposi ti on a l ph ra ses, 1 6 , 1 48 .

4 5 ff ; of m ea sure, 4 6 ; of c om
. P resen t c on d iti on s, 1 70ff ; n on .

p o u n d n o u n s a n d of p h r a s es, c om m i tta l, 1 70f c on tra ry to

46 f ; a pposi ti on w ith , 4 7
. of f a c t, 1 71 .

p e r so n a l p ro n o u n s ,
55 f ,
5 9 ; o f . P resent i nfi ni ti ve, 133 ; w i th oug ht,
d efi n i te pron oun s, 65 ; of rela 1 26 .

ti ves, 6 7, 69 , 72 ; of i nterrog a P resent pa rti c i ple, 1 2 , l40f ; i n .

ti v es, 73 possessi ve n oun s m od i v erb ph ra ses, 1 3 , 1 1 3 f , 1 3 0f ;

-
. .

fi ed , 2 07 . w i th n om i n a ti ve a bsolute, 1 44 .

P ossessive m odi fi ers , 1 9 5 , 2 05 , 2 07 . P res en t perf ec t ten se, 1 06 .

P ossessi ve pron oun s, 5 5 f , 5 9 m y , P resen t ten se f orm , 9 4 ; person a l

m i ne, etc , use of , 5 9 ; one s, 65
.
.

’ en d i n g s, 9 7 f c on ug a ti on , 98 f
. j .

w hose, 6 7, 69 , 72 , 73 . i n f uture sen se, 1 05 ; i n future

P oten ti a l v erb ph ra ses, 1 2 4 ff ;
-
. c on d i ti on s, 1 72 ; pa ssi ve, 1 08 ;
m ood , 1 24 ff . r
p g o re ss i v e,
1 1 3 f ; em ph a.ti c ,

P ra y , 5 8 . 1 1 4 i m pera ti ve, 1 1 6 f ; subj un c .

P ra y ers, sub un c tive, 1 19 f j . ti ve, 1 1 8 f 1 20ff ; i n d i c a ti w .

330 IND E X
a nd j
sub un c tiv e i n c on di ti on s, R eg ula r verbs, 9 5 ff ; pa rti c i ples , .

1 70f p a .r ti c i l
p e, 1 2 , 1 44 ff ih . 1 l1 .

fi n i ti ve, 1 3 3 . R ela ti ve a d ec ti ves, 73 j .

P reteri te, 9 4 S ee P a st . . R ela tive a d verbs, 8 6 ; w i th sub

P reteri te present verbs , 2 99-
P ri n c i pa l c la use S ee M a i n c la use
. j un c tive,
122 ; i ntrod u c ing c la uses,
. . 1 5 7 f ; pla c e a n d ti m e, 1 64 ; c on
.

P ri n c ipa l pa rts, 1 07 li st, 2 9 1 ff . c essi on , 1 65 ; c on di ti on s, 1 6 9 .

P ri thee, 5 8 . R ela ti ve pronoun s, 66 ff ; f orm s, .

P rog ressi ve verb ph ra ses, 1 1 3 f ; -

. 6 7 ; g en d er, 6 7 ff ; a g reem en t, .

i n sub un c ti ve, 1 1 9 j . 68 , 1 02 ; c a se, 68 f , 1 3 9 ; om itted , .

P rohi bi tion , 1 1 7 . 69 ; desc ri pti ve a n d restri c ti ve,

P ron om i n a l a d ec ti ves S ee A dj ec j . 70f ; w ha t, 71 ; c om poun d rela
.

tive pron oun s ; Dem on stra ti ve, ti ves, 72 f rela ti v es i n trod u c i n

.
g
I n d efi n i te, R ela ti ve, I nterrog a c la uses, 66 , 1 5 7 f ; pla c e a n d .

ti ve . ti m e, 1 63 f ; c on c essi on , 1 3 1 , .

P ron oun d efi n ed , 4 a n tec eden t of , 1 65 ; c on d i ti on , 13 1 , 1 69 .

4 ; c la ssi fi c a ti on , f orm s, a n d uses, R estri c ti ve rela ti ves, 70f .

5 5 ff p.r e d i c a te n o m i n a t i ve ,
4 1 ,
R esult, c la u se of , 1 66 f i n fi n itive, .

5 8 S ee P erson a l, A d ec tive, De
. j 16 7 n eg a ti ve, 1 6 7 .

m on stra ti ve, I n d efi n i te, R ela ti ve, j

R eta i n ed ob ec t, 1 1 2 ; c la u se a s,
I n terrog a ti ve, I nten si ve, R efl ex 1 60 .

i ve, R ec i proc a l, en d er G . R oy a l w e, 5 7 60 .

P ron oun , pred i c a te, a f ter to be, 1 3 9 .

P roper n oun s, 27 ff plura l, 35 , 3 8 ; . S a m e (the) a s, 6 7 .

p o ss essi ve ,
4 4 ; a d e c t i v e s,
7 5 j . S a y i ng S ee Telli ng
. .

P roph ec y , sha ll, 1 05 . S ee, w i th i nfi n i ti ve, 1 3 6 .

P rota sis, 1 68 . S eem , w i th predi c a te n om i n a ti ve

P rovi ded (tha t) , 1 53 , 1 68 . j
or a d ec ti ve, 6 f , 76 , 93 i t seem s .

P un c tu a tion , rules of , 3 06 ff . tha t, 1 76 .

j
P urpose, sub un c ti ve a n d i n d i c a S elfp-
r o n o u n s,
6 0 ff .

ti ve, 1 22 f i n fi n i ti ve of , 1 3 7,
. S em i c olon , 3 09 f .

1 6 7 c la uses of , 1 66 f ; i n fi n iti ve . S enten c es, 1 ff ; k i n d s of , 2 f ; . .

c la use, 1 6 7 .
p a rts o f Speec h i n , 3 ff , 1 3 ff ; . .

essen ti a l elem en ts in, 2, 14 ;

Questi ons ,
3 f ; sh a ll a n d w i ll
. i n ,
sim ple a nd c om plete sub ec t j
1 02 ff ; should a n d w ould i n ,
. a n d pred i c a te, 1 4 f ; c la uses i n , .

1 2 7 ff ; d o, di d , 1 1 4 ; m a y , 1 2 6 ;
. 1 6 ff ; si m ple, c om poun d , c om
.

a s c on d i ti on , 1 69 ; d i rec t a n d i n p l e x ,
1 7 ff c o m p .ou n d c o m p le x ,

d i rec t, 1 79 ff S ee I n terrog a ti ve . . 18 .

Quota ti on m a rk s, 3 1 0 . Sen ten c es, a n a ly si s , 183 fi ; strue .

Quota ti on s, d irec t a nd i n direc t, ture a nd elem ents, 18 3 of si m ple

1 73 ff . senten c es, 1 8 4 f ; of c om poun d , .

1 8 5 ; of c om plex , 1 8 6 ; of c om ,

Ra ther, 8 7 ; ha d ther, 1 23 ra .
p o un d a n d c om p le x c l a u s es,

R ec i proc a l pron oun s, 64 f . 1 86 f ; of c om poun d c om plex sen

.

fl x
R e e i ve pron oun s, 6 1 si m ple ten oes, 1 8 7 ; m od els f or a n a ly si s
p e rson a l pron ou n s a s,
61 . of si m ple, c om poun d , c om plex ,
Ref usi ng , verbs of , d irec t a n d i n d i c om poun d c om plex sen ten c es,
j
rec t ob ec t, 50 ; reta i n ed ob ec t, j -1 8 8 ff
; m o d i fi
. e rs ,
1 9 1 ff c om .

112 .
p l e m en t s ,
2 0 0 ff ; m o d i fi e rs o f .
332 INDE X
S uperla tiv e of em ph a si s, 8 8 S ee . T i tles, plura l, 3 8 .

C om pa ri son . T0, w i th i n fi n i tive, 1 1 , 1 32 ff ; .

S upp ose, supp osi ng , 1 68 . sta n d i ng f or i n fi ni ti ve, 1 3 3 ex

S y nta x , x i v, 2 5 ff ; sum m a ry of .
pressi ng purpose, 1 6 7 ; to let,
rules, 3 1 1 ff . 1 36 to the end tha t, 1 6 6 .

Too to, 1 6 7 .

Ta ste, w i th predi c a te a d ec ti ve, 77 j . T ra nsit1 ou , 1 52 .

Telli ng , verbs of , d i rec t a n d i n T ra n si ti ve verbs, 4 8 ff , 9 2 ; used .

j
d irec t ob ec t, 5 0 reta i n ed ob a bsolutely , 9 2 ; pa ssi ve use of
,

j ec t ,
1 1 2 ; ob e c t c la u s e ,
j 1 6 0 ; 1 1 0ff S ee O b ec t
. j .

i n di rec t d i sc ourse, 1 74 .

T en se, 9 4 ff S ee P resen t, P a st, E u

. Un less, 1 2 1 ff , 168 . .

ture, C om poun d ten ses . j

Un li ke, ob ec ti ve w i th , 52 .

T en ses, u se i n c on d iti on s, 1 21 , Unti l S ee Ti ll

. .

1 70ff ; w i th oug ht, 1 2 6 ; i n i n

. Usa g e a n d g ra m m a r, x v ff .

d i rec t d i sc ou rse, 1 75 , 1 77 ff ; i n .

i n di rec t q u esti on s, 1 79 , 1 8 2 . V erb, 5 ff . in flec tion a n d sy n ta x ,

T erm i n a ti on S ee E n d i n g s . . 9 1 ff ; c la ssifi c a ti on , 9 1 ti ; l
. .

Tha n , 8 7 c a se a fter, 1 73 c la uses, fi ec ti on, 9 4 fi , l02 ff p e r

. so n .
°

1 73 a n d n um ber, 9 7 ff a g reem en t
°
. .

j
Tha t, c on un c ti on w i th subord i j
w i th sub ec t, 9 7, 1 00 ff ; voi c e
,
.

n a te c la use, 2 0f , 1 3 2 , 1 3 7, 1 53 , . 1 07 ff p gr
. o ressi ve f or m ,
1 1 3 f .

1 5 7 ff , 1 60ff
. i n c la uses of pur
. em ph a ti c f orm , 1 1 4 m ood ,
p o s e ,
1 2 2 f ,
1 3 0 ,
1. 6 6 f ; r esu lt,
. 1 15 ti ; poten ti a l verb ph ra ses,
.
-

1 66 f ; i n d i rec t d i sc ourse, 1 74 ff ;
. . 1 24 ff ; i n fi n iti ve, 1 1 f , 132 ff ;
. . .

om i tted , 1 53 , 1 60, 1 75 , 2 2 5 .
pa rti c i ples, 1 1 f , 1 40 ff ; li sts . .

Tha t, d em on st a tive, 62 ff ; rela of verbs, 2 9 1 ff S ee P redi c a te,

r . .

ti ve, 6 7 ff ; om i tted , 69 . . T ra n si ti ve, T ense, etc .

The, a rti c le, 7 7 ii ; a bbrevi a ted to . V erba l n oun i n - i ng , 1 45 fi S ee .

y ,e 5 7 ; th e w h i c h ,
6 7 a d v er b P a rti c i pi a l n oun s .

w i th c om pa ra ti ve, 86 . V erba l noun phra ses, 1 46 -

.

Then, a d verb or c on un c ti on , 1 52 j . V e rb — h
p a ses, 5 , 1 6, 9 1 to supply
r
There, e pleti ve, 8 5x . fl
i n ec ti on , see Future, C om plete
Thereof , therew i th, etc , 60 . . ten ses, P a ssi ve, P rog ressi v e, P o
They , i n d efi n i te u se, 5 7 tenti a l, S ub un c ti ve j .

Thi nki ng , verbs of , tw o ob ec ts, 5 0; j Voc a l org a n s, x i .

p r e d i c a t e n o m i n a ti v e a f te r p a s Voc a bula ry of E n g li sh , 3 1 8 f .

si ve, 1 1 1 ob ec t c la use, 1 60 ; j Voc a ti ve (d i rec t a dd ress) , n om i n a

i n d i rec t di sc ourse, 1 74 ; i n di rec t ti ve, 42 a s i n d epen d en t elem ent,
q u es t i o n ,
1 7 9 . 209 .

Thi s, these, 62 ff . Voi c e, 1 07 ff S ee P a ssiv e

. .

Thou, y e, y ou, 56 f .

Thoug h, a lthoug h, 2 1 m ood a fter, We ,

i n d e fi n i te u se,
5 7 ; roy a l a n d
1 20f See C on c ession
. . ed i tori a l w e, 5 7 .

Ti ll, unti l, rela tive a d verb, 8 6 w i th W ea k verbs, 9 5 ff , 98 f ; pa rti c i . .

‘

j l l i ff
sub un c ti ve, 1 22 f
1 23 , 1 30; preposi tion , 1 49
w i th shoul d, .

.
p
’
e s,

We d, 1 30
1 4 1 sts

.
,
2 9 1 .

T i m e, a d verbs of , 8 3 ; c la uses of, Well, 8 1 , 8 7

1 63 f ; . n om i n a ti ve a bsolute,
’
We ll, 1 04 .
.

1 44 . Were to, 1 72 .
 IND EX 33 3

Wha t ,
rela 7 1 ti ve,
d ou b l e c on W hoever ,
h o
w s oe v e r, w h oso, 72 f ; .

struc ti on , 71 , 73 ; a s a d ec ti v e, j i n c on c essi on , 1 6 5 i n c on d iti on

73 i n terrog a ti ve, 73 f a s a d . 1 69 .

j ec ti v e,
7 4 ; i n e c la m a to ryx s en Why , 8 6, 1 79 .

ten oes, 74 ; i nter ec ti on , 74 j . Wi ll, i n ord ers 1 05 i n f uture,

Wha tever, w ha tsoever, 72 f i n c on . see S ha ll .

c essi on , 1 6 5 i n c on d i ti on s, 1 6 9 . j
W i sh , sub un c tive i n , 1 1 9 f , 1 23 .

Wha tso, 73 . m a y , 1 2 5 f ; v erbs of , w i th i n

.

When , w henever, 8 6 i n c on d iti on s, fi n i ti ve or i n fi n i ti ve c la use, 1 3 7 f .

1 69 . j
w i th ob ec t c la u se, 1 60 1 6 7
,
O
Whenc e, 8 6 . in a w i sh , 1 55 ; if ,
Where, w herever, 86 . W ord s, n a ture a n d use of , x i ff .

Whereof , w herefrom , etc , 69 . . Wot, w i st, 2 99 .

Whether, w hether or, Would , i n w i sh es, 1 2 0 ; h a bitua l

1 79 . a c ti on , 12 7 ; w ou l d better (ra ther) ,
Whi c h, rela ti ve, 6 7 ff g e n d e r,
. 1 2 3 S ee S hould
. .

67 ff f or w ho, w hom , 6 9
. a s a d Wri tten a n d spok en la ng u a g e, x i ff .

j ec ti v e,
73 ; th e w hi c h ,
6 7 i n te r

rog a ti v e, 73 ; a s a d ec ti v e, 74 j Ye, old u ses, 5 7 a bbrevi a ti on

Whi c hever, 72 f . 57
Whi le, n oun , a d verb, c on un c tion , j Yes, no, 8 5 .

Yet, sti ll, a d verbs or c on un c ti on s j

W hi ther 86 ,
. 1 52 .

W ho w hose
, ,
hom
w ,
rela ti v e, 6 6 ff . Yon , y ond y ond er, 63
. .

g en d er, 6 7 ff . i n terrog a ti v e, You a n d thou, 5 6 f i n d efi n i te y ou,

.

73 57 .