A T E XT B O O K -

V ET E R I N A RY A N A T O M Y

S E P T I M US S I S S O N , S E . .
, V S
. .

P RO F E S S O R O F CO PA
M RA T I V E ANA T O MY I N O HI O S T AT E U N I V E RS I T Y C O LU M B US O HI O

O F T HE A ME R I C AN A S S O C I A T I O N O F ANA T O M I S T S
. .

ME M BE R

WI TH 5 88 I LL US TRA TI ON S

M A N Y I N COL OR S

PH I L A D E L PH IA AN D . L ON D ON

W . B . S A U N DE RS C OM PA NY
1 9 1 0
 P Y R I G HT
CO ,
1 0 1 0, BY W . B SA
. U N DE R S C OM PA N Y
 K AT HE R I N E OL D HA M S I SS ON

IN G R A E FU L
T '
E C OG N ITI ON O C ON ANT
R F S T

I N P I A T ON
S R I AN D E N C OU A G E EN T
R M

T H I OO K
S B IS E I C AT E
D D D

B YT H E A UT H O R
 P R E FA C E
T HE l a ck o f a m o de rn a nd w ell — i llust r a t ed b oo k on t h e st r u ctu r e of th e p r i n ci
p a l d o mesti c a n i m a l s h a s bee n a cutely felt fo r a l o n g t i m e by t e a ch e rs st ude n t s , ,

a n d p r a ctiti o n e r s o f vete r i n a r y med ici n e The w o r k he r e o ffe r ed is th e ex p r essi o n

.

of a desi r e t o cl o se this g a p i n ou r lite r a tu r e .

The st udy o f f r o z e n secti on s a nd o f m a te r i a l wh i ch h a s bee n h a r de n ed by i nt ra

v a scu l a r i nj ecti o n o f f o r m a l i n h a s p r o f o u n d ly m o dified ou r v iews c on ce r n i n g the
n a tu ra l sh a pe o f m a n y o f the visce r a a n d h as r e n de r ed p o ssible m u ch g r e a te r p re

c i s i o n i n t o p o g r a ph i c st a teme n ts The expe r ie n ce of t he a uth or du r i n g the l a st

.

t e n ye a r s i n whi ch a l m o st a l l o f the m a t e r i a l used for dissect i o n a n d for f r o ze n

,

sect i o ns i n the a na t om i c a l l a b o r at o r y of t his U n ive r si ty h a s b een h a r d e n e d with

"

f or m a l i n h as de m on st r a ted th a t m a n y o f th e cu rr e n t desc r ipti o n s of t h e o rg an s i n

,

a n i m a ls c o n t a i n the s a m e s o r t o f e rro r s a s t h o se w h i ch p r ev a i led i n r eg a r d t o si m il a r

st r u ctu res i n ma n p r evi o us to the a d o pt i o n o f m o de r n m eth o ds of p r ep a r a t i on .

Whi le the m eth o d of t r e a t m e n t of the subj ect is esse nt i a l ly syste m a ti c to p o g ,

rap h y is n ot by a n y m e a n s n eglected eith e r i n text o r i l lust r a t i o n s ; i t is h o p ed th a t .

this wi ll r e n de r t he b oo k of v a l ue t o th e stud e n t i n h is cl i n i c a l c o u r ses an d to

the p r a ctiti o n e r E m b ry o l o gi c a l a n d h ist o l o gi c a l d a t a h a ve bee n a l m o st e nti r ely
.

excluded si n ce it w as desi r ed t o o ffe r a text b o o k of c on ve n i e n t siz e fo r th e stude n t

,
-

a n d a w o r k o f r e a dy r efe r e n ce fo r the p r a ct it i o n e r I t is bel ieved th a t the use o f

.

bl a ck t yp e fo r the n am es o f i m p o r t an t st r u ctu r es a n d of s m a ll p r i n t for ce r t a i n

det a i ls o r m a tte r of sec o n d a r y i m p o r t a n ce w i ll p r o ve useful i n th is r espect .

Vete r i n ar y a n a t o m i c a l n o m e n cl a tu r e i s a t p r ese n t quit e ch a o ti c i n E n glish

spe a ki n g c o u n t r ies I n t his wo r k a n a tte m pt is m a de t o eli m i n ate s o m e te r m s
.

whi ch d o n o t a ppe a r t o the a uth or t o f u lfil a ny useful pu r p o se a nd o the r s whi ch ar e ,

cle ar ly e rro n e o us o r ot he r wise u n desi r a ble I n m a n y c a ses t h e te r m s a g reed up o n

.

by the C on g r esses a t B a de n a nd S tuttg a rt a re a d o pted eithe r i n th e or igi n a l L a ti n

o r i n a n gli cized f or m ; o the r wise t hese te r m s a r e a dded i n p a r e n thesis The .

a uth o r f a v o r s the subst a n t i a l a d o pti o n o f th is te r m i n o l o gy but c on side r ed it ,

desi ra ble t o Off e r a s o r t of t ra n si ti o n a l st a ge a t p r ese n t .

Th e o r igi n a l i llust r a ti on s ar e ch iefl y r ep r o ducti on s o f ph ot o g r a phs ma n y o f ,

w hi ch we r e t a ke n by M r F H Ha skett . . . The p r ep ar a ti on o f t h e pi ctu r es for

.

'

r ep r o du ct i o n w a s c a rr ied o u t by M ess r s J V Al t e n e d e r a n d W J N o rr is
. . . Th e . . .

a uth o r t a kes ple a su r e i n e x p r essi n g h is a pp r e ci at i o n of th e c ar e a n d ski ll e x e r cised

by these ge n tle m e n i n th is o fte n d iffi cu lt t a sk .

The a uth o r i s u n de r gr e a t ob li g a t i on t o P r o fess o r s E ll en b e r ge r a nd B a u m i n

D r esde n t o P ro fess o r S ch m a lt z i n B e r l i n a n d t o th ei r pub lishe r s for pe r m issi o n t o
, ,

use o r t o c o py figu r es f r om th ei r m o st excelle n t w o r ks Thei r ge n e r osi ty i n t his .

m a tte r h as m a de i t p o ssib le to supply thi s text wi t h a l a r ge r n u m be r o f hi gh cl a ss -

i l lust ra ti on s th a n is to be f o u n d i n a ny o the r A few figu r es h a ve bee n t a ke n f r om

.

o the r s o u r ces an d p r o pe r c r edit h as bee n give n i n e a ch c a se

,
.

Fo r checki n g o ve r ce r t a i n d a t a a n d fo r a ssist a n ce i n th e c o rr ecti on o f the p r o o fs

the a uth o r is m u ch i n debted t o h is a ss o ci a te D r F B Ha dley ,
. . . .

The a uth or desi r es t o exp r ess h is h i gh a pp r e ci a ti o n of the dete r m i n a t i on a n d

c o n st a n t e ff or t o f t he publ ish e rs t o d o al l i n t hei r p o we r to r e n d e r the b oo k w o r thy
o f f a v o r a ble r e cepti o n by th e p r o fessi o n fo r wh om it is i n te n ded .

OHI O S TATE U N I VE R S I T Y , C OL UM U
B S, OHI O SE P TI M U S S I S S ON .

S ep te mber , 1 9 1 0
 C O NT E NT S

I N T R OD U C T I ON
OS T E OL OG Y
T HE S K E LET O N .

S t r u c t u re of B o ne s
D e v el o p m en t a n d G r o w t h o f B o ne
C o m p os i ti o n a nd P h y s i c a l P ro p e r t i es
‘
of L o nc
D es cr i p ti v e T e r m s .

T h e Ver t eb r a l C o l u m n
Th e R i b s a nd C o s t a l C a r ti l a ges
C os t a l C a r ti l a g es
T h e S tern u m
T h e T h o ra x
Th e S k u l l
Bo nes of t h e T h o ra c i c L i mb
B o n es of th e P el v ic L i mb
S KE LETON OF T HE H OR S E
Ver t eb r a l C o l u m n
R i bs .

S t er n u m
B o n es of the S ku l l
C r a ni u m
Face .

T h e Sku l l as a Who l e .

T h e C ra n i a l C a v i t y
T h e N as a l C a v i t y
Th e P a r a n as a l S i n u s es
Bo n es of t h e Th o ra c c L i i mb
Bo nes of th e P e l v i c L i mb
S K E LET O N OF T HE Ox
Ver t eb ra l C o l u mn
R i bs .

S t ern u m
B o n es of th e S k u l l
T h e S ku l l as a Wh o l e ;

B o n es of th e T h o ra c i c L i mb .

B o n es of th e P e l v i c L i mb
S KE LETON O F T HE PIG .

Ver t eb ra l C o l u m n
R i bs .

S t er n u m .

B o n es o f t h e S k u l l . .

Th e Sku l l as a I ’Vh o l e
B o nes of th e Th o r a c i c L i mb .

B o n es of th e P e l v i c L i mb
S K E LET O N or T HE Do c
qm
.

Ver t eb ra l C n

R i bs .
12 c o N T E N Ts

Ster nu m .

B o nes of the S k u ll
T he S ku l l as a W ho le
B o n es of th e T h o ra c i c Li mb .

Bo n e s of t he P e l v i Li m b c .

I tT HR0 LOG Y
S Y N A R T H R OS ES
D I A R T H R OS E S
A “ r n m nr n no s ii s
.

OI "T I—
Ih
‘
H O RS E
J o i n t s a n d Li g a m e n ts f t h e Ve r te b rzc o .

A t l a me c i p i ta l A r ti c u l a ti o n
-o c
"
( o s t o -v e r t e b r a l r t i c u l a t i o ns

-
c l m n( l ra l \ r t i c u l a t i o ns
. .

C h o n cl ro -s t e r n a l A r t i c u l a t i tms
St er n a l J o i n ts a nd L i g a m en t
\
- rt c u i l a t i o ns of t he S kull
A r ti c u l a ti o ns o f th e T h o rac i c Li m b .

A rt i c u l a ti o n s of the Pe l v i c Li m b .

A RT I C U I . AT I ( ) N S o r T HE 0 x , Pm ,
D o c:

T HE S Y S T E M —M Y OL OG Y
T HE M u s c LE s AN D Ac t -E s s o n v
F a s c i as AND M u se w s O F T HE Ho u s e .

l ’ a n n ic u l u s c a r no s u s

I’ a s c i a i
a nd M u s c l es of the Hea d
l ’ a s c i ze a n d M u s c l es o f th e N eck .

Fas c i zc a n d M u s c l es of the Ba e i a nd Lo i n s .

“a s e i ze a n d h i t tS e l e s o f t h e T a il
M u s c l es of the T h o ra x .

M u s c l es of t h e Ab d o m n e
M u s c l es of the T h o ra c i c Li m b .

as c i a a nd \; l les
-
f the Pel v i c
l

I‘
u s! o

M US C LE S o r T i n-
1 Ox .

M u s c LE s m“ T HE I’ m .

M t 's c L E s o r T m; Do e

S I ’ LA N C I I N OLOG Y —T HE DI G E S T I VE S YS T E M
S vs T E M o r TII E I I o ns rc
-
.

T h e M o nt h
T he T o ng u e .

T h e T eet h .

T he Sa l iv m y ( l l a m ls '

T h e I’ h a r y n x
T h e (E s o p h a g u s
T h e A b d o mi na l
T h e l e r i t o ne tn n
’
.

T h e Pe l v i c C a v i t )
.

T h e St o m a c h .

T h e S m a l l I nt es ti n e
T h e La r ge I n t es ti n e
T h e Pa n c re a s
T h e Li v e r
T h e S p l ee n
T h e Pe rit o ne u m
 C ON T E N T S 13

M e b
.

D I G E S T I V E S YS T E M OF T HE Ox . .

D i G E sT I v E S Y S T E M OF T H E S H EE P
D i GE S T I v E SYS TE M O F T HE PIG . .

DI G E S T I v E S YS T E M OP T HE DO G .

T HE R E S P I R A T OR Y S Y S T E M
RES IRA P T O RY S YS TE M OP TIIE H O RS E
T h e N a s a l C a v it y .

T h e La r y n x . .

T h e T r a c h ea .

T h e B ro n c h i .

T h e T h o ra c i c C a v i t y
,

T h e F l eu rze .

T h e Lu n g s .

T HE THY R O I D G LA ND O F T HE

T HE T HY M I
'

S OF T HE H OR S E .

P
R E S I R A T OR Y S Y S T E M or T HE Ox
P
R E S I R A T OR Y S Y S T E M OF T HE PIG
P
R ES I R A T OR Y S Y S E M T OF T HE D OG

T HE UR OG E N I T A L S Y S T E M
I
'

RI N A R Y OR G A N S or T HE H O RSE
T h e K id n e v s .

T h e Ur et e rs
. . .

T h e T r i na r y B l a d d er
'

T HE A D R E N A L BO D I ES .

U R I N A R Y OR G A x s OF T H E Ox
U R I N A R Y OR G A N S O F T HE PI G
U R I N A R Y OR G A N S or T HE D OG

T HE M A LE GE N I TA L OR G A N S
M A LE GEN I TA L OR G A N S O P T HE H OR S E
T h e T e s ti c l es
T h e S c ro t u m .

T h e Vas D e f ere ns .

T h e S p e r m a ti c C o r d
Th e T u n i c a Va g i n a li s .

D es c en t o f t h e T es ti c l es .

Th e V es i cu l a' S e m i na l es
T h e P r os t a t e
Th e I
’
t er a s M a s c u li n u s
T he Bu l b o u r et h ra l G l a n d s
-

Th e P en i s
T he P re p u c e
M A LE G E N I T A L OR G A x s O F T HE Ox
M A LE GE N I TA L OR G A N S OF T HE PI G
M A LE G E N ITA L OR G A N S 0 ? T HE DOG

T HE FE M A LE G E N I TA L OR G A N S
GE N I TA L OR G A N S OF T HE M ARE .

T he Ov a r i es
F a ll o p i an T u b es
'

The I t e r i ne o r .

Th e U t e ru s .

T h e V a g i na .
 14 C ON T E N T S

T h e Vu l v a
T h e U re t h r a
.

T h e M a m ma ry G l a n d s
.

( I E N I T A L OR I I A N S or T HE Co w
G E N I T A L O R OA N S O F T HE So w .

(J E N I T A I . OR G A N S O F T HE B I TC H

A N G I OL OG Y
T HE OR G A N S
“
or ( I R c U LA T I O N

B LO O D- V A S CU L A R S YS T EM or T HE I I O RS E
T h e P e r i c a rd i u m .

T he Hea rt .

T h e P u l mo n a ry A r te ry
T h e S y s t em i c
T h e C o ro n a ry
T h e Bra c h i o c e p h a li c T r u n k or A n t e ri o r A o r t a .

A r t er i es of i mb
th e T h o ra c c L i
B r a n c hes o f t h e T h o r a c i c Ao r t a
B ra n c h es o f t h e A bd o m i n a l Ao rt a
A r t e r i e s o f t h e P e l v i c Li m b
T h e Ve i n s .

T h e P u l mo na ry Ve i n s .

T h e S y s te mi c Ve i ns
T h e A n t er i o r Ve n a (Ja v a a nd i ts T r i b u t a r i es .

T h e P os te r i o r Ve n a C a v a a nd i ts T r i b u t a r i es
T HE L Y M P H A T I C S Y S T E M .

Ly m p h a ti c S y s t e m o f t h e Ho rs e .

T h e Ly m p h G l a nd s a n d Ves s e l s o f t h e Hea d a nd N e c k .

T h e Ly m p h G l a nd s a n d Vess e l s o f t h e T h o ra x
T h e Ly m p h ( l l a nd s a nd Ves s e l s o f t h e A bd o m e n a nd P e l v i s
T h e Ly m p h (l l a n d s a n d Ve ss e l s o f t h e T h o r a c i c L i mb
T he Ly m p h G l a n d s a nd Ves s e l s o f th e P e l v i c
T HE P ORT A L C I R C I
'

L AT I O N

B LO A S C U LA R
. .

O D -V S YS TE M O F T HE Ox
T h e P e ri c a rd i u m a nd Hea r t .

T h e A r te ri es .

The
L Y M P I-I A T I C S Y S T E M or T HE Ox
C U L A TO R Y
.

CIR S YS TET I I E P K;
M 0 1°

T he P e r i c a r d i u m a n d He a rt .

T h e A r te r i es
. .

T h e Ve i ns
Ly m p h a t i c S y s t e m o f t h e P i g
C I ne u L A T O R Y S Y S T E M O F T I I E D o ra
‘

T h e P e ri c a r d i u m a nd Hea r t
T h e A rt e r i es
T h e Ve i n s .

Ly m p h a ti c S y s t e m of th e D o g .

N E I R OLOC Y
'

.
—T HE N E R VOUS S Y S T E M
G E N E R A L C O N S I D E R A T I ON S .

N E RY O I '
S S YS T E M OI "T I I E -
H O S R E
T h e S p i na l ( d
‘
or

T he
T he (
‘
ra n a i l
T he S p i n a l N e r v es .
 C ON T E N T S 15

PAt-
'
F

T H
.

SY M P AI HE T I C N E R V O U S S Y S E M
’ ‘
OF T HE R
O SE

U
N E R V O S S Y S T E M OF T HE Ox
N E R VOU S SYS TE M OF T HE PIG
N E R VOUS S Y S T E M OF T HE D OG

E ST HE S I OLOG Y
T HE S E NS E OR GA N S AN D S KIN OF T HE H OR S E
Th e E y e

Th e S ki n
T h e Ol f a c t o ry a nd G u s ta t o r y A pp a ra t us
T HE S E N S E OR G A N S A ND S KI N O F T HE

T H E S E N S E OR G A N S A ND I NTE G UM E NT O F T HE PIG
T HE S E N S E OR G A N S AND I N I E G U M E N T OF
‘ ‘
T HE D OG
 VETERI NARY ANATOMY

I NTR ODUCTI ON
An a to m y is the b r an ch o f b i o l o gi c a l s ci e n ce whi ch de a ls w i th th e f or m a n d
str uctu r e of o r g an i s m s , b o th a n i m a l a n d veget a l I t is th e r ef o r e i n c l o se c orr el a ti on
.

wi th physi o l o gy , whi ch t r e a ts o f th e fu n cti on s of t he b o dy .

”
E tym o l o gi c a lly th e w or d a n a t o m y signi fies the cutti n g a p a r t or d i s assoc i a t
“

i ng o f p a r ts o f th e b o dy I n th e e a r li e r ph a ses o f i ts devel o p m e n t an a t o m y w as
.

n ecess a r i ly a pu r ely desc r i ptive sci en ce b a sed on such o bse r v a ti on s as we r e p ossible

wi th the u na ided eye a n d si m ple di sse cti n g i n st r um en ts—t h e sc a lpel f or ceps a nd
,

, ,

th e l i ke At thi s t i m e the r ef or e the te r m a dequ a tely exp r essed the n a tur e Of th e

.
, ,

subj ect B ut as th e s c o pe Of the sci en ce ext e n d ed an d th e b o dy Of an a t om i c a l

.

k no wledge g r ew sub di vi si o ns b e c a m e n e cess a r y a n d n ew te r ms we r e i n t ro du ced t o

,

d esi gna te speci a l fields a n d meth o ds o f w o r k W ith t he in t ro du cti o n of th e m i

.

c r osc op e an d i ts a c cess or i es i t b ec a m e p o ssib l e t o study the fin e r det a i ls of st r uctu r e

a n d mi n ute o r g a ni sms hi the r t o u nk n o wn a n d thi s fi eld of i n qui r y ra pid ly devel o ped

,

i n t o the s ci e n ce of mi cr os c0 pi c an a to my o r hi s t o l o gy as c on ven ti on a lly di sti n gui shed

f r o m gr o s s or ma cr o s c opi c an a to my I n th e s a me w ay the study of th e ch an ges
.

whi ch or g a ni s m s un de r g o d ur i n g thei r d evel o p m en t s o o n a tt a i n ed suffi ci e n t i m

p or t an ce t o b e r eg ar ded on p r a cti c a l g r o un ds as a sep a ra te b ran ch kno wn as
e mb ryo l o gy .

Thi s t erm i s us u a ll y l i mi t ed in i ts a pp li ca ti o n to th e ear l i er p h as es Of d e v e l o p m en t d ur i ng

w hi c h t h e ti s s u es a n d o rg a n s a re f or m ed . T h e t erm on to g e ny i s us ed t o d es i gn a t e t h e en ti r e
d e v e l o p men t o f t h e i nd i v i d u a l. Th e a n c es t r a l hi s t o r y or ph yl o g e ny of th e s p ec i es i s c ons t i t u t ed
b y t h e e v o l u ti o n a ry c h a n g es w hi ch i t h as u n d er g o n e as di s c l os ed b y th e g eo l o g i ca l r e co rd .

Co mpara ti v e an at o my is t h e desc r i pt i o n a nd c om p ar is on of th e st r u ctu r e o f

a n i m a ls , a n d f o r m s the b a sis for thei r cl a ssi fi c a ti on B y this me an s—i n cludi n g
e xti n ct f or ms i n th e sc o pe o f i n qui r y—i t h a s b ee n p o ssib le t o S h o w th e ge n eti c
.

r el a ti on ship Of v a r i o us g r o ups o f a ni m a ls a n d t o elu ci d a te th e S ig ni fi c a n ce o f m an y

f a cts o f st r u ctu r e w h i ch a r e o th er wi se q ui te Obs cu r e Th e dedu cti on s c o n cern i n g

.

the ge n e ra l l a ws of f or m a n d st r u ct u r e d er ived fr o m c o mp ar a tive a n a t omi c a l

studi es c on sti tute th e s ci en ce o f m orph o l o gy or phi l o s ophi ca l an a t o my The .

m o rph o l og ist , h o weve r , de a ls onl y w i th s u ch a n a t o mi c a l det a ils as a r e n ecess ar y

to f or m a b a sis for hi s ge n e r a liz a ti on s Th e a n a t omi c a l kn o wledge r equi r ed i n th e
.

p r a cti ce o f medi ci n e a n d su r ge r y is evi de n tly o f a di ff e r e n t ch ar a ct e r an d must

i n cl ude m an y det a i ls whi ch a re of n o p a r ti cu l a r i n ter est t o th e m orph o l o gist .

S pe c i al an a tomy i s the d esc r i pti o n Of the st r u ctu r e of a si n gle type o r speci es ,

6 g , a n th r o p o t o my , hi pp o t o m y
. . .

Ve teri n ar y an a to my is th e b ra n ch whi ch de a ls wi th the f o r m an d st r uctu r e o f

the p r i n ci p a l d o m esti c a ted a ni m a ls I t is usu a lly pu r sued w i th r eg a r d t o pr o
.

f ess i on a l r eq ui r e m e n ts , a n d i s the r ef o r e l a r gely desc r iptive i n ch a r a cte r As a .

m a tte r Of c onve n i e n ce the h or se i s ge n e ra lly selected a s the type t o b e stu d i ed i n

det a i l an d t o fo r m a b a sis for c o m p a r i s on of the m or e esse n ti a l di ff e r e n ti a l ch ar a cte rs
i n the o the r a n i m a ls
T w o ch i ef meth o ds Of study a re e mpl o yed —the syst e m a ti c a n d the top o
.

'

g r aphi c . I n the f o r me r the b o dy is r eg a r ded a s c o ns isti n g o f systems o f o r g ans or

2 17
18 V E T E R I N A R Y A N A T OM Y

a pp a r a tus wh i ch a re S imi l a r i n or igi n a nd st r uctu r e a nd a re a ss o ci a ted i n th e per

fo r ma n c e Of ce r t a i n fu n cti o n s . T h e divisi o n s Of syste m a ti c an ato my are :
1 Oste o l o gy
.

2 A rth ro l o gy
.

3 M y o l o gy
.

4 . S p l a nc h no l o g) r

(1 ) D iges t i ve Syste m
(2 ) R espi ra t or y Syste m
(3 ) U ro ge n i t a l S ystem
(a ) U r i n a ry Org a n s
(b) G e ni t a l Org a n s
n
t An gi o l o gy
N eu ro l o gy
b
c

fi E s thesi o l o gy
(1 ) S e nse Org a ns
(2 ) C o m mo n I ntegu m e nt .

The te rm top ogr ap h i c anato my d esig na tes the m eth o ds b y whi ch the r el a ti ve
p os iti on s o f t h e v a r i o us p a r ts o f the b o dy a r e a ccu r a tely dete r mi n ed I t pre su p .

p oses a f a i r w o r ki n g k no wledge Of syste ma ti c a n a t o my

D e sc r iptiv e Te r m s —I n o r de r t o i n di c a te p r ecisely the p o si ti o n a n d di r ecti o n
.

o f p a rts o f the b ody ce r t a i n desc r ipti ve te r ms a re empl o yed a n d m ust be u n de r

, ,

stood at the o ut s et I n the expl a na ti o n o f these te r m s it is a ssumed he r e th a t

.

they a pply to a q u a d r uped such a s the h o r se i n th e or di na r y st a n di n g p o siti on .

The su rf a ce di r ected t o w a r d the pl a n e o f supp or t (the g ro u n d ) i s te r m ed i nf e ri or

o r v e n tr a l , a n d the o pp o s ite su r f a ce i s supe r i or o r d o r s a l ; the r el a ti o n s o f p a r ts i n

thi s di r ecti on a re na m ed a cc or di ngly The l ongi tudi n a l m e d i an pl an e di vi d es th e

.

b o dy i n t o s i mi l a r h a lves A st r uctu r e or su r f a ce whi ch is n e ar e r th a n an o the r t o

.

the m edi a n pl a n e is in te rna l or m e d i a l t o it a n d a n Obj e ct or su rf a ce wh i ch is fu r the r

,

th a n a no t h e r f ro m t h e m ed i a n pl a n e i s e xtern al o r l ater a l to i t P l a n es p a r a llel .

to the m edi a n pl a n e a re s a gitta l T r a n sver s e o r s e gm e n ta l pl a n es cut the l on g a xis

.

Of the b o dy pe r pe nd i cul a r to the m edi a n pl a n e o r a n o r g a n or l i m b a t r i ght a n gles

,

to i ts l o n g a xis A f r o n tal pl a n e is pe r pe n di cul a r t o the m edi a n a n d t r a n sve r se

.

pl a n es The he ad e nd o f the b o dy is te r m ed an te ri o r , c eph a li c , o r c ran i a l ; a nd th e

.

t a i l e nd p o s t e r i o r or c a u d a l ; r el a ti o n s o f st r uctu r es w i th r eg a r d to the l o n gitudi n a l

a xi s o f the b o dy a r e desi g na ted a cc o r di n gly C e r t a i n te r m s a r e used i n a S peci a l
.

se nse a s a ppli ed to the l imbs P r o xi m a l a n d d i st a l exp r ess r el a tive d ist a n ces Of

.

p a r ts f ro m the a xis o f the b o dy The a n te r i o r f a ce o f the th or a ci c li m b f r o m th e

.

elb o w d o w n w a r d is a ls o te r m ed d or s a l , a n d the Opp osite f a ce v e l ar I n the c o r re .

s po n d i ng p a r t o f the pe lvi c li mb the te r m s a r e d o r s a l a n d

pl an tar r espectively In .

the s a me r egi o ns ra di a l a nd u l nar (th o r a ci c li mb ) tib i a l a nd fib u l ar (pelvi c li m b )

, ,

ma y be u s ed t o desig na te th a t s ide Of the ext r e m i ty on whi ch th e c o r r esp o n di n g

b o n e is s i tu a ted ; they a re the r efo re equi v a l e n t r especti vely t o i nte r n a l or medi a l
a nd exte r na l o r l a te r a l i n the a n i ma ls with whi ch we a r e c o n ce r n ed .

I t is ev i d en tl y v a nt a geou s to e mp l o y t erms w h i ch a re as fa r a s p os s i b l e i nd e p en d en t o f
ad
t h e p o s iti o n o f t h e b o d y i n s p a ce a n d ca p a b l e Of g e nera l a pp li ca ti o n c g d o rs a l v en t r a l p r o xi m a l
, . .
, , , ,

e tc . I t i s a l s o d e s i ra b l e t h a t t h e t e r m s i n t er n a l a n d ext e r n a l b e res e rv ed t o i n d i c a t e r e l a ti o ns Of
d e p t h 1 1] c a v i t i es o r o r g a ns a nd med i a l a nd l a te ra l to d es i g n a t e r e l a ti o n s t o t h e med i a n p l a ne
, .

S u c h t er ms a re c o mi n g i nt o mo re ext e n s i v e u s e i n h u m a n a nd v et er i n a ry a n a t o m y b u t t h e o l d er .

n o me n c l a t u re l S v e r
y fi r m l y es t a b li s h ed a n d ca nno t w e l l b e di s card ed a t onc e a nd e n t i rely .
 O S T E O LO GY
THE SKE LE TON

Th e t er m s k el et o n i s a pp l i ed t o th e fr a m ew o r k Of h a r d st r uctur es w h i ch sup
p or ts an d p r o tects the s o ft tissues of a n i m a ls I n th e desc r iptive a na t om y of the .

hi ghe r a ni m a ls it i s usu a l ly r est r i cted to the b o n es an d c ar ti l a ges a lth o ugh the ,

lig am e n ts whi ch bi n d these t oge the r mi ght well b e i n cluded .

In z o o l o gy t er m i s us ed i n a mu c h more com p reh ens i v e s ens e a n d i n c l u d es a l l th e h a r d er

th e ,

s u pp o r ti n g a n d p ro t e c ti n g s t ru c t u r es W h en t h e l a tt er a r e s it u a t ed ext ern a l l y t h ey f orm an

.
,

e xo s k e l e to n d eri v ed f ro m t h e ec t o d er m
, E xa m p l es o f t h i s a r e t h e s h e l l s a nd c hi t i no u s c o v e ri ng s
.

o f m a n y i n v er t eb r a t es t h e s ca l es o f fis h es t h e s hi e l d s o f t u r tl es a n d t h e f ea t h ers h a i r a nd h o o f s
, , , , ,

o f t h e hi g h er v er t eb r a t es Th e e n d os k e l e to n (w i t h w hi c h w e h a v e to d e al a t p r es en t ) i s e mb ed d ed
.

i n th e so f t ti ss u es I t i s d e ri v ed c hi e fl y f ro m t h e mes od er m b u t i n c l u d es t h e n o t o c h o rd o r p r i m i
.
,

ti v e axi a l s k e l e t o n w hi c h i s of en t od er m a l o r i g i n
,
.

The S kelet on m ay b e di vi ded p r i m ar i ly i n t o th r ee p a r ts : (1 ) a xi a l ; (2 ) a ppe n

di cu l a r ; (3 ) spl a n ch ni c .

The axi al s k e l e to n c o mp r i ses th e v e r teb r a l c o lumn r ibs ste r n um an d skull , , ,

.

The app e nd i cu l ar s k el eto n i n cl udes th e b on es of the li m bs .

Th e s pl a n c h ni c s k el e ton c ons ists of ce rt a i n b on es devel o ped i n th e subst an ce

Of s o m e Of the vi sce r a or s o ft o r g ans 6 g t he os pe n i s Of the d og an d the OS c or di s o f
,
. .
,

th e ox .

The n um b er of the b o n es of the sk e l et on of an ani m a l v ar i es w it h a ge ow i n g ,

to the fusi o n d u r i n g g r o wt h Of skelet a l e le m e n ts whi ch a r e sep a r a te i n th e f oetus

or the y o un g subj ect E ven i n a d ults of the s a me species n u m e r i c a l v a r i a ti on s
.

o ccur 6 g,
the t a r sus o f the h or se m ay c on sist Of si x o r seven b on es an d the c a r pus
. .
, ,

Of seve n o r ei ght ; i n a l l the d o m esti c m a mm a ls th e n umbe r Of c o ccyge a l ve rt eb r ae

v a r i es c ons ide r a b ly .

The b on es a r e c o mm onl y di v i de d i n t o f o ur cl a s s es a cc o r di n g to their sh a pe

a n d fu n cti o n .

(1 ) Lon g b on e s (Oss a l on g a ) a r e t ypi c al l y o f el on g a ted cyli n d r i c a l fo rm w ith

e n l ar ged ext r e m i ti es They o ccu r i n th e li m bs whe r e th ey a ct a s supp orti ng
.
,

c o l u mn s a nd as l eve r s The cyli n dr i c a l p a r t te r med the sh a ft or b o dy (C or pus )

.
, ,

is t ub ul a r an d i n cl o ses the m e d ul l ar y c avi ty , whi ch c o n t a i n s the m edul l a o r

,

m a rr o w .

(2 ) Fl a t b o n e s (Oss a pl an a ) a r e exp a n d ed i n tw o di r ecti on s Th ey fu rni sh .

suffi ci e n t ar e a fo r the a tt a ch m e n t Of m uscles an d aff or d p r o tecti o n t o the or g an s

whi ch they c o ve r .

(3 ) S h o rt b o n es (Oss a b r evi a ) su ch as th o se o f th e c a r pus an d t a r sus p r ese n t

, ,

s om ewh a t simi l ar di me n si on s i n le n g th b r e a dth an d thi c kn ess Thei r chief f u n c

, ,
.

ti on a ppe a r s t o b e th a t Of di ffusi n g c on cussi on S es a m o id b on es whi ch a re .

,

devel o ped i n th e c a psules of s o m e j o i n ts o r i n te n d o ns m a y b e i n cluded i n this ,

g r o up . They d i mi ni sh f r i cti on or ch an ge the d i r e cti on o f te n d on s .

(4 ) I rr e gu l ar b o n e s Thi s gro up w o uld i n clude b on es Of i r r egul a r sh a pe

. ,

such as th e ve rt eb r ae a n d th e b on es o f t he c r an i a l b a se ; they a re medi a n an d

un p a i r ed Thei r fun cti on s a r e v a r i o us a n d n ot so cle ar ly speci a li z ed a s t h o se of
.

the p recedi n g cl a sses .

Thi s c l a s s i fi c a ti o n i s n o t en ti r e l y s a ti s f a c t o ry ; s om e b on es , e .
g .
,
th e ri b s , a re n o t c lea r l y
p ro v i d ed for , a n d o t h ers mi g h t b e v ar i o us l y p l a c ed
a
.

l
20 OS T E OL OG Y

STRUCT RE U OF B ONE S
B o n es c o nsist chi efl y o f b o n e ti s s u e , but c on side r ed a s or g a ns they p r ese n t
ls n e n vel o pi n g m e m b r a n e te r m ed the p e ri o st e u m , th e m e du ll a o r m ar r o w ,
a o a ,

v e s s e l s a nd n e rve s
,
.

The a r chitectu r e of b on e c a n be studied best by m e a n s of l on gitudi na l a nd

c ro s s s ecti o n s T he s e s h o w th a t the b o n e c o n sists of a n exte r n a l shel l o f de n se
-
.

c ompa ct sub stan c e , wi thi n whi ch is the mo r e l o osely a rra n ged sp o ngy s ub stan ce .

1 ,
—I ’
Ro xr m S I X 'I
.
‘
ION o r
’
L1 n o }: ME TATA RSA L —S AGi TrAL
'
S E C TI O N o r LA R G E M BT A I ’ ‘
A RS A L

B o x »: or
‘
ll o n s rz , l ’ o s r mu o n P A R T . Ho x r: or
“
HO RS E .

(
"
o n i pact s u bs t a nc e : S AL . s p o ng y s u b s t a nc e ; me d u ll a ry ca v it y :" n t i nt f
F . u r e o ra me n . N o te th e

g r ea t thi k
er c n es s o f t h e c o m pa c t subs t a nc e o f t he in n e r a nd a nt io p t f t h
er r ar s o e sha ft .

In typi c a l l o n g b o n e s the sh a ft is h o ll o wed t o f o rm t h e m e d ull a ry c a vi ty (C a vum

m ed ull a r e ) .

The c o mp a ct sub stan c e (S ubst a n ti a c o m p a ct a ) d i ffe rs g r e a tly i n thi ck n ess i n

v a r i o us si t u a ti o ns i n c on fo r m ity w i th th e st r esses a n d st ra i ns t o whi ch th e b on e is
,

s ubj ected I n the l o n g b o n es i t is thi ckest i n the m i dd le p a r t o f the sh a ft a n d thi n s

.

o u t t o w a rd t h e e xt r e m it ie s On the l a tte r the l a ye r is ve ry t hi n a n d i s especi a lly

.
,

d e n se a n d s mo o t h o n j o i n t s u r f a c es .

Onl y t
h e g ro s s s r u c u r t t e i s d i s c u s s ed h ere . Fo r t h e mi c ros c o pi c t
s ru c u r t e re fe ren c e i s to
b e m a d e to h i s t l i l
o og ca w o r s k .
22 OS TE OL OG Y

DE VE LOP ME N T AN D GR OW TH OF B ONE 1

The p r i m iti ve e mb r y o na l skelet o n c on sists of c a r ti l a ge a n d fib r o us tissu e in ,

whi ch the b on es devel o p The p r o cess is te r m ed o s s ific a ti on o r o ste o g e n e s i s , a nd

is e ffected esse n ti a lly by b on e —
.

p ro du ci n g cells c a lled o ste o b l a sts I t is cust o m a r y

,
.
,

the r efo r e to desig na te as m em b ran e b on e s th o se wh i ch a r e devel o ped i n fib ro us

,

ti s sue a nd as c ar t i l a g e b o n e s th o se whi ch a re p r ef o rm ed i n c a r ti l a ge Th e p r i n ci
,
.

p a l m e m b r a n e b o n es a re th o se o f the r oo f a n d sid es o f the c ra n i u m a n d mo st of the

b o n es o f the f a ce The c a r ti l a ge b o n es c o mp r ise th e r ef or e m o st o f th e skelet on
.
, ,
.

C o rr esp o n di n gly we disti n guish in tram e mb ran o u s a n d e n d o ch o n d ra l o s s ifi c a ti on .

I n i n t r a me m b r a no us devel o p m e n t th e p r o cess begi n s a t a defi n i te c e nt e r o f

o s s ifi c a ti on whe r e the cells (oste o b l asts ) su rr o u n d t he mselves wi th a dep osi t o f
b o n e The p r o cess exte n ds f r o m this cen te r t o th e
.

in pe r iphe ry of th e futu r e b o n e th us p r od u ci n g a n et ,

w or k of b o n y t r ab e cu l ze The t r a b e cu l ze r a pid ly .

thi c ke n a nd c oa lesce f o r m i n g a b on y p l a te wh i ch ,

is sep a r a ted f r om the a dj a ce n t b o n es by pe r siste n t

fib r o us tissue Th e supe rfi ci a l p a r t o f th e o r i gi na l .

ti ssue be c o m es pe r i osteu m a n d on the deep f a ce of ,

thi s su ccessive l a ye r s of pe r i o ste a l b on e a re f o r med

by oste o bl a sts u n ti l the b o n e a tt a i ns i ts defi n itive
thi ck n ess .

I n en d o ch o n d r a l o ssi fi c a ti o n th e p r o cess is fu n d a
me n t a lly the s am e but n ot q ui te so si mple Oste o , .

b l a sts e m i g r a te f r om the deep f a ce of th e per i ch on

d r i u m or p r i m i ti ve pe ri o steu m i n t o th e c a r ti l a ge a n d
c a use c a l ci fi c a ti on o f the m a t ri x o r g r o u n d— subst an c e
o f the l a tte r Vessels exte n d i n t o the c a l cifyi n g a r e a
.

th e c ar ti l a ge cells sh r i n k a n d dis a ppe a r f o r mi n g ,

p r i m a r y m ar r o w c a vities wh i ch a r e o ccupi ed by pr o
cesses o f th e o ste o gen i c tissue Th e r e i s thus f or med .

a s or t o f sc a ff o l di n g of c a lc a r e o us t r a b ecu l a
e o n whi ch
the b on e is c on st r u cted by the o ste o bl a sts At the .

s a m e ti m e pe r i ch o n d r a l b o n e is f o r m ed by the o ste o
F IG'3 , F E MU R O Y OU NG P bl a sts o f the p r i m i tive pe r i o steum
F 16 . The c a l cified
E XT NAL V W O S H OW D
.

ER IE T l

L ON G B m - m m c a r t i l a ge i s b r o ke n d o wn an d a bs or bed th r o u gh th e
,

w n O
s xo F A u 1

s m s) a ge n cy o f l a r ge cel ls c a lled o st e o c l a sts is r e

, and
u E n mn m
AND xr
’ ‘
z s .

P i m l t m ity
ro x a ex i t f pl a ce d by b o n e dep osited by th e o ste o bl a sts Th e
re co ns s s o
.

tw o p t h d (h ) d t h t
ar s, ea an ro c a n er
s te o cla s t s a ls o c a use a b s or t l o n Of the
O p p rl m l tl v e
m j a or ( t h i h h w v p c t a e se a ra e

i fi ti
.

t
c e n e rs o f oss ca D i t l t m b on e p l Od UCn th e m a rr o w caV i ti eS ; thus i n th e
o n. s a e x re )
‘

i ty i t Of t
c o ns s S hl (l )
ro c d dy l
eu
c a se of the l on g b o n es the p r im itive ce n t r a l sp on gy
nn con es
h

f" s
b o n e i s l a r gely a bs or b ed t o form the m ed ull a ry c a vity
‘

o f th e sh a ft a nd pe r sists chi efly i n the ext r e m i ti es , .

D est r u cti on of th e ce n t ra l p a r t a n d f o r m a ti o n o f subpe r i oste a l b on e c on ti n ue u n ti l

th e sh a ft o f the b on e h as c o m pleted its g ro wt h .

A typi c a l l o n g b on e is devel o ped f r o m th r ee p r i m a r y ce n te r s o f o ssifi c a ti on

,
o n e fo r the d i a physis o r sh a ft a n d o n e fo r e a ch epi physis o r ext r e m ity
M an y .

b o nes h a ve sec o n d a ry ce n te r s fr om whi ch p ro cesses or a p o physes d evel o p .

The fo r eg o i ng o utli n e a cc o u nts fo r the g r o wt h o f b o n es except i n r eg ar d t o

le ngth I n c r e a se i n le n gt h may be expl a i n ed b r ie fl y as f o l l o ws : P r o visi on for con
.

ti n ned o ssifi c a ti on a t eithe r e n d o f the d i a physi s is m a de by a l a ye r of a cti vely

g wi g c ti l ge the epiphys e a l c arti l a g e —whi ch i n te rve n es betwee n the di a ph
r o n a r a
—
‘
On l yb ri e f g en er a l
a s a t t eme n t o f os t eo genes i s ca n b e ma d e h ere ; d e t a i ls mu s t b e sou g h t
in emb ry o l ogi ca l h tera tu re .
 CH E M I CAL C O M P O S I T I O N or B ON E —D E S C R I P T I V E TE R MS 23

ysi s an d
th e epi physi s I t is evi de n t th a t so l on g as th is c a r ti l a ge pe rsist s a n d
.

g r o ws n ew b on e may c o n ti n ue t o be f or med at i ts expe n se a n d i n c r e a se of le n gth

, ,

i s p o ssib le Whe n t he epiphyse a l c a r ti l a ge ce a ses t o g ro w i t u nde r g o es oss i fic a

.
,

ti on the b on e is c on s o li d a ted a n d no fu r the r i n c r e a se i n le n gt h is p ossible This

, , .

fusi on t a kes pl a ce a t f a i r ly defi ni te pe r i o ds i n the v a r i o us b on es a n d i t is o f v a lue ,

t o k n o w the usu a l times a t whi ch i t o ccu r s i n the l a r ge r b o n es o f the l i m bs a t le a st .

A f t er t h e b o nes h a v e rea c h ed t h e i r f u l l s i z e, t h e p eri os t eum b ec o m es r e l a ti v e l y red u c ed a n d

i n ac t i v e s o fa r as i ts os te og em c l a er i s c o n c er ne d ; t h e b o n e-f o rm i n
g f u n c ti o n m a y b e s ti mu l a t ed
“

y
b y v a ri ou s ca us es , as i s w e ll s een i n t h e h ea h n g o f f ra c t ur es a nd t h e o c cur r enc e o f bony e n l a rg e
men t s .

CHE MI CAL COMP OSI TI ON OF B ONE

D r i ed b o n e c o n sists o f o r g ani c an d i n o r gani c m att er i n th e r a ti o o f 1 2

a pp r o xi m a tely Th e a ni m a l m a tte r gi ves t o ugh n ess a nd el as ti city th e mi n e r a l
.
,

m a tte r h ar d n ess t o th e b on e tissu e R e mo v a l o f the o r g a ni c m a tte r by h e a t d oes

, .

n ot ch a n ge th e ge n e r a l f o r m of a b o n e b ut r ed uces t h e wei ght by a b o ut o n e thi r d

,
-
,

a n d m a kes i t ve r y f r a gi le C on ve r sely d eca l c i fic a ti on whi le n o t a ff ecti n g the f o r m

.
, ,

a n d si z e o f the b o n e , r e n de r s i t s o ft a n d pli a b l e Th e ani m a l m a tter whe n b o i led .

yi el ds gel a ti n T he f o l l owi n g t a b le r ep r ese n ts the c o mp o siti on i n 1 00 p a rts o f ox

.

b o n e of a ve ra ge qu a li ty :
G e l a ti n
P h os p h a t e of
C ar b ona t e of li me .

P h os p h a t e of m a gn es i a
C ar b o na t e an d c h l ori d of s o di u m

P HY SI CAL PR OPE R TIE S OF B ONE

F r esh de a d b on e h as a ye l l o wi sh whi t e c o l o r ; wh en m a ce ra ted or b o i led an d

-

b le a ch ed it i s w h ite The specifi c gr a vi ty of f r esh c o mp a ct b on e is a little o ve r

,
.

I t i s ve r y h ar d an d r esist a n t t o p r essur e ; a 5 mi lli m ete r cub e of c om p a ct -

b o n e of th e ox w il l r esist p r ess u r e up t o 852 p o u n ds i f the p r essu r e be applied i n ,

th e li n e o f t he l a me l l ae (R a ube r ) I ts tens i l e st r e n gth is esti m a ted t o be n e ar ly

.

twi ce th a t o f oak .

DE SCRI P TI VE TE RMS

Th e su rf a ces o f th e b o n es p r ese n t a gr e a t v ar iety of e m i n en ces an d dep r essi o ns .

,

as w e ll as pe r f o ra ti on s The p r o mi n e n ces a n d c av i ti es may be ar ti cul a r or n on

.
,

a rt i cul a r fur ni shi n g a tt a ch m en t t o m uscles t e n d o n s lig am e n ts o r f asci a A

, , ,
.

n u mbe r of desc r ipti ve te r ms a r e used t o desi gn a te these fe a tu r es a nd the f o ll o wi n g

a re s o me o f th o se i n ge n e r a l u se :

P r o c e s s (P r o cessus ) i s a ge n e r a l te r m for a p r o mi n e n ce .

A tu b er o s i ty (Tub e r Tube r o sit a s ) i s a l a r ge r o un ded p ro j ecti o n ; a tub er cl e

, ,

(Tub e r cul u m ) is a s m a l le r on e .

Th e te r m tr o ch anter i s a pp l i ed t o a few p ro mi n e n ces e g the t ro ch an te r s of ,

. .
,

t h e fem ur .

A s pi ne (S pi n a ) o r s p in o u s pr o c e s s (P r o cessus spi n o sus ) is a p o i n ted p r o j ecti on .

A cr e s t (C r i st a ) i s a sh a r p r i dge .

A li n e (L i n e a ) i s a v e r y sm a l l r idge .

A h ea d (C a put ) i s a r o u n ded a r ti cu l a r e n l a rge m e n t a t the en d of a b on e ;

i t ma y b e j o i n ed t o the sh a ft by a c on st r i cted p ar t the n e ck (C o l lu m ) ,
.

A c o n d yl e (C o n dylus ) i s an a r ti cul a r e m i n e n ce whi ch is s o m ewh a t cyli n d r i c a l ;

a n on a r ti cul a r p r o j ecti o n i n c o nn ecti o n wit h a c o n dyle m a y be te r m ed a n epi
-

c o n d yl e .
24 OS T E OL OG Y
tro ch l ea is a pul ley lik e a r ti cul a r m a ss
A - .

gle n o id c avity (C a vit a s gle no i d a lis ) i s a sh a ll o w a r t i cul a r d ep r ess i on an d a

A ,

c o tyl o id c a vi ty o r a c eta b u l u m is a deepe r o n e .

The te r m f a c et i s c o mm o n ly a pplied t o ar ti cul a r su r f a ces o f s ma l l exte n t ,

especi a lly whe n they a re n o t st ro n gly c o n c a ve o r c on vex .

The te rms f o s s a , f o ve a , gr o ov e o r su lcu s , a n d i mp r e s s i o n a r e a ppl i ed to v a ri o u s

f or ms o f dep r essi o ns .

A f o ra m e n i s a pe r f o r a ti o n fo r th e t ra n sm i s s i on o f vessels n e r ves etc , , .

A s i n u s o r an tru m i s a n a i r c a vi ty - .

1
Othe r te r m s such a s c an a l , fi s s ur e , n o tch , etc r equ i r e n o expl a na t i on
,
.
,
.

VE R TE B RA L COL UMN
The v e rt e b ra l c o lu mn (C o lumn a ve r teb r a li s ) is th e fu n d a men t a l p art of th e
skelet on I t c on sists o f a ch a i n of medi a n u n p a i r ed i r r egul ar b on es whi ch
. , ,

exte n ds f ro m the skul l to the en d of the t a i l I n the a du lt ce r t a i n ve r teb ra h a ve .

bec o m e fused t o f or m a si n gle b on y m a ss

w ith whi ch th e pelvi c gi r d le a r ti cul a tes .

Ve r teb r a s o fused a re te r m ed fix e d o r
“
f a l s e ” v ert e b ra (Ve r teb ra i mm obil es ) as ,
“ ”
d isti n gu i shed f rom the m o va b l e or tru e
v e rt e b ra (Verteb ra m o bi l es ) .

Th e c o l u m n i s subdivided for d escri p

ti o n i n t o fiv e r e g i o n s , whi ch a r e n a med ao
c o r d i n g t o the p a r t of th e b o dy i n wh i ch
th ey a r e pl a ced Thus the ve r teb r a a r e .

d esi gn a ted as c ervi c a l , th o r a ci c (or d o r s a l ) ,

l u mb ar , s a c ra l , a n d c o c cyg e al or ca ud a l
(Ve r teb ra ce r vi c a les t h o r a ca l es lumb a les , , ,

s a c ra les c o ccyge a ) The n u m be r of ve r te ,

.

b ra i n a give n spe ci es is f a i r ly c o n st a n t i n
e a ch r egi o n except the l a st s o th a t the v er ,

teb ral f o rmul a ma y be exp r essed (for th e

h o rse for e x a m ple ) as f o ll o ws :
4 —
,

F ro . F
. T H O AC C V
i ns r T B
R HO
I ER E R /E or C 7 T '8 L GS SC y 5 2 l
RS E .
_ ,
1
T oill t t p l
us ra e f t an t o f v t bs ru c u re o
T h e ve r teb ra i n a given r egi on h ave
er e ra .

speci al ch a r a cte r s by whi ch they may b e

disti n gui s hed f ro m th o se o f o the r r egi o ns a nd i n di vid u a l ve r teb r a h a ve ch ar a cte rs
,

whi ch a re mo r e o r less cle a r ly r e c og n i z a b le A l l typi c a l ve r teb r a h a ve a c ommo n .

pl a n o f st r u ctu r e whi c h m ust fi rst be u n de r st oo d The p a r ts of wh i ch a ve r teb r a

, .

c o nsists a re th e b o dy o r c e ntr um , the ar c h , a nd the p r o c e s s e s .

The b o dy (C o r pus ve r teb r a ) i s the m or e or less cyli n d r i c a l m a ss o n wh i ch the

o the r p a r ts a r e c o ns t r u cted Th e a nte r i o r a n d p oste ri or ext r e m i ti es o f the b o dy
.

a re a tt a ched t o the a dj a ce n t ve r teb ra by i n te r ve r teb r a l fib ro c a r ti l a ges a n d a re -

,

usu a lly c o n vex a nd c o nc a ve r espe ctively T h e d o r s a l su r f a c e i s fl a tte n ed a nd e n te r s

.

i n t o the f o r ma ti o n o f the ve r teb r a l c a n a l w hi l e the ve n t r a l as pect is r o u n ded ,

l a te ra lly a nd i s i n r el a ti o n to v a r i o us m uscles a nd visce r a I n th e th or a ci c r egi o n

,
.

the b o dy p r ese n ts t w o p a i r s o f d e m ifa cet s (F o ve a c o st a les ) a t t h e ext r emiti es fo r

a r ti cul a ti o n wi th the h e a ds o f t w o p a i r s o f r ibs .

The ar ch (Arc us ve rteb ra ) i s c o n s t r u cted o n the d o rs a l a spe ct o f th e b o dy

.
.

I t c o n sist s o r igi n a l ly o f t w o l a te r a l h a lves e a ch o f wh i ch i s c on sid e r ed t o c o n sist

,

o f a pedi cle a n d a l a mi n a The pedi c les f o r m the l a te r a l p a r ts o f th e a r ch a n d a re

.
,

'
As m i g h t b e e x p ec t e d f ro m t h e h i s t o ry o f a n a t o my , a g oo d m a n y o f t h es e te r ms a re mo re o r
l ess i n t e r c h a ng ea b l e ; f u rt h e r m o r e , a g i v e n s k e l e t a l f e a t u re m a y d i ff e r g re a t l y i n v a r i o u s s p e c i es .
 T HE RI BS 25

cut i n t o i n f r o n t an d behi n d by t he v erte b r al n otch e s (I n cisu r a ve rteb r a lis c ra ni a lis ,

c a ud a lis ) The n o t ches o f tw o a dj a ce n t ve r teb r a f o r m i nte rv e rteb ra l f or am in a

.

fo r th e p a ss a ge o f th e spi n a l n e r ves a n d vessels ; i n s o m e ve r teb r a h o weve r th ese , ,

a r e c o m p let e f o r a m i n a i n ste a d o f n o tches The l a mi n a a re pl a tes whi ch c o m plete

.

the a r ch d o r s a l ly uni ti n g wi t h e a ch o the r m edi a lly at the r oo t of the spi nous

,

p ro cess .

The b o dy an d th e a r ch f or m a b on y r i n g whi ch i n cl oses the v ert e b ra l f o ra m e n

(F o r a me n ve r teb r a l e ) ; th e se r ies of ve rteb ra l r i n gs t o gethe r wi th the l ig am e nts ,

w h i ch uni t e th e m i n cl o se th e v ert e b ral c an al (C an a lis ve r teb ra lis ) whi ch c on

, ,

t a i ns the spi n a l c or d a n d its c o ve r i n gs an d vessels .

The a rti cu l ar pr o c e s s e s , t w o an t e ri o r a nd tw o p o st eri o r (P ro cessu s a r ti cul ar es

c rani a les c a ud a les ) p r o j ect f ro m th e b o r de r s o f the a r ch on eithe r si de They
, , .

p r ese n t j o i n t su rf a ces a d apted t o th o se of a dj a ce n t ve r teb r a and th e r e m a i ni n g ,

s u r f a ce i s ro ughe n ed for muscul ar an d lig a men t o us a tt a chmen t .

Th e spin o u s pr o c es s (P r o cessus spi n o sus ) is si n gle an d p ro j ects d or s a lly f ro m ,

th e mi ddl e o f the a r ch I t v ar i es gr e a tly i n f or m si ze an d di r ecti on i n di ff e r e n t

.
, ,

ve r teb ra I t f urni shes a tt a ch m e n t t o mus cles an d li g a m e n ts

. .

The tr an s v ers e pr o ce s s e s (P r o cessus t ran sve r si ) ar e t w o in n u mb e r an d p r oj ect

l a te r a lly f r o m t he side o f th e ar ch o r f r o m the j u n cti o n of the a r ch an d b o dy
, .

I n t he th o ra ci c r e g i on e a ch h as a f a cet f or a r t i cul a t i on wi th the tube r cle o f a r i b

(F o ve a c o st a lis t r ans ve r s a li s ) They a ls o give a tt a ch m e n t to muscles an d l ig a
.

m e n ts .

So me ve r teb r a h a v e a ls o a v en tral or h a m a l spin e .

M ammi ll ary pr o ce s s e s (P r o cessus m a mm i l l a r es ) a r e f o u n d i n m o st an i m a ls on

th e l a st th o r a ci c an d an ter i or lu m b a r ve r teb r a betwee n th e t r ansve rse an d an te r i or
a r ti cul ar p r o cesses or on t he l a tte r .

Acce s s o ry pr o c es s e s (P ro cessus a c cess o ri i ) wh en p r ese n t a r e situ a ted betwee n

, ,

th e t r an sve r se an d p oste r i or ar ti c u l a r p r o cesses

D e v e l opm ent —T he ve r teb ra a re devel o ped b y ossifi c a ti on i n th e c arti l age
.

whi ch sur r o un ds the n ot o ch o r d a n d f or m s th e si des o f t he n eu r a l c an a l The r e a re .

th r e e pri mar y c en te r s o f o s s i fi c a ti o n , on e fo r th e b o dy a n d one for e a ch si de o f t he

a r ch . S e c o nd ar y c ent ers a ppe ar l a te r for th e s u mmi t o f th e spi n o us p r o cess
(except i n the cer vi c a l r egi on ) the ext r e mi ti es o f th e t r an sve rse p r o cesses an d the
, ,

thi n epiphyse a l pl a t es a t t he ext r e m i ties of th e b o dy .

S om eti m es t h er e a re a t fir s t t w o c en t er s fo r th e b o d y w hi ch s oo n fu s e T h e p ro c ess o f o ssi fi .

c a t i o n ex t en d s f ro m t h e l a t er a l c en t ers to f o r m n o t o nl y t h e co rr es p o n di ng p a r t o f t h e a rc h , b u t
a l s o t h e p r o c ess es a n d a p ar t of t h e b o d y n ex t to t h e roo t o f t h e a r c h (R a di x a r cu s ) I n t h e h o rs e .

a nd o x t h e b o d y a n d a r c h a r e u s u a ll y f u s ed a t b i r t h , b u t t h e e p i p h y s es d o n o t f u s e t i l l g ro w t h 1 8
c om p l e t e I n t h e p i g , s h ee p , a n d d o g t h e b o d y a n d a r c h a r e u ni t ed a t b i r t h b y c ar ti l a g e (n eu r o
.

c en t r a l s yn c h o nd ros i s ), b u t f us e i n t h e fir s t fe w mo n t h s .

THE RI B S
The ri b s (C o st a ) ar e el on g a ted cu r ved b o n es wh i ch f or m the skelet o n of the
l a te r a l th o r a ci c w a lls They ar e arr an ged se r i a lly i n p a i r s wh i ch usu a lly c orr e
.

s p on d i n n u m be r to t he th o r a ci c ve r t eb r a E a ch a r ti cu l a tes d o r s a lly ni th the spi n e

.

an d is c o n ti n ued ve n t r a lly by a c o sta l c a r ti l a g e Th ose wh i ch a r ti cul ate wit h the

.

”
st e r n u m b y m e an s of thei r c ar ti l a ges ar e te r med stern a l or tr u e ri b s (C o st a
“

”
ste rn a les s ve r a ) th e r e m a i n de r a r e a st ern a l o r f al s e ri b s (C ost a as ter n a l es s
.
“
.

spu r i a ) R i bs a t t he en d of the se r i es whi ch h a ve thei r ve n t r a l e n ds f r ee i n the

.

a b d o mi n a l w a ll a r e n a m ed fl o a tin g ri b s (C o st a fl u c t u a n t es ) Th e i nte r v a ls b e .

twee n th e r ibs ar e te r m e d i nt er c o sta l sp a c e s (S p a ti a i n t er co s ta l i a ) .

A t yp i c a l r i b 1 c on sists o f a sh af t a n d t w o e xtr e mi ti e s The sh af t (C o r pus c o st a ).

T h e t er m i s
1
em p l oy e d h ere a s i s u s u a l i n d es c r i p ti v e a n a t o my t o d es i gna t e o n l y
, ,
th e b o n v
par t o f t h e ri b (Os co s t a l e ) ; m o r p h o l o g i ca ll y i t i n c l u d es t h e c a r ti l a g i n ou s p a r t a l s o .
26 OS T E OLOG Y
is b a n d — li ke an d v a r ies much i n le n gt h b r e a dth a nd cu r v a tu re I n th e c ase o f
, ,
.

som e r i bs the c u v
r a tu r e is n o t u n i f o r m but,
i s m o s t a cce n tu a ted a t a ce r t a i n p oi nt ,

e ed gl e th e gulus c st th is ccu r s a t a v a r i a b le dist a n ce

t r m t h e a n o f r i b ( A n o a ) ; o

f ro m th e ve r t eb ra l e n d a nd is usu ally ma r ked by a ro ugh r idge The di r ecti on

,
.

l
a so v ie
ar s ; h
t e fi r st r i b is a l m o st ve r ti c a l whi le, the r e m a i n d e r sl o pe b a ckw ar d

i n i n c r e a si n g deg r ee Th e e xt e rn a l su r f a ce is c o nvex a n d the i n t e rn a l fl a tte n ed

. ,

f ro m edge to edge ; o n the l a tte r c l ose t o the p o ste r i or b o r de r is the c o sta l gr o ov e

, ,

u
(S c ul s c o st a lis ) ,
whi c h f a des o u t ve n t ra lly I t c
. o n t a i n s the i n te r c o st a l vei n .

The a nte ri o r a nd p o ste r i or b or d e r s a re thi n a nd sh a r p o n s o m e r ibs r o u nded o n ,

o t h e rs .

The ve rteb ral e xtr emi ty (E xt r e mi t a s ve r teb r a lis ) c on sists o f the h ea d , n e c k ,

a n d tub e r cl e .
The h e a d (C a pi tul u m c o st a ) i s the a ctu a l e nd of th e ri b a n d is ,

ro u n ded a n d s o mewh a t e n l a r ged . I t p r e s e n ts t w o f a cets (F a ci es a r ti cul a r is c a pitu ll

c o st -e ) fo r a r ti cul a ti o n with the b o d ies o f tw o a dj a ce n t th o r a ci c ve r teb r a ; these
.

su r fa ces a re sep a r a ted by a g roo ve i n wh i c h the c o nj ug a l lig am e nt is a tt a ched .

The n e ck (C o ll u m c ost a ) j o i n s the he a d to th e sh a ft I t v ar ies i n le ngth a nd .

d i a m ete r I ts o ute r s u r fa ce is ro ugh its i n n e r s moo th The tu b er cl e (Tub e r culu m

.
,
.

c o st a ) p ro j ects b a ckwa r d a t th e j u n cti on Of the n eck a n d sh a ft I t h as a f a cet .

(Fa cies a r ti cul ar is tube r culi c ost a ) fo r a r ti cul a ti o n wi th th e t r an sve r se p r o cess of

t h e p o ste r i o r ve r teb ra Of the tw o wi th whi ch the he a d a r ti cu l a tes Th e tube r cle.

g ra du a lly a pp ro a ches the he a d i n the p oste r i or r i bs an d eve n tu a lly fuses wi t h i t ,

.

T h e ste rn a l e xtr e mi ty (E xt r e m i t as ste rn a lis ) i s c o mm on ly slightly e n l a r ged ,

a nd h as a r o ugh dep r essi o n i n whi ch the c o st a l c a r ti l a ge is e m b edd ed

D eve l opm e nt —T h e r i bs a re oss i fie d i n c a r til age fr o m th r ee ce n te r s—on e e a ch

.

fo r th e s h a ft (a n d s te r na l e nd ) he a d a nd tube r cle ; the thi r d ce n te r d o es n ot o cc u r

, ,

i n t h e l ast t w o r ibs .

THE COSTAL CARTI LAGE S

These (C a rtil a gi n es c o s t a les ) a re b ars o f hy a li n e c a rti l a ge wh i ch c on ti n u e th e
r ibs . Th o se o f the ste r n a l r ibs a r ti cul a te wi th the ste r n u m w h i le the r e m a i n de r ,

o ve r l a p a nd a re a tt a ched t o e a ch o the r t o f or m the c o sta l ar ch (A r cus c o st a lis )

THE STE RN M U
The ste rn um o r b r e a s t — b o ne i s a m edi an seg m e n t a l b on e wh i ch c o m pl etes the
skelet o n o f t h e th o r a x ve n t r a lly a n d a r ti cul a tes with th e c a r ti l a ges o f the ste r na l
,

r ibs l a te r a lly I t c o n sist s o f s i x t o eight b o ny seg m e n ts (S te r n eb r a ) c o n n ected by

.

i n te r ve n i n g c a r til a ge i n the y o u n g subj ect I ts f o r m v a r ies with th a t o f th e th o ra x

.

i n ge n e r a l a n d wi th the devel o p m e n t o f the cl a vi cles i n a n i m a ls i n wh i ch they a r e

p re s e n t I ts a n te ri o r ext r e m i ty the m an ub r i u m ste rn i o r pr e s tern urn , is s peci a lly
.
,

a ff ected by the l a tte r f a ct o r bei n g b r o a d a n d st ro n g whe n the cl a vi cles a r e well

,

devel o p ed a nd a r ti cul a te wi th i t (as i n m a n ) r el a tively s ma l l a n d l a te r a lly co m

,

p ressed w he n they a re a b s e n t (as i n th e h o r se ) o r r udi me n t a ry (a s i n the d og ) .

The c a rti l a ge s o f the fi rst p a i r o f r ibs a r ti cul a te wi th i t Th e b o dy or m e s o st ernu m .

ste r ni ) p r ese n ts l a te ra lly a t th e j u n cti o n o f the seg m e n ts c o n c a ve f a cets

, ,

(I nc i s u ra c o s t a les ) fo r a r ti c ul a ti o n with t h e c a r ti l a ges o f the ste r n a l r i bs Th e .

p o s te r i o r ext re mi ty o r m eta ste rn u m p r e s e n t s t h e xiph o id (o r e n sif o r m ) c ar til a g e

(P ro ces s us xi ph o ide u s ) ; this is thi n a n d pl a te li ke a s i n the h o rse a n d ox or n a rr o w
-
, ,

a nd s h o rt a s i n the
pi g a nd d o g
D e ve l opme n t —The c ar ti l a gi no u s ste rn u m is f o rmed by the fusi on medi a lly
, .

o f t w o l a t e r a l b a rs whi c h u n i te th e ve n t ra l e n ds o f t h e fi r st ei ght o r n i n e c o st a l

c a rtil a ge s a n d is p ri mi ti vely u nsegme n ted Th e m an u b r i u i n o ss i fie s f ro m a si n gle

, .

c e nte r ,
b u t t h e c e n te rs fo r the o the r seg m e nts a ppe a r t o be p r i m itively p a i r ed .

The ste r nu m i i e v c r bec o m es c o m pletely o ss ifie d ; det a i ls i n r eg a r d t o pe r sisti n g

 T HE T H ORA X — T HE B ON E S OF T HE T H OR A C I C L I M B 27

c ar ti l a ge wi ll b e gi ve n i n the speci a l d es c r i pti on s Th e l a ye r of c omp a ct tissue i s .

fo r the g r e a te r p a rt ve r y t h i n a n d the sp o n gy subst a n ce is o pe n meshed a nd ve ry -

v as cul a r .

THE THORA X
Th e ske let o n of th e th or ax c o m p r ises the th o ra ci c ve r teb rae d o rs a lly the r ibs ,

a nd thei r c a r ti l a ges l a te r a l ly a n d the ste r nu m ve n t r a lly

, The th o r a ci c c avi ty .

(C av u m th o r a cis ) r esemb les i n sh a pe a n i rr egul a r t r u n c a ted c on e ; it is c o m p r essed

l a te ra lly especi a lly i n f r o n t a n d the d or s a l w a l l or r o o f is m u ch l o nge r t h a n the
, ,

ve n t ra l w a l l or fl oo r The an t eri or apertur e (A pe rt u r a th o ra cis c r ani a li s ) is

.

b o un ded by the fir st th o r a ci c ve r teb r a d or s a lly th e fir st p a i r o f r ibs an d thei r ,

c arti l a ges l a te r a ll y an d th e m a n ub r i u m ste r n i ve n t r a lly The po st eri or ap ertur e

, .

(A pe rtu r a t h or a cis c a ud a lis ) i s b o u n ded by the l a st t h or a ci c ve rt eb r a the l ast ,

p a i r of r ibs t he c o st a l ar ch es a nd th e a n te r i o r p ar t of t he xi ph o i d c ar ti l a ge
, , .

I t m ay b e n o t ed h er e t h a t t h e di a p h r a g m (w h i c h f orms t h e p ar ti ti on b et w een th e t h o ra c i c
a nd a bd o
m
i n a l cav m es ) d o es n o t f o l l o w t h e c os t a l a r ch es i n i t s p os t eri o r a tt ac hm e n t so t h a t t h e
en t er al s o i n t o th e f or ma ti on of t h e a bd omi na l w a ll
,

po s t eri or I l
.

'
.

THE S K UL L
Th e te r m sk u ll i s usu a lly u n de r st oo d t o i n clude al l o f th e b ones o f the he a d .

The h e a d c on sists of the c r an i um a nd th e f a ce a nd i t i s th e r ef o r e c o n ve n i e nt to ,

di vi de t h e b o n es i n t o c ra ni a l an d f a ci a l gr o ups .

Th e cr ani al b o n e s (Oss a c r a ni i ) i n cl o se th e b r a i n w ith its m e m b r a n es a n d

v essels an d the esse n ti a l o r g ans of h e ar i n g Th ey c on cu r with the f a ci a l b o n es i n
.

f o r mi n g th e o r b it a l a n d n as a l c a vi ti es i n wh i ch the pe r iph e ra l or g ans o f sight a nd

,

o f smel l are situ a ted .

Th e fa ci al b on e s (Oss a f a ci ei ) f o r m th e skelet on of the o r a l a nd n a s a l c avi ties ,

an d a ls o supp or t the l ar yn x a n d the roo t o f th e t o n gu e .

M o st o f th e b o n es o f t h e skul l ar e fl at b o n es devel o ped i n m emb ra n e ; th ose ,

o f th e c ra ni a l b a se ma y b e cl assed as i r r egu l a r a n d a r e c a r ti l a ge b o n es Onl y , .

t w o f or m pe r m a n e n t m o v a b le j o i n ts w it h o th e r p a r ts o f th e skul l The m an dible .

o r l o we r jaw b o n e f or m s di a r th r o di a l j o i n ts w i th the t emp or a l b on es a n d the hy o id

-
,

b o n e is a tt a ch ed t o the l a tte r by b a r s of c ar ti l a ge The o the r b on es for m i m mo v .

a ble j o i n ts m o st o f whi ch di s a ppe ar wi th a g e

,
.

I n ord er t o s t u d y t h e s e p a r a t e b o nes , s k u l l s o f y o un g s u b j ec t s ar e nec ess ar y , s i n c e l a t er mos t

o f t h e li n es of d em a rc a ti o n b eco m e e fi a c ed T h e re l a ti o ns o f e a c h b o ne to i ts s ur r ou n di n g s s h o u l d
.

b e s pe c i a ll y no t e d , s i n c e t h e fin a l o b j e c t i s to u n d er s t a nd t h e s k u l l as a w h o l e I n t h e d es cri p ti o ns .

w hi c h f oll ow t h e s k u l l i s cons i d ered w i t h i ts l on g a xi s h ori z on t a l , a n d t h a t of t h e h ors e w i l l ser v e

as a t ype .

THE B ONE S OF THE THORA CI C mm

Th e th o r a ci c li mb c ons ists of f o ur chi ef seg m e n ts vi z t he sh o ulde r gi r dl e ,
.
, ,

th e ar m the f o r e a r m a n d the f o r ef o o t o r m an us
, ,
.

Th e s h o ul d er gi r d l e (C i n gu l u m ext re mi t a ti s th or a ci c a ) whe n fully devel o ped ,

c o ns ists o f t hr ee b o n es—th e s c apul a o r sh o u lde r bl a de the c o ra c o i d an d the

,

-
, ,

c l a vi cl e o r c o ll a r b o n e I n the d o m esti c a ted m a mm a ls o nl y the s c a pul a a l a r ge

-
. , ,

fl a t b o n e i s well devel o ped a n d the sm a ll c o r a c o i d ele m e n t h as fused wi th i t whi le

, , ,

t he cl av i cle is eithe r a bse n t or i s a sm a l l r udi m e n t emb edded i n t he m as toi d o

h u m er a l i s m us cle Th e r e is t he r ef o r e n o a rti c u l a ti on of the sh o ul de r w ith the
.

a xi a l skel et o n .

T h e s h o ul d er gi r dl e i s f u ll y d e v e l o p ed i n b i r d s a n d t h e l o w er m a m ma ls (mo n o t r em a t a ) In .

th e hi gh er ma mm a l s t h e co r a c o i d i s red u c ed to t h e c o ra co i d p r o cess o f t h e sc a p u l a , a nd t h e d ev e l o p
ment of t h e c l av i c l e i s in conf o rmi t y w i t h t h e f un c t i on o f t h e h mb T h us m t y p i ca l u a d r u p ed s , .
q
28 OS T E OL OG Y

such as the h o rs e h i c h th e f o re li mb s a re u s ed o n l y fo r s u pp o r t a n d l o c o mo ti o n , t h e
a nd e x, in w
l vi le
c a c is a b s e nt Ot h e r a n i ma l s w h i c h u s e t hes e l i m b s fo r g r as p i n g , b u r ro w i n g c l i m b i n g e t c , ,
.

w i t h t h e s te r n u m
.

ma n , a p es mo l es ) h a v e w e l l d e v e l o p ed c l a v i c l es w l n c h c o nne c t t h e s c a p u l a
- .

. ,

The har m
i ) t i s a s i n gl e l o n g b o n e , t h e hu me r u s o r a r m b o n e
(B r ac u i n c o n a n .

I n t h e f or e ar m (sh i t i b rac h i u m ) a r e tw o l o n g b o n es , th e ra d iu s a n d u ln a .

Thes e v a ry i n rel a t ive si z e a n d m o bi lity I n the h o r se a n d e x th e t w o b on es a r e .

fused a n d t h e l o we r p a r t o f the li mb i s fixed i n th e p osi ti on o f p r o na ti on Th e

,
.

ra di us is pl a ced i n f ro nt a n d s upp o r ts the weight The u l n a is w el l devel oped o n ly .

i n its uppe r p a r t whi c h f o r ms a l eve r fo r the exte n s o r m us c les o f the elb o w

,
In .

the pig t h e ul n a is the l a rge r a nd l o n ge r o f th e t w o b o n es bu t is c l o sely a tt a ched t o ,

t he b a c k o f the r a di us I n the d o g the ul n a i s a l s o wel l devel o ped a n d a sm a ll

.

a m o u n t o f m o ve me n t is p o ssi ble betwee n the t w o b o n es .

The f or ef oot o r h and (M a n us ) c o nsist s o f th r ee subdi visi o ns vi z the c arpus , ,

.
,

meta c arpu s , a nd digit o r d igi ts .

The c arpu s , p o pul a r ly te r med the k n ee i n a ni m a ls a nd h om o l o go us with “

,

the w rist o f ma n c o n t a i ns a g ro up o f sh o r t b o nes (Oss a c a rpi ) These are typi c ally

eight i n n u mbe r a nd a re a rr a n ged i n t w o t r a nsve rse ro ws—a p r oxi m a l o r anti
.
,

b ra c hi a l a nd a d i s t a l o r m et a c a r p a l T h e b on es o f th e p r oxi ma l row n am ed f ro m
,
.
,

the radi a l to the ul na r side (i e f ro m wi thi n o utw ar d ) a r e the ra d i a l , i n term edi at e

. .
, , ,

ul nar a n d a cce s s o ry c a rp a l b o n es Th e b on es o f the dist a l r ow ar e desig na ted

,
.

n u me r i c a lly i n the s a m e di r ecti o n a s fir st s e c o n d , thi r d a n d f o ur th c a r p a l b on es

, , , , .

Thi s e l t e i nt rod u c ed b y Gegen b a u r a nd no w u sed l a rg e l y b y c om p a ra ti v e ana t

no m nc a u r , ,

o m i s ts s ee ms d e c i d ed l y p re f e r a b l e t o t h e v a r i e t y o f t e r ms b o r ro w ed f ro m h u m a n a n a t o my a n d
.

b a s ed o n t h e fo r m o f t h e b o nes i n m a n T h e f o ll o w i n g t a b l e o f sy n o n y ms i n co mmo n u s e i s ap
.

p e nd ed fo r c o m p a r i so n T h e La ti n ter m s a nd a bb rev i a t ed no ta ti o ns a re gi v en i n p aren t h es i s

. .

R ad i a l (Os c a r p i ra d i a l e C r ) , S ca p h o i d
I n t e r med i a t e (Os ca r p i i n t e r me d i u m C i ) S emi l u n a r ,
.

U l na r (Os c a r p i u l n a re C u ) , C u ne i f o r m
A c e ss o ry (Os c a r p i a c cess o r i u m C a )
c P i s i fo r m
,

Fi rs t c a r pa l (Os c a r pa l e p ri mu m C l ) T ra pe z i u m
,

S e co n d c a r p a l (Os ca r p a l e s ec u nd u m C 2 ) T ra p e z o i d ,

T h i r d c a r p a l (Os c a r p a l e t e r ti u m C 3 ) Os m a gnu m ,

F o u r t h c a rp a l (Os c a r p a l e q u a rtu m C 4 ) Un c i f o r m ,

T h e en t ra l ca r p a l b o ne (Os c a r p i c e nt ra l e ) i s o m i tt ed s i n c e i t i s no t a se p a r a te e l emen t i n
c .
,

th e a n i m a l s u nd e r c o n s i d e ra t i o n he re .

The m eta c arpu s c o nt a i ns typi c a lly fi ve m e ta c ar pa l b o n e s (Oss a metaca rp ali a

I —V) o ne fo r e a ch digit ; they a re l o n g b o n es a n d a re desi gn a ted n u m e r i c a lly f r om
,

w ithi n o utw a rd This a r ra n ge me n t o cc u rs i n th e d og a lth o ugh the fi rst m et a

.
,

c a rp a l is mu ch s malle r th a n the o the r s a nd the sec on d a nd fi fth a r e s om ewh a t ,

r educed Fu rthe r r educti o n h a s t a ke n pl a ce i n the o th e r a n i m a ls resulti ng i n

.

the pe ri s s o d a c t yl a nd ar ti od a c tyl fo r ms I n the h o r se th e fi rst a n d fifth m et a c a rp a ls .

a r e a b s e nt t h e thi r d i s t h e l a r ge supp o r ti n g m et a c a r p a l b o n e a n d c a r r ies the si ngle

,

d i g it w hi le t h e se c o n d a nd f o u r th a re m u ch r edu ced
, I n a r t i o d a c ty l s (e g ox .
-
. .
, ,

s h ee p p i g ) t h e thi rd a n d fo u rth a r e the chi ef m et a c a r p a ls a nd c a rry the well

,

d evel o ped digi t s ; they a re fused i n the e x a n d sheep The o th e r s a r e v a ri o usly .

r ed uced o r a bs e nt a s no ted i n the speci a l d esc r ipti o n s t o f o ll o w .

T h e fo s s i l re ma i ns o f t h e a n c es to rs o f th e e xi s ti n E u id zr i ll u s t r a t e i n a mos t c o m p l e t e m a n
h e red u c t i o n w h i c h h a s o c c u rre d i n t h i s res p e c t
g .
q
n er
t T h e e a r li es t k n o w n a n c es t o r o f t h e h o rse .
‘

l uo l n ppu s or l l y ri uo t h e r i u m o f t h e Lo w e r E o c en e h a d f o u r w e l l d e v e l o p e d m e t a c a r p a l b o nes
'
.

ea c h o f w i nc h c a rri ed a d i g it ; t h e fi rs t met a c a rp a l b o ne w a s s ma l l E l ev e n i n te r med i a t e s t ag es .

s h o w t h e g ra d u a l e v o l u t i o n o f t h e ra c e f ro m t h i s p r i m i ti v e a n i ma l
,
w h i c h w as a bo u t th e s i z e o f
t h e d o me s t i c c a l T h e re i s rea s o n to be li e v e t h a t e a r l i e r f o r m s h a d fi v e d i it s
g
.
.

The digit s (D igit i m a n u s ) a re h o mo l o g o us wit h th e fi n ge rs of m a n a n d a re ,

t y pi c a lly fiv e i n n u mbe r T hey a r e d e s ig n at ed n u m e r i c a lly f r o m t h e r a di a l to

.
.

t he ul n a r s i d e i n c o r re s p o nd e n c e wit h the m et a c a r pus The ful l n u mbe r i s p r ese n t

,
.

i n the d o g I n t h e o x a n d pig t h e t h i rd a n d f o u r th a r e wel l devel o ped a n d s upp o r t

.
 30 o s r no c o o r

p r e s e n t a s i n the pig a n d d og They a re be s t desig na ted n u me r i c a l ly a s fi r st tar s al , .

s e c o nd tar s a l , etc The ce ntra l tar s a l is i nte r p o sed betwee n the r o ws

. .

p rec ed i ng t e rms a re a ng li c i z ed a b b re v i a ti o ns o f t ho s e i n t ro d u c ed b y G egenb au r

T he in o t
c o m p a ra ti v e a n a t o m y T h e La ti n n a mes a nd s y n o n y m s a re g i v e n i n t h e fo l l o w mg t a b l e
. .

T i b i a l (Os t a rs i ti b i a l e T t ) As t r a g a l u s o r T a l u
C a l c a neu s o r Os c as
.
,

Fi b u l a r (Os t a rs i fib u l a re ei s
.

( e n t r a l (Os t a rs i c e n t r a l e T c ) b ca p h o u o r N a k
l l ar
‘

, .

F i rs t T a rs a l (Os t a rs a l e p ri mu m T I ) Fi rs t o r i n te rn a l c u nei for m ,

S ec o nd T a rs a l (Os t a rs a l e s e c u nd u m T 2 ) S co n d o r m i d d l e cu n e fo rm
T h i rd T a rs a l (Os t a rs a l e t e r ti u m T 3 )
e i
l bi rd o r e xt e r n a l cu nei fo r m
,
'
,

Fo u rt h T a rs a l (Os t a rs a l e q
. .

uar tu m T4 )
.

C i i b Oi d ,
. .

The m e ta tar s a l a nd digi ta l b o n e s r ese mble i n ge n e r a l th o se of the c o rr esp o n di n g

r egi o n s o f t h e th ora ci c limb ; the d i ffe r e nti a l fe a tu r es wi ll be no ted i n the spec i a l
desc ri pti o ns .

—S K E Ll HO or RS E w n-n OU T L I N E C O N TO U R or B o nr
fi
.

A tl
v th as : .
;
II I R
.
t th
se en cer
I7 Rvi l V t b
v t t h th
ca er ei ra rs i v t b
fi
.
;
. . o ra c c er e ra se e n ee n
, . .
. o ra c c
v b :
e r te raf t l mb v tb i rs u
mb v tb ; K
ar er e
m: I S ra; t i th l
y g
l v t
s x
b ;
u ar er e ra , s a c ru . .
, rs c oc c ea er e ra
[6 S .

t ths i x ee n
yg lv t b ; co cc ea
t l til g ;
er e
l t ib ; l
ra 6 1L.
p l ; l
i th i b ;s x til ag r cos a ca r a e as r '
o f p l ; 2 pi
sc a u a f p l ; 4 h m
, s ne o
; 4 t l pi
sc a
dyl u a
fh m ; 5 t u
l t e ru s
it ’
e x e r na
. sca u a . ca r e

y f h m
e co n
b e o u
.
e ru s ex e r na u e r os o u
t} i l ; , e ru s
i l t b h ft f l
,
l l '
l n i }
t 7
u e ro s t

"
; 8 l
.
; 9,
dis
: 10
a p ; l l
o u na
y
p l .
b
o e c r a no n
; 1 2 m
t . ra us , ca r us a c ces s o r car a o ne e a
"
,
: IS d g
i it t m i p i d til g ; 1 5 ili m ; i t} l b t l d i t l g l f ili m ;
.
car p us ; I 4 , : l l h . s e r nu -
x o car a e
,
u e x e r na an n e rna
, . an es o u
i h i m : I R f m ( h ft ) ; 1 0 t h t m j : 2 7 t h t m i ; 28 t h t t ti ; 2 0 p t l l ;
,
I7 . sc u e ur s a ro c
, an er a or ro c an er

l d y l f ti b i : 23 fi b l ; 22 t
,
, no r ro c a n er er us
’ a e a
Ll
ti b i ( h f ) ;
.

t ; 24 t b l i ; 25 m t t i it
,
. a s a t e x e r na co n e o

B m A t f l K tl )
a u a a rs u s
(A f t 2 6 d
,
u er ca c s e a a rs u s
E ll b g
,
er en ; g , . . .

er e r- au . un . i r u ns er .
 T HE S K E L E T ON or T HE H OR S E 31

THE SKE LE TON OF THE HOR SE

Th e skelet o n o f the h o r se c o nsists o f 2 05 b on es , as sh o wn in the f o l l o wi n g t able .

Ve rt eb r a l co ul mn . .

S t e r n um
S k u l l (i n c l u di ng t
au di ory oss c i l es )
T h o r ac i c li m b s
P e l vi c l i mb s

2 05

I n thi s enum era ti o n th e a v er a ge n u m b er o f co ccyg ea l v er t eb ra i s t a k en to b e 1 8 , th e tem

pora l a n d os co xee ar e no t di v i d e d i n t o p ar t s , t h e u su a l nu mb er of car p a l and t a rs a l e l emen ts i s
ta k en, a n d t h e s es a mo i d s a r e i n cl u d ed .

THE VE R TE BRAL COLUMN

Th e ve r teb r a l f o r mul a of th e h o r se is C 7 T 1 $L 68 5Cy 1 5 _

2 1

'

Fos sa atl a ntts

Ven tr a l cres t;

P os ter i or ar ti cu
l a r pr oce s s

A n ter i or a r ti cw
l a r pr oces s

FI G 6
. .
—C E R VI CAL V T B ER E RE or HO RS E . F ro . 7 .
—C E RV ICAL V T B ER E RE or HO RS E , V N T AL V
E R i ew .
(A fte r
D o ns “ ,
V W (A ft
I E . er Sch ma lt z ,
S h m lt z A tl
c a , as (1 . A t na . d . Pf d
er )
es .

A tl as (1 . A t d Pf d
na . . er es . )
 32 T HE S KE L E T O N OF T HE H OR S E

THE CE R VI CAL VE RTE BR ZE

T h ese a re q u ad ra ngul a r massive a n d l o nge r th a n the ve r teb rae o f o the r r egi ons ;
, ,

they d ec re a s e i n le n g t h f r o m t h e sec o n d to the l a s t The thi r d , f o urth , a n d fif th .

a re typi c a l a n d h a ve the f o ll o wi ng ch a ra cte r s :

,

1 T h e b o di e s a re l o ng as c o mp a r ed with th o se o f o the r ve r teb rae

. E a ch .

p r ese nts a medi a n ve ntra l spi n e o r c r e st whi c h bec o m es m o r e p r o m i n e n t a s i t is ,

t ra c ed b a ckwa rd a n d i s tube r cu l a te a t i ts p oste r i o r e nd

,
The l a te ra l a sp e ct is .

c o n c a ve T h e d or s a l su rf a ce h a s a fl a t ce n t ra l a r e a wh i ch i s n a r r o w i n the m iddle
.

e a nd wide a t ei the r e n d ; i t gives a tt a ch m e n t to th e supe r i o r c o m

o f t h e ve r teb r a ,

m o n lig a m e n t On ei th e r side o f this a r e a is a g ro o ve wh i ch l o dges the l o n gi tud i n a l

.

s pi n a l vei n The s e l a te r a l g rooves a re c o n n ected a t the middle of the su r f a ce by

.

a t ra ns ve rs e fu rro w i n which the r e a re seve ra l f o r a m i n a th ro ugh wh i ch vei n s

,

e me rge f ro m t h e sp o n gy subst a nc e of the b o dy The ant e r i o r e x tr e mi ty p r ese n ts .

a he a d w h i ch h as a n o v a l a r ti cul a r su r f a ce s t r o n gly c on vex a n d wi de r a b o ve th a n , ,

bel o w The p o ste r i or e xtr e mi ty i s l a rge r a nd h a s a n e ar ly ci r cu l ar c o tyl o i d c a vi ty

. .

2 The ar c h e s a re l a rge a n d st ro n g
. They a re pe r f or a ted on ei the r si de by a .

A r ti c u l a r proces s es

A n ter i or a r ti c u l a r p r oces s

Hea d

A r ti cu l a r ca vi ty
TTON S M TS C p r o ces s
‘

bcr c l c f firs t r i b
o

Fa cets for h ea d f firs t

o ri b
FI G . 8 .
—L A8 T C V CAL AN D
ER I H AC C
F i ns r T O R I V HRI
’ ‘
E B R /E or l l -O R S E , LAT AL ER Vi Ew .
A ft
( er Sc h m a lt z A tl as d .

A t
na . d . P f
e rd es . )

f o r a me n whi ch c o m mu ni c a tes with the f o r a me n t ra nsve r s a r i u m Th e ve r teb r a l .

n o tche s a r e l a r ge .

3 The ar ti cu l a r pr o ce s s e s a r e l a rge
.
Thei r a r ti cul ar su rf a ces a r e exte nsi ve .

,
e v a l i n o utli ne a n d slightly c o n c a ve
; the a n te r i o r o n es a r e d i r ected u pw a r d a n d
,

i nwa rd the p o s te r i o r d o w n w a r d a nd o utw a r d Th e r e m a i n i ng s u r f a ce is m a i n ly

, .

ro
ughe ned fo r lig a m e nto us a n d muscul a r a tt a ch m e nt A c r est c o nn ects the .

ar
t i c u l a r p ro cesses o f the s a m e side o n the f o u r th a nd fifth ; o n the thi r d i t d o es n ot
r e a ch the a n te r i o r p r o cess .

4 The tr an sve r s e p r o c e s s e s a re l a rge a n d pl a te li ke

.

E a ch a r ises b y t w o -
.

ro o s
t o n e f r o m the a rc h a n d o ne f ro m the b o dy ; betwee n these is the f or a m en
,

tr a n sve r s a ri um , th ro u g h whi ch the ve r teb r a l a r te ry p a s ses T h e p r o cess d i vi des .

ex te r na lly i nto a n te ri o r a nd p ost e ri o r b ra n ches wh i ch a re thi cke n ed a nd ro ugh for ,

mu s c ul a r a tt a c h me n t .

5 The spi n o u s pr o ce s s is r ep r ese n ted by a c rest

(C r ist a spi no s a ) whi ch
.

,
W i de n s behi nd a nd i s c o n n ected by r idges wi th the p ste i
, o r o r a r ti cul a r p r o cesses .

The s i xth ce rvi c a l ve r teb r a h a s th e f o ll o wi ng di sti nc ti ve fe a tu r es : I t is sh o r te r

a n d wide r th a n the fi fth The ar c h is l a rge especi a lly p o ste r i or ly The p o ste ri o r
.

, .
 T HE ATLAS 33

ar ti c ul ar p r o cesses a re sh o r te r th i cke r a n d fu r the r a p a r t ; they a re c o nn ected w ith

,

t he a n te r i or o n es by a th i ck r idge The spin o u s p ro c e s s i s less r udime nt a r y i t .

;
i s h a lf an i n ch o r m o r e (c a cm ) i n h eight The tr an sve r s e p r o c e s s e s h ave
. .
.

th ree b ran ch es ; th e thi r d p art is a thi ck a l mo st s a gitt a l pl a te whi ch f o r ms with , ,

i ts fell o w a n d the b o dy a wi de ve n t r a l g roo ve on t he p o s te r i o r p art o f the ve r teb r a

;
the o the r b r a n ches c orr esp o n d t o t h o se o f th e typi c a l ve r teb rae but a re sh o r t a n d ,

thi cke r The f o ram e n tran s v er s ar i u m is l ar ge ; bel o w i ts p o ste r i o r e nd i s a fo ss a

.

Th e v en tr a l cre st is s m a l l a n d is less p ro mi n e n t p oste r i or ly .

T h e t hi rd b r a nch of th e t ra ns v ers e p rocess and th e f ossa a re s o m eti mes a bs n e t o n o ne s id e .

Th e s e v e n th ce r vi c a l ve rteb r a is r e a di ly d isti n guished by th e f o l l o wi ng ch a ra c

te r s : I t is s h o r ter a nd W id e r th an the o th e r s The b o dy is fl a tte n ed d o r s o— ve nt ra lly .

a n d wi de especi a lly be hi n d ; h e r e i t h as a d e mif ace t o n ei the r side

, fo r a r ti cul a ti o n
wit h p ar t of the he a d o f th e fi r st ri b The ar ch a n d its n o tch e s a re l a rge Th e .
.

an t eri o r ar ti c u l ar pr o ce s s e s a re w i de r a n d l on ge r th a n the p o ste r i r p i The

o a r .

s pi n o u s pr o c e s s i s a n i n ch o r m o r e
(ca 3 cm ) i n h eight The tr an sver s e pr o c e s s . . .

i s u n di vi ded a nd h as n o f or a me n t ran sve rs ar i um

, Th e ve n t r a l c r est i s r epl a ced .

by a p a i r o f tube r cles .

In me p ec i mens l a rge f ora men t r a ns v ers ar i u m p res en t id e

is (ra r e l y )
so s a o n o ne s or on
b oth .

Dors a l a r ch

I nl erverl c bra l Ver tebr a l

For a men
tr a ns ver
'

s a ri a m
—— a

Ven tr al
J

a r ch Ven tra l tu ber cl e

FI G . 9 .
—A T LAS or H O R SE AN T E I O V I W
. R R E . FI G . l o .
—
A T LA S or HO RS E , P oe mo a V WI E .
A ft
( er
(A ft e r S c h ma lt z A tl (1 A n t d P fe d )
, as . a . . r es . S c h ma lt z A tl
, as d . A t
na . d . P fe rd e s . )

THE AT L A S
Thi s ve r t eb r a is d eci dedly a typi c a l i n f o r m a nd st r u ctu r e Th e b o dy an d .

spi n o us p r o cess a r e a bse n t I t h a s th e f or m of a st r on g r i n g f r om whi ch tw o

.
,

cu r ved pl a tes t he W i ng s , p r o j ect l a te ra lly Th e r i ng i n cl o ses a ve r y l ar ge ve r teb r a l

, .

f o r a me n a nd c o n sists of tw o l a te r a l m a s s e s c onn ected by d or s al a n d v en tr al ar ch e s

, .

The l a t er al m as s e s (M a ss aa l a te r a les ) p r ese n t t w o deep o v a l an t eri or arti cu l ar

ca vi ti e s (F o v eae a r ti cul ar es c r a n i a les ) whi ch r ecei ve the o cci pit a l c o n dyles ; they a re

sep ara ted b y a w i de n o t ch a b o ve a n d a n arr o w o n e bel o w Th e o ute r m a rgi n is a ls o .

n o t ched a n d a t r i a n gul ar n on a r ti cu l a r dep r essi o n cuts i n t o the i nn e r p ar t o f e a ch

,
-

c av i ty Th e p o ste ri o r ar ti cu l ar s ur f a c es (F a ci es a r ti cul a r es c a ud a les ) a r e s o me

.

wh a t s a ddle sh a ped ; t hey a r e c on flu e n t on th e ve n t ra l ar ch bel o w but a r e wi dely

-
,

sep ara ted a b o ve a n d d o n ot c onf o r m i n sh a pe t o the c orr esp on di n g su r f a ces of th e

,

ai n s .

The d o rs al ar c h (A r cus d or s a lis ) p r ese n ts a m edi an d or s a l tub er cl e (T a be r ou

lum d or s a l e ) a n d is c o n c a ve bel o w I t i s pe r f ora ted on eithe r si de n e a r i ts a nte r i or .

m a r gi n by th e i n t erv er t e b r al f oram en The an te ri or b o r d er i s deeply n o tched a n d .

,

t he po s teri or is thi n an d c on c a ve .

The v en tral ar ch (A r cus ve n t ra li s ) is th i cke r n arr o we r a n d less cu r ved th a n , ,

3
34 T HE S KE LE T O N or T HE H OM E

(Tube r cu lum ve n t r a l e ) e
t h e d o rs a l On i ts l o we r s u r f a ce is th e ve t l t b e cl n ra u r ,

i nt o w h i c h t h e t e r m i n a l t e n d o n o f t h e l o ngu s c o lli m uscl e i s i nse r ted T h e u ppe r

.

c ve t i cul a r su r f a ce (F o ve a de nt i s ) o n
f a c e h as p os t c r i o rl v a t ra ns ve r s ely o n c a a r ,

hi e d id p cess of t h xis r es t s I n f r o n t o f th i s i s a t r a n sve r se

w c h t h e d ns o r o o n to ro e a .

ugh exc v ti f t h t t a c h m e n t o f t h e o d o n t o id lig a m e n t

n e a
.

ro a a o o r

T h e w i ngs (A he ) a re mo d i fi ed t r a n s ve e p ce e
rs ro s s s They a r e exte n s i ve cu r ved .

pl a t es whi ch p ro j ec t o u t w a rd d o w n w a rd an d b a c kw ar d f ro m th e l a te r a l m a sses
, ,
.

d l f e c ve B etwee t h ve n t l a s pect o f the m u g a n d th e

T h e o rs a s u r a c i s c o a n n .
e r a

l a t e ra l mas s i s a c a vi t y the f o s s a a tl an t i s ; i n t h is the r e i s a f o r a m e n w h i ch o pe n s

,

i n t o t h e ve rt e b r a l c a nal The b ord e r i s t hi c k a n d r o ug h T w o f o r a mi n a pe rfo r a te

.
.
.

e a c h wi ng Th e a n t e r i o r o ne t he f oram e n a l ar e , i s c o n n ect ed wit h the i n t e r ve r te

. ,

b ra l fo r a m e n b y a s h o r t g ro o ve T h e p o ste r i o r o n e i s the f ora me n tr a n sv e r s ari um

.
.

D eve l o pme n t — The a tl a s o s s i fi e s f r o m th r e e o r f o ur c e n te r s , o n e o r t w o fo r

ve t l h ei the sid e f e ch l te l m ss w m g a n d h a lf o f th e
the n ra a r c a n d o n e o n r o r a a ra a

d o rs a l a r ch A t bi rt h the b o n e c o n sists o f th r ee pieces—t h e ve n t r a l a r ch a n d t w o

, ,
,

l a te ra l p a rts w h i c h a r e s ep a ra ted by a l a ye r o f c a r ti l a ge i n the d or s al m ed i a n li n e

,
.

Thes e p a rts a re usu a ll y fused a t ab o ut si x mo n th s .

AL
l as

I a h r i c rl e
'
bra l
m
f o ra me n Fo ra me n art u

tro r“5"
'

“ 'rs a r Hi n
(r a ri s i i cr s a r u i m
'

l e n l ra l c r es t

Ven tra l cr es t

Fu '
1 1 .
—l
“ n r
i s T H RE E C V CAL V T B
ER I ER E R A; O F l l o ns rz , L AT AL V
ER i ew .
(A ft er S c h ma lt z , A t l as (1 . A t
na . d .

l ’ fe rd es ) .

THE Ax i s
Th e xi s (E pi s t ro ph eus ) i s th e l o n gest o f t h e ve r teb r ae a nd is ch a ra cte r i zed
a ,

b y th e p r e s e n c e o f the o d o nt o id p ro cess whi ch p ro j ects f r o m th e a n t e r i o r p a r t of

,

th e bod y .

T he b o d y h as a m edi a n ve n t ra l c r est whi ch t e r m i n a tes i n a tube r cle b eh i n d .

T h e a n t e r i o r ext r e m i ty p r e s e n ts c e nt r a lly th e o d o nto i d p r o c e s s (D e n s ) ; t his h as a

c o n vex a rt i c ul a r s u r f a c e ve nt ra lly fo r a r t i c ul a ti o n w ith the ve n t r a l a r ch o f the a tl a s ,

a n d t w o r o ugh d ep r es s i o ns fo r t h e a tt a ch m e n t o f th e o d o nt o id lig a m e n t d o r s a lly .

Fl a n ki ng t h is o n ei t h e r side a re the m o di fied a n te r i or ar ti cu l ar pr o c e s s e s , w hi ch

h a ve s a ddle sh a ped a rt i c ul a r su r f a ces c o nfl ue n t bel o w w ith th a t o f th e de n s Th e
-
.

po s t e r i o r ext r e m ity h a s th e usu a l c a v i t v .

T h e ar ch p re s e n t s i n t he y o u n g subj ect a n o tch on e a ch sid e o f its a n te r i o r

b o rde r ; t hi s is c o n ve rted i n t o a f o ra m e n by a lig a m e n t whi c h u s u a lly o s s ifi es l a te r .

The p oste r i o r b o rde r h as t h e u s u a l n o t c h es .

The p o ste r i o r ar ti cul ar p r o c e s s e s a re typi c a l .

T h e tr an sve r s e p r o c e s s e s a r e s m a l l s i n gle a n d p r o j ect b a ckw a r d ,

Th e , .

f o ram e n tra n sve r s ar ium i s s ma ll .

The S pi n o u s p ro c e s s is ve ry l a rge a n d st ron g I ts f r ee b o r de r is r o ugh thi cke n s .

p o s te r i o r l y a n d i s c o n t i n ued t o t h e a rt i c ul a r p ro ces s es by t w o r i d ges

, Th e l a te r a l .

. urfa c e s a re c o n c a ve a nd r o ugh fo r m uscul a r a t t a c h m e n t .

 T HE T H OR A C I C V E RT E B R/E 35

D v l opm —
h a s s ix or s e ve n c e n te r s o f o ssific a ti o n
t The a xis
en
I n a ddi t i o n
e e .
.

t o the usu a l five one o r tw o a ppe a r fo r the de ns whi ch i s r eg a r d ed as the d ispl a ced
, ,

b o dy o f the a tl a s A n ucl eus behi n d the de n s wh i ch r em a i ns disti n ct t o th r ee o r

.

f o ur ye ar s o f age i s c o nsi de r ed b v Les b re t o be the he a d of the a xis

, .

Occ i prta l
'

cr es t

Med i a n cr es t

P a r a /mi s to ul p r o ces s

, ”

Dors a l a r ch o f a tl a s

A nter i or a r ti c u l a r p r oces s o f ar ts

I nter vertebra l f or a me

For a me n tr a ns ver s a r i u

P os t . a r ti c u l a r
A nt . a r ti c u a r l p r oce

Tr a ns ver se p roces s

Do r s a l c r es t

Fora men tra ns ver s a r

P os t . a r ti c u l a r

FI G . 12 .
—OCC P TAL
I I B ON E AN D F I RS T TIm E E
'

C V CAL V
ER I E RT E E R E or HO RS E , D o ns V W
I E .
(Af te r S c hm a lt z ,

A tl 1 A t d
as ( . na . . P f
e r d es . )

THE THORA CI C VE R TE BR AE

These (Ve r teb ra; t h o r a ca l es ) a re usu a lly eightee n i n n u m be r i n th e h o rse but ,

the r e a r e s o meti m es ni n etee n r a r el y seve n tee n A s r egi o n a l ch ara cte r s we no te

,
.

th e su rf a ces for a rt i cu l a ti on w i th th e r i bs a nd the le n gth a n d f or m of the spi n ous

 36 TH E S KE L E T O N OF THE H O R SE

p ro c e s ses T h o s e i n the midd le o f t h e se r i e s a r e the mo st t ypi c a l a n d p r ese n t t he

.

f o ll o wi n g fe a t u r es :
1 The b o d i e s a r e sh o r t a n d c o n st r i c t ed i n the m i dd le
. The e n ds a re exp a n ded .

a nd h a ve a r t i c ul a r su r f a ce s whi ch a r e n o t st ro n gly cu r ved On h e u ppe r p a r t of

t .

e a c h s ide a re a nte r i o r a n d p os te ri o r c o sta l f a c ets (F o ve a c o st a l i s c r ani a l i s cau

o

d a lis ) whi ch wi t h th o s e o f a dj a ce nt ve r teb rae f o r m s o ckets for the h e a ds o f

, , ,

th e r i bs .

2 Th e ar ch e s a re s m a ll
. T hei r p o ste r i o r n o tches a r e r el a t i vely l a r ge a n d a re
.

o fte n c o n ve r ted i nt o fo ra mi n a .

3 The ar ti cul ar pr o ce s s e s a r e s m a ll
. The a nte r i o r p a i r a r e i n f a ct r ep r ese nted .

P os ter i or a r ti c u l a r p r oce s s

r a ns eers e pr oces s es

Fa cc l s for tu ber cl es f r i bs
o

'
r head s of ri bs
l l tft t t ti r ( l r f ltp u a r
’ ‘
l 7)r () CCS S I 7l tcr vartebra l

[f ac et fo r h ea d f
o rib Fa cet f o r tu bercl e f
o r ib

Fi c . l3 .
— ‘

T II I R D , Fo e n r ii . AN D F FT H H AC
I T OR I C \
'

i-
:R T E B n E . or HO RS E , L AT AL V W
ER IE .
(A fter S c hm a lt z A tl as
(1 . A t lia . d . P f
e rd e s . )

on
ly by tw o o v a l fa cet s o n the a n te r i o r p a r t o f the l a mi n ae wh i ch f a ce a lm o st di r ectly
u pwa rd The p o s te r i o r p a i r sp r i ng f ro m th e b a s e o f th e spi n o us p ro cess ; th ei r
.

f a c ets fa c e a l mo st di r ectly d ow nw a r d .

4 The tr an sve r s e r o
.

p ce s s e s a re sh o r t thi ck a n d tub e ro us at th e f r ee en d , ,
E a ch h a s a f a cet (F o ve a t r a ns v e r s a r i a fo r r ti cul ti
.

) a a o n wi th th e tube r o si ty o f th e
r i b w hi ch h as the s a m e se i l
r a n u mbe r
5 Th e spi n o u s p r o ce s s is l a r ge n a r r o w a n sl pes upw d
d a n d b a ckw a r d
.

o ar , ,
T h e a n te r i o r o r r
.

b de is thi n th e p o s te r i o r wide r a nd fu r ro wed , The su mm i t i s .

exp a nd ed a nd ro ugh .

T h e fir st th or a c ic ve rteb ra is e a si ly r ec o g n i z ed by th e f l l wi g specifi c ch c
o o n a ra
t e rs : T h e b o d y is wide a n d fl a tte ned d o rs o ve nt r a lly I n f r on t i t h a s a h e a d li ke -
.
 T HE s L E ro x
'

or T HE HOR s E
38

LUMB AR VE R TE BR AE THE
ve teb V e teb e lu m b les ) a r e u s u a lly s i x i n n u m be r i n th e
The l umb ar r r a ( r r a a

h o rse T h e y a re ch a ra cte r iz ed b y t h e si ze a n d f o r m o f the i r t ra n sve r se p r o ces s es

.
.

T he b o d i e s o f th e fi rst th ree a re t ri a ngul a r o n c ro ss se ct i o n an d p r ese n t a

-
,

l n ter l o r a r ti c u l a r p rocess es

a u s re rs e p r oc e s s
‘

Tr a ns rc r s c p r o

Fa ce t f o r hea d of fi rs t rib

Fm . 16 .
—F i ns T T H O AC C V T B A AN D
R I ER E R Ur es n P A T R OF Fms r Rm or HO RS E , AN T E R I OR V W
IE .
(A ft e r
S c h ma lt z A tl , as d . A t na . d . P fe r d es )
.

disti nc t ve nt ra l c r est F ro m t h e f o u r th b a ckw a r d t hey bec o me wide r a nd fl a tte r

.

a n d t h e ve n t r a l c r e s t f a des o u t .

The ar ch e s o f the fi rst tw o o r th r ee are a b o ut eq u a l i n si z e an d si m i l a r t o th a t

o f t h e l a st th o ra ci c ; f r o m the f o u r th they dec r e a se n o ti ce a b ly i n b r e a d th a n d h eight .

The ante ri o r arti cul ar pr o c e s s e s a r e fu s ed with the m a mm i ll a r y p ro cesses a nd ,

P os ter i or a r ti c u l a r p r oces s es

M a i nmi Il a ry -
p r oces s es

'
Fa ec t f o r hea d o f ri b

Fa c et fo r tu be r c l e of r i b
a

I u tc r re r tc bra l f o ra mi na

I-i v T L AT AL V W (A fte r S e l i m a l t-z

l , . Tw o Tiio in e i c FI R S i
'
i ui m n V E HT E R R A-
I OP l -l o u s E L ER IE
, .

A tl as d . A t
na . d . I ’ fe rd es ) .

p rese nt s u pe ri o rly c o n c a ve su r f ac es fo r a r ti cu l a ti o n wi th the p os te r i o r p a i r o f th e

p re c edi ng ve rteb ra T h e p o ste r i or a r ti cu l ar pr o c e s s e s p roj ect d isti n ctly f ro m the
.

i rel i a t t he b a s e o f the spi n o u s p r o ce s s

.
a n d h a ve ve n tra l ly c o n vex a r ti cul a r s u r ,

f a c e s w h i c h fi t i nto t h e g ro o ve d su r f a c es o f the a n te r i o r p a i r o f the n ext ve r teb ra

, .

T l i e tra n sve r s e p r o ce s s e s a r e l a rge pl a tes fl a tte n ed d o r s o —

.

.
ve n t ra l ly whi ch , ,

p ro j e c t o u t wa rd a nd usu a lly c u r ve s li gh tly d o w n w a rd ; thei r le ngth i n c r e a ses to

 T HE S ACRU M 39

the thi r d a n d fo u r th and the n d i m i n ishes t o the l a st wh i ch i s the sh o r test The

, , .

fi rst o n e o r t w o usu a l ly cu r ve s o m ewh a t b a ckw a r d the l a st t w o decided ly f o r w a rd , .

Th ose of the fifth h a ve a n o v a l c o n c a ve f a cet o n the i nn e r p a rt of the p o ste r i o r b o rde r

fo r ar ti cu l a ti o n with th e sixth p r o cess ; th e l a tte r h as a c o rr esp o n di n g c o n vex f a cet
o n the a n te r i o r b o r de r a n d a l a r ge r c o n c a ve su r f a ce o n the p o ste r i o r b o r de r fo r
,

a r ti cu l a ti o n w ith th e wi n g o f the s a c r u m So meti m es the fifth p r o cess h a s a s ma ll .

su rf a ce for ar ti cul a ti o n wi th the f ou r th Th e i nn e r p a r t of the sixth p ro cess i s .

thi ck th e o ute r p a r t t hi nn e r n a r r o w e r a nd cu r ved f or w ar d The i n n e r p a r t o f

, , , .

th e fifth is a ls o s o m ewh a t th i cke n ed .

The spi n o u s pr o c e s s e s r ese m ble th o se of the l a st t w o th or a ci c ve rteb ra .

They a r e usu a lly a b o u t equ a l i n height but m i n or di ffe r e n ces a r e c o mmo n a n d the , ,

wi dth di m i n ishes i n the l a st th r ee .

D ev e l opm en t — Thi s i s si m i l ar t o th a t o f the th o r a ci c v ert eb r ze The e x t re mi .

ti es o f the t r an sve r se p r o cesses r em a i n c a r ti l a gi n o us for s o m e ti m e a fte r o ssifi c a ti o n

is o the r wise c o mpl e t e .

t ra ns v ers e p roc es ses of t hi s r eg i on a re c ons i d ered eq

Th e ui v a l e n t to th e p ro p er t r a ns v e rs e
p roc ess t h e c o s t a l e l e m e n t a n d h en c e t h e d i s t i n c ti v e t er m p ro c ess u s l a t er a li s (s c os ta ri u s
, ) .

h as b een p r o p os ed T h e o c c u rr en c e of a l u m b a r r i b i n co nn ec ti o n w it h t h e t ra n s v ers e p ro c es s o f
.

t h e fi rs t l um b a r i s n o t r a re R ed u c ti o n of th e n u m b er to fiv e h as b een o b s er v ed f re q
.
u e n t l y a nd ,

Al a mmi l l a r y p r oces s es

A n ter i or a r ti c u l a r

Tr a ns ver s e

p roc ess

Ven tr a l s pi n e

FI G . 1 3 :4 E C ON D L U AR V T B A
MB ER E R or HO RS E ,
AN T E R I OR V W I E .
(A ft e r S c h m a lt z , A tl as (1 . A t
na . d . P f
er d es ) .

m a y or m a y no t b e c o m p ens a t ed b y a n ad d iti o n a l t h o r a c i c v e r t eb ra T h i s v a r i a ti o n i s n o t m o r e .

c o mmo n i n c e r t a i n r a c es as S a n so n a n d o t h ers h a v e m a i n t a i ned Ver y fe w c as es a re rec o r d ed o f

s e v e n l u m b a r v er t eb r ae—
.

e s p e c i a ll y w i t h t h e n o r ma l t h ora c i c n u mb er A n an o m a l o u s v e r t eb r a .

w it h mi xed t h o ra c i c a nd l u m b a r c h a r ac t e rs so m e ti m es occurs a t t h e j u n c ti o n o f t h e tw o regi o ns .

THE SACR UIV

I

The s a c ru m (Os s a c r u m ) i s f o r m ed b y th e fusi o n o f five ve r teb r a e usu a lly a nd ,

is c on ve n i en tly desc r i bed a s a si n gle b on e I t is t r i an gul a r i n f or m a n d is wedged .

i n b etwee n t he i li a wi th wh i ch i t a r ti cul a tes ve r y fi r m l y o n e a ch side

,
I ts l o n g .

a xi s i s ge n tly cu r ved a n d sli ghtly o b li que so th a t the p o ste r i o r e n d is a little highe r

, ,

th a n the a nter i o r I t p r esen ts tw o su r f a ces t w o b o r de r s a b a se a nd a n a pex

.
, , ,
.

The d o rs al su rfa c e p r ese n ts ce n t r a lly th e five s a c r a l spi n es wh i ch a r e di r ected ,

upw a r d a nd b a c kw a r d a n d h a ve (w ith the excepti o n o f the fi r st ) tube ro us s u mm i ts

,

whi ch a r e s o m eti m es bi fid .

Th e fi rs t s p i ne i s re l a ti v e l y t hi n a n d n a rro w , a n d i s no t so h i g h as t h e i n t e r n a l a n g l e of th e .

i li um T h e s eco nd i s t h e l o ng es t a n d th e h e i g h t d i m i n i s h es ra p i d l y t o t h e l a s t T h e b a s es
.
,
. o f th e

s p i n es a r e o f t en f u s ed i n o l d s u b j ec t s .

On eith e r si de o f the spi n es is a g r oo ve ,

in whi ch a re t he fo u r d or s a l s a c ra l
 40 T HE S KE LE TO N O F T HE H OR S E

f o ra mi na (Fo r a m i n a s a c r ali a d o rs a l i a ) ; the d ors a l b r a n ches o f th e s a c ra l n e r ves

e m e rge t h ro ugh the m .

The ve n tr a l o r pe lvi c su r f a c e (F a cies pelvi n a ) i s c o n c a e n i ts le n gth W i e i n

f ro nt na rro w behi nd
v i d
I t i s m a r ked by f o u r m o r e o r less d i st i ct tr a n sv er s e li n e s
,

,
.

n
(L i ne ar t ra ns v e rs ze ) whi ch i nd i c a te the de m a rc a ti o n o f the b o d i es o f the v e r te b r zp
, .

A t t h e e nds o f the s e li n e s a re t h e ve n tra l s a c ra l f o ra mi na (F o r a m i n a s a c r a l i a

v e nt r a l i a ) whi c h a r e l a rge r t h a n the d o r s a l se r i e s a n d d i m i n ish i n si ze f r o m fi r st
,

t o l a s t ; t h e v t ra ns m i t t he ve n t ra l di visi o n s o f th e s a c r a l n e r ves .

The d o rs a l a n d ve n tr a l f o r a m i na c o m m u n i c a te wi th th e s a c r a l c a n a l a n d a r e

t o get he r eq uiv a le n t to the usu a l i n te r ve r teb ra l f or a m i na .

It .

Fm . 19 .
—SA C UM R or ll o ns e DO R S O- L A T FZR A L V W IE

fi l; P 1—
,

Bd
.

o y of fi t rs s a c ra lv t e r e b ra ; A tv tb ; C
a rc h of rs er e ra s , s a c ra l c a na 5 s s a c ra l pi n e P t
i
. . . s s ;
m
,
ng s o f s ac ru
l '
f ti l ti n w it h t n v p oce f l t l mb v tb i l
. .
,
w '
l s u r a c es fo r ar cu a o ra e rs e
s r s s es o F
3—
, ,
as u ar er e ra ; a a u r cu ar
S l l r fu c t p
. .
,
i l
i rt cu ar ro c e s s e s 6 d . l
o rs a
l f mi n ; 7 i t
s a c ra o ra a . n e r a rc u a e s t p : 8 l t l
ace , a e ra b o rd e r ; h , ap ex
(S t r u s k a A na l d
.

, . . l l a u s t i e re . )

The l ate ral b o r d er s a r e r ough thi ck i n fr on t thi n behi n d , , .

The b a s e (B a sis o s s i s s a c r i ) is di r ected f o r w a r d a n d i s r el a ti vely ve r y w ide ,

I t p re s e n ts c e n t r a lly the b o dy o f t h e fi r st s a c r a l seg e t whi ch i s wid e t
.

m n r a n sve r sely , ,
a tt e n e d d o rs o
ve nt ra lly a n d h as a r o u n ded su rf a ce wh i ch a r ti cu l a tes wi th t he
-
,

l as t lu mb a r ve rteb ra th ro ugh t h e m edi u m o f an i n te r ve r teb r l

a fib r e c a r ti l a ge -

The ve nt ra l m a rgi n p ro j ects s lightly f or mi n g the

.

p ro m o n to ry (P r o m on t o r i um ) ,
A o
.

b ve the b ody is the e nt r a n ce t o the s a c r a l c an a l fl a n ked by a p a i r of ar ti cu l ar ,

p ro c e ss e s w hi c h p ro j ect u pw a rd a n d f o r w a r d f r o m the
a r ch a n d h a ve c on c a ve
,
,
su rfa c e s i nt e r n a ll y fo r a r ti cul a ti on wi th th o se o f the l a st lu m b a r ve r teb
ra On
ea c h s d
.

i e o f the s e i s a s mo o t h n o tch w hi ch is c on ve r ted i nt o a f o r am e n by a pp o si ti o n

t he a s
wi th l t lu mb a r T h e l a te r a l p a r ts o f the b a se the wi n gs or a l ae (Al a; s a c ra l es )
.

,
,
 T HE C OCC Y G E A L V E R T E B RA‘
J 41

a re st r o n g p r i s ma ti c m asses wit h p o i n ted e nds whi ch r e s ult f r o m the fusi o n o f the ,

fi r st wi th p a r t of th e sec on d t ran sve r se p r o cess E a ch h a s i n f ro n t a l a r ge o v a l .

, ,

slightly c o n vex su r f a ce for a r ti cul a ti o n wi th the t r an sve r se p ro cess o f the l ast l u m

bar P o ste r i o r ly th e r e i s a n el o n g a ted o v a l a r e a whi ch f a ces upw a r d b a ckw a r d
.

, ,

a n d o utw a r d Thi s i s th e a ur i cul ar s ur f a c e (F a ci es a u r i cul a r is ) wh i ch a r ti cu l a t e s

.
,

wi th t he i li u m ; i t i s slightly c o n c a ve i n its le n gt h a n d s o m ewh a t r o ugh a n d i r r e u ~

g ,

l ar . Th e r est of th e d or s a l su r f a ce of the w i n g is r o ughe n ed fo r li g a m e n t o us att a ch

me n t whi le th e ve n t ra l su r f a ce i s s moo th
, .

Th e ap e x (A pex o ssis s a c r i ) i s th e p oste r i or a spect o f t he l a st s a c r a l v e rteb r a

an d i s q uite s m a ll I t p r ese n ts the ellipti c a l fl a tte n ed su r f a ce o f t he b o dy a b o ve
.

whi ch i s t he t r i a n gul a r p o ste r i or o pe ni n g o f the s a c r a l c an a l su r mo u n ted by the ,

l a st s a c r a l spi n e Th e r e i s a p a i r of n a rro w n o t ches betwee n the a r ch an d b o dy

.

a b o ve whi ch r udi m e n ts o f a r ti cul a r p r o cesses m a y o ccu r .

Th e n a me s a c r al canal (C an a lis s a c r a lis ) i s app li ed t o th at p a r t o f t he ve rteb ra l

c an a l wh i ch t r a ve r ses th e s a c r u m I ts a n te r i o r p a r t is l ar ge a n d h as th e fo rm of
.

a t r i an gle wi t h t he a n gles r o u n ded o ff ; its w i dt h is a b o ut twi ce its h eight T r a ced .

b a ckw ar d it i s see n t o di mi ni sh i n si z e r a pidly a n d the p o ste r i or o pe ni n g i s quite ,

s m a l l a n d t r i a n gul a r .

The te r m l a teral par t (P a r s l at e r a lis ) desi gna t es th e p o rti on exte r n a l to the

f o ra mi na w h i ch r esults f r o m t he fusi on o f th e t ra ns ve r se p r o cesses
, .

Ver tebra l ca na l

B od y P os ter i or end o f bod y

20 — C O CC Y G E A L O CC Y G E A L
V T B A
-
Fi g . Fm
. s r E RT E BR \ . or Ho ns s Fi c . 2l .
-
Fi R s r C ER E R or Ho u s e
L E F T V mw (A fte S
. r ch m al t z A tl
, as d . A t
na . D O AL V W RS IE .
(A ft S hm lt z A tl
er c a , as (1 . A t
na .

d P fe d es )
. r . d . P fe rd as ) .

D ev el opm en t — Th e seve ra l s a c ra l ve rt eb ra o ssify i n th e typ i c a l m ann e r

.
~
.

S ep a ra te ce n te r s for c o st a l ele m en ts i n t he l a te r a l p a rts h a ve n ot yet bee n f o un d i n

t he d o mesti c a ted a ni m a ls F usi o n b egi n s i n f r ont an d i s usu a lly n ot c o mplete
.
,

b eh i n d ti l l n e a r a dul t age Th e l a te r a l p ar ts u ni te b ef or e the b o di es I t is r a the r

. .

cur i o us th a t th e ep iphyse a l p l a tes of a dj a ce n t segme nts uni te wi th e a ch o the r bef or e

th ey fuse wi th th e m a i n p or ti on of t he b o di es .

THE COCCYGE AL VE RTE B RE

Th ese (Ve rt eb ra c oc cyg eaz ) v ar y c on side r a bly i n n u mb er but eightee n m ay ,

be t a ke n a s a n a ve r a ge F r om fir st t o l a st they b ec om e r edu ced i n si z e an d with

.
,

the excepti on of a few at t he b egi nni n g of th e se r i es c o nsist of b o di es on ly The ,

.

fir st t hr ee h a ve b o di es w hi ch a r e s o m ewh a t fl a tte n ed d o r s o ve n t r a l ly c on st r i cted -

,

in the mi ddle a n d h a ve a t th e e n ds slightly c on vex ellipt i c a l a r ti cul a r s u r f a ces

, , ,
.

Th e ve n t r a l sur f a ce h as a m edi a n groo ve for t he c o ccyge a l a r te r y The a r ch i s .

s m a ll a n d t r i a n gu l ar ; i t i s f or m ed o f tw o fl a t pl a tes whi ch ar e p ro l o n ged t o f o r m a

sh or t spi n o us p r o cess wi th a thi cke n ed a n d o fte n d o uble sum m i t Th e a nte r i or .

n o tches a r e a bse n t Fu n cti on a l a r ti cu l ar p r o cesses a r e n o t p r ese n t but s m a ll

.
,

r udi m e nt s o f the a n te r i o r p a i r c o mm o n ly o ccur Th e t r a n sve r se p r o ces s es a re .

r el a ti vely l a r ge p l a tes wh i ch p r oj ect h o r i z o n t a l ly o utw a r d Fu rt he r b a ck the ar ch .

b e c om es i n c om plete o pe n a b o ve a n d s o o n di s a ppe ar s ; t he t r an sve r se p r o cess e s

, ,
42 T HE S KE L E T O N OF T HE H OR S E

g ra du a ll y fa d e o u t ,
a nd t h e v e r te b r ze a re r edu ced to cy li nd r i c a l ro ds Of d i mi n i sh i n g
s i ze The l as t o n e
.
. h as a p o i n ted e nd .

V a ri a ti o n s —T h e n u mb e r is s a i d b y g o o d o bs e rv e rs , to v a ry b e t w ee n f ou rt een a nd t w en t y
a nd s o me t i mes W i t h t h e s e c o nd T he
I n o l d a g e t h e fi rs t i s Of t e n f u s ed w it h t h e s a c r u m
.

o ne .
.

a rc h of t h e t h i rd n i a v b e o p e n .

THE VE R TE B R AL COL MN AS A U WHOL E

I n the mi d - d o r s a l li n e i s the se r i es o f S p i no u s p ro c e s s e s , wh i ch are l o w r idges
i n t h e ce r vi c a l r egi o n wi t h the e x cept i o n o f the sec o n d a n d seve n t h , r e a ch th ei r
ma xi m u m height a t t h e f o u r t h a nd fifth t h o r a ci c ve r teb rae , a n d di m i n ish t o the
fif t ee n t h o r sixtee n t h t h o r a ci c B ehi nd t hi s they are a b o ut eq u a l i n h eight a s fa r
.

as t he l as t lu m b a r a nd fi r s t s a c r a l whi ch a re s o m ewh a t l owe r Th e sec on d s a c r a l

,
.

spi n e i s a b o u t as high a s the m iddle l u m b a r ; behi n d th is they di m i ni sh r a t he r

r a p idl y i n heigh t a nd f a de o u t a b o ut the t h i r d c o ccyge a l Th ei r i n cl i na ti on b a ck .

w a rd is m o s t decided a t the se c o n d th o r a ci c di m i n ishes f r o m t h e sixt h o r seve n t h ,

to t h e fi f t ee nt h o r s ixtee nt h w h i ch i s v e r ti c a l a n d i s te r m ed th e an ti cli n a l o r
,

d i aphr a gm a ti c ve rteb r a B ehi n d thi s they a re i n cli n ed a little f or w a r d u n ti l th e

.

s a c r u m is r e a ched ; he r e the r e is an a b r upt ch a nge t o t he b a ckw ar d i n cli n a ti on so ,

th a t a c o n s ide r able i n te rs pi no us an gle i s form ed .

On ei t he r s i d e o f the s pi n o u s p ro cesses i s a v e rt eb r a l gr oo v e whi ch c o n t a i n s th e

deep m uscles o f t h e spi n e T h e fl o o r o f the g r o o ve is f o r m ed by the l a m i n a and
.

a rti c u l a r p r o ces s es I t is wide i n the n eck a n d n a rr o ws p r o g r essively i n th e b a ck

. .

Viewed f ro m t h e s id e the c o lu m n p r ese n ts a se r ies o f c ur v e s

,
Wh en the h e a d .

a n d n e c k a re i n t h e o r di n a r y n eu t r a l p o si ti o n th e a n te r i o r p a r t o f th e ce r vi c a l spi n e ,

f o r m s a ge ntle cu rve c o n c a ve ve n t ra lly The p o ste r i o r ce r vi c a l a n d fi r st th o r a ci c

,
.

ve rteb r ae f o r m a mo r e p ro n o u n ced cu rve i n the o pp o site di r ecti on At th e j u n cti o n .

o f t h e ce r vi c a l a nd th o ra ci c r egi o n s the r e i s a m ar ked ch a n ge o f d i r ecti o n f o r m i n g a ,

ve n t ra l p ro j ec t i o n o r a ngle A t the sec o n d t h or a ci c ve r teb r a a ge n t le cu r ve c o n

.
,

c a ve ve n t r a lly begi n s Th i s i s c o nti n ued t o the l u m b o s a c r a l j u n cti on whe r e

,
.
-
,

the r e i s a c h a nge o f di r e c ti o n a nd he n ce a p r om o n t o ry The s a c r u m h a s a v a r i a bl e

,
.
,

but n eve r ve ry p ro no u n ced ve n t r a l c o n c a ve cu r v a tu r e whi ch i s c o n ti n ued i n a

, ,

mu ch a cce n t u a ted f o r m i n the coccyge a l r egi o n I t m a y b e r e m a r ked t h a t a li n e .

t h ro ugh the su mm it s o f th e spi n es d o e s no t c orr esp o n d t o these cu r ves f o rmed by

t h e b o dies .

The ve rt eb ra l c an a l o f c o u rse c or r esp o n ds i n cu r v a tu r e t o th e b o dies I ts

, , .

c al ib e r v a r ie s g r e a tly a t d iffe r e n t p o i n ts The g r e a test di am ete r (c a 5 c m ) i s i n . . .

the a tl a s whe re i t c o n t a i n s the de ns o f th e a xis i n a dditi on t o the spi n a l c o r d a n d

, ,

p ro vi s i o n m ust be m a de fo r e x te nsive m ove m e n t I t is ve r y much s m a lle r i n th e .

a xi s (c a c m w ide 3 c m high )
. .
,I t w ide n s c o n side r a b ly a t th e j u n cti o n o f the
. .

c e rvi c a l a n d th o r a c i c r egi o n s t o a c c o mmo d a te th e ce r vi c a l e n l a r ge m e n t o f th e spi n a l

c o rd Bey o n d t h is it di mi nishes a n d i s s m a lle r i n th e m iddle of th e b a ck th a n a t

.

a ny p r e c edi n g p o i n t ; t hi s is c o r rel a ted w i th th e s m a l l si z e o f the spi n a l c o r d a n d th e

ve ry li m i ted m o ve me nt o f the spi n e A t th e m iddle o f th e l u m b ar r egi o n it a g a i n .

wide ns c o nsid e rably t o c o n t a i n the l u m b a r e n l a r ge m e n t o f th e spi n a l c o r d The .

c a libe r di mi n i s hes ve ry ra pidly f ro m t h e s ec o n d s a c ra l seg m e n t b a ckw a r d a n d the ,

c a n a l ce a s e s t o be c o mplete a t the f o u r th c o c c yge a l ve r teb r a .

The ar ti cul ar p ro c e s s e s a re ve ry l a r ge a n d wi de a p a r t i n th e n eck g r e a tly ,

red u c ed a nd m u c h c l o s e r t o geth e r i n the b a ck l a rge r a nd i n te r l cki n g i n th e l u m b r

o a ,

r eg i o n .

T h e tr a n sve r s e p r o c e s s e s a r e l a rge a n d o u tst a n d i n g i n th e n eck w he r e they

,

fo r m t he o u t e r b o u n d a ry o f a ve n t r a l g ro o ve o c c upied by the l o ngus c o ll i m us c le .

I n t h e b a c k t h e y a re s h o r t a n d st o ut a n d a re ch a r a cte r i zed by th e f a c ets fo r the

,

t u b e rc le s o f t h e ri b s On the fi rs t t h o r a ci c ve rteb r a this f a cet is l a r ge deeply c on

.

,
 T HE RI BS 43

c a ve and situ a ted a l most di r ectly o utw a r d f ro m the c a vi ty f o r the he a d of the r ib ;

,

t ra ced b a ckw a r d it bec o m es sm a l le r a n d fl a tte r a n d g r a d u a lly c o mes to li e behi n d ,

th e c a vity fo r the he a d o f the r ib wi th wh i ch i t is fused on the l a st an d Ofte n a ls o o n

,

the n e xt to the l a st th or a ci c ve r teb r a The p ro cesses i n th e lu m b ar r egi on h ave a .

ch a r a cte r isti c e l on g a t ed pl ate li ke f o r m I n t he s a c r a l r egi on they a re fused to

-
.

f o r m t he wi n gs an d l a te r a l p a r ts of t he s a c r u m I n t h e c o ccyge a l regi on they a re .

a t fi r st o f c o ns ide r a b le si z e r el a tively b ut u n de r g o ra pi d r edu cti o n a n d dis a ppe ar , ,

a t t he fifth o r si xt h ve r teb r a .

Th e c a vit ies for t he h e a ds o f th e r ibs di m i n ish p r o g r essively i n si ze a n d depth

f r o m fi r st to l a st .

The m a m m il l ar y pr o c e s s e s a r e usu a l ly disti n ct o n the f o u r tee n t h to the seve n

t een t h t h o r a ci c ve r t eb r ae I n f r o n t of these they b le n d w ith the t ra nsve r se behi nd
.
,

w ith the an te r i o r a r ti cul a r p r o cesses .

Th e l eng t h of t h e v er t eb r a l c o l u m n (i nc l u di n g t h e i n t e r v e r t eb r a l fi b r e -c a rti l a g es ) i n a h o rs e
o f m edi u m si z e i s a b ou t 260 to 2 65 c m (ca 8 f ee t 8 i n c h es to 8 f ee t 1 0 i n c h es ) T h e re l a ti v e l eng t hs
. . .

o f t h e v ar i ous r eg i o ns a pp ea r t o v a ry mos t i n t h e n ec k a n d b a c k .

Th e t a b l e b e l ow g i v es t h e m eas u re men ts i n c en ti me t e rs i n a t ro tti n g st a l li o n o f med i u m s i z e

a n d i n a n a d u l t P er c h ero n s ta l li o n Th e p er c en t a g es a re i n r o u n d n u m b ers
. .

T R OT I ’ ‘
ER PER CH E RON

THE R I BS
The r e ar e usu a lly eightee n p a i r s of r i bs i n the h or se b ut a ni neteen th r ib on ,
” “
o n e si de o r b o th is n o t a t a l l r a r e E ight a r e stern al o r t r ue r ibs the r em a i n de r
.
,
”
a s t e rn al or f a lse R i bs f r o m di ffe r e n t p a r ts o f the se r i es v a r y m u ch i n le n gt h
“
. ,

c ur v a tu r e a n d o the r ch ar a cte r s We wi ll the r ef or e c on side r a s a type a r i b f r om

,
.

t he m i ddle of the se r i es fi r st a n d a ft e r w a r d n o t e t he chi ef se r i a l di ffe r e n ces A

,

typi cal ri b h as the f o ll o wi n g ch ar a cte r s :

The s h aft o r b o d y (C o r pus c ost ae ) is el o n g ated r el a tively ve ry n a r ro w a nd , ,

st r on gly cu r ved ; the cu r v a tu r e is m o st p r on o u n ced i n th e d or s a l thi r d an d the

“

ve n t r a l p a r t i s t wisted an d i n cli n ed i n w a r d s o th a t whe n a r i b is l a i d with its o ute r .

s u rf a ce o n the t a b le the ven t r a l en d i s ra ised

,
The ext erna l su r fa c e i s c on vex i n .

i ts le n gt h a n d a ls o t r a n sve r sely ; i ts an te r i or p a r t is h o weve r g r oo ved l on g i tu d i n , ,

a lly . A d i sti n ct a n gl e i e a p o i n t a t whi ch the cu r ve Of the r ib ch a n ges ra the r

,
. .
,

sudde n ly as i n m a n c an s c a r cely be s a id t o exi st i n t he h or se The te r m is Ofte n

, ,
,
.

a pp li ed h o weve r t o a c o rr esp o n di n g r o ugh elev a ti on wh i ch g i ves a tt a ch m e n t t o the

, ,

i li o c o st a li s m uscle ; i t i s m o st disti n ct on th e f o u rth t o t he eighth i n clusive The

- .

i nt ernal surface is sm oo th c on c a ve i n i ts le n gth a n d r o u n ded f r o m side t o side ;

, ,

the c o st a l gr oo ve situ a ted p oste r i o r ly is ve r y disti n ct a b o ve an d f a des o u t a b o ut

, ,

t he mi ddle Th e an teri or b or d er i s c on c a ve th e p o steri or c on vex

.
,
.

The v erteb ra l e xtr e mi ty (E xt r e m it a s ve r teb ra lis ) c o ns ists of the h e a d neck , ,

a nd t ube r cle The h ea d (C a pitulu m cost m) h as a n a rti cul a r su r fa ce (F a cies

.

a r ti cul a r is c a pi t u l i cos t m) c o m p o sed o f t w o c on vex f a cets a n te r i o r a n d p o ste ri o

r ,
, ,

sep ar a t ed b y a g r oo ve fo r the a tt a ch m e n t o f the c onj ug a l l ig a m e n t I t a r t i cu l a tes .

wi th th e c a vity f or m ed by f a cets o n the b o d i es o f t w o a dj a ce n t th o r a c i c ve rt eb ra

44 T HE S KE L E T O N or T HE H ORS E

and th e i n te r ve rt eb ra l fib re c a r ti l age The n e c k (C o ll u m costfe ) i s r o ugh e n ed

- .

a b o ve a n d i n f ro n t The tub e r cl e (Tube r c u lu m c os taa) i s pl a ced a b o ve a nd behi n d

.

t eh j u n cti o n o f n eck a n d s h a ft ; i t h a s a s m a l l su r f a ce (F a c ies a r ti cul a r is tube r c u i

l
c os tze ) fo r a r ti c u l a t i o n with t h e t r a nsve r se p ro cess of t he c o
r r esp o n d i n g th or a c i c

ve rteb ra .

The ste rn a l extr e mity (E xt r e m i t a s ste rn a l i s ) i s s om ewh a t exp an ded an d I S

. ,

c o n ti nued by t he c o st a l c a rt il a g e .

T h e fir st r i b is e a sily di sti n guish ed I t is the sh o r test a n d l e a st cu r ved

.
At .

t h e l o we r p a r t o f the a n te r i o r b o rde r the r e i s a s m o o th i m p r essi o n wh e r e the b r a chi a l

vei n c u rves a ro u nd it ; a b o ve this i s usu a l ly the sc a le n e tube r cl e The c o st a l .

g r oo ve i s a b s e n t The h e a d is l a r ge an d .

h a s t w o f a cets of u n equ al exte n t whi ch

m eet a t a n a cute a n gl e i n f ro n t ; the sm a lle r
o n e f a ces f o r w a r d a n d a r ti cul a tes w i th th e

l a st ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a ; the l a r ge r on e i s
d i r ected i n w a r d an d a r ti cul a tes with th e
fi rst t h o ra ci c ve r teb r a Th e n eck i s thi ck .

an d ve ry sh o r t The tub e r cle i s l a rge r th an .

E xter na l s u r fa ce
th a t o f a n y othe r r i b an d h as a n exte n sive
a r ti cu l a r su r f a ce whi ch is c o n vex i n i ts
le n gth The ste r n a l e n d i s l a r ge r th a n th a t
.

'
o f a n y o the r r i b ; it is th i ck an d ve r y wide ,
4 nl cr i o r bo rd er
a n d is tu r n e d a l ittle f o r w a r d .

The l a st ri b i s th e m ost slen de r a n d

P os ter i or bor d er r egul a r ly cu r ved I t is usu a lly b ut l ittle .

l o n ge r th an th e sec on d Th e f a cet on the .

tuber cle i s c on flue n t with th a t of the h e a d .

(This fe a tu r e h o weve r is usu a l on t he , ,

seve n tee n th a ls o a n d no t r ar e o n th e six ,

teent h ) .

The se r i a l p o si ti on of th e o the r r i bs m a y
be dete r mi n ed a pp r oxi m a tely by the f o l l o w
i n g c o n side r a ti o n s : Th e l e n gth i n c r e a ses
f ro m th e fi r s t to th e te n th a n d eleve n th
a n d the n di m i n ishes Th e w i d th i n c r e a ses .

s o m ewh a t t o the sixth a n d th e n di m i n ishes .

The an t er i o r b or d er is thi n a n d sh a r p f ro m
th e sec on d to th e eight h a n d be hi n d this -
,

bec o mes thi c k a n d r o u n ded Th e e xtern a l .

gr oo v e is d ist i n ct o n th e f o u r th to the ei ghth

HO “ m i n clusive Th e c ur va tu re i n c re a ses i n d e
RS E , ug .

X T NAL V w (A ft S h m lt z A tl
E ER i iz .

g r ee r a pidly f r om t h e fi l S t t o t h e seve n th
er c a , as ’

i l A nt d l f u l )
’
c ri c s
,

r e ma i n s a b o u t the s a m e t o the S i xtee n th a n d

. . . .

th e n d e c r e a ses ve r y n o ti ce a bly I n r eg ar d .

to d o rs o ve n t r a l d ir e cti on th e fi rs t r i b i n cli n es a li ttle f r w d the sec

on d is a b o ut
-
, o ar ,

ve r ti c a l whi le behi nd this they sl o pe b a c kw a r d i n i n c r e a si ng d eg r ee so th a t a

,
,

pl a ne t a nge n t to t h e ve nt ra l e n ds o f the l a st p a i r cuts t h e th i r d l umb a r ve r teb r a .

The h e a d a nd tub e r cl e d i mi ni s h i n si ze f r o m fi r st t o l a st Th ei r r el a tive p o siti on s .

ch a nge i n t h at t h e tube r cl e o f th e fi rst r ib li es a l most d i r ectl y o utw a r d f rom th e

.

he a d w hil e f u r the r b a c k i t g ra d u a lly c o m es t o li e beh i nd i t Tl i e n e ck is l on gest

,
.

o n th e l o n ge s t r i b s a n d is a b s e n t o n th e l st
, a t w o o r th r ee A c o st o -t r a n sv e r se .

f o ra i n e n i s fo r m ed betwee n t he n e c k a n d the t r an sve r se p r o cess

D eve l pm e
o n t — The ri bs o s s i f y i i i c a rti l a ge f r o m th ree ce n te r s , on e e a ch for th e
.

sh a f t h e a d a nd tube rc l e ; t h e thi rd ce n te r is a bse n t i n s o m e o f the p o ste r i or r ibs

, ,
.
40 T HE S KE L ETO N 0 1 "T HE H O R S E

fi st f tli e wi t h h l g d i m ete r ve r t i c a l a n d a r e sep

o u r a r e e l l i p t i al l i n o u t e o n a
T he r n ,
c ide b le egul i t e v ls Th e t h e o g r e ss w el y s m a ll e r
a r a te d b y o ns ra r ar n r a o rs a r e pr .
,

e ci l l se t get e The e bel w these c v i t i es g i ves a tt a ch m e n t

mo r r c u a r a nd c o ,
r o h r a r a o a .

t o t h e pect o r a l m uscl es .

Fm . 24 . or HO RS E . AT AL V
L ER i ew .

The s t e r ne h r z
r a re d es ig n a ted b y R o ma n nu m e ra ls a nd th t lf
e cos a a ce s t by i
o rd n a r y fi g u res .

The d o r s o l ate ra l b o r de rs sep a ra te th e d o rs a l a nd l a te ra l su rf a ces They give

- .

a tt a ch m e n t t o t he l a te r a l b ra n c he s o f t h e ste r n a l li g a m e n t .

T h e ve n tr a l b or d e r f o r m s t h e p ro m i n e n t keel li ke c r est of th e ste r n u m (C r ist a -

s t e rni ) whi c h m a y be felt i n t h e livi n g a n i m a l ; it f a des o u t behi n d .

Th e ante ri or extre mi ty or m an ub r ium

s te rn i
l
can b e d ist i n ctly felt i n the ce n t ra l
f u rro w o f th e b r e a st I t c on sists o f a l ate r a ll y .
.

c o mp r e s s ed c a r ti l a gi n o us p ro l o n g at i o n co mmonh ,

c all ed the c ar i ni f or m c arti l a g e I t s l a t e ra l su rf a ces .

a re fl a t a n d fu r n i sh a tt a ch m e n t t o muscles o f the

b re a s t an d n eck Th e ve n t ra l b o r de r i s r o u n d ed .
,

a n d is c on ti n u ed b a ckw a r d o n th e b o dy o f th e

b o n e The d o r s a l b or d e r is c on c ave an d h as an .

a rti cul a r c a vi ty fo r th e fi r st p a i r o f c o st a l c a r ti l

a ges .

The p o ste r i or extr em ity is f o r m ed by th e

xiph o id o r e n s if o r m c a r til a g e (P r o cessus x i p h o i
Fi rs t r i b
d c u s ) T h i s i s a t hi n pl at e c o n n ected i n f r o n t .
,

w i t h t h e l a s t b o n y seg m e n t by a r el a tively th ick ,

n a r ro w n eck a n d exp a n di n g i n n e a r ly ci r cul a r ,

f o r m behi n d a n d l ate r a lly I ts d o r s a l su r f a ce i s .

c o n c a ve a n d gi ves att a ch m e n t to th e di a ph ra gm , .

The ve n t ra l s u r f a c e i s c o n vex Th e f r ee m ar gi n .

is v e r y thi n
D eve l op m e nt —A t bi rth th e ste r n u m o f th e
.

h o rse c o n si s t s o f seve n b o n y seg m e nts o r s te rn eb r ze

u n i ted by i n t er s t e rne b r a l c a r ti l a ges
” The l ast tw o
( n r i if r fl t
’
.

n o

s t e rn eb r ae fu s e i n th e sec o n d m on th but th e ,

st rn u m o the r s d o n o t u s u a l ly u n it e c o mpletely eve n i n

e

F ic25 . . A T ol d a ge T h e st e rn eb r ae c o n s i s t o f ve r y v a scu l a r
P B RT I R R
’
o r no
.

ll (A ft S h sp o n gy b o ne c o ve r ed b y a ve ry thi n l aye r o f c om
”
X
RA o r lt
o us r er c ni a z ,

Al l A t l lf l )
t as c nu «
’
e rr e s
p a ct subst a n c e The a d ult st e rn u m t hus con
. . . .

sists to a ve ry c o ns i d e ra ble exte nt o f pe rsisti n g

c a rt i l a ge V l Z the i nt e rs te r n e b r a l c a r ti l a ges th e ve n t r a l keel a n d th e ext r e m it i e s ;
, .
, , ,

i n o l d a g e t he s e u nde rg o p a rti a l o s s ifi c a ti o n .

‘
T l i e m a n u b ri u m t e r n i o f ma n i s eq
s u i v a l en t ,
t i tl y s pea ki ng
s r c
, to t h e car n i i fo rm ca r ti l a g e
t he fi rs t e
oss o u s s eg me n t o f t h e h o r s e .
 T HE T H OR A X—T HE OCC I P I T A L B ON E 47

THE THOR A X

Th e b o n y th or a x of th e h o r se i s r e m a r k a b ly c o mp r essed l a te r a l ly i n its a n te r i o r
p art b ut wi de n s g r e a tly b ehi n d The an te r i or ap e r tu r e is o v al a n d v e r y n a rr o w
,
.

bel o w ; i n a h or se of m edi u m si z e i ts g r e a test width is a b o ut 4 i n ches (1 0 a nd

its hei ght 7 t o 8 i n ches (ca 1 8 t o 2 0 The ve ntra l w a l l or fl oo r i s ab o ut 1 0

.

i nch es (4 0 cm ) l o n g a n d the d or s al w a l l or r oof a b o ut 38 to 4 0 i n ches (95 to 1 00

.
,

c m ) l on g
. The h ei ght f ro m th e l a st segm e n t Of the ste r n u m t o the seven th or
.

eighth th o r a ci c ve r teb r a i s a b o ut twi ce th a t o f the a nte r i or a pe r tu r e ; this is d u e t o

th e o bli q uity a n d dive r ge n ce Of th e r o o f an d fl oor The g r e a test wi dth of the pos .

te r i o r a pe r tu r e i s a b o ut 2 0 t o 2 4 i n ches (50 t o 60 The i n te r c o st a l sp a ces

i n c r e a se i n wi dth f r om th e fi rst t o th e seven t h o r eighth a n d the n di m i ni sh Thei r , .

a ve r a ge wi dth is a b o ut 1 % t o 1 % i n ches (3 t o

THE B ONE S OF THE SKULL

(A ) B ONE S OF THE CRANI U M
The b on es of th e c r a ni u m (Oss a c r a n i i ) a re the Occipit a l S ph en o id E th mo id , , ,

I n te r p a r i et a l P a r i et a l F r o n t a l a n d Temp o r a l
, ,
Th e fi r st f o u r ar e si n gl e th e o th er s
,
.
,

p a i r ed .

mea ta s
f
o s qmua o us tem p o r a l

w i n g of s p /w no i d
cr es t

ta l bon e

f or a me n
1 n gl e o f ra mu s

Va s c u l a r i mp ress i on

F ro 26 —
S K U LL A T LA S «x n Ax is or Ho us e , L AT AL V w
ER i e .

B
. . . , .

8 . od y m a nd b e ;
of i l i z on t l (m l ) hor of m ; 30 a o ar p t
ar ra us , v ti l p t
er ca ar of ra mu s : 9 , zyg oma ti c

p ro c es s o f s q u a m ou s e m po r a
t l : 1 1 c n id p f m
,
d ib l : 1 2
o ro o r o c es s o an e . su p b it l p
r ao r a ro c ess ; 13 p a ra ma s
tl a
oi d

( ty lo id ) p i pit l ; 1 9 b i t ; 20 m l b n : 2 1 l i m l b ; 2 2 n l b o ne ; 23 p re m a x ;
s ro c es s f
o o cc a , or , a ar o e . ac r a o ne , as a ,
f
n lp
as a roc es
s of p m a ill : 2 5 2 9
re x ai t t h : 26 m i ll ; 2 7 f i l
c a n net; ee ax a ac a c re s 31 . c o nd y e l of ma nd i b
l e;

t h (A ft E ll nb g B
. ,
, .

f itr K ti n s t l e r )
3 2 a tl as ; 3 3 i ; x wi ng f tl as ; m x ill y
ax s o a e . nas o- a ar no c . er e er e r- au m A na l
,
. .

, , ,

THE OC C I P I BON E
' '
I AL

Th e o cc i pita l b on e (Os o cci pi t a le ) i s situ a ted a t the p oste r i o r p a r t o f th e er a

:
ni u rn Of wh i ch it f or m s the p o ste r i o r w a ll a n d p a r t o f t h e ve n t r a l w a l l o r b a se .

h l 1
i f h k l l i i d e e d t b h i z n t l i n t h e s e d es c ri p ti o n s
T e o g t n s r o e o r o a .

n a x s o e s u s c o
 T HE S KE LE T O N OF T HE H OR S E
48

e l ly by l r ge a lm o st ci r cul a r o pe ni n g th e
I ts l o we r p a rt is pe rf o ra ted c n t ra a a ,
,

m w h i c h the b ra i n a n d spi n a l
f oram e n m agn um (Fo ra me n o cci pi t a le m a g n u ) a t ,

d d lly by the l a t er al p ar ts o f
co r d j o i n T h e f o r a m e n i s b o u n ded l a t e r a lly
.
a n o rs a

b o ve the l a t e ra l p a r ts
.

t he b o ne a nd ve nt ra lly b y t h e b a s il ar p t p cess
r o A
—
a r o r .

bu t no t e nt e r i n g i n t o t he f o r mati o n o f t h f e o r a m e n i n a g n u m
j
i s the s q u am o u s p ar t
:
t es l te les be the cc p t a l c o n dyl e s ( C o n dyl i
The l ate ra l p ar ts (P a r a ra ) a r o i i

o ccipi t a les )
whi c h ar t i cul at e w i t h t he a t l a s The c o n dyles a r e o b li q uely pl a ced .
,
,

sep a ra te d b y s m ll i te r v a l ve n t r a lly The a r t i cul a r

w id e a p a r t d o rs a lly a n d
a a n

su rf a ce i s cu rved so sh a r ply i n th e d o r so —
.

ve nt ra l di r ecti o n as t o f o rm a b lu n t r idge

M od i a n cr es t f or l i g n u chaz
’

. .

'

Occi pi l a l c on d yl e
'

P a r a mas l oi rl pr oces s
Hypogl os s a l f ora men Con rl y l otd f os sa
l 'or l a c er u m pos l cr w
.
s Ma stoi d pr oces s
S t yl e - ma s to i d f ora me n B li l lfl 0 8 8 80

1 1 ye i d proce ss
P os t9l enoi d I )r occs s
M u s c u l a r pr ocess
Gl enoi d ca r tty
For l u cc r i u n e nte r i ti s
.

T u l w rc l c s n l S p/N N O ’
Te m p or a l co nd yl e
0 cc l p tl a l j u nc ti o n Z ygom a l i c p r oc es s
l nf r a tem p or a l f os s a
Al a r fora men
P l t r ygo i 'l
’
process Z yg o ma ti c process of
o f s ph e no i rl mo l a r
P l c r ygo i rl ba n-e P tcr ygo- pa l a ti n c f os s a
Vo mer (ti l l l ) ’

P terygo i d proces s of M a xi l l ar y hi a t u s
p a l a te ho n e
l l ! a xi l l a r y tu ber osi ty
P a l a te bo ne (p er pen
d i c u l a r pa r t) F aci a l cr es t
4 l rcol a r l u ber os i l y
Ha mu l u s of pter ygoi d
P os ter i o r ru i r es
m er
’

l o

La s t mo l a r too th P a l a te bo ne (h or i z on
ta l p a r t)
A n t p a l a ti ne f or a men
.

P a l a ti n e gr oove

P a l a ti ne p roces s f
o

ma xi l l a

FI G .
o
-1 . LI N : DRA W i x G Oi
t
Pos r e mon l u or B as e or S KU LL o r H o ns e , W rr Ho u r Mx x m i i m-
z '
. (k ey to

Fi g .

l l i nc s u ra c a ro t i ca ;
2
m c i s u ra o v lia s: 3 i i n c s u ra s pi p i e t t em p
no s a ; 4 t
e x e r na l or ifi ce of ar o- o ra l c anal ;
fi
.
. . ,

5 , E us t hi
ac a n: c a n a l: ‘
ti . pt
e ro -t y n i pa i i ie s s u re ; 7 ,
t l d it y
ex e rn a l ; 8 h y id p
au ; 9 V id i
or c a na , o r o c es s . an g ro o e ; v
10 . s u p rn o r b i t a l p r o c es s ; A , il
bas ar p t f
ar o o cc i pi t l ; B b d y f p h i d ; C t m p a l w i g o f ph
a , o o s e no ,
e or n s e no id ; D,
S q ua mo u s t e mpo ra b o ne ; E
l . pt
e ro u s t mp
e o ra lb ;o ne o b it l p t ff t l b n
r a ar o ro n a o e .

exte r n a lly The c ra ni a l su r f a ce is c o n c a ve a n d s mo o th

. . E xte rn a l t o th e c on dyle is .

t h e p ar a m a sto id o r styl o id p r o c e s s (P ro cessu s j ugu l a r is ) a st r o n g fl a tte n ed b a r o f ,

b o n e whi ch p roj ect s d o w nw a r d a nd b a ckw a rd ; i ts exte r n a l su r f a ce is c on vex a nd

r o ughe n ed fo r m u scu l a r a tt a c h m e n t B etwee n th e r o o t o f t hi s p ro cess a n d th e .

c o ndyle i s a s m o o t h dep re s s i o n t h e c o n dyl o i d f o s s a (F o ss a co n d y l o i d e a i n fe r i o r ) ; ,

i n th is is t he h yp ogl o s s a l f or a me n (F o r a m e n hyp o gl o ssi ) whi c h t r a n s m its t he n e r ve ,

o f li ke n a m e . .

The b a s i l ar par t o r p ro ce s s (P a rs b a si l a r is ) is a s t r o n g s o mewh a t p r ism a ti c ,

b a r whi c h ex te n ds f o rw a rd f ro m the ve n t ra l m a rgi n o f th e f o r a m e n m a g n u m It .

 T HE OCC I P I I A L
’ ‘
B ON E 49

is much n ar r o we r i n fro nt th an b ehi n d The ve n t ra l su rf a ce i s ro u n ded The

.
.

c r a n i a l su rf a ce is c o n c a ve an d s m o o th ; i ts p o ste r i or p a r t supp o r ts t h e med ull a

a nd i ts a n te r i o r p ar t h as a sh a ll o w c a vity o n whi ch the p
o ns r e s ts The l a te ra l .

b or de r s a r e thi n a n d sh a r p a n d f o r m the i n n e r m a r gi n o f th e f o ra m e n l a c e r um
,

(F o r a m e n l a ce r u m et j ugul a r e ) Th e a n te r i o r end h as i n the y o u ng subj ect a

.
,
,

FI G . 28 .
—V E N T R :\ L S UR A F C E or S K U LL O H O F P RS E , oe mon HA L F W I T HOU T MAND B L
I E .

Th e s k ul l is i li d li g h tl y (N t ti
nc ne s . o a on on k e y Fi g .

semi ci r cul ar fl at pitted su r f a ce whi c h is a tt a ched t o the b o dy of t he sph e no i d b o n e

, ,

by a l aye r of c a r ti l a ge ; i n t he a dul t the r e is c o mplete fusi on On the ve nt r a l aspect .

o f the j u n cti o n a re tub e r cles for the att a ch m e n t of the ve n t r a l st r a ight m u scles o f
the h e a d .

Th e s q ua m o u s p ar t (S q u a m a o cci pi t a lis ) is the s om ewh a t qu a d r il a te r a l m a ss

4
50 T HE S K E LE T O N or T HE H OR S E

si t u a t ed a b ove t h e l ate r a l p o rt i o ns f r o m whi ch i t r e m a i ns disti n ct ti ll th e sec on d

,

ve a r The o ute r s ur f a c e is c ro ssed b y a ve r y p ro m i n e n t r i dge the o ccipita l c re st ;

.
,

iddle p this i thi ck t sve se i di ec t i o n a n d f o r m s t he h i gh est p o mt

h
t e m a r t o f s ra n r n r
,
,

t he skul l h e the he d i i t h di y p si t i o n ; l a te r a lly i t bec o m es th i nn e r

of r
w n a s n e o r n a o
l
a nd r u n s d o w n w a r d a n d f o r w a r d t o j o i n the te m p
o ra l c r est Th e c r est d ivides .

h su f ce i t t ve y u equ l p r ts the s m a l l a n te r i o r a r e a (P l a n u m p a r iet a le )

t e r a n o w o r n a a ;
p r ese nts a m edi a n r idge w hi ch i s t h e p o ster i o r p a r t o f the exte r n a l s a gi tt a l c r est ;
t h e l a rge a r e a bel o w t h e c r e s t (P l a n u m n uch a l e ) a ls o h a s a ce n t a l e
r mi n e n ce the ,

e xte rn a l o ccipita l p ro tub e r an c e o n the s ide s o f whi ch th e fu n i cul a r p a r t o f th e

,

lig a m e ntu m l l U C l l LB is a tt a c h ed The i nte rna l s ur f a c e i s c on c a ve a nd p r ese n ts a

’

deep ce nt ra l dep ressi o n a n d t w o s h a ll owe r l a te r a l on es whi ch a d a pt i t t o the su r f a ce

o f t h e c e rebell u m .

The o c c i pi t a l b on e is c on n ected by sutu r e with the i n te r p a r i et a l tw o p ari et a ls , ,

art i cu
a n d t w o te m p o ra ls a nd by sy n c h on d ro sis w i th t he sph e n o i d ; the c o dyles
n
,

l a te wit h t h e a t l a s
D eve l op m e nt —The o c ci pi t a l os s ifi es i n c a r ti l a ge f r om f o ur c e nt e rs , a nd co n
.

2
si s t s a t bi r th o f f o u r pieces as de s c r ibed a b o ve The l a te ra l p ar ts u n ite with the
.

b a s i l a r a t th r ee t o f o u r m on th s and wi th the squ am a i n the sec o n d ye a r wh en t h e

, ,

b o n e is c o ns o lid a ted
The p a r i et o — —
.

o ccipit a l sutu r e a nd th e sph e n o o c cipi t a l sy n ch o n d r o sis a r e oh

li te ra ted a b o ut the fi fth ye a r usu a l ly The te m p or o o cci pit a l sut u r e p ar ti a lly .

-

o ss ifies i n Ol d subj ects .

THE SP H E N OI D B ON E
The sph e no id bo ne (Os sph e no i d a l e ) is situ a ted i n t he b a se of th e c r a n i u m i ts ,

ce nt ra l p a r t lyi ng i n f ront of the b a si l a r p a r t o f th e o ccipi t a l I t c o nsists of a cen .

t ra l p ar t the b o dy t w o p a i r s o f w i ngs a nd t w o pte r yg o i d p r o cesses

, , , .

T h e b o d y (C o r pu s ) i s a cyli n d ri c a l b a r fl a tte n ed d o r s o ve n t r a lly a nd wide r ,

-
,

i n f ro n t th an behi n d I ts v e ntra l sur f a c e (F a ci es exte r n a ) is c o n vex i n the t r a n s

.

ve rs e di recti o n ; a n d i ts a n t e r i o r p a r t i s c o n ce a led t o a l a rge ext e n t by the v om e r

a n d pte ryg o id b o n e s The ce r eb r a l su rf a c e (F a cies ce r eb r a lis ) p r ese n ts the fo l
.

l owi n g fe a tu r es : (1 ) I n f ro n t i s a r a i s ed fl a tte n ed p a r t wh i ch is subd ivi ded by a ,

m edi a n elev a ti o n i n t o t w o s lightly c o n c a ve l a te ra l a r e as ; thi s p a r t h as a p o ste r i or ,

t h i n f r ee m a rgi n (L i mbus sphe no i d a lis ) whi ch ove r li es th e e n t r an ce t o the opti c

, ,

f o r a mi na (2 ) J ust behi n d t hi s a nd a t a l o we r level is a sm o o th t ran sve r se de

.

p ressi o n the opti c gr oo ve (S ul cus chi a s ma tis ) on whi ch th e o pti c chi as m a rests
, ,
.

(3 ) F ro m e a ch en d o f t h is g roo ve the Opti c f or am en p a sses f o r w a r d a n d o utw ar d to

m
te i te
r n a i n o s r o r a r f
the p te i p t o the o bit a l f o ss a r
3
(4 ) N e a r the p oste r i or en d .

is a ce n t r a l dep ressi o n the hyp oph ys ea l o r pitu itary f o s s a (F o ss a h y po p h y sea )

, ,
,

w h i ch l o dge s t h e hyp o phys i s ce r eb r i or pi tui t a r y b o dy On e a ch side of this is an .

i ll d e fin e d g roo ve fo r th e i nte r n a l c a ro tid ar te r y an d th e c ave rno us si n us The an

-
.

te r i or e nd i s exp a nded a n d is exc a v a ted t o f o r m th e sph e n o id a l s i n u s e s

, These .

c avities exte nd b a ck a s fa r a s the o pti c g ro o ve a n d a r e usu a lly c o nti n u o us i n f ron t ,

w i th t h e c a vi ties i n the ve r ti c a l p a r t s o f the p a l a te b o n es

; they a re sep ar a ted by a
c o m m
plete septu whi ch is o t a lw a ys m edi a n
n
4
The po steri o r en d is fl a t a n d i s .

"l h‘

i p it a l c res t o f t h i s d es c ri p ti o n i s eq
e occ .
u i v a l e n t to t h e ext e r na l o cc i p i t a l p ro t u b era n c e
a nd s u pe r i o r n u c h a l li ne o f m a n A c u r v ed l i n e a litt l e l o w e r d o w n w h i c h i s c o n t i n u ed o n t h e
.

pa ra m as t o n l p roces s re p r es e nt s t h e i n fe ri o r n u e h a l li n e o f ma n
. .

Ot h e r te r ms fo r t h es e p a rt s a re b as i o c e i p i t a l (b a s i l a r p a r t ) exo cc i i ta l s l a t era l p a r t s )
’
-
p (
s u p ra o c e i p i t a l (s qa m o u s p a r t
, ,
an
d i u ) I t s h o u l d b e n o t ed h o w e v er t h a t t h e li nes b e t w een t h e
. .

, ,
b as no c c p i ta l a nd e xo c mp i t a l s p as s t h r o u g h t h e l o w e r p a rt o f t h e c o n d l es
y .
.

T h i s f o ra m e n mi g h t w e l l b e c a l l ed a c a n a l s i n c e it i s a n i n c h o r mo re i n l en t h
3
,
g .

T h e c a v it y s o f o r med m a y b e t e r me d t h e s p h eno p a l a t i ne s i n u s
.
T h e s p h e n o i d a l s i nu s m a y .

b e a s e p a ra t c a v i t y w h i c c o m m u n i c a t es o n l y w it h t h e v e n t r a l e t h m o i d a l mea t u s es t h i s a rr a n e
e h ; g
me n t exi s t s i n a b o u t a t h i rd o f t h e c a ses a c c o rd i n g to P a u l l i
.

, .
 T HE SP H E N OI D B ON E 51

j o i n ed t o t he b a si l ar p ar t o f th e o ccipi t a l ; a t the li n e of j u n cti o n the r e i s

d or s a lly a t r a n sve r se elev a ti o n the s ph e n o o ccipita l c re st (C r ist a sp h e no
,
-

o cci pi t a l is ) .

The o r b i ta l Wi n g s (A l ae o r bit a l es ) cu r ve upw a r d an d s o m ewh a t o utw a r d f ro m

the si des o f th e b o dy of th e p r e sph e no i d Thei r in n er o r c er e b ra l su rf a ce s a re
-
.

c on c a ve a n d ar e m a r ked by d i gi ta l im pre s s i o n s (I m p r essi on es d i g i t a tze ) for the gy ri

,

o f th e ce r eb r um The e xte rn a l s u r f a c e is c on vex a n d is l ar gel y c on ce a led by the

.

o ve r l a ppi ng temp o r a l wi n g a n d th e squ a m o us te m p or a l a n d f r on t a l b on es ; a

n a r r o w p a r t o f i t (F a ci es o r bi t a l is ) is u n c o ve r ed o n th e i nn e r w a ll o f th e o r bit a l

c a vity at t he sphe n o i d a l n o t ch of th e f ro n t a l b o ne Th e d or s a l b o r d er u n i tes wi th

th e fr o nt a l b o n e at the sphe no—
.

fr on t a l sutu re Th e an ter i or b o r d er j o i n s the eth

m o i d at the sphe n o—
.

ethm o id a l sutu r e ; at i ts l o we r p ar t it c on cu r s w ith the fr on t a l i n

the fo r m a ti o n of th e e th m o i d a l (or i n te r n a l o r bit a l ) f o r am e n Th e po ste ri o r b or d e r .

is o ve r l a pped by th e te m p or a l wi n g an d the squ a m o us temp ora l The r oo t of th e .

wi n g is pe r f o r a ted by the opti c f or a m e n I mm ed i a tely bel o w a n d b ehi n d the l a tte r

.

(i e b e n e a th the roo t ) is the f o ram e n l a c eru m orb ita l e or or b ita l fi s su r e B el o w

. .
, .

thi s an d sep ar a ted f r o m i t usu a lly by a th i n pl a te i s a l a r ger o pe n i n g the f or am e n

, , ,

r o tu n d um , whi ch is b o u n ded exte r n a lly b y th e r oo t o f th e pte r yg o i d p r o cess Be .

hi n d these f o ra mi na is th e pteryg oi d c r e st (C r ist a pte ryg o i de a ) whi ch i s c on ti n u ed ,

d o wn w ar d a nd f or w ar d o n the pte r yg o i d p r o cess ; on its uppe r p a r t ma y be f o u n d

the s m a l l a nd i n c on st a n t tr o ch l ear (or p a th eti c ) f oram en J ust beh i n d th e c r est .

is the te mpor al f o ram en (For a l ar e p a r v u m ), th r o ugh whi ch th e a nte r i or deep

.

temp or a l ar te r y e m e r ges f r o m th e a l ar c an a l of the pte r yg o i d p ro cess .

The te mpo ral w i ng s (Al a; te m p or a les ) exte n d o utw a r d an d s o m ewh a t upw ar d

f r o m th e b o dy o f th e p o st sph e n o i d ; th ey ar e i rr egu l ar ly q u a d r i l a ter a l i n o utli ne
-
.

Th e ext ern al s urface (F a ci es te mp o r a lis ) e n te r s i n t o th e f o r m a ti o n of th e i n fr a

te m p or a l f o ss a a n d be a r s th e pte r yg oi d p r o cess on i ts an te r i or p ar t ; a t the j u n cti on
,

wi t h th e b o d y the r e i s a sm a ll g roo ve for th e pte r ygo i d n e r ve Th e in terna l .

s urf a ce (F a ci es ce r eb r a li s ) p r ese n ts a t th e j u n cti on wi th th e b o dy tw o l o ngitudi n a l

, ,

gr oo ve s (Sul ci n e r v o r u m ) The o ute r gr o o ve is the l a r ge r an d le ad s f or w ar d to

.
,

th e f or a m e n r o tu n dum ; i t c o n t a i n s the m a xi ll a r y n e r ve The i nn e r g roove c on .

du cts to the or bit a l fissu r e a n d c on t a i ns t he thi r d sixth a n d o phth a l m i c n e r ves

, , ,
.

The o ute r gr oo ve is b o u n ded exte r n a l ly b y a t hi n o ve r h an gi n g c r est on whi ch is a ,

s m a l l g r oo ve for the f o u r th n e r ve The r e m a i n de r of th e su r f a ce is c on c a ve an d

.

supp or ts the pyr ifo r m l o be of the b r a i n The d o rsa l b o r d er j o i ns the squ am ous
.

temp o r a l at the sphe n o s qu a m o us sutu r e -

Th e an t eri or b o r d er j o i ns the or bit a l
.

w i ng . The po s teri o r b or d er for ms the a n te r i or b o u n d ar y of the f o r a men l a ce r u m ;

i t p r ese n ts thr e e n o tch e s , whi ch are (f r o m wi thi n o utw a r d ) t he c a r o tid o v a l a nd , ,

spi n o us (I n cisu r a c aro ti c a o v a lis spi n os a ) Th e angle of j u n cti o n of the d ors a l

, ,
.

an d p o s te r i o r b o r de r s a r ti cul a tes wi th t he p a r i et a l b o n e .

Th e pteryg o i d pr o c e s s e s (P r o cessus pte r ygo i dei ) a r ise fr om th e te m p oral w i n gs

an d the b o dy They p ro j ect d o wn w a r d an d f or w a r d an d cu r ve o utw ar d at the
.
,
l
l o we r p ar t The r oo t is pe rf ora ted b y t he a l ar c an a l (C a a lis a a i s ) whi ch
. n l r ,

t r an s m its the i n te r n a l m a xi ll a r y a r te r y F r o m this c an a l a b r an ch le a ds upw a r d

.

a n d f o r w ar d t o o pe n at th e te m p ora l f o r a m e n The e xt ern a l su rf a c e i s c o n c a ve an d .

,

i s m ar ked by li n es for m uscu l ar a tt a chmen t Th e i ntern a l su r f a c e is l ar gely con .

c ea l e d by th e o ve r l a ppi n g p a l a te a n d pt e r yg o i d b on es with whi ch i t c on cu r s i n the ,

f o r m a ti on o f th e ptery g o i d or Vi di an c ana l .

D e v e l opm e nt — The sphe no i d i s oss i fie d i n c ar ti l a ge a n d c on sists i n e a r ly li fe ,

o f tw o di sti n ct p ar ts the pr e sph e n o id a n d p o st sphe n o id The f o r m e r devel o p s

,
- -
.

fr om tw o ce n te r s on e i n e a ch wi n g ; the l a tte r h as th r ee cen te rs o n e fo r the b ody

, ,

a n d o n e fo r e a ch wi n g The pte r yg o i d p r o cesses o ssi fy f r o m t h e ce n te r s o f th e

.

te m p o r a l w i n gs .

1
T hi s i s l
a so c a l led th e su bs p h en o i d a l c a na l or p t er y g o i d f o ra men .
52 T HE S KE LE T O N OF T HE H OR S E
V a ri a ti o n —T h e d o rs a l b o rd e r o f t h e o r bi t a l w i n g m a y co m e to t h e f e t hr o u g h a
sur ac

t u a t ed a ni m a l s w hi c h h a v e
d e fe c t i n t h e f ro nt a l b o ne a t th e p l a c e w h er e t h e h o r n p ro c es s 1 5 si in

f ro n t a l h o r ns .

THE E T H MOI D B ON E
The eth m o i d (Os e th i n o i d al e ) i s s itu ated i n f ron t o f th e b o dy a n d o r bit a l wi ngs
sph e id p j ects f w d betwee the o r bit a l pl a tes o f th e f r o n t a l
o f th e no It ro .
o r a r n
l
b o n es a n d e nte rs i n t o t h e f o r ma ti o n o f th e c r a n i a l n a s a l a n d p ar a n a s a l ca V i t i eS

—
.

, ,

p t the c i b if m pl te t w o l a te r a l m a sses a n d th e p e r
I t c o n sists o f f o u r a r s r r o r a , ,

pe n d i c u l a r pl a te .
0

The c r ib ri f orm pl a t e (L am i n a c r ib ro s a ) is a si eve l ike p a r t i t i on b etwee n th e -

c ra n i a l a n d n a s a l c avi ties I ts m a rgi n j o i n s the o r bit a l wi n gs of th e sph e n o id

.

l a te r a lly a n d th e c r a n i a l pl ate o f t h e f r on t a l b on es d o rs a lly I t s c ran i a l s u rf a c e

,
.

is d ivided i nt o t w o p a r ts by a medi an r idge th e c ri sta ,

g al li , whi ch is th e i n t ra c r a n i a l p o r ti on o f the p e r p en d i cu
l a r pl a te E a ch h a lf f o r m s a deep o v a l c a vi ty th e e th
. ,

mo i d al o r o lf a ctory f o s s a wh i ch l o dges the o lf a ct o r y bulb ,

.

The pl a te is pe r f o r ated by n u m e r o us s m a l l fo r a m i n a fo r
t h e p a s s a ge o f t h e o lf a ct o r y n e r ve fi l a m e n ts a n d on ,

eithe r side i s the m u ch l ar ge r e th m o i d al f o r a m e n Th e .

na s a l sur f a c e is c on ve x a n d h as th e l a te r a l m a sses ,

a tt a c hed t o i t .

The l ate r al m a s s e s o r l ab yr i nth p r o j ect fo r w ar d f ro m

the c r ib r if or m pl a te i n t o the p o ste r i or p ar t o f the n a s a l
c a vity whi ch they n e a r ly fi l l E a ch m a ss is s o mewh a t
,
.

c on i c a l i n sh a pe wi th th e b a se a tt a ch ed t o h a lf of th e
,

c r ib r ifor m pl a te Th e in n e r su rf a c e is sep a r a t ed by a
.

n a r r o w sp a ce f r o m th e pe r p e n di cu l a r pl a te The o ute r .

su rf a c e is c on vex an d f a ces ch i efly i nt o th e f r o n t a l an d

m a xil l ar y S i n uses b ut is a tt a ch ed behi n d t o th e i nn e r w a l l
,

o f the o r bit a l c a vity ; i t i s c o ve r ed b v a ve r y th i n l a ye r Of

P ‘G 29 O
b o n e the l a mi na papyra c e a Th e m a ss c o n sists of a l a r ge
P

LAT -
.
,
M I ZR A L As s
‘
o r

13m m " n w O ,
n u m be r o f
o : F
del i c a te sc ro ll like pl a tes o f b on e te r m ed
,
-
,

l l OH s iz. e th m o-tu r b i na l s o r e th m o id a l c e l l s Th ese a re a tt a ch ed .

to the l a m i n a p a py r a ce a a n d a r e sep a r a ted b y n a rr o w ,

i n te r v a ls te r med eth mo id a l me a tu s e s , whi ch c o mm u n i c a te with th e n a s a l c a vity .

I n t h e li vi n g a n i m a l the ethmo tu r bi n a l s a r e c o ve r ed with m u c o us m e m b r a n e

-
.

'
l l i o l a tc ra l m a ss is a v e ry c o m pl e x s t r u c t u re , th e a rr a n ge men t of w h i c h m a y b e s t u d i ed o n
‘

c ro s s -s e c t i o ns o f d e e a l e i h e d s p e c i me ns w i th t h e m u co u s m em b r a n e r et a i n ed E a c h m a s s co n s i s t s
.

f s i x t u rb in al s w h i ch e xt en d a l mos t t o t h e p er p end i c u l a r p l a t e a n d a re t er m ed e n d o tu r b i n al s
o
l bes e d i m i n i s h i n S I Z O f ro m a b o v e d o w n w a r d ; t h e l a rg es t i s a tt a c h e d to th e n a s a l b o n e , a nd i s
.

h e n ce u s u a ll y c a l l e d t h e n as o-t u rb i n a l o r s u p er i o r t u r b i n a l ; t h e se co n d i s m u c h s m a l l er , a n d i s v e ry
co m m o n y t e r m e d t h e g re a t e t m o i d c e ll e t w een t h e e n d o tu r b i n a l s a r e t w en t y -o n e s m a ll
l h
e c to tu r b i n a l s , a nd a l l a re be s e t W i t h s ec o nd a r
B .

y a n d t er ti a r y c o i l ed l a i n e l l ae .

The pe rpe n di cu l ar pl a te o r m e s eth m o id (L a m i n a pe r pe n di cu l a r i s ) is m edi a n ,

a n d f o r ms t h e p os t e r i o r p a r t Of the septu m n a si I ts l a t e r a l sur f a c e s a r e n e a r ly

.

pl a n e b u t a re m a rked bel o w by s o me g ro o ves a n d r idges ; they a r e c o ve r ed by th e

,

n a s a l m u c o u s me m b r a ne The a nte ri o r b or d e r i s i rr egul a r a n d i s c on ti n u o us with

. .

t h e s ept a l c a rti l a ge
.
The p o ste ri or b or d e r p roj ects i nto the c r an i a l c avity as a
.

r i d ge t h e c r i sta g a ll i T h e d or s a l b or d e r j o i n s t h e f r o n t a l b o n es a t thei r li n e of
—
, .

j u tin c o n the f ro n t a l s utu r e T h e ve n tr a l b o r d e r is r e c eived i n t o th e g r oo ve of

.

tl i c v o me r
D e ve l opm e n t —The eth mo id d evel o ps i n c a r ti l a ge f r o m fi ve ce n te r s t w o fo r
.

O n a c o u nt o f i ts d ee p s it u a ti o n a nd t h e f a c t t h a t it c a n n o t b e s e p a ra t ed f ro m i ts s u rro u n d
1
c .

i l g t h et h m o i d m u s t b e s t u d i ed b y mea ns o f a pp ro p ri a t e s a i tt a l a n d t r a ns v e rs e s e c ti o n s o f th e
3k 1 l
e
g
il
 T HE S KE L E T O N O F T HE i i OR s E
54

t h ve f l l t e it p r ese n ts t he m edi a n exte r n a l s a gi tt a l

s mo o i n the ry y o u n g o a ; a r .

c res t “

s t h e i n t ern a1 o c c i pi ta l pro
.

The i nte rna l s ur f a c e ( a F c i es c e r eb ra l i s ) p r ese n t

d o w n w a rd a n d f o r w a d i n t o the
tu b e r an c e , a th r ee s id ed p r o ces s w h
- i ch p ro j ects r
bet wee t h ce eb l he m isp h e r e s a n d the c e r ebellu m ; i t h a s th r ee
c r a ni a l c a vit y n e r ra

su f ce t h ee h p b de s h i ch f o r m p a r t o f the te n t o ri u m
s a nd r o r r w
c on c a ve r a r s a

o sseu m .

b o d e is t h k t m s t h e s q u a m o us p a r t o f the o cc i p i t a l
T h e p o ste r i o r r r i c : i j e

e l te l te i o b d e s u ted by su tu r e W i t h the p a ri et a l
hon T h e a ra a d
.
n a n r r o r r a r e n i

b o nes
— m
.

The i t e p i et l e s i n m emb r a n e f r o m tw o ch i ef l a te ra l
0

D eve l opme n t n r a r a o s s

e
c n
t e rs lt fu e
s s fi r st
.
‘
w it h t h e p a r iet a ls s o m ewh a t l a ter W i th th e o cc i p i t a l
, bu t ,

th e pe i
r o d at w hi ch t hi s u n i o n t a kes pl a ce i s q u i te v a r i a ble .

THE P A R IE TAL B ONE S

The t w o p ar i e ta l b o n e s (Oss a p ar i e ta l i a ) f o r m th e g r e a te r p ar t of the roo f o f

c i t e u ite i the m edi li e f m i g t h s gitt l s utu re E a ch i s
t l i c ra n u m : h y n n a n n o r n e a a .
,

qu a d r il a t e ra l i n o u t li ne a n d h a s t w o s u r f a ces a n d f o u r b o r de r s .

The ext e rn a l s ur f a ce (F a ci e s p a r iet a li s ) is c o n vex a n d i s m a r ked by a m or e o r ,

l es s p ro mi n e n t c u rved li ne the ext e rn a l s a gitta l c re st ; this is med i a n i n i ts p o ste r i o r

,

p a rt a n d is c o n t i n u o u s wi t h the c r est o f li ke n a m e o n the o c ci pi t a l b on e ; i n f ron t

,

i t cu r ves o u t w a rd a n d i s c o n t i n u o us w i th the f ron t a l c r est Th e su r f a ce exte rn a l to .

the c r e s t (P l a nu m te mp o r a le ) e nte rs i n t o the fo r m ati on o f th e te m p o r a l f o ss a a n d ,

i s r o ug h e n ed fo r the a tt a ch m e n t o f the te m p o ra l m uscl e .

The i nte rn a l o r c e r eb ra l s urf a c e (F a ci e s ce r eb ra lis ) is c on c a ve I t p r ese n ts .

n u m e ro u s d igit a l i mp r e s s i o n s (I m p r essi o n es d i g i t a t ze ) whi ch c o rr esp on d t o the gy r i

o f the c e r eb r u m T h e re a r e a l s o fu r r o ws (S ul ci v a scul o si ) fo r th e m e n i n ge a l a r te
.
.

r ie s .A l o ng t h e i nn e r b o rde r t he r e is a s a gitta l gr oo v e (S u lcus s a gitt a lis ) fo r th e

su pe r i o r l o n gitudi n a l s i n us .

T h e a nte r i o r b or de r j o i n s the f r o n t a l b o n e a t th e pari e t o -f r o nta l sutu r e (S utu r a

c o r o n a li s ) .

T h e po ste r i o r b or d e r meets the o c c i pit a l b o n e a t t he par i e t o -o ccipital s utu r e

(S utu ra l a i n b d o i d ea ) B el o w this j u n cti o n it cu r ves i nw a r d a n d c on cu r s wi th t h e
.

t e m p o r a l h o n e i n t h e f o r ma ti o n o f the p ar i e to -t e mp o ra l c an a l (M e a tus te m p o r a lis ) .

A tr an sve r s e gr oove (S u l cu s t ra n s ve rs us ) c on n ects t h is c a n a l wi th the s a gitt a l

s u l eus .

b o rd e r is thi ck a nd se rr a t ed
T h e i n te rn a l I t j o i ns its fell o w at t he s a gitta l .

s utu r e , a nd (i n t h e y o u n g subj ect ) meet s the i n te r p a ri et a l a t th e i nterpar i e ta l sutur e .

T h e l i n e o f j u n cti o n i s m a r ked i n te rn a lly by the i n te rn a l s a gi ttal c r e st (C r i s t a

s a gi t t a li s i n te r n a ) .

T h e e xte rn a l b or d e r is beveled a n d is o ve r l a pped by th e squ a m o us te m p o r a l

h o n e fo r m i n g t h e p a r iet o —
, te m p o ra l s ut u r e (S utu ra p a r iet o squ a m os a ) The an gle
. -
.

o f j u n c t i o n o f t h e exte r na l a n d p o ste r i o r b o r d e rs a r ti cul a tes with the p o ste r i o r

a n g le o f the te mp o r a l wi n g o f t h e s phe n o id .

D eve l pmeo n t — E a c h p a r i et a l b o n e o s si fi es i n me m b r a n e f r o m a si n gle ce n te r .

I n the y o u ng f o a l t h e ce nt r a l p a r t o f the b o n e i s m u ch mo r e c o n vex th a n i n th e

a dul t a n d f o r m s a p ro m i ne n ce si mi l a r t o t h e p r o n o u n c ed tube r p a r i et a le o f th e

y o u n g c hi ld ; the exte r n a l s a gitt a l c r est is n o t p r ese n t a nd t h e e x te r n a l su r f a ce is ,

s mo o th .

T he sa g it ta l su t u re is us u a ll y c l o s ed a t fo u r yea rs ,
th e p a ri et o -o cc i p it a l at fiv e y ea rs , and th e
p a ri et o a t t w e l v e t o fif t ee n y ea r
0

t po r a l
- c ni

\ e e o rd i n
-
g to M a rt in , t h e re a r e i g i n a ll y f o u r c e nt ers
or
, tw o an t er i o r a nd tw o p o s t er i o r
(s m a ll e r ) e
on s , w h i c h fu s e in a v a ri a b l e ma nner .
 T HE F R ON T A L B ON E S —T HE TE M P OR A L B ON E S 55

THE F R ON T AL B ONE S

The f r on tal b o n es (Oss a front a l i a ) ar e si tu a ted o n th e l imi ts o f th e c r a n i u m

a nd f a ce b etwee n the p a r i et a ls beh i n d a n d the n a s a l b o n es i n f r o n t E a c h is
, .

i rr egu l a r ly q u a d r i l a te r a l a nd c o n sists of f r on t a l o r bit a l a n d te m p o ra l p a rt s

Th e fr o n tal p art (P ar s n a s o—
, , , .

f r on t a lis ) f or m s th e b a sis o f th e f or eh e a d I ts .

e xt ern al s ur f a c e (F a ci es f r o n t a li s ) is n e a r ly fl a t a n d is s m o o th a n d s ubcut an e o us
; ,

i t is sep ar a ted fr o m th e te m p or a l p a r t by t he ext e r n a l f ro nt a l c r e s t (C r ist a f r on t a lis

exte r n a ) A t the j u n cti o n wi t h t he o r bi t a l p a r t th e supra o rb ita l o r zyg o m ati c
.

pr o c e s s (P r o c zyg o m a ti c us ) cu r ves o utw a r d a n d d o wn w a r d to j o i n the zyg o m a ti c

.

ar ch . The p r o cess p a r ti a ll y sep ar a tes th e o r bi t f r om th e te m p or a l fo ss a ; its r oo t

is pe r f or a ted by th e s upra o r b ital f or a m e n , or p r esen ts i n ste a d a n o tch o n its an te r i o r
b o r de r ; i ts u ppe r su r f a ce i s c on vex whi le the l o we r o r o r bit a l su r f a ce is c on c a ve
,

a n d sm oo th f o r mi n g a sh a l l o w f o ss a f o r t he l a c r i m a l gl a n d (F o ss a gl an dul ae l a cr i
,

m a lis ) The i n t ern a l s ur f a c e e n te r s i n t o th e f or m a ti on o f the c r an i a l c a vity a nd

.

t he fr o n t a l si n us Th e c r ani a l sur f a ce p r ese n ts di gi t a l i m p r essi o n s for th e ce r eb ra l

.

gyr i Th e t w o pl a tes o f the b on e sep a r a te an d di ve r ge i n f ron t an d thus i n cl ose

.
,

a l a r ge a i r sp a ce wh i ch i s p a r t of th e f r on tal s i n u s
-
The c r an i a l pl a te cu r ves d o wn .

w ar d and a r ti cu l a tes w i th t he c r i b r if or m p l a te o f th e eth m o i d b on e ; the f a ci a l pl ate

ext e nds f or w a r d a n d j o i n s th e n a s a l a n d l a c r i m a l b o n es .

Th e o rbi tal p ar t (P a r s o r bit a lis ) f o r m s th e m a j or p a r t of the i nn e r w a l l o f the

o r bi t a l c a vi ty I t is sep a r a ted fro m th e fr o n t a l p ar t b y a p r o m i n en t r idge wh i ch is
.

p art o f t he o r bi t a l m a r gi n I ts e xt ern al or o r b ital s u r f a c e is c on c a ve a n d s m oo th

.

a n d p r ese n ts supe r i or ly a s m a l l dep r essi o n (F o ve a t r o ch le ar is ) wh i ch i s b r idged ,

b y a sm a l l b ar of c ar ti l a ge ar o u n d whi ch th e supe r i or o b li qu e m uscl e of the eye is

,

r eflected Th e l o we r b o r de r c o n c ur s wit h th e o rb it a l wi n g o f the sphe n o id i n th e

.

f or m a ti o n o f the eth m o i d a l or i n te rn a l o r b it a l f or a me n The i nt ernal s ur fa c e f a ces .

i n t o th e fr on t a l si n us a nd gi ves a tt a ch m e n t t o th e l a ter a l m a ss of the eth moid .

Th e t e m por al par t i s sep a r a ted f r o m th e o r b it a l p ar t by the deep s ph eno id al

n o t ch (I n ci su r a sph e n o id a lis ) whi ch is o c cupi ed by the o r bit a l wi n g o f the sphe n o i d
,
.

I ts e xt e rnal su rf a ce f o r m s p a r t of th e i nn e r w a ll o f th e te mp o ra l f o ss a The .

i n te rn al s urf ace is l a r gely c o ve r ed by th e o r bi t a l w i n g of th e sph en o i d i n th e y o u n g

subj ect but l a ter f o r ms p ar t of the w a ll of th e f r o n t a l si n us
,
.

T h e p ri nc i p a l conne c ti o ns o f th e f ro n t a l b o ne a r e as f o ll o w s : (1 ) T h e i nn er b o rd er j o i ns i ts
f e ll ow at th e fron tal s u tu r e (2 ) T h e a n t er i o r b o r d er m ee ts th e n as a l and l a c r i m a l a t th e n as o
.

fr on tal a n d fro n to-l a c ri m al s u tu r e s (3 ) La t er a l l y i t f o r ms th e s ph e no- fr o n tal s u t ur e w i t h t h e

.

o r b i t a l W i n g o f t h e s p h en o i d , a nd a l s o j o i ns t h e p a l a t e b o n e a n d m a xi l l a (4 ) P o s t er i o r l y i t .

m ee ts th e p a ri e t a l at t h e pa ri e to-fr on ta l (o r c o r on a l ) s u tu r e , a nd ar ti cu l a t es b e l o w t hi s wi t h t h e
q
s u a mous t em p ora l (5) T h e extr e mi t y of th e s u p r aor bi t a l p ro c es s u n i t es w i t h t h e z ygo ma ti c
.
.

p roc ess o f th e t emp ora l b on e .

D ev el opm ent —E a ch o ssifi es i n m e mb ran e fr o m on e ce n te r whi ch a ppe ar s i n

the r oo t o f the sup r aor b it a l p r o cess I n the n e w b or n fo a l the r e is a slit betwee n .
-

t he c r ani a l pl a te a n d t he o r bi t a l an d te m p or a l pl a tes whi ch r eceives the c ar ti l agi n

ou s m a r g i n of the o r b i t a l w i n g o f the sphe n o id .

THE TE MP ORA L BONE S

Th e t e mporal b on e (Os te m p or a le ) f or ms th e g r e ate r p a r t o f th e l a te ra l w a ll
o f th e c r a ni u m I t i s situ a ted betwee n the o ccipit a l behi n d the p a r i et a l a b o ve
. , ,

the f r o n t a l i n f r on t an d th e sphe n o i d bel o w I t c o n sists of tw o di sti n ct p a r ts

,
.
,

sq u a m o u s an d p e tr o u s .

l Th e s q
.
u a m o u s te mpo ral (S qu a m a te m p o ra lis ) i s a shell li ke p l a te w h i ch h as -

tw o su r f a ces a n d f o u r b or de r s .

The in t ern a l s ur f a c e (F a cies ce r eb r a lis ) is l a r gely o ve r l a pped by the su rro u n d

i ng b o n es but its ce n t r a l p a r t i s f r ee a n d p r ese n ts digit a l i mp r es s i o ns a n d v a scul a r
,

g r oo ves .
 56 T HE S K E LE TO N or T HE H O R SE

Theext e rna l su rf a c e (F a ci es te mp o r a lis ) is c o n vex a nd e n te r s i n t o th e f o r ma ,

t i o n o f t h e te mp o r a l f oss a Fro m i t s l o we r p a r t the r e sp r i n gs the zyg o m a ti c

.

p r o c e s s (P ro cessus zygo m a t i c u s ) whi c h f o rms the e x te r n a l b o u nd a r y of th e t em

p o r a l fo s s a I t is a t fi rst di r ected o ut w a rd a n d 1 5 W i de a n d fl a tte n ed d or s o —
,

v en
,
.
.
.

tra l l v .I t th e n t u r ns f o r w a r d bec o m es n a rro we r a n d i s tw i sted s o th a t i ts su r f a ces

, ,

a re inte r n a l a n d exte r n a l I ts a n te r i o r e n d is p o i n ted a n d j o i n s the z yg om a t i c

.

p ro ces s o f t h e ma l a r b o ne w i th w h i ch i t f o r ms the zyg o m a ti c ar ch (A r cus z yg o

,

ma t i c u s ) T h e n a rro w a n te r i o r p a r t h as a c o n vex o ute r su r f a ce a n d a c o n c a ve

.

i n n e r o ne I ts uppe r b o r de r h a s a ro ugh a r e a fo r a r ti cu l a ti o n with th e sup r a o r b i t a l

.

p r o cess o f t h e f r o nt a l I ts l o we r b o r de r is wi d e a n d r o ugh Th e W i de p oste ri or

.
.

p a rt p r ese n t s o n i ts ve n t r a l f a ce a su r fa c e fo r a r ti cul a t i on W i th th e c on dyle of th e

m a n dible This s u r f a ce c o nsists o f a t ra ns ve r sely el o n g a ted c o n dyl e (Tub e r cu l u m
.

a rti cul a r e ) behi nd w hi ch is t h e gl e n o id f o s s a (F o ss a m a n dibu l a r is )

,
The f oss a i s .

li m i ted behi nd by the p o st gle no id p ro c e s s , the a n te r i o r su r f a ce o f wh i ch i s a r t i cu

-

l ar .
B ehi n d t his p ro ce s s i s a fo ss a i n whi ch is the exte r n a l o pe ni ng o f the p ar i et o
t e m p o ra l c a na l The d o r s a l su r f a c e i s c on c a ve a nd f orm s th e o ute r b o u n d a ry o f
.

t h e te mp o r a l f o ss a The supe r i o r b o r de r i s si n u o us a nd i s c on ti n u o u s behi n d wi th

.

t h e te m p o ra l c rest .

The p o ste r i or pro c e s s (P ro cessu s p o s te r i o r ) sp r i n gs f r o m the p o ste r i o r p a r t o f

the sq u a m a I ts exte r na l su r f a ce is c ro ssed by th e te m p ora l c r est whi ch fo r m s
.
,

he re t h e o ute r li m i t o f the te m p o r a l f o ss a The i n te r na l su r f a ce fo r m s the o ute r .

b o u n d a r y o f t h e p a r iet o te mp o r a l c a n a l a n d i s elsewh e r e a ppli ed t o the pet ro us

-
,

p o rti o n I t d ivides i n to tw o b r a n che s uppe r a n d l o we r ; the uppe r b r a n ch u n ites

.
,

with the o cci pi t a l b o n e whi l e th e l o we r o ne cu r ves d o wn w ar d behi n d th e exte r n a l

,

a udi t o r y p ro c e s s a n d o ve r l a ps the m a st o i d p r o cess .

The supe ri o r b or d e r o f the squ a mo us te mp o ra l ar ti cu l a tes wi th th e p ar i et a l ,

fo r mi n g the p ar i eto -te mp ora l s utu r e The i nf e ri o r b or d er j o i n s the temp o ra l wi n g .

o f the s phe n o id a t the sph e n o s q u am o u s s utu r e The an ter i o r b o r d e r u n i tes with

-
.

the f ro nt a l b o ne a nd the po ste ri o r wi th the p ar i et a l

, .

2 The petr o u s temp ora l (Os pet ro su m ) is pl a ced betwee n the o c ci pi t a l b ehi n d
.

a nd the p a r iet a l i n f r o n t a n d is l a r gely o ve r l a pped exte r na lly by t he squ a m o u s

,

te m p o r a l I t h as the f o r m o f a f o u r si ded py ra m i d th e b a se o f wh i ch is ve n t r a l
.
-
, .

The exte rna l su rf a c e i s m a i n ly c o n ce a l ed by th e sq u a mo us te m p or a l but tw o ,

fe a tu r es a re visible A s h o r t tube o f b o n e th e e xtern a l a ud ito ry pr o c e s s , p r o t r udes

.
,

f ro m t h e l o wes t p a r t th ro ugh t h e no tch o f the sq u a m o us te m p o r a l The p ro cess i s .

d i re c t ed o utw a rd upw a r d a nd a little f o r w a r d I t gi ves a tt a ch m e n t to the a nn u l a r

, , .

c a r t i l a ge o f t h e e a r I ts lu m e n th e ext e rn a l a ud ito ry m e a tu s (M e a tus a custi cus

.
,

exte r nu s ) c o ndu c ts to the c a vity o f the m iddle ea r (ty m p an u m ) i n the d r y sku l l

,
,

but i s s ep a ra ted f ro m i t by t h e ty m p a n i c m e m b r a ne i n th e n a tu r a l st a te Th e .

m a sto i d p r o ce s s p ro j ects ve n t r a lly i n the i nte r v a l betwee n the p oste r i o r p r o cess

o f t he s q u a mo u s t e m p o r a l a n d t he r o o t Of th e p a ra m a st o id (o r styl o id ) p r o cess of
t h e o c ci pit a l b o n e ; its o ute r su r f a ce is c r o ssed by a cu r ved g r oo ve whi ch le a ds to
the p a r iet o te mp o ra l c a na l
-
.

The i nte rn a l s u rf a c e f a ces i n t o the ce r ebel l a r f oss a o f the c r a n i u m I t is c o n .

c a ve a nd s m o o th bu t i rr egul a r I n i ts l o we r p a r t i s th e e nt ra n ce t o a sh o r t c a n a l
.

th e i nte rna l a u d ito ry m e a tu s wh i ch t r ans m i ts th e seve n th a n d ei ghth c r an i a l n e r ves

, .

T he f u ndu s of t
he i n e a t u s
e t i n t o a s u p er i o r a nd a n i n fe ri o r f os sa I n th e
i s d i v i d ed b y a cr s
s u pe r i o r o ne i s t h e o r i g m
.

e f t h e f a c i a l c an a l w h i c h c u r v es t h ro u g h t h e b o ne a n d o p e ns e x t er
.
,
n a l l y a t t h e s t y l o m as t o l f o r a me n
; i t t ra n s m it s t h e f a c i a l (s e v e n t h c ra n i a l ) n e r v e
- u
T he i n
.
.

fe ri o r fo ss a p res e n t s s ma ll f o ra m i n a fo r t h e p as s a e o f fi b e rs o f t h e u d i t
.

g a o ry (e i g h t h c r a n i a l )
ne r v e .

B ehi nd t h e m e a tus a n d ne a r the p o ste r i o r m a rgi n o f the su r f a ce is the sl i t l i k e -

q
o pe n i ng o f t h e a u a d u c t u s vesti buli
, c o ve r ed by a sc a le o f b o n e B el o w th is i s a
‘

n a rr o w fissu r e t h e o r i fi ce o f the a qu aed uctus c ch le

, o ae .
 B ON E S OF T HE FA C E 57

Th e an te r i or s ur f a c e l o o ks upw a r d a n d f or w a rd Th e o ute r p a r t a r ti cul a t es .

wi th t he p a r iet a l b o n e an d the i n n e r p a rt f a ces i n t o the c e r eb r a l f o ss a o f the c r a n iu m .

A sh a rp b o r d e r t he p e tr o s a l c r e st (C r i s t a pet ro s a ) sep a r a tes this s u r f a ce f ro m t he

, ,

i n n e r o ne .

The p o s t er i o r s u rf a c e j o i n s the l a te r a l p a r t of th e o cci pit a l b o ne .

The b a s e f or m s the o ute r b o u nd a r y Of t he f o ra m e n l a ce r u m b a si s c ra n i i I t .

is ve r y i rr egul a r a n d p r ese n ts a n u m be r Of i m p o r t a n t fe a t u res Th e hyo id p ro c e s s .

.

i s a sh or t r o d whi ch p r oj ects d o wn w a r d a n d f o r w a r d bel o w th e b a se o f t he exte r na l

a udit or y p r o cess i n cl o sed i n a b o n y tube
, ; i t is c o nn ected by a b a r of c a r til a ge with
th e hy o i d b o n e The s tyl o m a s to i d f o ra m e n is situ a ted b etwee n th e r oo t Of th e
.
-

hy o i d p r o cess a nd th e m as t o i d p r o cess ; it i s the exte r n a l o pe n i n g Of the f a ci a l c a n a l ,

th r o ugh whi ch the f a ci a l n e r ve e m e r ges Th e b u l l a o s s e a is a c on side r a ble e mi

.

n e n ce situ a ted ce n t ra lly ; i t is thi n w a l l ed a n d i n cl o ses a c a vi ty whi ch i s p a rt Of th e

-
.

m
t y p um The mu
a n . s cu l ar p c s is a s ha r p spi n e whi ch p r o j ects d ow n w a rd
ro e s
1

a n d f o r w a r d f r o m th e a n te r i or p a r t o f t he b a se ; it gives o r igi n t o t he te n s or a n d

l ev a t or p a l a ti m uscles E xt e r na l t o the r oo t o f the p r ecedi n g i s the s ma ll p e tr o

.

tym pani c o r G l a s e ri an fi s s ur e (Fissu r a pet r o ty m p a n i c a ) for th e p a ss a ge Of the -

ch o r d a ty mp a ni n e r ve The osse o us E u s ta chi an tub e i s a semi c a n a l at t h e i n n e r

.

si de of the r oo t Of th e m uscul ar p r o cess ; i t le a ds t o the ty m p a n u m A t the i nn e r

side Of th e p r ecedi n g is th e sli t—
.

li ke or i fi ce of t he pet r o s a l c ana l wh i ch c omm u n i c a te s ,

wi th the f a ci a l c a n a l .

The ape x p r oj ects upw a r d a n d b a c kw ar d b etwee n t he squ a m o us te m p or a l a n d

the o ccipit a l b on e
D e v e l opm ent —Th e pet r o us t e m p or a l m a y b e r eg ar ded as c on sisti n g Of pet ro
.

m a st o i d a n d tymp a ni c p a r ts The l a tte r i n cludes the exte r n a l a udi t or y p r o cess

.
,

the b ull a o sse a a n d th e muscu l a r p r o cess ; i t is d evel o ped i n m e m b r an e The

, .

pet r o m a st o i d is deve l oped i n the c a r ti l a gi n o us e ar c apsule I ts pet r ous p ar t

-
.

c onsists Of ve ry de n se b on e w hi ch c on t a i n s the l ab v ri nt h o r i n te r n a l ear a nd f or m s

th e i nn e r w a l l o f t h e ty m p a n um .

Th e p ar i eto-te mp o ral c an al (M e a tus t e m p or a li s ) is a c on ti n u a ti on Of th e t r an s

ve r se g r oove whi ch exte n ds o utw a r d f r om t h e b a se Of the te n t o r i u m osseu m I t .

is di r ected d o w n w ar d f o r w ar d a nd s o m e wh a t o utw ar d a n d Ope ns exte r n a lly i n

, , ,

fr on t Of t he r oo t o f t he a udi t or y p ro cess I t is b o u n ded by t h e sq u a m o us te m p ora l

.

e xte r n a lly t h e pet r o us b ehi n d a n d the p a r i et a l i n f r o nt a n d i n te r n a lly S eve ra l

, ,
.

f o r a mi n a o pe n f r o m i t i n t o t he te m p or a l f o ss a I t c on t a i ns a l a r ge vei n (Y e na .

ce r eb r a lis d o r s a l is ) th e c on ti n u ati on o f t h e t r an sve r se si n us of th e du r a m ate r

,
.

The f o ra m e n l a c er u m b a s i s cranii (F o r a m e n l a ce r u m et j ugu l a r e ) i s a l ar ge

i r r egul ar o pe n i n g i n t he c r a ni a l b a se b o u n d ed i n te r n a lly by the b a si l ar p ar t Of the
,

o ccipi t a l b o n e e xte r n a lly by th e pe tr o us te m p o r a l a n d i n f ro n t by the te m p o r a l ,

,

wi n g of th e sph e n o i d I t c o n sists Of a l a r ge a n t e r i or p a r t (F or a m e n l a ce r u m a n
.

t eri u s ) a nd a n a rr o w p oste r i o r p art (F o ra m en l a ce r u m p o ste r i us s j ugul ar e )

,
. .

I t t r a n s mi ts the i n te r n a l c a r o ti d a r te r y th e mi ddle m e n i n ge a l a r te r y t h e m a n di , ,

bu l a r ni n th te n th a n d eleve n t h c r a ni a l n e r ves a n d t he i n fe r i o r ce r eb r a l vei n

, , , ,
.

I n th e f r es h s t a t e t h e f o ra m en i s oc c u p i ed b y a d en s e fi b ro u s m em b r a n e w h ic h i s p e r fo r a t ed
b y a p er t u res fo r t h e v a r i ou s s t ru c t u res t r a ns m i tt ed T h u s t h ere a re t h r ee Op eni n gs i n f ro n t fo r
.

t h e i n t er n a l c a ro ti d a r t er y t h e m a n di b u l a r n er v e a n d t h e m i d d l e m e m n g ea l a r t er y ; t h es e a re
, ,

(f ro m w i t h i n ou t w a r d ) t h e f or a m en ca r o ti c u m o v a l e s p i nos u m , ,
.

(B ) B ONE S OF THE FACE

Th e b on es o f th e f a ce (Oss a f a ci ei ) a re the M a xi ll a P r e m a xi l la P a l a ti n e , , ,

P te r yg o i d N a s a l L a c r i m a l M a l a r S upe r i o r Tu r bi n a l I nf e r i o r Tu r b i n a l Vo m e r
, , , , , , ,

M a n di bl e a n d Hy o i d
,
The l a st th ree a r e si n gle t he o the r s p a i r ed
. ,
.

1
Thi s i s co mm o nl y t e rmed t h e s t y l o i d p r o c ess I t i s no t t h e h o m o l ogu e o f t h e s t y l o i d p ro cess
.

of man .
58 T HE S K E LE T O N OF T HE H OR S E

THE MA XI LL A E
The m a xi l l a ar e th e p r i n cip a l b o n es Of the uppe r jaw a n d c arr y t h e u p per o

c heek teeth They a re sit u a ted o n the l a te ra l a spect of t he f a ce a n d a r t i cu l a t e

. ,

with a l mo s t a l l o f the f a ci a l b o n es a nd the fro n t a l a nd t emp or a l a ls o For d escr i p .

ti o n e a c h m a y be divided i n t o a b o dy a nd tw o p r o cesses .

The b o d y (C o r pus m a x i l l ze ) p r ese nts tw o su r f a ces t w o b or de r s an d tw o ex , ,

t r e mi t i es The exte rn a l o r f a ci a l su rf a c e (F a cies l a te ra lis ) is s om ewh at c on c a ve

.

i n f ro n t a n d c o n vex behi n d On i ts p o ste r i o r p a r t i s a h o r i z on t a l r i dge th e f a ci a l

. ,

o r zyg om a t i c c r e st (C r i s t a f a ci a lis ) i n a skul l o f m edi u m si z e i ts a n te r i o r en d is

'

a b o ut a n i n ch a n d a h a lf (3 t o 4 c m ) a b o ve the thi r d o r f o u r th cheek t oo th an d i t

.
,

is c o n ti n u ed behi n d by a c or r esp o n di ng r idge o n the m a l a r b o n e A b o ut tw o i n ches .

m b ve d li ttle i f t f the a n te r i o r en d Of t he c r est is th e i nf r a

( 5 c ) a . o a n a n r o n O
o r b ita l f o ram e n (F o r a m e n i n f r aor b it a le ) ; this is the exte r na l Ope n i n g Of th e i nf r a
Oi b i t a l c a n a l
'
.

I n t h e y o u n g h o rs e t h e a nt e r i o r p a r t Of t h e s u r f a c e i s co n v ex o v er th e emb ed d ed pa r t s of th e
t eet h A s th e l a t tc r a re ext r u d ed t h e s u r f a c e fl a tt ens a n d b eco mes c on c a v e i n Ol d su b j ec t s
.
. .

The i nte rn a l o r n a s a l su rf a c e (F a ci es n a s a lis ) i s c on c a ve d or s o ve n t r a lly ; i t -

f o rm s th e g re a te r p a rt o f the l a te r a l w a l l o f the n a s a l c a vi ty I t s uppe r p ar t is .

c ro s s ed o bliq u ely f o r w a r d a n d d ow n w a r d by th e sh a ll o w l a c ri m al g roo v e (S ul cus

l a c r i i n a l i s ) w hi c h c o n t a i n s the n a s o—
,
l a c r i m a l duct ; i n th e a du lt the p o ste r i or p ar t
o f the g r o o ve is c o n ve r ted i n t o a c a n a l whi ch is c o n ti n u o us w ith th a t o n the i n n e r
,

su r f a ce o f the l a c r i m a l b o n e B el o w th e g ro o ve i s t he in f er i or tur b i n al c re st
.

(C r i s t a c o n c h a li s i nfe r i or ) to whi ch the i nf e r i or tu r bi n a l b on e is a tt a ch ed

, L o we r .

d o w n a n d p a ra llel w ith th e tu r bi n a l c r est i s th e p a l a tin e p ro c e s s , wh i ch p r o j ects

i nw a rd li ke a shelf B ehi n d thi s t he su r f a ce i s r o ugh for a r ti cul a ti on with the p a l a t e
.

b o n e ; this a r e a i s c r o ssed by a g ro o ve whi ch c o n cu r s wi th a fu rr o w o n th e p a l a t e

b o n e i n the fo r ma ti o n Of th e p a l atin e c an a l Th e p o ste r i or p ar t of t he b o n e is .

exc a v a t e d to f o r m p a r t Of the m a xi ll ar y si n us .

T h e supe r i o r b or d e r i s i rr egul a r a n d sc a ly I t s a n te r i o r p a r t is g r oo ved a n d

.

i t s p os te r i o r p a r t beveled for a r ti cul a ti o n w i th the n a s a l p r o cess Of th e p r em axi ll a

a n d t h e n a s a l a n d l a c r i m a l b o n es .

The i nf e r i o r o r a lve o l a r b or d er (P ro cessus a lve o l ar i s ) i s thi ck an d p r ese n ts six ,

l a rge c a vitie s the a lve o li , for the cheek teeth The a lve o li ar e sep ar a ted b y t r an s
, .

ve rse i nte ra lve o l ar s epta The r e is Ofte n a s m a l l a lve o lus fo r th e fi r st p r e m o l a r

.

“ ”
( wo lf t o o th ) cl o se to the fi rs t l a rge on e Fu r the r f or w a r d the b o r de r i s n a rr o w
.

a n d f or ms p a r t o f th e i nt e r d e nta l or in t era lv e o l a r sp a c e
(M a r g o i n ter a l v eol a r i s ) .

B ehi nd the l a st a lve o lu s i s a ro ugh a r e a th e a lv e o l ar tub e r o s ity , .

The a nte ri or e xtr e mi ty i s p o i n ted I t j o i n s th e p r e m axi l l a a n d f o r ms with i t

.
,

the a lve o lus fo r the c a n i n e t o o th .

The p o ste ri or e xtr e mi ty f o r ms a r ou n ded p r o mi n e n ce th e m a x i ll ary tub er o s ity ,

(Tube r m a x il l a re ) I n te rn a l t o the tube r osity is a deep c a vi ty th e m axi l l ar y

.

hi a tu s i n wh i ch a r e th r ee f ora mi na The uppe r o n e th e m ax i l l ar y f o ram e n , l e a ds

, .
,

i nto the i n f rao rbi t a l c a na l The l o we r o n e th e p o st e r i or p a l a ti n e f or am en , i s the

.
,

e nt ra n c e to the p a l a ti n e c a n a l Th e sph e n o p a l a tin e f o ram e n pe r f o ra tes th e i nn e r

.
.
-

w a ll o f th e hi a tu s a n d Ope n s i n t o the n a s a l c a vity .

The zygo m a ti c o r temp or a l p ro ce s s (P ro cessu s te m p o r a lis ) p r o j ects b a ckw ar d

a b o ve a n d ex t e rn a l t o t he tube r o si ty
; i t is o ve r l a pped by th e c orr esp o n di n g p a r t
.

Of the i n a l a r a nd a ls o a r ti cul at e s wi th the zyg o m ti c p

a ro cess Of the te m p or a l A .

m a ll c u rved pl a te exte n ds i n w a rd f r o m i t a n d j o i n s th e f ro n t a l n p l te b
s a d a a on es ,
fo r mi n g p a r t o f the fl o o r Of t h e o r bi t
.
.

Th e p a l a tin e p ro c e s s (P r o ces s u s p a l a ti n us ) is a pl a te wh i ch p ro j ects h o r i z on

t a l l v i n w a r d f r o m t h e l o we r p a r t o f t h e i nn e r su r f a ce
o f the b o dy I t f orm s t h e .
 T HE P R E M A X I L L JE 59

g r e a te r p a r t Of the b a si s Of the h a r d p a l a te I ts sup er i o r o r n a s a l s u rf a c e is

.

sm oo th a n d c o n c a ve t r a nsve r sely ; o n i ts an te r i o r p a r t c l o se to t he i nn e r b o r de r ,

is a sh a ll o w g r oo ve i n wh i ch th e o r g a n Of J a c o bs o n i s si tu a ted Th e i nf e r i o r o f .

pal a ti n e s ur f ace i s sli ghtly c o n c a ve f r o m si de to side a n d p r ese n ts a l o n g i ts o ute r ,

p ar t t he pal a ti n e gr oo v e (S u lcus p a l a ti n us ) The g r oove is a c on ti n u ati on o f the .

p a l a ti n e c a n a l an d c o n t a i ns th e p a l a ti ne a r te r y an d n e r ve Th e i nt erna l b or d er
, .

u n i tes with i ts fel l o w to fo r m t he

m edi a n p a l a ti n e sutu r e ; i ts n a s a l
a spect be a r s th e n a s a l c r est wh i ch ,

f o r ms wi th th a t of th e o pp o si te
,

p ro cess a g r oo ve for the v om e r

, .

The po ste ri or b o r d er u ni tes with

the h or i z o nt a l p a r t o f t he p a l a te
b on e at the t r a n sve r se p a l a ti n e
sutu r e .

Th e i nf r a o rb ita l o r s u peri o r
d e n ta l can a l exte n ds a l m o st h o r i
z ont a l l y f ro m th e m a xi ll a r y f o r a

me n t o th e i nf r a o r bi t a l f or a me n .

I t is pl a ced a t th e uppe r edge of

t he i nn e r pl a te Of th e m a x i ll a ,

a n d t ra ve r ses the m a xi l l a r y si n us .

N e a r th e i nf ra o r b it a l f or a m e n i t
gi ves Off a sm a l l c a n a l (C an a lis
a lve o l ar is i n cisi v us ) wh i ch li es
a b o ve th e r o o ts Of th e p r e m o l a r s

an d ext e n ds a ls o i n t o th e p r e
m a xi ll a c arr yi n g vessels an d
,

n e r ves t o th e t eet h th e r e

D ev e l o pm en t —Th e m a xi l l a
.

o ssifi es i n me m b r a n e b el o w an d

exte r n a l to t he c a r ti l a gi n o us n a s a l
c a psule I t h as one ch i ef ce n te r
.

a n d a supp le m e n t a r y o n e i n the

r egi on o f th e deci du o us c ani n e

t oo t h (M ar ti n) .

THE P R E M A XILL A E
The pre m axil l ae (Oss a i n c i s
i v a ) f or m the a n te r i o r p a r t o f the
uppe r J a w 3 n d ca rr y th e i n cis or
3 I —U PP HO A B OU T F m A H A LF
.

F w IG ER or RS E or AN D
t eeth E a ch c on sists Of a b o d v
. .

.
Ym Ow Y m “ “ m s , u E

a n d t W O p I OCOSSQS n a s a l a n d p a l a P t i v m ; 3 h iz t l p t f
'
1 1
’

, : , , os er or n a r es o er , or on a ar o

ti n e p l t b ; 4 t i p l ti f m ; 5 p l ti g v ;
a a e o ne , an e r or a a ne o ra en . a a ne ro o e

6 t v p l ti t ; 7 m d i p l ti t ; 8
.

r a ns e rs e a a ne su u re e an a a ne su u re
The b Od y I S th e t h I Ck a n
. ,
,

p l t p f m ill ; 9 p l t p
a a e f p m
r o c e ss o ill ; 1 0 ax a ,
a a e r o c es s o re ax a ,

t er i or p art W t h c a r r i es th e i l l f m i i i v m ; 1 1 m l b ; 1 2 m ill ; 1 3 t i
o ra en nc s u a ar o ne ax a a n er o r

—
. , ,

d f f i l t 1 4 i t l v l p 1 1 3 i i nc s o r
c i sor teeth I ts l a b i al o r s u pe ri o r ; en o :
ac a c r es n e ra eo a r s ace . ,

"
,

t th ; C i t th ; P 1 fi t p m l
ee w lf t th
c a n ne oo rs re o ar or o oo .

s urface i s c o n vex a n d s m oo th a n d
, ,

is r el a ted t o th e uppe r lip Th e .

a l a ti n e i nf e ri o r s u r f a c e i s c o n c a ve a n d p r ese n ts a f or a me n a l i tt le beh i nd i ts
p o r

mi d d le 1 The i n tern a l s urf a c e i s r o ugh a n d j oi ns the o pp o s i te b on e ; i t i s m a r ked

.
,

by a cur ved g roo ve whi ch f or ms with th a t on the Opp o sed su r f a ce t he mei S i v e

,
,

1
T h i s f o r a me n i s so m e w h a t v a r i a b l e i n p os iti o n, b u t i s co mmo n l y Opp os it e th e e
c o rn r i n

c i so r . S mall er i n c o ns t a n t f or a mi na a r e o f t en p r es en t .
60 T HE S KE L E TO N OF T HE H OR S E

f o ra me n (F o ra m e n i ncisi vu m) The a lv e o l ar b or d e r (L i m bus a lve o l a ri s ) sep a r a tes

.

p l i e d l bi l su f ce i t is cu ved n d th i ck a n d p r ese nts th r ee a lve o l i

the a a t n a n a a r a s : r a ,

fo r t he i n ci s o r t ee t h ; behi n d t h e thi r d a lve o lus i t is r o u nded a n d f r ee f o r m i n g p a r t ,

o f t h e i nt e ra lve o l a r sp a c e .

The na s a l p ro ce s s (P ro cessus n a s a li s ) p ro j ec t s b a ckw a r d a nd upw ar d f r o m th e

b o dy f o r mi n g he r e t h e l a te r a l w a ll o f t h e n a s a l c a vi ty The tw o su rf a c e s , f a c i a l
,
.

n d n a s a l a r e s m o o t h a n d ro u n ded The s upe r i o r b o r d e r i s f r ee thi ck a n d s m oo th

a
.
. , ,
,

T h e i nf e r i or b o r d e r i s de n t a ted a n d j o i n s th e m a xil l a ; a t i ts a n te r i o r en d it f o r m s
1
wi t h t h e l at te r t h e a lve o lus fo r th e pe r m a n e n t c an i n e t oo th The po st eri or .

e xtr emi ty fi t s i n t o t h e i n te r v a l bet w ee n the na s a l b o n e a n d the m a xi ll a

.

The p a l atin e p ro ce s s (P r o c essus p a l a ti n us ) i s a thi n pl a te whi ch f o r m s the ah

t e r i o r p a rt o f t h e b a s i s o f th e h a r d p a l a t e I ts n a s a l or sup e ri o r s u rf a c e h as a
.

l o ngi t udi n a l ridge whi ch f o r ms wi th th a t Of the o th e r sid e a g r oove for th e sept a l

c a r t il a ge T h e p a l atin e o r inf e r i o r s u rf a c e i s fl a t
.
Th e i nt ernal b or d e r i s se rr a ted
.

a n d m eets i t s fell o w a t the m edi a n p a l a ti n e sutu r e Th e e xte rn a l b or d er i s sep .

a ra ted f ro m the ma x ill a a n d the n a s a l p r o cess by the pa l a ti n e cl e ft (Fissu r a p a l a

t i na ) T h e p o ste r i or extr e mi ty fits i nt o the i n te r v a l b etwee n the v o me r a n d th e

.

p a l a t i ne p ro c ess o f t h e ma xi ll a
D eve l opme nt —The p re i na xi l l a o s s i fies f r o m a si n gle ce n te r Fusi on Of the
.

t w o b o n es is c o mplete a t t h e e n d Of the thi r d o r the begi n ni n g of the f o u r th ye a r .

THE P A L A T IN E B ON E S
Th e p a l ati n e b on e s (Os s a p a l a ti n a ) a re situ ated o n eithe r sid e of th e p o ste r i o r
n a rc s a n d f o r m the p o ste r i or m a r gi n Of the h ar d p a l a te
,
E a ch is twi sted s o as to .

f o r m a h o r i z o n t a l a n d a pe rpe n di c u l a r p a r t .

The h o ri z o nta l p art (P a rs h o r i z on t a lis ) i s a n arro w pl a te wh i ch f or m s the p os

te r i o r p a rt o f the h a r d p a l a te I t p r ese n ts s moo th n a s a l a nd pa l a ti ne s u rf a c e s
. .

T h e i nte rn al b ord e r m eets i t s fell o w a t the m edi a n p a l a ti n e sutu r e o n the n a s a l ,

a spect Of whi ch i s the n a s a l c r est The an te r i or b o r d e r j o i n s t he p a l a te p r o cess o f

.

the ma xi ll a a t t h e t r a n sve r se p a l a ti ne sut u r e a n d f o r m s with it th e an te r i or p a l a ,

t i n e fo ra ni e n The p o ste r i or b or d e r i s c o n c a ve a n d f r ee ; it gives a tt a ch m e n t t o

.

t h e a p o n e u ro s is o f t h e s o ft p a l a te .

T h e pe rp e nd icul ar p ar t (P a rs pe r pe n d i cul a r is ) is m o r e exte n sive a n d f or m s the

o u t e r b o u nd a r y o f the p o ste r i o r n a r es The na s a l o r i n te rn a l su rf a c e is i n t h e
.

g re a te r p a r t o f its exte nt c o n c a ve a nd s mo o th ; i t is m a r ked by a n arr o w r o ugh ar e a

to wh i c h the p t e ryg o i d b o n e is a tt a ched B el ow this the b o n e cu r ves ou t-w a r d
.
,

f o r mi ng t h e pte rygo id p ro ce s s The m a xi ll ar y o r e xt e r n a l su rf a c e (F a ci es m a x

.

i l l a r is ) p r e s e n t s t h r ee a r e a s fo r c o n si de r a ti o n Th e l a r gest a r ti cu l a tes wit h th e

.

m a xi ll a ; i t i s ro ugh a nd is c r o ssed by a g r o o ve wh i ch e n te r s i n t o the f o r m a ti o n Of

t h e p a l a t i n e c a na l Behi n d this is a sm oo th p art whi ch a ssi sts i n f o r mi n g th e
—
.

ptern p a l a ti n e f o s s a The ro ugh a r e a bel o w thi s is o ve r l a pped by the pte r yg o i d

.

p ro ces s o f t he s ph e no i d b o ne Th e supe r i or b or d e r is pe rfo ra t ed by th e sph e n o

.

p a l a ti n e f or a me n Be h i nd th e f o r a m e n th e tw o pl a te s o f t h e b o n e sep a r a t e to
.

i n c l o se p a r t o f t he sph e no p a l a ti n e s i n u s The i nn e r pl a te cu r ves i n w ar d to ar ti c u

-
.

l a t e wi t h t h e v o me r Th e o u t e r pl a te j o i ns th e m a x i ll a a n d f ron t a l a n d th e o r bi t a l
.

w i n g o f t h e s phe n o id

D eve l op m e nt —Th e p a l a t i ne b o n e o s s i fie s i n m emb r a n e f ro m a si ngle ce n te r

.

.
.

THE P T E R Y G OI D B ON E S

The pte ryg o i d b on e s (Oss a pte r yg o ide a ) a re na rro w thi n be n t p l a t es situ a ted
.

, , ,
o n e i t h e r s id e o f t h e p o s te r i o r n a r es E a ch h a s t w o su r f a ces a n d t w o ext r e m i ties
.
.

T h e i n te rn a l su rf a c e i s s mo o th a n d f o r ms p a r t o f the b o u n d a r y of th e p o ste r i or
,

n a res T h e e xte rn a l su rf a c e a r t i cul a tes wit h the p a l a ti n e v o m e r a n d sph e n o i d

.

, , ,
l '
l h e a b c o l u s fo r t h e t e m p o ra r c a n i n e i s c o m m o n l f o r med i n t h e ma xi l l a a l ne
7 v

y y o .
69 T HE S KE L E T O N OF T HE H OR S E

THE MA L A R B ONE S

The m a l ar o r zyg o m a ti c b on e s (Oss a z y g o ma ti c a ) a re pl a ced b et wee n the l ac

i
r ma a o l b ve an d t he m a xi ll a bel o w a n d i n f ro n t E a ch is i r r egul a r ly t r i a n gul a r i n
.

o u t li n e a n d p r ese n ts t h r ee su r f a ce s th r ee b o rde r s a b a se a n d a n a pex

, , ,
.

T h e f a ci a l su rf a c e is s m o o t h S ligh t ly c o n vex W i de i n f r o n t a n d n a rr o w b eh i n d
. , ,
.

A t i t s l o we r p a r t i t p r ese n ts the f a ci a l o r zyg o m a ti c c r e st , wh i ch is c o n ti n u o us i n

f ro n t w ith t h e si m i l a r r idge o n t h e ma xill a a nd behi n d wit h th e z yg o m at i c p r o cess of
t he t e mp o ra l : t he c rest i s r o u gh bel o w w he r e the m a sset e r m u s c l e i s a tt a ched t o i t
,
.

The orb i ta l su rf a c e is s ep a ra ted f rom the f a ci a l su r f a ce by t he c on c a ve o rb ita l

m ar gi n . I t is c o n c a ve a nd s m oo th a n d f o r ms p a r t Of t he l o we r a n d f r o n t w a ll of
,

t h e o r bi t .

The na s a l su rf a c e is c o n c a ve a nd f a ces i n t o t he m ax i ll ar y si n us I n th e y o u n g .

f o a l a c onside r a ble p a r t Of i t a r ti c ul a tes w it h t he m a x ill a .

The supe r i o r b ord e r a r t i cul a te s w it h t he l a c r i m a l ch iefly b ut t o a s m a l l exte n t ,

behi n d wi th the m axil l a a ls o .

The i nf e ri or b or d e r a n d the b a s e a rti cul a t e wi th th e m a xi ll a .

The apex is beveled a b o ve a n d i s o ve r l a pped by the zyg o m a ti c p r o cess o f th e

te m po r a l b o n e .

D ev e l opme nt — E a ch o ss i fie s i n m e m b r a n e f r o m o n e or t w o cen te r s .

THE T U R B I N A L B ONE S
These (Oss a tu r bi n a t a ) a re deli c a te sc r o ll li ke b o n es fo u r i n n u m be r whi ch
,
-
, ,

a re a t t a c hed t o the l a te ra l w a lls o f the n a s a l c a vi ty They p r oj ect i n t o the c a vi ty .

a n d g r e a tly di m i n ish i ts exte n t E a ch i s c o m p o sed o f a ve r y thi n l a m i n a c r ib r if o r m

.
,

i n m a n y pl a ces a nd c o ve r ed o n b o th sides wit h m u c o us me m b r a n e i n th e f r esh

,

s t a te . They a re a rr a nged i n tw o p a i rs supe r i o r a n d i nf e r i or ,

.

The supe ri or o r na s o tu r b i nal (C o n c h a d or sa l i s ) is s o m ewh a t cyli n d r i c a l i n

-
l

f o r m sm a ll a t its a nte r i or p a r t a n d fl a tte n ed t r a n sve r sely I t i s a tt a ched to th e t u r

, ,
.

bi na l c rest Of t h e n as a l b o ne a nd the n a s a l pl a te Of the f r on t a l b on e The a n te r i or .

p a rt is ro lled li ke a s c ro ll o ne a nd a h a lf t imes thus i n cl o si n g a c av i t v wh i ch c om ,

mu n i c a te s wi th the m iddle m e a tus n a si The a r r a n ge m e n t is b est see n on a c r oss

.

secti o n (Fig .The p o ste r i o r p ar t i s n ot ro lled b ut i ts l o we r b or de r i s a tt a ch ed t o ,

the l a te ra l n a s a l w a ll thus h elpi n g t o i n cl ose a l a r ge sp a ce whi ch is p a r t Of the f r on

,

ta l si n us Thi s c a vi ty i s s ep ara ted f r o m t h a t Of the sc r o l l li ke p a r t b y a t r an sve r se

.
-

s ept u m . T h e in te rn a l s ur f a c e i s fl a tte n ed a n d is sep a r a ted f r om the septu m n a si

,

by a n a r r o w i n t e rv a l t h e c o mm o n m e atu s (M e a tus n a si c o mmu n is ) A n o th e r

, .

n a r ro w p a ss a ge the s upe r i o r m e a tu s (M e a tus n a si supe r i or

, ) sep a r a tes th e uppe r ,

s u r f a c e f ro m the r o o f o f the n a s a l c a vity Th e sp a ce betwee n th e l o we r su r f a ce

.

a n d t h e i n fe r i o r tu r bi n a l i s t h e mi dd l e m e a tu s
(M e a tus n a si medi us ) The ant e r i or .

e xt re m i t y i s p r ol o nged t o wa r d the n o st r i l by t w o s m a ll b ar s o f c a r ti l a ge .

The i nf e r i o r or m a xil l o tu rb i n a l b on e (C o n ch a ve n t r a li s ) is sh or te r an d s m a lle r

-

p o s t e ri o r ly t h a n the uppe r o ne I t is a tt a ch ed t o th e i n fe r i o r tu r b i n a l c r est an d

.
,

c o nsi s t s li ke t h e uppe r o ne Of a n a n te r i o r c o i led a nd a p o ste r i o r u n c o i led p or ti on

, , .

To exp res s b r i e fl y th e m o d e o f c e i l i n g o f th e tw o b o nes of th e sa m e side we ma y say that

t h ey a re ro l l ed t o w a rd th e s e p t u m a n d e a c h o th e r .

The i nfe ri o r a nd p o s te r i o r b o rde r s Of th e p o st e r i o r p a r t ar e a tt a ched t o the

m a xi ll a t h us helpi n g to i n c l o se a c a vity wh i ch i s p ar t Of th e m a xi ll ar y si n us
, Th e .

l o w e r s u rf a c e i s s ep a ra ted f ro m the fl oo r o f the n a s a l c a vi ty by the i nf er i o r m e a tu s

(M e a t u s n a s i i n fe r i o r) whi ch is m u ch l a r ge r t h a n th e o the r n a s a l p a ss a ges
, The .

a n t e r i o r ext r e m i t y i s p r o l o n ged t o t h e n o st r i l by a cu r ved b

a r o f c a r ti l a ge
D eve l op m e n t —E a c h os s i fies i n c a r til a ge f ro m a si n gle c e n te r
.

T h i s b o ne i s rea l l y a g re a tl y d e v e l o p e d fi rs t c t h i n o tu i b i n a l - '
.
 T HE V OM E R —T HE MA N D I B L E 63

THE VOME R

Th e v o m e r i s a medi a n u n p a i r ed b o n e whi ch a ssists i n f ormi n g the l o we r p a r t

,

o f the septu m n a si I t is c o m p o sed o f a t hi n l a mi n a wh i ch is be n t (except i n i ts

.

p oste r i o r p a r t ) so a s t o f or m a n a rr o w g r oove (S ul cu s septi n a r i u m) i n wh i ch t h e ,

l owe r p a r t of t he pe r pe n di cul a r pl a te o f the eth m o i d b on e a n d th e s ept a l c a rti l a ge

a r e r eceived Th e l a tera l s ur f a c e s , r i ght an d left a r e highest n e ar th e p o ste r i o r
.
,

en d a n d di m i n ish g r a du a l ly t o th e a n te r i or e n d
; th ey a r e slightly c on vex d o rs o
ve nt ra lly an d a r e c o ve r ed by th e n a s a l m u c o us m e m b r a n e d u r i n g li fe Th e in
, .

fe ri or b o r d er i s t hi n a n d f r ee i n i ts p o ste r i o r thi r d a n d divi des th e p o ste r i or n a r es ,

i n t o r ight an d left h a lves ; i n th e r em a i n de r of its exte n t it i s wi de r a n d is a tt a ched

to th e n a s a l c r est The an t e ri o r e xtr em ity li es a b o ve the e nds of th e p a l at i n e pro
.

cesses of the p r e m a xi ll ae Th e p o ste ri o r e xtr e mi ty c on sists o f tw o win gs (A l ze

.

v o m e r is ) whi ch exte n d o utw ar d bel o w th e b o dy of the p re sphe n oi d ; p o ste r i or ly -

they f o r m a n o tch (I n ci su r a v o m e r is ) a n d l a te ra lly j o i n the p a l ate a n d pte ryg o i d

,

b on es
D e v e l opm ent —Th e v o m e r is p r i m iti vely d o ub le an d os s i fies f r o m a cen te r on
.

eithe r si de i n th e memb r a n e c o ve r i n g th e c a r ti l a gi no us septu m n a si ; the tw o l am i n ae

then fuse b el o w an d f o r m a g r o o ve .

THE M A ND I B LE
The m an d i b l e o r inf e ri o r m axil l a (M an di bul a ) i s the l a r gest a n d the o n ly
m o v a b le b on e o f the f a ce Th e t w o h a lves of wh i ch it c on sists a t bi r t h u n it e du r i n g
.

t he sec o n d or t hi r d m o nt h an d it is usu a lly desc r ibed a s a si n gle b on e I t c a rr ies

, .

the l o we r teeth a n d a r ti cul a tes by i ts c on dyles with the squ a m o us temp o r a l on

,

eithe si de
r I t .c o si sts o a b o d y a n d tw o r a m i
n f l
.

The b o dy (C o r pus m an d i b u l m) is th e t h i ck a nte r i o r p a r t wh i ch be ar s the i n cis or

teeth I t p r ese n ts t w o su r f a ces a n d a b o r de r The l in gu a l or su per i o r su rf a c e
. .

(F a ci es li ngu a l is ) is s m o o th an d sl ightly c on c a ve ; du r i ng life i t is c o ve r ed by m u c o us

m e m b r a n e a n d th e tip o f the t o n gue o ve r li es it
, Th e l a b i a l or m e n ta l s ur f a c e
.

(F a ci es m e n t a li s ) i s c o n vex an d i s r el a ted t o th e l o we r li p I t is m ar ked by a m edi an .

fu rro w whi ch i n di c a tes the p osi ti o n o f th e p r i m itive sy m physis m a n di bul a The .

cu r ved al v e o l ar b or d e r (L i m bus a lve o l ar i s ) p r ese n ts six a lve o li fo r th e i n ci s or teeth ,

a n d a little fu r th e r b a ck tw o a lve o li fo r th e c a n i n e teeth i n the m a le ; i n th e m a r e

the l a tte r ar e usu a l ly a bse n t or s m a ll .

The rami (R am i m a n dibul ae) exte n d b a ckw a r d f r om the b o dy an d dive r ge

to i n cl o se th e s ub maxil l ar y s pa c e (S p a ti u m m an d i b u l a r e) E a ch r a mus is .

be n t so as t o c on sist o f a h or i z on t a l p a r t (P a r s m o l a r is ) whi ch b e ar s the l owe r

cheek teeth an d a ve r ti c a l p a r t (R a m us m a n d i b u l ze ) wh i ch is exp an ded a n d
,

fu r ni shes a tt a ch m e n t to p o we r ful m uscles ; th e te r m a ngl e i s a ppli ed t o the m ost

p r o m i n e n t p a r t of th e cu r ve The r a m us p r ese n ts t w o su r f a ces tw o b or de r s a nd
.
, ,

tw o ext r emi ti es The e xte rn al s u rf a c e is s m oo th an d sli ghtly c on vex f r om edge

.

t o edge on the h or i z o n t a l p ar t ; at th e j u n cti on with the b o dy it p r ese nts th e m e ntal

f o ra m e n (F o r am en me n t a l e ) whi ch is the exte rn a l o pe n i n g of the m an dibul a r or
,

i n fe r i o r de n t a l c an a l On t he ve r ti c a l p a r t i t is s om ewh a t c on c a ve a n d p r esen ts a
.

n umbe r o f r o ugh li n es fo r th e a tt a ch m e n t of the m a ssete r m uscl e The i nte rn a l .

s u rface of the h or i z o n t a l p a r t i s s m oo th an d p r ese nts a sh a ll o w l on gitudi n a l de

p r essi on i n i ts m i dd le ; a b o ve thi s the r e i s o ften a f a i n t myl o—

,

hy oi d li n e for th e a t
t a c h m en t o f th e m uscle o f li ke n a m e A t the l o we r p ar t o f th e j u n cti on wit h t h e
.

b o dy the r e i s a s m a l l f oss a for th e a tt a ch m en t of th e gen i o hy o i d an d ge n i o g l os s u s - -

muscl es On t he ve r ti c a l p a r t th e su r f a ce is c on c ave a n d i s m a r ked i n i ts l ow e r a n d

.
,

1
I n th e S t u tt g ar t N o m en c l a t o r A n a to mi c u s tS N A ) t h e b od y (Co r p u s ) i s th e pa r t w h i c h
. .

b ear s t h e t ee t h , a nd i s d i v i d ed i n t o a p a rs i n ci s w a a n d a p a rs m o l a ri s T h e r a m u s I S t h e res t .

of t h e b on e .
64 T HE S KE LE TO N OF T HE H OR S E

p o st e r i o r p a rt b y ro ugh li n e s fo r t h e a tt a c h me n t o f t he i n te r n a l pte r yg o i d m uscle . .

I n f ro n t o f its m idd le i s t h e m an dib ul ar o r inf e r i o r m ax il l ar y f o r a m e n (F o r a m e n

m a n d i b u l a re ) w hi ch is the p o ste r i o r o ri fi ce o f the m an d ib ul ar o r inf e ri or d e n tal
,

c a nal m a n d i b u l te ) The c an a l cu r ve s d o w n w a r d an d p a sses f or w ard

.

bel o w t h e cheek teeth o pe n i ng ext e r n a lly a t th e me n t a l f or a m e n ; i t i s c on t i n ued

,

i nto t h e b o d v o f t h e b o n e a s a s ma l l c an a l (C a n a lis a lve o l ar i s i n ci sivus ) whi ch ,

c a r ri e s t h e ves s el s a n d n e r ves t o t h e i n ci s o r teeth The s up e ri o r or a lv e o l ar b o r d e r .

f o r ms a nte r i o r ly p a r t o f the i n te ra lve o l a r sp a ce ; he r e i t i s thi n B ehi n d th is i t is .

t hi c k a n d i s exc a v a ted by si x a lve o li fo r t he l o we r chee k teeth B ehi n d th e l a st .

a l ve o l us it cu r ve s sh a r ply upw a r d a n d i s n a r r o w a nd r o ugh I n th e y o u n g f oa l .

t he r e i s c o mm o n l y a s ma ll a lve o l us fo r the vesti ge o f th e fi r st p r e m o l a r w o lf

”
t oo th ) cl ose t o the fi rst l a rge on e The inf e ri o r b o r d er of th e h ori z o n t a l p a r t is
.

n e a r ly s t r a ight ; i t i s thi c k a n d r o u n ded i n t he y o u n g h o r se bec o mi n g n a rr o we r a n d ,

sh a r p i n o l d subj ects A t i ts p oste r i o r p a r t the r e i s a sm o o th i m p r essi on (I n cisu r a

.

v a s or u m) whe r e the f a ci a l vessels a n d p a r o ti d du ct tu rn r o u n d th e b on e B ehi n d .

this p o i n t the b o r de r cu r ves sh a rply upw a r d f o r m i n g the an gl e (Angu lus m and i ,

b u l ae ) ; this p a r t is thi ck a n d h a s t w o r o ughe n ed lips i n te r n a l a n d exte r n a l sep , ,

a ra te d by a c o n side r a ble i n te r m edi a te sp a ce ; n e a r the c o n dyle i t b ec o m es n arr o we r .

The an te r i or e xtr e m ity j o i ns the b o dy The sup e r i or e xtr e mi ty c o mp r ises the .

c oron o id pr o ce s s i n f ro n t a nd the c on d yl e beh i n d the t w o bei n g sep a r a ted by the ,

s igm oid n o tch (I nci s u r a m a n d i b u l m) th ro ugh whi ch th e n e r ve t o the m a ssete r

,

muscle p a s s es The c o ro no id p ro c e s s (P r o cessus c o ro n o i deus ) i s thi n t r a n sve rsely

.

a n d c u r ved slightly i n w a r d a n d b a ckw a r d I t p r oj ects upw a r d i n th e temp or a l.

fo s s a a n d fu r n ishes i nse r ti o n to the te m p o ra l m us cle The c on dyl e (C a pi tu l um

,
.

m a n dibul ae) l ies a t a mu ch l o we r level th a n th e en d o f the c or on o i d p r o cess I t is .

el o ng a ted t r ansve rs ely a nd a r ti cu l a tes with the sq u am o us te m p or a l th r o ugh the

mediu m o f a n a r ti cul a r disc The p a r t bel o w the c o n dyle is usu a lly t e r med t he
.

n e ck (C o l lu m m a n d i b u l zn ) ; o n i ts a n te r o i n te r n a l p a r t is a dep r essi on (F o ve a
-

pte ryg o ide a ) fo r the a tt a chme n t o f the e x te r na l pt e r yg o i d m uscle Th e m i ddle o f .

the ve r ti c a l p a r t o f the ra mus c o n s ists t o a l ar ge exten t of a si n gle pl a te of c o m p a ct

subst a n ce whi ch m a y be s o thi n i n pl a c es as t o be t r a n slu ce n t .

D eve l opm e nt — The m a ndi bl e devel o ps f ro m t w o chi ef ce nte r s i n t he c on n e c

t ive ti s sue whi c h o ve r lie s the p a i r ed M eckel s c a r ti l a ges A t bi r th i t c on sists o f ’
.

t w o sy m m et r i c a l h a l ves whi ch m eet a t a m ed i a n sy mphysis Fusi on usu a lly o ccu r s .

i n the sec o n d o r thi rd mo n th .

Ag e c h a ng es —T hes e i t ed l a rgel y wi th th e g ro w t h a nd l a t er w i t h th e r ed u c ti o n
a r e as s o c a
o f t h e t eet h I n t h e y o u n g h o rs e i n w h i c h t h e t ee t h a r e l a rg e a nd a r e i n r ea t p a r t e mb ed d ed
g
.
,

m t h e bo ne t h e b o d y i s t h i c k a n d s t ro ng l y c u r v ed a nd t h e h o r i z o n t a l p a r t of t h e r a m u s i s a l s o
'
.
,
,

t h i c k La t e r as t h e teeth a re ext ru d ed f ro m t h e b o n e th e b o d y beco mes fl a tt en ed a nd n a rro w er

.
,
, ,
a nd t h e h o r i z o n t a l p a r t o f t h e r a m u s i s t h i nne r es pec i a l l y i n i ts l ow e r p ar t ; th e a ng l e a nd th e
,
l m p l CS S l o n i n f ro n t o f i t a r e mo re p r o no u n c ed
’

THE Hv o m B ON E

The hyo id b on e (Os hy o ideu m) i s sit u a ted ch i efly betwee n the ve r ti c a l p ar ts

o f t h e r a m i o f t h e ma n di ble b ut i ts uppe r p a r t exte nds s o mewh a t fu rth e r b a ck
, .

I t i s a t t a c hed to the pet r o us te m p o r a l b o n e s by r o ds o f c a r ti l a ge a n d supp ts the

or
.

,
ro o t o f the t o ngue the ph a r y n x a n d l a r y n x
, I t c o ns ists o f a b o dy a li n gu a l p r o cess
, .
, ,
a n d t h ree p a i rs o f c o r nu a .

The b od y o r b a s ih yo id (B a s i s o ssis hy oi dei ) is a s h o r t t r an sve r se b ar c o m p r essed ,

-
d o rs o ve n t ra lly The uppe r su r f a ce i s c o n c a ve a nd s m o o th i n i ts m i ddl e a nd p r e
.

,
s n s at
e t e a c h e n d a c o n vex f a cet o r tube r cle fo r a rti cu l a ti o n with t he s m a ll c o r n u
.

T h e l o we r s u r f a c e i s s lig h t l y ro ughe n ed fo r m usc u l a r tt chme t Th e a n te r i o r

a a n .

b o rde r c a rr i e s medi a lly t he l i n gu a l p r o ce s s The p o ste r i o r b o r de r i s c o n c a ve a nd

.

s mo o
t h i n i ts m i d dle a n d c a r r ies o n eithe r sid e t he thy r o id c or n u
, Th e b o dy th e .
,
 T HE S K U LL as A W H OL E G?
)

li n gu a l p r o cess a n d t he thy r o i d p r o cesses a r e fused t o gethe r a nd m a y be c o mp a red

,
,

to a spu r o r a f o r k w i th a ve r y sh o r t h a ndle .

Th e l i ng u al p r o c e s s (P r o cessus li n gu a lis ) p ro j ects f or w a r d m ed i a lly f rom the

b ody a nd i s e m b edded i n the r o o t o f th e t o n gue d u r i n g li fe I t i s c o m p r essed
l a te r a lly a n d h a s a b lu n t—
, .

p o i n ted f r ee en d The l a te r a l s u r f a ces a r e slight ly c on.

c a ve The uppe r b or de r i s n a rr o w th e l o we r thi ck a nd i rr egul a r

.
, .

The th yr o id c o rn u a or th yr oh yoi d s (C o r n u a l a ry n ge a )l exte n d b a c kw a r d a nd

upw a r d f r o m t h e l a te r a l p a r ts of the b o dy They ar e c o mp r essed l a te r a l ly (e x cep t .

a t t hei r j u n cti o n wi th t h e b o dy ) a n d thei r p o ste r i o r e n ds a r e c o nn ected

, w it h t he
a n te r i o r c o r n u a o f t he t h yr o i d c a r ti l a ge of the l a r y n x .

The sm a ll c o rn u a o r k era toh yoi d s (C o r n u a mi n o r a ) a re sh or t r o ds whi ch are

di rected upw a r d a n d f or w a r d f r o m eithe r e n d of the uppe r su r f a ce o f t he b o d y .

E a ch is s o mewh a t c o n st r i cted i n its m i dd le p ar t a n d h as slight ly e n l a r ged e n ds .

The l o we r en d h a s a s m a ll c o n c a ve f a cet whi ch a rti cul a t es w ith t he b o dy The .

uppe r end a rti cul a tes w it h the g r e a t c or n u or w ith t he m iddle oor nu whe n p r ese nt , .

The gr ea t c orn u a o r s tyl oh yoi d s a re m u ch t he l a rgest p a r ts o f the b on e They .

a r e di r ected upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d ,

a n d a r e c onn ect ed a b o ve w i th t he

b a se o f th e pet r o us t e m p or a l b on es .

E a ch i s a t hi n p l a t e sev en or eigh t ,

i n ches (e a 1 8 t o 2 0 cm ) l on g wh i ch
. .
,

i s slightly cu r ved i n its le n gth s o ,

t h a t t h e ext e r n a l su r f a ce i s c on c a ve
a n d s m oot h Th e i n te rn a l s u r f a ce
.

i s c on vex an d s m o o th The b or der s .

a r e t hi n . The uppe r ext r e m i ty is

l ar ge an d f or m s t w o an gles ; the
uppe r an gle is c o n n e cted b y a ro d
o f c a r t i l a ge wi t h t h e hy o i d p r o cess

o f th e pet r o us t e m p o r a l b o n e ; the

l o we r a n gle i s s om ewh a t th i cke n ed

a nd r o ugh fo r m us c ul a r a tt a ch m e n t

Th e l o we r ext r e m it y i s s m a ll a n d F 3 2 —
.

H B ON O H O V W D F OM H S D
IG y oi o E F RS E I E E R T E I E

"
. .
,
,
“ “
a r ti cul a t es w it h th e s m a l l o r the
D O“ “ N FR 1 o
f
ml d d l e COTI I U ’
B dy ; b l g l p ; th y d : a , o . in ua ro c e s s c. rox co r n u c
'
. ca r

t il g f ; d m ll mi d d l ; f g t
.

; a e o ; c . s a c o r nu e, e co rnu . re a c o rn u

The mi d dl e c o rn u a OI e pih yoi d s i m ’

l gl f g t : g
’
til g f g t u sc u a r a n e o re a c o rnu car a e o re a c o rn u

B
, . .

E ll m A t d H ti
a re s m a l l wedge sh a ped pi eces 0 1 - ( b g ‘ ) en er e r- au , na . . a us e re .

n odu les i n te r p o sed betwee n t h e

s m a ll a n d g r e a t c orn u a They a r e usu a lly t r a n s i t o r v a n d u n i te with the g rea t
.

c or n u a i n the a dult
D ev e l opm ent —The hy o i d ossi fies i n th e c a r ti l a ges o f t he sec o n d a n d thi rd
.

vi sce r a l a r ches E a ch p a r t h as a sep ar a te ce nt e r except t he li n gu a l p r o cess whi ch

.
, ,

oss ifl es by ext e n si o n f r o m th e b o dy The l a tte r h as p r i m ar ily tw o ce n te r s (M a rti n )

. .

THE S KUL L AS A WHOL E

The skul l of th e h o r se h as t he f or m of a l o n g f o u r s i ded pyr am i d the b a se o f -
,

wh i ch i s p oste r i o r I t i s c o n ve ni e n t t o exclude th e m a n d ibl e a n d hy o id f rom p r ese n t

.

c o n sider a ti o n The divisi on betwee n the c r an i u m (Cr a ni u m ce r eb ra le ) a nd the f a ce

.

(C rani um Vi sce r a le ) m ay b e i n di c a t ed a pp r o xi m a tely b y a t r a nsve r se pl a n e t h r o ugh

the a n te r i or m ar gi n s o f t he or bits .

The s up e ri o r o r fr on tal s ur f a c e (N or m a f ro nt a lis ) is f o r m ed b y th e uppe r p a r t

o f the o ccipit a l t he i n te r p a r i et a l p a r iet a l f r o nt a l a n d n as a l b o n es I t m ay be
, , , ,
.

1
T h es e co rr s e po nd to t h e g r ea t co r n u a o f ma n .
66 T HE S KE L E T O N O F T HE H OR S E

di vided i nt o p a r iet a l f r o nt a l n as a l a n d p r e m a xi ll a ry r egi o n s Th e p ar i e tal re gi on

, , ,
.

ex t e n ds f ro m t h e o c c i pi t a l c r es t to t h e p a r i et o f ro n t a l o r c or ona l sutur e I t 1 8 - .

whi ch b ifu r c a tes i n f r on t the

ma r ked med i a l l y by t h e e xte r n a l s a gi t t a l c r e st , ,

b ra nc h e s be c o m i n g c o n t i n u o us wi t h the f r o ntal c r e sts Th e l a tte r cu r ve o utw a r d .

r o n ta l re gi on s the wi dest p a r t o f
t o t h e r o o t o f t he s
up r a o r bit a l p r o cess T h e f
i .

f e is s m t h d l m t fl t I t i s b o u n ded i n f r o n t by t h e n aso
t he s u r a c a nd o o a n a o s a .

f ro nt a l sut u r e On eithe r side o f it is the ro o t of t he supra o rb i ta l pr o c e s s , p i e r ced

.

Fm 33 axe HO OR LAT AL V W T H Z Y OMAT I C A H

B TAL
I R E G i o xs or S K U LL or RS E ER I E E G RC

P OC HA B N S A W N O
.
. . ,

S H UPR AO BITA L R E S S ES VE EE FF .

1 O i pit l ,
d yl ; cc d y l id fa ; 3 p co n m t id e ty l id p ; 1
co n i pit l
o t: 5 t oss a l . a ra as o or s o ro c e s s -
, occ a c r es , ex e r na

oc c ip i l p t b ta ; ti xt ro l d i t y m t ; 7 m t id p
u e ra n c e , e ; 8 h y id p
e r na ; 9
au ty l m t id f
or ea us , as o ro c e s s , o ro c e s s , s o as o o ra

m ; 10 m
en l p , ; 1 1 f
us c u m l a r m t i ; 1 2 1 g l id p
r o c es s , ; 13 gl
o ra id v it y ; l l t m
en a c e ru a n e r us , ) os t e no ro c e ss , e no ca -
. e

p l d y l : I 5 V id i g v ; 1 6 l
o ra con e .
l f p y g id p an i d i t d by
ro o e : 1 7 t mp
. lf m ;
a a r c a na o te r o r o c es s n ca e a r ro w , e o ra o ra en

18 ,h m id l f
et m ; 19 o pti f m ; 2 0 f m l
a o ra en m b it l ; 2 1 m
, o c ill y f m : 2 1 ph
o ra en , o ra en a ce ru or a e , ax ar o ra en 2
, s e no

p l ti f m
a a ne 23 p t i o ra p l ti f m ; 2 4 p b i t l f m ( p d ) : 25 l i m l f
en : ,
os er or a a ne : 26 o ra en ,
su ra o r a o ra en o e ne , a cr a os s a .

d p e i f
re s s o ni i f b li q li i f i ; 2 7 f i l
o r o r g n o t ; QR m ill y t b it y ; 2 9 l v l t b it y ;
o u us o c u n er or . ac a c res , ax ar u e ros , a eo a r u e ro s

I t) h m l
, f p
a y g id b
u us ; o p i pit l ; P p i t l ; S q m
te r o o ne t mp l ; B b i
su i pi t l ;
ra o c c a , ar e a , s ua ou s e o ra . o .
, a s o cc a

B a b i ph . id ; as s t m p l i g f ph i d ; A
e no b it l w i g f ph
e o ra i d ; P l p pt y g i d p
w n ’ o sf e no . o .
, or a n o s e no . . , er o ro c e ss o

s ph i d ; e p p d i l p t f p l t b ; F F f i l d b it l p t f f t l b ; L L b it l
no er en cu ar ar o a a e o ne .
’
. ac a an o r a ar s o ro n a o ne ,
'
, or a

an d f i l p ac af l i m l b ; l I f i l p t f m l b ; AL m ill ;
a rts o ac r a o ne p i t
.
, i pit l t : b
ac a ar o a ar o ne L , ax a a . ar e o -o c c a su u re .

p itar e p lo -t c q m ni t o ra : d ph
or s q m ua t ; p l t f t l t ; I { t l im l
ou s s u u re c. , s e n o -s ua o us s u u re c, a a o - ro n a su u re ,
ro u e - ac r a

s u t u re .

b y t he sup ra or b ita l f or am e n Th e n a s a l r egi on i s c onvex f r o m side t o sid e wi de .

,

be h i nd n a rro w i n f ro nt , I ts p ro fi le is i n s o m e c a s es n e ar ly s t ra i ght ; i n o the r s i t

.

i s u nd u l a ti ng w i t h a v a ri a b l v m a r ked dep r essi o n a b o ut i ts mi dd le a n d at the a n

,

t e r i o r e nd T h e p r e m a xi ll ary r egi on p rese n ts the o s s e o u s n a s a l ap er tu r e (A pe r tu r a

.

nas a lis o s s e a ) a n d t h e f o ram e n in ci s ivum .

T h e l a te r a l su rf a c e (N o r m a l a te r a li s ) m a y be divided i n t o c r a n i a l o r b it a l a n d
, ,

m ax i ll a ry o r p re o rb i ta l r egi o ns .
 T HE SK U LL as A W H O LE 67

Th e c rani al re gi o n p r ese n ts the te m p or a l f o ss a the zyg om a ti c a r ch a n d the , ,

o ute r p a r t o f th e pet r o us te m p o ra l b o n e .

Th e t e mporal f o s s a is b o u n ded i n te rn a l ly by th e s a gi tt a l a n d f ro n t a l c r ests ,

exte rna lly b y t h e t emp ora l c r est a nd the zyg om a ti c a r ch a n d behi n d by t h e o cci pit a l ,

c r est I ts upp e r a n d mi ddle p ar ts a r e ro ugh for t he a tt a c h m e n t Of the temp o r a l

.

m uscle . I n i ts l o we r p o ste r i o r p a rt a r e seve ra l f o r a mi n a whi ch c o m mu n i c a te with

the p ar i et o temp or a l c a n a l The f o ss a is c o n ti n u o us i n f r o n t w it h t he o r bi t a l c a vity
-
.
.

T he zyg o m a ti c ar ch is f o r m ed b y th e zyg om a ti c p r o cesses of the temp or a l ,

m a l a r a n d m a xi ll a
,
I ts ve n t ra l f a ce p r ese n ts th e c on dyl e a n d gl e no i d c a vity fo r
.

a r ti cu l a ti o n wit h t he l o we r ja w th r o ugh the m edi um o f the a r ti cul a r disc B ehi nd

, .

the gle n o i d c a vi ty is th e po st-gl e n o i d p r o c e s s .

Th e e xte rn al a u d itory pr o c e s s p ro j ects o utw ar d th r o ugh a deep n ot ch i n the

l o we r m ar gi n of t he squ a m o us te m p o r a l b el o w th e t e m p o ra l c r est A li ttle .

fu r the r b a ck i s the m as to i d pr o c es s , c r o ssed i n its uppe r p a r t by a g roove for the

m a st o i d ar te r y .

Th e orb ital r e gi on c om p r i ses the o r b i t an d th e pter n p a l a ti n e f o ss a -

.

The o r b i t i s a c a vity whi ch i n cl oses the eyeb a ll with the muscles vessels a n d , , .

n e r ves a ss o ci a ted wi t h it I t i s n ot sep a r a ted i n the skelet o n f ro m the te m p o r a l

.

f o ss a Th e l on g axi s Of the c a vi ty t a ke n f r om the o pti c f or a m e n to the m idd le of

.
,

the i nl et i s di r ected f o r w ar d o utw a r d a n d slightly upw ar d The i nn er w all

, , ,
.

(P ar i es m e d i a li s ) i s c om plete a nd ext e n sive I t i s c on c ave an d s mo oth an d is .

,

f orm ed b y t he f ron t a l an d l a c r i m a l a n d t h e or bi t a l wi ng Of the sphen o id I n its .

ext r eme ante r i o r p art i s the f o ss a for th e l a c r im a l s a c B eh i n d this is a s ma l l de .

p r essi o n i n wh i ch t h e i n fe r i o r Ob li q ue musc le of the eye a r ises ; he r e the pl ate whi ch

sep a r a tes th e or b i t f r o m the m axil l ar y si n us is ve r y t hi n The u pper w a ll (P ar ies .

supe r i or ) i s f o r med b y th e f r ont a l an d t o a sm a ll exte n t by t he l a c r i m a l b on e I t .

p rese nts the sup r aor bi t a l f or am e n wh i c h pe r f or a tes th e r oo t o f the sup r aor bit a l
,

p r o cess The l ow e r w al l (P a r i es i nfe r i o r ) is v er y i n c o m plete an d is f or m ed by the

.
,

m a l a r th e z yg o m a ti c p r o cess Of th e te m p or a l a n d t o a s m a ll exte n t by the m a xi l l a

, ,
.

The e xt ernal b o u nd ar y (P a r i es l a te r a lis ) i s the sup r ao r bi t a l p ro cess A t the ex .

t r e m e p o ste r i or p ar t is the o rb ita l gr o up o f f o rami na F o u r a r e situ ated i n f r on t .

o f the pte r yg o i d c r est Of t hese th e uppe r m ost is the e th m o i d al or i n te rn al

.
,

o rb i tal f oram e n , whi ch t r a ns m its the eth m o i d a l vessels a n d n e r ve The opti c .

f oram en is si tu a ted a li ttle l o we r an d fu r th e r b a ck ; i t t ra n s m i ts the Opti c n e r ve .

I mm edi a tely b el o w th e o pti c i s the f o r a m e n l a c er um o r b i ta l e , whi ch t r a n smits th e

Ophth a lmi c thi r d sixth a nd s o m eti mes th e f o u r t h n e rve ; c o m m o n ly the r e is a
, , ,

ve r y s m a l l tr o ch l e ar or pa th e ti c f o r a m e n i n t he c r est for the l a st n am ed n e r ve .

The f oram e n r o tu nd um is b el o w th e f or a m e n l a ce r u m f r om whi ch it is sep a rated ,

by a thi n pl a t e ; i t t ran s m its th e supe r i or m a xi ll ar y n e r ve The a l ar c an a l Ope n s .

i n c o mm o n w i th the f or a m e n r o tu n du m a n d th e a nte r i o r o pe n i n g of th e pte ryg o id

,

or Vi di a n c a n a l is a ls o f o u n d he r e Th e t e mp ora l f or am en (Fo r a l a r e p ar vu m ) is
.
.

j ust behi n d th e pte r yg o i d c r est an d on a level with the f or am en l a ce ru m I t is .

th e uppe r o p e ni n g of a c a n a l whi ch le a ds f r o m t he a l a r c an a l a n d th r o ugh it th e ,

a n te r i o r deep te m p o r a l ar te r y eme r ges The i nl e t Of the or bit a l c a vity (Adi tu s

.

o rbit ae) is ci r cu m sc r ib ed b y a c om plete b o ny r i n g whi ch is n e a r ly ci r cul a r I ts

a nte r o —
.

i nf e r i or p ar t (M ar g o i n f ra or bit a l is ) is s mo o t h an d r o u n ded ; the r e m a i n de r

(M a r g o sup r a o r bi t a li s ) is r o ugh a n d i rr egul a r ly n otched D u r i n g l ife the c a vity i s .

c o mpleted b y the pe r i o r bi t a o r o cu l ar she a t h a c o n i c a l fi b ro us me mb ra n e t he a pex

, ,

o f whi ch is a tt a c hed a r o u n d th e o pti c f or a m e n .

B el o w th e o r b i t a l c a vity i s the pte rygo p a l a ti n e f o s s a I ts w al l is f or med b y

- .

the pte r yg o i d p r o cess t h e pe r pe nd i cul a r p a r t o f th e p a l a t e b on e a n d the tube r

,
,

m axi l l a r e I t s d eep a n te r i o r p ar t (m a xi ll a r y hi a tus ) c o n t a i n s t h r ee f o r a m i n a

.
The .

uppe r o n e th e maxi l l ar y f o r am e n , i s th e e n t ra n ce to the i n f r a o r bit a l c a n a l whi ch

,
,

t ra n s m i ts th e i n f r a or bit a l n e r ve a n d vessels Th e s ph e n o-pa l a ti ne f or am e n t ra n s

.
08 TH E SKE L E T ON or TH E H OR S E

mits vessels and nerves o f li k e name t o t h e nasal cavit y T h e l o w er f o ramen th e .

,

p o ste ri o r palati n e t ransmits t h e palati ne artery and nerve t o

,
pal at i ne canal .

T h e upper part o f t h e f o ssa is sm oo t h and I S cr o ssed by t h e i nternal max i llary ,

art er y and t h e maxi llar y nerve T h e l o w er part is c h i efly r o ug h ened f o r the attach .

men t o f t h e i nt ernal pter y g o id muscl e but i s cr o ssed i n fr o nt by a sm oo t h gr oo ve ,

in w h i c h t h e palatine v e i n lies .

T h e maxillar y o r pre o rb ital r egi o n is f o rmed c h i efly by t h e maxilla b ut als o by ,

t h e pr e m a xi lla and t h e faci al parts o f t h e lacrimal and malar b o nes I ts c o nt o ur

,
.

is appro ximatel y t riangular t h e base being p o steri o r I t o ffers t w o p r m mp a l ,

.

feat ures T h e facial cre st extends f o r w a rd fr o m t h e l o w er margi n o f t he o rbi t

.
,

a n d ends abruptly at a p o int ab o ut an i nc h and a h alf ( t o

3 4 cm ) ab o ve t h e t h i rd .

o r f o u rt h c h ee k t oo t h ; l i ts inferi o r aspe ct is r o ug h f o r t h e att ac h ment o f th e masse

ter muscle T h e i nf ra o rb ital f o ramen is situ ated i n a transverse pl ane ab o ut an
.

inc h (ca 2 t o 3 cm ) i n fr o nt o f t h e end o f t h e crest and ab o ut t w o i nches (5 cm )

‘
.
. .

a b o ve it T h e f o ramen o pens f o r w ard and t h r o ug h it t h e infra o rbi tal artery an d ,

nerve emerge T h e surface o ver t h e prem o lar teet h varies greatly w it h age i n
. ,

c o nf o rmit y w it h t h e si ze o f t h e embedded parts o f t h e teet h I n t h e y o ung h o rse .

t h e surface h ere is st r o ngly c o nvex t h e o uter plate o f b o ne is t hi n and even defect ive ,

S o metimes in places and t h e f o rm o f t h e teet h is indi cated by eminences (J uga

,

alve o laria ) I n t h e o ld animal t h e surface is c o n cave o n acc o unt o f t h e extrusi o n

.

o f t h e teet h fr o m t h e b o ne T h e d o w n w ard cu rve o f t h e premaxi l la i s pr o n o unced

.

in t h e y o un g subj ect very slig h t in t h e aged ,

.

T h e i nte ri or o r ba sal su rf ac e (N o rma basalis ) ex clusi ve of th e mandi bl e , ,

c o nsists o f cranial guttural and palati ne regi o ns , ,

.

T h e cranial regi o n (B asis crani i extern a ) extends f o r w ard t o th e v o mer and

pter y g o id pr o cesses (Fig A t i ts p o steri o r end i s t h e f o ram e n magnum , flanked
.

by t h e o ccipital c o ndyl e s E xternal t o th e latter i s th e c o ndyl o i d f o s sa , i n w h i ch

.

is t h e h yp o gl o s sal f o ram e n , w h i c h t ransmits the hyp o gl o ssal nerve and t h e c o n

d y l o i d a r t e r \ and vein r
Furt her o ut w ard are th e paramast o i d o r s ty l o i d pr o c
.

e s s e s (P r o cessus j ugul ares ) o f t h e o c ci pi tal b o ne E xtending f o r w ard centrally is .

a prismati c bar f o rmed by t h e basi lar part o f t h e o ccipital and t h e b o dy o f the

,

sp h en o id b o ne ; at t h e j uncti o n o f t h ese parts are tubercl es f o r the attach

ment o f t h e ventral straig h t mus cles o f the h ead On ei t h er si de o f t h e basilar .

par t o f t h e o ccipital is t h e f o rame n lac e ru m bas i s crani i , b o unded externally by

t h e b ase o f the pet r o us temp o ral b o ne I n fr o nt o f t h ese the regi o n bec o mes ver y .

w ide o n acc o un t o f t h e lateral extensi o n o f t h e zyg o mati c pr o c e s s e s bearing o n t h e ,

vent ral aspect t h e c o ndyl e and gl en o i d cavity f o r arti cul ati o n w i th the mandible .

B e y o nd t h i s t h e pr o cess turns f o r w ard and j o ins th e zyg o mati c pr o cess o f t h e mal ar ,

c o mpletin g t h e zy g o mati c arch and t h e surface f o r t h e attach ment o f the masseter

mus c le () n ei t h er sid e o f t h e bo d v o f t h e sp h en o id i s t h e i nfratemp o ral f o ssa
.
,

f o r m c d by t h e temp o ral w ing and t h e r oo t o f t h e pteryg o id pr o cess o f the sphen o id

b o ne I t is b o und ed in fr o nt b y t h e pteryg o i d crest w h i c h separates i t fr o m t h e
.
,

o r b it a n d th e p te ry g o palati ne f o ssa I n i t is t h e p te ryg o id o r alar f o ram en , w hi ch

-
.

t ransmits t h e internal maxi llary artery A little l o w er is t h e entrance t o t h e pte ry .

go id (Vidian ) c a nal .

T h e guttural r egi o n presents th e p h a ryngeal o rifi ce o f t h e nasal cavit y T h is is .

elli pti c a l a nd is di vided i n i ts dept h medi ally by t h e v o mer int o t w o po ster i o r

nare s o r c h o anae I t is b o und ed in fr o nt and laterally by t h e pal at e and pteryg o id
. .

b o n e s b e h ind b y t h e v o mer I t is fl anked by t h e h a nm l ar pr o cess o f t h e pteryg o id

. .

b o nes T h e plane o f t h e o pening i s nearl y h o ri z o ntal a n d t h e lengt h is ab o ut

.

t w i c e t h e w idt h
,

T h e pa l atin e r egi o n c o mprises a l i ttl e m o re than h al f o f th e enti re length

‘
T his r l t i e a o n va ri es w ith age ; i n th e y o u ng h o r se th e th i r d toot h i n th e ol d j t th e
s u b ec
fo u rt h l i es
,
, be lo w the e nd o f th e c res t .
70 T HE S KE L E T ON OF T HE H O R SE

T h e supe ri o r w all o r r oo f (C alvaria ) is f o rmed b y t h e supra o ccipi tal i nter ,

pariet al pari etal a nd fr o ntal b o nes I n t h e middle l i n e i s t h e i nternal sagittal .

crest w h i ch j o ins t h e crista gall i i n fr o nt and furnis h es attach ment t o th e falx

. ,

h e s h arp anter i o r marg i n o f t h e

,

cere b ri o
P tes ri o rl y t e crest is c o nti nued b y t h
tent o ri u m o s s eum w h i c h pr o j ects d o w n w ard and f o r w ard i nt o t h e cav i ty and g i ves
.

attac h ment t o t h e t ent o ri um cerebel li by its s h arp lateral edges B e h ind thi s t h e
,
.

r oo f is gr oo ved centrall y f o r t h e middle l o b e o r vermis o f th e cereb e llu m Trans .

verse gr oo ves pass fr o m t h e base

o f t h e tent o ri um o sseum t o th e
pariet o temp o ral canals Th e - .

anteri o r part o f th e r oo f i s h o l
l o w ed by t h e fr o n t al sinus Th e .

o cci pital part i s very th i ck and

str o ng .

The late ra l w a l l s are f o rmed

by the o ccipi t al parietal tem , ,

p o ral and fr o nt al b o nes and in , ,

part by t h e o rb i t al w i ngs o f t h e
sp h en o i d E ach is cr o ssed o h .

l iq u el y by the p e tr o sal cr e st ,
w h i ch c o ncu rs w i t h t h e pr o j ect
i ng margin o f th e pari et al b o ne
and t h e tent o ri um o sseu m i n
divi ding t h e c avit y i nt o cerebral
and cerebell ar c o m partments .

B e h ind th e crest is a depressi o n

f o r t h e l ateral l o b e (h emi sph ere )
o f t h e cerebell u m B el o w t hi s .

are the internal au dit o ry m eatus

and t h e o peni n gs of the a q u ze

du ct us vestib ul i and a q u w d u ct u s

coc h l e ze .

F ic or C n 35 —F C A I T or i .o o n
T h e r oo f and l ateral
x s u r.
w alls
V Y Ho n s n .

T h root s o f t h e r i l e r es s h o t h e l e f t s id e are marked b y digital i mpres

. .

c an a n v a re w n on

d es i g t ed b y m b e r I A t e rior r i l fo ss ; 1 1 si o ns and vas c u lar gr oo ves

e

an d a re na nu n c an a a

m idd l e r i l foss ; I I I p os t e rior r i l foss ; e t h m oid l

.
, , .

an a

fo ss ; b e t h moid l for me ; for m e for s l br h o f

c a
T h,

e i nf e ri o r w al l o r fl o o r
c an a

n
a

na a
a .

a nc
a

o p h t h l m i rt e r y ; d or b it l i g o f s ph e oid b ; o p ti (B asi s crani i i ntern a ) may be

a , a a n c. a

a c a a w n n o ne 0 c

fo s : I l l l i : s p h e o o i p it "l r es t ; h h dott ed l i e regarded as f o rming three f o ss ae

, ,

’
u rc c a n - cc a c n
s a se u

i di ti g o to r o f p it it ry b od y ; h s l i g h t e l e tio p
, , ,
.

n ca n c n u u a va n re re

se ti g dors m l l ; i k g roo es f or e r es d e r o s The ante ri o r f o s sa (F o ssa crani i

,

n n u sc e
z v n v an cav n u

s i s ; I d e p r ess io f or p y ri for m l b o f e r e b r m ; m g roo e anteri o r ) supp o rts t h e fr o ntal and

, ,

nu n o e c u v

m idd l e m e i ge l rt e r ) d e p ress io for p o s ; o for me o lfact o ry parts o f the cerebrum

, ,

fo r n n a a n n n a n

l e r m t e ri s ; p for me l e r m p os t e ri s ; q i i s m
, ,
.

o l i s ; q i i s r s p i os : r d ep ress io I t i s f o rmed c h i e fly by th e pre

ac u an u a n ac u u nc u

; q
, .

”
i i i ’
c a ro t e a nc s u r n va nc u a n a n

for m d ll ob l o g t : s h y p og l o ss l for me ; t i t e r l di sphen o i d and li es at a h ig h er

, , .

e u a n a a a a n n na au

tory me t s ; for me m g m ; r f ro t l s i s ; w z y go m ti level th an t h e mi ddle f o ssa I n

. .
,
u u a n a nu n a nu c

p ro e s o f t e m p or l bo e ; se tio o f p e tro s t e m p or l : y
a , , , a
.
c s a n 2 c n u a

se tio o f o i p it l b o e ri s t g ll i ; I l dott ed l i es fr o nt t h e f o ssa is di vided medi

,

c n cc a n : c a a n

i di ti g p os itio r o lf tor y t r t s d p ed l e (A f t e r ally by t h e c ri sta gall i lateral t o

,

n ca n n o ac an u nc

E ll e b e rge r H i T p A t d l f d )
ac .

w h i c h are t h e deep e th m o ida l o r

- ’
n a rl n. o . na . . cr es .

o lf act o ry f o s s a f o r th e o lfact o ry
l o bes T h e e thm o idal o r i nte rn al o rb ital f o ra m e n perf o rates the crani al w al l
.

at t h e o ut er sid e o f t h ese fo s sm Furt h er b ack t h e central part o f the su rface .

is slig h tl y elevated and is flan k ed b y shall o w d epressi o ns w h i c h supp o rt t h e o l ,

fact o ry ped uncles P o steri o rly is a b o ny shelf w h i ch c o vers t h e entrance t o th e

.

optic f o ra mi na ; t h e ed g e o f t h is s h elf and t h e p o steri o r b o rders o f the o rbi tal w i ngs

o f t h e sp h en o id may be taken as t h e li ne o f demarcati o n bet w een t h e anteri o r and
 TH E NA S A L C A V IT Y 71

mi d d l e f o ss a T h e mi d d l e f o s s a (F o ssa cra n i i medi a ) is t h e w idest part o f t h e

ca v ity I t ext ends bac k w ard t o the i nternal sphen o o ccipi tal and pet r o sal crests
. -

t h us c o rresp o ndi ng t o t he p o st sp h en o id
,

I n its midd le i s a smal l f o ssa t h e s e ll a -

.

tu r ci ca , i n w hi ch t he pit ui tary b o dy o r hyp o p h ysis cerebri i s sit uated On eit h er , , .

si de are tw o gr oo ves fo r nerves ; t he i nn er o n e transmits t he o p h t halmi c thi rd ,

and si xt h nerves t o t he f o ramen lacerum o rbital e t he o uter o ne leads t o t h e f or ame n

,

r o tund um and l o dges t he m aml l ar y nerve E xternal t o t h e gr oo ves is a depressi o n

’

, .

f o r t h e pyrif o rm l o b e o f t h e cereb rum Th e p o ste ri o r f o s sa (F o ssa crani i p o steri o r ) .

c o rresp o nds t o t he basi lar part o f the o cci pital b o ne I t c o ntains t he med ulla .
,

p o ns and cerebel lum I n fr o nt is a medi an d epressi o n (F o ssa p o ntis ) f o r t h e p ons

, .
.

T h e s u rface b e h i nd th is i s c o ncave transversely and sl o pes gently d o w n w ard to t h e

f o ramen magnu m ; i t supp o rts t h e med ul la On eit h er side are t h e f o ram e n .

l a ce ru m b a s i s cr an ii and th e h yp o gl o s sal f o ram en .

Th e an te ri o r or na s al w al l is f o rmed by t h e crib rif o rm plate o f the et h m o id ,

w hi ch separates the c rani um fr o m t h e nasal cavi ty I t is perf o rated by numer o us .

f o ramina f o r t he passage o f t h e o lfact o ry nerve b und les -

.

t —M F ro . S CT N
Si r S K U LL H
e nu s W m E M m IO or or oas s rr a o o r e xx nu .

T h se p t m
e i is re m o ed b t h e m o s m em br e t h e t rbi l bo es i s re t i ed
u n as v u t S p e ior
uc u an on u na n a n a a
'
u r

t bi l bo e dott ed l i e i di ti g li m it b e t ee t e rior oi l ed p rt p os t e rior oi l ed p rt s p e rior

, . . .

ur na n n n ca n w n an c a a nd u nc a ; b b’ u

t rbi l fo l d s i l os i g b o f rtil g e fo l d o f m o s m em br e form ed b y io o f d t e rior

, , ,

u na nc n a rs ca a ; 0, uc u an un n b a nd b’ ; d’ an

oil ed d p o s t e ior o ed p rt o f i fe ior t rbi l dott ed l i e i di ti g se p t m b e t ee t h e m e f i fe rior

. . .

c an r u nc il a n r u na n n ca n u w n ; n

rbi l f o l d s f or m e r ( l r f o l d ) i l os i g o f rt il s p e rior m idd l e i fe rior m e t s o f ro t l

. . ,

'
tu na a a nc n bar ca ag e ; g h i u n a u ; o
’
n a

si s p rti l se p t m b e t ee d o q l p rt o f f ro t s i s ( s l s i s ) r l t e r l m ss o f e t h m oid
, . . , . . . ,

n al
’
nu ; a a u w n 0 an ; n as a a nu na a nu ; a a a

bo e s p h e oid l s i s t r l ity o p e i g m d e i s p e ior t rbi l bo e p oi t h e re dr i ge

, ,

n ; 3. n a nu ; c a ni a cav ; u n n a n u r u na n at n w a na

o f f ro t l s i m b e obt i ed (A f t e r E ll e b e r ge r L i At l s )
, ,

in e s e ri n g s
’
n a nu s ay a n . n . a .

THE NAS A L CAVI TY

The n a s al ca vi ty (C avum nasi ) is a l o ngi tu d i nal p assage w h ich ext ends t h r o ugh
the upper part o f t h e face I t i s di vi ded int o right and left h alves b y a medi an .

s e p tu m na s i Th e l a t e r al w al l s are f o rmed by t h e maxi ll a premaxi lla and the

.
, ,

perpen d i c u l ar p art o f t he palat e b o nes A tt ac h ed t o t h em are t h e tur bin al b o nes . ,

w hi ch subdi vi de each nasal f o ssa int o three m e atu s e s ( M eatus n asi ) T h is w al l .

i s cr o ssed o b li q u ely b y t h e c anal and gr oov e for th e nas o lac ri m al d u ct , and its -

p o steri o r par t i s perf o rated b y th e S p h en o -p al ati n e f o r a m en T h e supe r i o r w al l .

o r roof i s f o rmed by th e fr o nt al and nasal b o nes I t i s c o n cave fr o m si de t o side . ,

and n early strai ght l o n g it udi nal ly except i n t h e p o steri o r part w h ere it curves , ,

d o w n w ard I t presents a medi an elevati o n th e na sal cr e st T h e i nf e ri o r w al l

.
,
.

o r fl oo r i s f o rmed b y th e pal at ine pr o cesses o f t h e prema xi ll a and m a xi ll a e and t h e ,

h o ri z o nt al part s o f t he palate b o nes I t is w i der but c o nsi derabl y s h o rter t h an t h e .

r oo f I t is c o ncave transversely and nearly h o ri z o ntal fr o m bef o re bac k w ard

.
,
.

except i n t h e p o steri o r thi rd w h ere t here i s a sli ght decli vi ty T h e anteri o r part ,
.

presents a medi an gr oo ve fo r t he carti lagin o us septum and a furr o w f o r t h e o rgan ,

o f J aeob son o n either si de On eit h er side o f t h e palatine pr o cesses o f t h e pre max .

i l l aa i s t h e pal a ti n e c l eft .
 72 TH E SKE L E T ON or TH E H OR S E

T h e s e p tu m nas i is i nc o mplete in t h e macerated s k ull I t is f o rmed by th e .

perpendi cu lar plate o f t h e et h m o id be h i nd and t h e v o mer bel o w I n th e fresh ,

.

stat e i t is c o mpleted by a plate o f cart ilage .

T h e supe ri o r meatu s ( M eatus nasi superi o r ) is a narr o w passage bet w een h e

r oo f and t h e superi o r turbinal b o ne I t ends at t h e cribr i f o rm plate o f t h e ethm o i d
t . .

T h e midd l e meatu s ( M eat us nasi medi us ) i s t h e space bet w een the tw o turb i nal
b o nes I n i ts p o steri o r part is t h e very narr o w o pening i nt o t h e m a xd l ary s i nus
. .

T h e i nf e ri o r meatu s ( M eatus nasi i nferi o r ) is t h e c h annel al o ng th e fl oo r w h i ch I S

o ver h ung by t h e inferi o r t urbinal b o ne I t i s muc h t h e largest and I S th e d i rect .

pat h bet w een t h e anteri o r and p o steri o r nares .

T h e external apert ure is b o unded by t h e nasal b o nes and t h e p r ema x rl l aa .

37 or N AS A L R am o n o r S K U LL 39 —C S K U LL NASA L E G I ON
Ho s CT I P R
n o s s -s E C T I O N
.

or or
N H O R SE ; H S C U T A B OU T H A L
.

o r u e ; Tm: SE O ss e s T n no u o n
FA C I A L
a

or i-
or T E ze r l o x ls F
T HE A N T B R I OR END (s B E T W E E N H OR B I T AN D H A N T E R I O R
‘
T in ; '

F U RTH
sr w xv T E T E

F A C I A L C R T AN D P ss s
,

Ax» B rz r w i-
'
su x T m : T n nm xx n O C HE E R END O H F T E ES a e BE

T W N H F I FT H AN D S I X T H C H T E ETH
,
-
:T n
EE
.
T E E ER

i fe rior t r b i l bo e
p e rior d i S p e rior b i f e rior t rbi l bo e : d v i
.

(1 Su 0 n u

ti es o f d
na n

me t s s p e rior
, , , : c, ca v a u n na

of
u n
o m m o m e t s ; f s p e rior 9
,
, , , 0, . ca
a an b; e, ( O I U I I I OI I
‘
h
a u : ti d b;
midd l e i fe rior m e t s iti es o f
g, u es a an c, c n a u
m idd l e h i f e rior m e t s ; i p l e d o e r rid g e i
u
. ,

n p ss ges a u ;
’

t, ff a to
, , ,

t rb i l b o es f r or b i t l
a

o m d t m i
.
, cav n a u ac v
m xi ll r y s i s : k o m m i t io b e t w ee o t e r d
. . , n
u na n : l na s l ae ri
-
al uc ;
i t e rior d o f m i ll ry s i s o se p t l
, n a a a a nu
,
c u n ca n n u an

i e r (t rbi l ) p rt o f m i ll r y s i s ; I so
,

ca na l ; n en ax a nu

rti l ge (A f t e r E ll e b e rge r i i A tl s )
: a nn u na a ax a nu na
m i ll r y o p e i g ; m l ri m l l ; i fr
,

O—
,
'
ca a . n , n Le s e ri ng s a ax a n n na s ac a c a na n. n

orbit l l (A f t e r E ll e b e rge r i L i i g A t l s )
.

, a
’
a c a na n n e ser n
.
, s a .

T h e p o steri o r extremity o r fnud us is separated fr o m t h e crani al cav i ty by th e

cribri fo rm plate o f t h e et h m o id and i s largely o ccupi ed by t he l ateral masses of ,

t h at b o ne .

THE PA AN AS AL S I N U S ES R
i t h t h e nasal cavi ty o f w h i ch th ey are d iver
C o nnected di rectly o r i ndi rectly w
,
t i c ula a re fo ur pai rs o f ai r sinuses (S inus paranasales vi z maxi llary fr o nt al
)
-
,

sp h en o p a lat ine a nd ethm o i d al

, .
, , ,
-
, .

T h e m axi l lar y s in u s (S inus maxillaris ) is the largest I ts external w all i s .

f o rmed by t h e maxill a t h e lacrimal and t h e malar I t is b o und ed internally by .

, .

t h e maxi lla t h e inferi o r t ur b inal and t h e lateral mass o f t h e et h m o id b o ne I t

, .
.

xt ends b ac k w ard t o a t r a nsverse plane in fr o nt of t h e r oo t o f t h e supra o rbital

.

pr o cess a n d i ts anteri o r limi t is indi cated appr o xi mately by a line d ra w n fr o m th e

,

i nteri o r end o f t h e facial crest t o t he infra o rbi tal

f o ramen I ts u pper b o undary .

c o rresp o nds t o a line d ra w n ba c k w ard fr o m t h e

supra o rbita l f o ramen paral lel to
t he a c a
f i l crest T h e fl oo r is f o rmed by t h e alve o lar part o f t h e maxi ll a ; it is very
.

i rregular and is cr o ssed by b o ny plates running i n vari o us di recti o ns Th e last .

 T H E P A R AN A S A L s rx u s ns 73

th ree cheek teet h pr o j ect up i nt o t h e cavit y t o an extent w hi ch varies w it h age ;

th ey are c o vered by a t h i n plate o f b o ne Th e c av i tv is divided int o anteri o r and .

p o steri o r parts by an Obli q ue s e p tum T h e o uter margi n Of t h e sept um is c o mm o nl y .

ab o ut o ne and a half to tw o i n c h es (ca t o 5 cm ) fr o m the anteri o r end Of t h e . .

faci al crest ; fr o m h ere i t is d irected i n w ard back w ard and up w ard The upper , , .

part Of t he sept u m (f o rmed b y th e p o steri o r end Of the inferi o r turbinal b o ne ) i s

very d eli cat e and usually crib rif o rm .

T he p os i t i o n of th e s e ptum is qi t e
u va ri ab e l It i s no t r r to find i t f u rt h er fo r w a r d a nd
a e
t r r e ce n t s t a t e i c w h e n c o v e r e d b y
.
,

i n s o m e c as es i t i s f u r h e b ac k t h a n i s s ta t e d a b ov e I n the
r ry l y co m p l e t e b u t i n v e r y e xc e p ti o na l
.
, ,
. .

t h e mu c o u s m e m b a n e o n b o t h su rf a c es , i t i s n e a l a wa s
cas es t h ere i s a n o p en i ng o f va i a b l e s i z e in t h e u pp e r r p rt a .
,

The anteri o r c ompar tm en t Often called the inf eri or maxill ar y s i n u s is part ially , ,

divided by th e i nfra o rbital canal i nt o an external maxi ll ary part and an internal
smaller turbi nal part T h e latter c o mmuni cates w it h the middle meatus by a very .

narr o w sli t sit u ated at its hi ghest part The p o ste ri o r c ompa rtm ent , o ften called .

t h e s u peri o r maxil l ar y s i n u s , i s als o cr o ssed by t h e infra o rbital canal internal t o ,

w h i c h it Opens freely int o t h e sphen o pal atine sinus I t c o mmuni cates d o rsally -
.

F IG 3 S . 9 H O R SE LA T R A L V I E W m
fi KC LL o r T OP N D E wr or r
'
HE S I x r s E s A R E E E r e

P o s t e ri or p rt b d t e rior p rt o f f ro t l s i s roo f o f s p e rior m e t s e l t e r l m o f e t h

. .

a a an c, an a n a nu ; d u a u ; a a as s

m oid bo e f f o l i m l d t e p osed it s p os t e rior p rt h p os t e ior t e rior omp rt me t s

, . , .

’
n ; n as - ac r a uc x in a ; a r a nd an c a n

o f m i ll ry si s ( l d e i g t ed s p e ior d i fe rior m i ll r y s i se ) sep t m b e t ee

, , , , .

'

ax a nu a so s na as d u r an n ax a nu s
; i u w n a an h: k
l o e r li mi t o f pp e r t hi d p rt l m e m br o s p or o o f se p t m I i f r orbit l l m t rbi l p rt o f
. ,

w u n an a y an u ti n u : n a a c a na : u na a

i ry s i s b ll o s p ro m e e o f i fe r or t rbi l o orbit i f r orbit l f or me q o ti tio

. ,

m ax ll a nu : n. u u i n nc n i u na ; ; p n a a a n; c n nua n

o f i f r orbit l to p re m i ll r l i m t o f m i ll ry s i s (A f t e r E ll e b e rge r i L At l s )
.
, ,

’
n a al ca na ax a; ,
i ax a nu . n , n e i s e ri n g s a .

w i th t h e fr o nt al sinus t h r o ugh t h e large o val fr o nt o-m ax il l a ry Openi n g , situated at

th e level Of th e o sse o us lacri mal canal and th e c o rresp o ndi ng part o f t h e inner w al l
Of the o rbit ; th e o rifi ce is c o mm o nly ab o ut o ne and a h alf t o t w o inches (ca 4 t o .

5 cm ) l o ng and an in ch o r m o re (2 t o 3 cm ) wi de J ust in fr o nt o f t h is and c o vered

by a t h i n plate i s th e narr o w nas o—
. . .
,

max il l ary fi s s ur e (A ditu s n a s o maxillaris ) by

,
-
,

w h i ch t h e sinus Opens int o t h e p o st eri o r part o f t h e mid d le meatus .

r
T h e f o eg o i n g st a te m e n ts e f e to t h e a r a ng e me nt i n th e a v e a ge a d u l t a ni ma l r r I n th e r r
y t r r r y
.

f o a l th e c a v i t (w i t h t h e exc e p i o n o f i ts tu b i n a l p a t ) i s l a g e l o cc u p i e d b y t h e d e v e l o p i ng
y
t ee t h I n h ors es fi v e t o s i x ea rs of a g e t h e m a xi ll a r p a t o f th e s i n u s i s s i l l fi ll ed u p to a l a ge y r t r
rt t t r t r
.

d eg ree b y t h e em be dd e d p a s of t h e t eet h As th e e e h a re e xt u d e d t o c om p ens a e t h e w e a

r r ty r r r t
,
.
.

mo e a nd m o e of t h e c an b e co m e s f ee u n t i l i n o l d a ge o n l y t h e s h o t r o ots p o je c u p i n t h e
'

r yr r ri t i
.

fl oo , c ov er ed b y a l a e Of b o n e Oth e f a c ts i n t h i s co nn ec t i on w i l l b e g i v en i n t h e d es c p o n
t r rt r r t r r t
.

o f t h e t eet h I n e x ce p i o n a l c ases t h e p os te ri o p a o f th e i n fe i o u b i n a l i s s m a ll e
ha n
r ry t
.

u su a l a n d l e a v es a co n s id e a b l e i n te rv a l , t hr o u g h w hi c h t h e m a xi ll a s i n u s c o mm u n i ca es m t h

t h e n as a l ca v i t y .

The fr on tal s in u s (S inus con c h O fr o nt alis ) c o nsists Of fr o ntal and turbinal parts - .

Th e fr o ntal part is b o unded c h i efl y by th e t w o plates o f t h e fr o ntal b o ne but I ts ,

fl oo r is f o rmed in part by t h e lateral mass of th e ethm o i d I t extends f o r ward t o a .

74 TH E S KE L E T O N OF T HE H OR S E

plane t hr o ug h th e an t eri o r margins o f t h e o rb its bac k w a rd t o on e th r o ug h th e tem ,

p o ral c o ndyles and o ut w ard int o t h e r oo t o f t h e supra o rb i tal p r o cess I t i s separ .

ated fr o m t h e sinus o f t h e o pp o sit e sid e by a

,

c o mplete s eptu m I t is partially subdivid ed by .

a number o f b o ny pl ates Th e turbinal part i s .

situated i n t h e p o steri o r part of th e superi o r tur

binal b o ne r oo fed in by t h e nasal and l acrimal ,

b o nes I t extends f o r w ard t o a t ransverse pl ane .

ab o ut h alf w ay bet w een t h e anteri o r margin o f -

t h e o rbit and the end o f the faci al crest B e .

.

h ind i t i s i n free c o mmuni cati o n w ith the

fr o ntal part o ver t he lateral mass of the et h
m o id I t is separated fr o m t h e nasal cavity .

by the t h i n t urbinal plate Th e fr o ntal and .

maxi llary sinuses c o mmuni cate t h r o ug h t h e

large o pening described ab o ve .

The s p h e n o -palati n e s in u s (S i nus sphen o

pal ati nus ) c o nsists o f tw o parts w h i c h c o mmuni
cate under th e lateral mass o f t h e ethm o id .

T h e sphen o idal (p o steri o r ) part is excavated i n

the b o dy of the pre sph en o i d Th e palatine (an -
.

ter i o r ) part is bet w een th e tw o plat es o f t h e per

p en d i cu l a r part o f t h e palate b o ne und er t h e ,

lateral mass o f t h e eth m o id ; i t c o mmuni cates

freely w i th the maxi ll ary sinus Th e se ptum .

bet w een t h e rig h t and left sinuses i s n o t usually .

medi an i n the sph en o i d al part .

In t on e t h i r d o f th e c ases (a cc o r di ng to P a u l l i )
a b ou -

th e s p h e n o id a l a n d p a l a t i ne p a r ts a r e se p a ra te d b y a t r a n s
v e r se s e p tu m a n d t h e s p h en o id a l p a rt t h e n c o mm un i ca tes
o n l y w i t h t h e l o w e r e th m o id a l m e a tu s e s
,

The term e th m o i d al s i n u s is o ften applied

t o the cavity o f t h e l argest ethm o turbinal It -
.

c o mmuni cates w it h t h e maxi llary si nus .

Fl o 40 OP Ho a s a D o a s u V mw
THE B ONE S OF THE THORA CI C LI MB
. . .

w n u S I N US E S E xpos un BY RE
MO V A L O P L AT OF T HE t 'r tt a E OF
BN O E .
THE S CAP UL A
I F ro t l b o e s l bo e
n a
The s cap ul a i s a fl at b o ne situated o n the
n ; 2 na a n : 3
l im l i ll p os t e rior
, . ,
,
4 m
anteri o r part of t h e lateral w al l o f th e t h o rax
ac r a b o ne ; ax a ; a

p rt o f f ro t l s i s m idd l e p rt o f
. .

'
a n a nu ; u a ,

f ro t l s i s t e ior (t r i l ) p rt o f and extend ing o bli q u ely fr o m th e vertebral end

.

n a nu ; b an r u b na

f ro t l s i s l t e r l m s o f e t h moid o f t h e sevent h o r eighth rib t o t h e sternal end o f

, a

n a nu : c, a a as

bo e roo f o f s p e rior m e t s
n ; d u a u ; c, f ro n t a
i ll r y op e i g I ms m i ll ry o p e th fi rst rib I t is cu rved sli ghtly and sl o pes
,

m ax n n
e
n u- ax
.
a ; n

b e l o p l t e h i h for ms t h e t e rior o ut w ard i n adaptati o n t o the f o rm o f the

, a

i ng w a w c an

m r gi of p o s t e rior d t e rior t h o raci c w all I t i s triangu lar i n o u tline and

.

a n e ; a h an an

o m p rt m e t s o f m i ll r y s i s— f t e
, ,

a n ax ,
c nu O
ll ed t h e s pe rior d i fe rior m i ll ry h as tw su rfaces t h ree b o rders and th ree
a n

ca u an n ax o
s i ses f se p t m b e t ee I d
a , ,
nu ; I
u
ngles w n an It ; f

or b it I p oi t hi h s p e rior t rbi l
a
, { , .

T h e e xte rn al surfac e o r d o rs u m (Facies

; n a t w c u

b o e m b e p e r for t ed to o b i dr i ge
, u na
.
n ay ta n
i to s l it (A f t e r E ll e b e rge r
a a na

n na a c av y lat eralis s d o rsalis ) is divided i nt o tw o f o ss ae

. n , in .

by t h s p in e (S pi na scapul ae ) w h i ch extends
'
L e is c r i n g s A t l as )
e
.

fr o m t h verteb ral b o rder t o t h e n ec k of th e e

b o ne , w h ere i t gradually subsides The free edge o f th e spine i s th i ck r o ugh . .

, ,

and in great part sub cutane o us . A li tt le ab o v e its middle is a vari able pr o mi

 TH E S C A P U LA 75

n e n ce ,the tu b e rcl e o f th e S pine (Tuber spin ae ) t o w hi ch t h e trapezi us muscle ,

is attac h ed Th e s upra s p i n o u s f o s sa (F o ssa supraspinata ) is situated i n fr o nt o f

.

t h e spi ne and t h e i nf r as pi n o u s f o s s a (F o ssa infraspinata ) be h i nd i t T h e f o rme r

, .

is mu ch the smaller o f t h e tw o ; i t is sm oo th and is o ccupied by t h e supraspinatus

muscle Th e i nfraspin o us f o ssa l o dges t h e infraspinatus muscle ; i t is w ide and
.

sm oo th in its upper part narr o w er bel o w w h ere i t is marked by several r o ugh lines
, ,

f o r the attac h ment o f t h e teres min o r muscle ; near the neck i s the nutrient f o ramen ,
and a litt le l o w er i s a vascu lar gr oo ve .

The c o s tal s ur face o r v ente r (Faci es c o stalis ) i s h o ll o w ed i n i ts lengt h by t h e

Cer vi ca l a n gi e

or s a l a n g e l

no u s f o s sa

Va s cu l a r g roo ve

S up r as p i nous f ossa

P os tert or bor der

i nteri or bor d

T u ber c l e of s p i ne

Tu ber o i ty
s

l en oi d ca vi ty
Fro 4 l. .
—L P I S
E ’ ‘
C A P U LA OF H ORS E , E X T E R NA L Vi Ew . (A ft er h
S c ma ltz A tl s d
a . A na t d Pfe rd es )
. . .

p
s u b s ca ul ar f o s s a ( F o ssa subs capul aris ) ; this o ccupi es nearl y t h e w h o le o f t h e l o w er
part o f the surface b ut is p o i nted ab o ve and separates t w o r o ugh triangular areas
,

(Faci es serrata ) t o w h i ch t h e serratus magnus i s attac h ed I n t h e l o w er t h i rd

,
.

there i s a v ascul ar fu rr o w w it h several b ran c h es .

The an te ri o r o r c ervi c al b o r d e r ( M arg o crani alis ) is c o nvex and r o ug h ab o ve ,

c o n cave and sm o ot h b el o w .

T h e p o s teri o r o r d o r s al b o r d e r ( M arg o caudal is ) is sl igh tl y c o n cave I t is .

th i ck and r o ugh in i ts u ppe r t h i rd t h in i n its mi ddl e and t h i ckens agai n bel o w

, ,
.

Th e s u p e ri o r o r v e rt eb ra l b o r d e r ( M arg o d o rsali s 5 basis ) carries t h e s ca p u lar .

carti l a g e (C arti lag o scapu lae) I n th e y o ung subj ect t h e edge o f t h e b o ne is t h i c k

. ,
 76 TH E S KE L E T O N OF THE H OR S E

and i s pitted b v impressi o ns int o w h i c h t h e cart ilage fits The carti lage i s the .

u n oss ifie d part o f t h e f oetal scapu la I ts l o w er ed g e fits t h e depress i o ns and eleva

.

t i o ns o f t h e b o ne I t t h i ns o ut t o w ard t h e free edge w h i ch i s c o nvex and hes

.
,

al o ngside o f t h e upper parts o f t h e vertebr a l spi nes I n fr o nt it c o ntinu es the li ne .

o f t h e scapula but be h ind i t f o rms a r o und ed pr o j ecti o n The l o w er part o f the

,
.

carti lage underg o es m o re o r l e s s o ssificati o n s o t h at t h e verteb ral b o rd er o f t h e ,

.

b o ne i n o ld sub j ects is t h in i rregul ar and p o r o us , ,

.

The an te ri o r o r c e rvi cal angl e (A ngul us cra ma l rs ) rs at the j un ct i o n o f th e

0

D or s a l a ng e l

S u bs ca p u l a f r o s sa

A nte i r o bo
r r der

Vas c u l a r g roo ve

Tu ber o i ty
s

G l oi d
’

en ca v i ty Cor o i d p ro
ac cess

42 .
—L i : r r S cx pr m or l l o ns rz
-

, C O TA I
S . S o n n e ts —(A f t e r S h m l t z A t l s d
c a , a .
A na t d Pfe rd es )
. . .

anteri o r a nd vertebral b o rders and li es o pp o site t o the sec o nd th o raci c spi ne I t is

relati vely t h in and is ab o ut a righ t angle
.

T h e p o ste ri o r o r d o rsal angl e (A ngulus caudali s ) is t h i ck and r o ugh ; i ts

p o si ti o n can b e determined read ily i n t h e li ving ani mal .

T h e i nf e ri o r o r arti cular an gl e
(A ngu lus glen o id alis ) is j o ined t o th e b o dy o f
t h e b o ne by t h e ne c k o f t h e scapula (C o l lum s capul ae ) I t is enla r ed especi ally
g
i n t h e sagitt al di recti o n I t b ears t h e gle n o id cavity C avitas glen o idali s f o r
.
.

( )
.

a r ti c u
. .

lati o n w i t h t he h ead o f t h e h u merus The cavi ty is o val i n o utline and i ts m argi n

.

y t h e gl en o id n o tc h (I ncisura glen o id alis

,
u t i nt o i n fr o nt b
) and i s r o unded off ,
 78 TH E S KE L E T O N OF TH E H O R SE

tu b e rcl e (Tuber o si tas teres ) t o w h i c h t h e t end o n o f t h e latissi mus d o rsi and t eres
,

ma j o r muscles is attac h ed T h e nutr i ent f o ram en is i n the l o w er t h i rd o f t h i s sur

.

face T h e an te ri o r su rf ac e i s triangular w ide and sm oo t h ab o ve narr o w and

.
, ,

r o u g h ened bel o w I t is separated fr o m t h e externa l surface by a dist i nct b o rder

.
,

w h i ch bears o n i ts upper part t h e d e lt o id tub er o sity (Tuber o s i tas delt o i dea ) .

Fr o m t h e l atter a r o ug h line curves up w ard and bac k w ard t o t h e o uter surface Of

t h e neck and gives o rigin t o t h e external h ead o f t h e t ri ceps muscle B el o w th e
,
.

I nte r na l

C u r ved l i ne

M u s c u l o-s p i r a l
g roo ve

E xter n a l con
(l yl oi d cr es t

C o o oi d fo
r n s sa

Ol ccr a n on f .
o s sa

I nte r na l c o dyle
n E x te n a l r
c o nd y l e o
ep i c ndy l e

Fm 4 5
. .
—l . rz m Hu m -m u s o r Ho ns rz I x Fm 46 —L FT E H u mnn u s o r HO R S E E xTERNu S UR FA C
A ft r ltz A ft er lt z At l t l Pfe rd es )
.
E
. .
, .

e S c h ma h
.

T LRN A L Sl ‘
Il l-
‘
ACB ( ( Sc ma s A
Atl s
(1
t d a na
.
, (
A
, . . . .

a J
( . na . . l fe rd e s )
‘
.

t uber o sit y t h e b o rder i nclines f o r w ard bec o mes less sali ent and ends at th e c o r o n o i d , ,
.

f o ssa T h e p o steri o r su rface is r o unded fr o m si de t o sid e and sm oo t h

. .

T h e pr o xi mal extr e mity c o nsists Of t h e h ead neck t w o tuber o si ti es and th e

, , ,

bici pit a l gr o o ve T h e h ea d (C apu t h u meri ) presents an al m o st ci rcu lar c o nvex

.

a
rti cular surface w h i c h is ab o ut t w i ce as extensi ve as t h e glen o i d cavi ty o f t h e
,

scapula w it h w h i c h i t arti culates I n fr o nt o f t h e head i s a f o ssa i n w h i c h are

.
.

several fm am i na T h e n e c k (C o ll um h umeri ) is w ell defi ned b eh ind but is prae

'
.

.
,

t ic a lly absent else w h ere T h e exte rnal tub er o s ity (Tuberculum maj us ) i s placed
.
 T HE H UM E R U S 79

anter o externally and c o nsists o f t w o parts ; t h e anteri o r p art f o rms t h e o uter

-
,

b o undary o f the bi ci pital gr oo ve and gi ves attac h ment t o t h e external branch o f

t h e supraspinatus muscle ; t h e p o steri o r part gives attachment t o t h e s h o rt i n se r
t i o n Of the i nfraspi natus w hi le its o uter surface is c o ated w i th carti lage o ver w hi ch
, ,

the chi ef tend o n o f th e same muscle passes to be inserted i nt o a tri angu lar facet o n
t h e o uter aspect o f the anteri o r p art Th e in te rn al tu b er o s ity (Tubercu lum mi nus )
.

is less sali ent and c o nsists o f anteri o r and p o steri o r pa rts ; t h e anteri o r part f o rms
,

t h e i nner b o undary o f the bi ci pital gr oo ve and furnish es i nserti o n t o the inner ,

branc h o f the supraspinat us ab o ve and t h e p o steri o r deep pect o ral muscle bel o w ;
,

B i ci pi ta l
gr oo ve

I n ter n a l tu ber o i ty
s

E xte r na l tu ber os El y

o
De l t i d tu be ro i ty
s

I nter na l tu ber c le

M u s cu l o —
m
s
’

ra l g roo ve

Coron oi d foss a
E xter n a l c n o dy l o d i cr es t

I nter n a l ep i co n dy l e

I n ter n a l con dy l e
E xter n a l c n o dy l e

Fro . 47 .
—L F T
E HU M E E U S or H ORS E ,
A N T R I OR V I
E EW . A f te r
( h
Sc m a l t z At l as (J .
A na t d Pf erd e
. . s .
)

the p o steri o r part gi ves attac h ment t o th e subscapul ari s muscle T h e b i cipital .

o r i n te rtu b e r c u l ar gr oo v e (S u lcus intert ubercu laris ) i s situated in fr o nt ; it i s

b o und ed by t he anteri o r parts o f t h e t uber o sities and is subdivided by an inter ,

medi ate ridge Th e gr oo ve i s c o vered i n t h e fres h state by carti lage and l o dges
.
,

th e tend o n o f o ri g i n o f t h e bi ceps b rac h i i muscle J ust bel o w the i ntermedi ate .

ridge is a small f o ssa i n w hi c h several f o ramina o pen .

T he d i sta l e xtr e mi ty h as an Obli q u e surface f o r arti cu lati o n w i t h t h e radi us

and u lna w h i c h c o nsists o f tw o c o ndyles o f very une q u al si ze separated by a ridge ,
.

Th e i n t e rn al c o n d yl e (C o ndyl u s medi alis ) is mu c h t h e larger and i s cr o ssed by a

,

sagittal gr oo ve o n t h e ant eri o r part o f w h i c h t h ere i s usu ally a syn o vi al f o ssa P o s

,
.
80
TH E S KE L E T O N OF T H E H O R SE
te r i o r l v t h e gr oo ve extends up w ard c o nsiderably ab o ve t h e res t o f t h e art cul ar
i
surface and reac h es t h e Olecran o n f o ssa a n d t h is part arti cu lates W i t h t h e sem i lunar
.

n o tc h o f t h e ulna T h e e xte rnal c o ndyl e (C o ndylus laterali s ) i s mu ch smaller and

is placed s o me w h at l o w er and furt h er bac k giving t h e extre ity an Ob l i q u e a p m
.

pe u rau r e ; i t is mar k ed by a w ide s h al l o w gr oo ve T h e c o r o n o i d f o s s a (F o ssa c o r o .

h h
.

is situat ed i n fr o nt ab o ve t e gr oo ve o n t e internal c o ndyle ; i t furn i sh es

noidea )
o rigi n t o part o f t h e extens o r carpi and external t o i t i s a r o ugh d ep re s smn fr o m
,

w h ic h t h e anteri o r o r c o mm o n extens o r o f t h e digi t arises B e h i nd and ab o ve th e .

c o n d v l es are tw o t h i c k ridges t h e epi c o ndyles

,
T h e i nte rn al o r fl e xor epi c o nd y l e
.

(E cpi o ndylus medialis s fl e x o r i.u s ) is t h e m o re sal ient ; it furnish es o rigi n t o fl e xo r

muscles o f t h e carpus and digit and presen ts i nternally a tubercle f o r the attac h
,

ment o f t h e i nternal l ateral ligament o f t h e elb o w j o i nt Th e e xt e rn a l o r e xten s or .

epic o ndyl e ( p E i c o n c l y l u s lateralis s e x t e n s o r i u s ). b ears externally t h e e xt e rn a l

su p rac o ndyl o i d cre st (C rista c o n d v l o i d e a l ateralis ) w h i ch f o rms h ere the o uter ,

b o undary Of t h e m u s c u l o spi ral gr oo ve and gi ves o rigi n t o t h e extens o r carp i

-
,
.

B el o w t h is is a r o ug h excavati o n i n w h i c h t h e external lateral ligament i s attached .

T h e l o w er b o rder o f t h e epi c o ndyle gi ves attac h ment t o th e fl e x or carpi externus .

B et w een t h e epi c o ndyles is t h e deep Ol e cran o n f o s sa (F o ssa o lecrani ) .

D eve l opm en t —T h e h umerus o ssifi es fr o m six cent ers vi z t h ree pri mary ,
.
,

centers f o r t h e s h aft and epip h yses and t h ree sec o ndary centers f o r t h e external
,

tuber o sity t h e delt o id tuber o sity a nd t h e internal c o ndyle T h e pr o ximal end .

fuses w it h t h e sh aft at ab o ut t h ree and o ne—

, ,

h alf years th e distal at ab o ut on e and ,

a h alf years o f age .

THE RAD I US
T h e radiu s i s mu ch the l arger o f the t w o b o n es o f t h e f o rearm i n t h e h o rse
.
.

I t extends i n a vertical di recti o n fr o m t h e elb o w w h ere i t arti cul ates w it h t h e h u m

.
,

e r u s t o t h e carpus bel o w
,
I t i s gently curved the c o nvexi ty bei ng anteri o r I t
.
,
.

c o nsist s o f a s h aft and t w o extremiti es

- .

T h e s h af t (C o rpus rad ii ) is curved i n i ts length s o me w h at fl attened fr o m bef o re ,

bac k w ard and expanded at i ts ends I t presents f o r descripti o n tw o surfaces and

,
.

t w o b o rders T h e an te ri o r su rface (Faci es d o rsalis ) is sm oo t h slig h tly c o nvex i n

.
,

i ts len g t h and r o unded fr o m S i de t o side T h e p o ste ri o r s u rfac e (Facies v o laris )

,
.

is c o rresp o ndingly c o ncave in its lengt h an d i s fl attened i n t h e transverse di recti o n .

A t its upper part t h ere is a sm oo t h s h al l o w gr oo ve w h i ch c o ncurs w i t h t h e ulna i n ,

t h e f o rmati o n o f t h e inter o s s e o u s s pac e o f t h e f o rearm ; t h e nutri en t f o ramen i s

.

in t h e l o w er part o f t h is gr oo ve B e l o w t h is t h ere is i n the y o ung subj ect a narr o w

.
,

r o ug h t riangular area t o w h i c h t h e u lna i s at tac h ed by an i nt er o sse o us ligament ;

,

in t h e ad ult t h e t w o b o nes a re fused h ere A vari abl e r o ug h elevati o n be l o w the

. .

midd le o f t h e surface and cl o se t o t h e i nternal b o rder gi ves attac h ment t o the

superi o r c h e e k ligamen t T h e i nte rnal b o rd e r ( M arg o mediali s ) is sli ght l y c o n
.

cave i n i ts len g t h a n d is larg ely subcutane o us ; at its pr o xi mal en d t h ere i s a

sm o o t h area o n w h i c h th e t end o n o f i nserti o n o f t h e br a c h i alis muscle lies and a ,

small r o u g h area j ust b el o w gi ves attac h me n t t o t h at m uscle and t h e l o ng i nternal

lateral li g a ment o f t h e el b o w j o int T h e extern al b o rd e r ( M arg o lateralis ) is m o re
.
-
.

st ro n g ly c urved b u t presents n o special feat ures

, .

T h e pr o ximal extremity o r h ea d (C apitul um rad i i ) is fl at tened fr o m bef o re

b a c ln v a rd and w ide t ran s versel y I t presents an arti cul ar surface (F o vea c a p i tu l i )
.

w h i t h c o rresp o nds t o t h at o n t h e distal end o f t h e h umerus

; i t is cr o ssed by a
cen t ral sa g it tal rid g e w h i c h h as a s v n o v i a l f o ssa o n i ts p o steri o r part and ends i n
,
,

fr o nt a t a pr o minent li p t h e c o r o n o i d pr o ce s s (P r o cessus c o r o n o i d eus ) J ust

. .
, .

bel o w t h e p o st eri o r b o rder t h e re a re t w o c o ncave facets f o r art i cu lati o n w it h t h e

ulna and b e tw een t h ese and t h e int e ro sse o us space i s a q u ad ri lateral r o ug h area
,

i t w h i c h t h e t w o b o nes are uni ted by an inter o sse o us ligament A t the inner side .
 T HE RAD IU S 81

o f the anteri o r surface i s t h e b i ci pita l tub e r o s ity (Tuber o si tas radi i ) i nt o w h i ch ,

t h e b i c eps tend o n i s i nserted T h e i nte rna l tub er o si ty is c o ntinu o us w i t h t h e pre

.

ced i ng em i nence and furnis h es attach ment t o the sh o rt part o f t h e i nternal l ateral
,

I n ter os s eo u s s pa ce

Fa cet for u l na r Fa cet for ra di a l

ca rpa l ca r pa l
FrG 48 —L FT R AN D U L N A o r H OR S E XT R
E E FIG 49 —
L FT
E Ra mos AN D L A o I—
U N I o ns
r Pos E

fter S hm l t z A t l s d A n t d Aft er h lt z Atl s d A t

E u ne s
.
.
, .
. .

NA L V I E W (A a T E R I OR Vi E W ( Sc ma a na

d Pfe rd es
.
c a a
.
,

Pfe rd es )
.
. . .
. ,

.
. . )

ligamen t Th e external tu b er o s ity is m o re sali ent ; it gi ves attac h ment t o t h e

ext ernal l at eral li gament and t o t h e anteri o r and lateral extens o r muscles o f t h e
,

Th e d i stal e xtr e mi ty i s als o c o m p ressed fr o m bef o re back w ard .

I t presents
6
82 THE S KE L E T O N or T HE H O R SE

t h e car p a l a rti cular s u rfac e (Facies arti cu laris c a rpe a ) w h i c h c o nsists o f th ree parts .

T h e i nner facet is t h e largest is q uadrilateral c o ncav e c o nvex fr o m b ef o re b ac k

,
-

o r scap h o id ) ; t h e mi ddle o ne i s
,

w ard and arti culat es w it h t h e radi al carpal b o ne t

w it h t h e i nt ermedi ate carpal
s o me iv h a t
simi lar i n f o rm but smal ler and arti cu lates ,

b o ne (o r se m i lunar ) ; t h e o uter facet is smaller is c o nvex and arti cu l ates bel o w , ,

w it h the ulnar c arpal ( o r cuneif o rm ) and be h i nd w it h t h e access o ry carpal (o r p l S l

f o rm ) T h e anteri o r surface presents t h ree gr oo ve s , separated b y ri dges T h e .

middle o ne is vert i cal and gi ves passage t o t h e tend o n o f t h e ext ens o r carpi rad ialis ;
.

t h e o uter o ne is si milar and c o ntains t h e tend o n o f t h e anteri o r extens o r o f t h e

d i g i t ; t h e i nner o ne is smal l and o bli q ue and l o dges t h e tend o n o f the extens o r carpi
o bli q uus T h e p o steri o r aspect is cr o ssed b y a r o ug h ridge b el o w w h i c h are th ree
. ,

depressi o ns t) u eit h er side is a t u b e ro si t v (Tuberc ul um ligamenti ) t o w h i ch t h e

.

lateral ligament is at tac h ed T h e o uter o ne is marked by a small verti cal gr oo ve

.

f o r t h e passa g e o f t h e lateral extens o r t end o n .

D eve l o pme nt —T h c radius os s i fie s fr o m f o u r centers vi z o n e eac h f o r th e

. ,
.
,

s h aft the tw o ext remi ti es and th e o ut er part , ,

Of t h e dista l end ; t h e last i s m o rph o l o gi cally

th e distal end o f t h e u lna w h i ch h as fused
wi th t h e rad i us and t h e l in e o f fusi o n is o ften ,

indi cated by a d istinct gr oo ve on th e carpal

arti cul ar surface Th e pr o xi mal ext remity .

S em i l u r n o tc h u nites w i t h th e shaft at ab o ut o n e a n d a
uu

h alf years th e d istal end at ab o ut t h ree ,

and a half years .

THE ULN A

T h e u l na o f t h e h o rse is a redu ced l o ng

b o ne situated b ehi nd t h e r adi us w i th w h i ch ,

it is parti ally fused i n the adult .

T h e s h af t (C o rpus u lnae) i s th ree si ded -

and ta p ers t o a p o i nt b el o w Th e an t eri o r .

surface (Faci es d o rsal is ) is a pp l i ed t o the p o s

ter i o r surface o f th e rad i us an d bel o w th e ,

i nter o sse o us space th e tw o b o nes are fused i n

r l l l or R m s n I O
-
t h e adult T h e surface w h i ch enters int o t h e .

f o rmat i o n o f t he sp ace i s sm oo t h and usually

j j
An E
j j

in . l l h R
’
a u u

“ “ im m
on v mw (A ft s hm n
n c er c a z

A mw d Pf e rd es )
, .
,

“ l 1 presents a smal l n ut ri ent f o ramen di re cted ,

up w ard A b o ve t h e space i t is r o ugh an d is .

attac h ed t o t h e radi us by an i nter o sse o us li gament w h i c h i s usu al ly permanent Th e .

inte rn al s u rf ace (Faci es med ialis ) is sm oo t h and sli gh tly c o ncave Th e exte rn al .

surf ac e (Facies l ateral is ) is fl attened T h e in te rna l and e xt e r nal b o r d e r s are thin .

a n d s h arp except at the inter o sse o us space T h e p o ste ri o r b o rd e r is slightly

, .

c o ncave i n its len g t h and is r o unded T h e l o w er end is p o inted and is usually a .

lit tle bel o w t h e middle o f t h e radius I t is c o mm o nly c o nt inued by a fibr o us c o rd

.

to t h e d istal external tuber o sity o f t h e radi us but t h is h a n d may be replaced i n ,

part o r enti rely by b o ne .

T h e pr o xim al e xtr e mi ty is th e m aj o r part o f th e b o ne I t pr o j ects up w ard .

and s o me w h at bac k w ard be h i nd t h e l o w er end Of t h e h um erus and f o rms a leve r ,

arm f o r t h e extens o r mus cles o f t h e elb o w T h e inte rn al s urfa c e is c o nc ave and .

sm oo th T h e exte rnal s u rfac e is c o nvex and is r o ughened ab o ve Th e ant eri o r

.
.

b o rd e r be ars o n its midd le a p o inted pr o j ecti o n t h e pr o c e s s u s an c o n e u s o r ,

bea k w h i c h o ve r h angs t h e s emilunar n o tc h o r s igm o id cavity (I n ci sura se mil u

,

naris ) T h e la tt er is t ri angular i n o utli ne c o n cave fr o m ab o ve d o w n w ard an d

.

, ,
 T HE CA RP L S
'
—T HE I N T E R M E D I A T E C A R P A L B ON E 83

art i cu l at es w i t h t h e humerus ; i n th e mi ddl e o f i ts l o w er part is an extensive

syn o v i al f o ssa J ust bel o w t h e n o tc h are t w o c o nvex fac ets w h i ch arti cu late w it h
.

th o se on t he p o steri o r aspect of t h e pr o xi mal end o f t h e radi us T h e p o ste ri o r .

b o r d e r is nearly strai g h t and is t h i ck and r o un ded

, The free end o r summi t is .

a r o u g h t uber o sity t h e Ol e cran o n , w h i ch gives attac h ment t o t h e t ri ceps brac h ii

,

and o t h er mus cles .

T h e pri mi ti ve d i s ta l e xtr e m ity h as as previ o usly stated fused w it h t h e radi us

D ev e l o p m e n t —Th e u lna o s s i fies fr o m three centers o f w hi c h o n e is f o r t h e
, , .

mai n part o f t h e b o ne o ne f o r t h e Olecran o n and o ne f o r t h e d istal end T h e

, , .

carti lagi n o us embry o ni c u lna e xtends t h e ent ire

lengt h o f t h e f o rearm T h e l o w er part o f t h e
.

shaft is usually red uced t o a small fibr o us band

o r may disappear enti rel y ; i n s o me cases a vari .

ab le remnant of i t os s i fi es The distal extremity

.

fuses early w i th the radi us Th e Olecran o n uni tes

.

w ith the rest o f the b o ne at t h ree t o t h ree and a

half years A med ullary canal appears t o o ccur
c o nstantly i n the ad ult —c o nt rary t o th e state
.

ments o f s o me aut h o rs .

THE CA P U S R
The c arp u s of t h e h o rse c o nsists o f seven o r
eight b o nes (Ossa carpi ) arranged i n tw o r o w s ,

pr oxi mal o r anti brachi al and distal o r met a c ar

,

pal The (abbre v i ated ) names and rel ative p o si

.

ti o ns o f t he b o nes of t he left carpu s as seen fr o m

i n fr o nt are i ndi cated bel o w .

P r oxi ma l R ou r .

R adi al I ntermedi ate U lnar A ccess o ry

Di s ta l R o w :
S e c o nd T h ird F o urt h

THE RA D IAL A L BONE

CAR P

The ra di al c ar p al b o ne (Os carpi radiale ,

scaph o id ) is the l argest b o ne o f t h e upper r o w ; it

i s s o me w hat c o mpressed l aterally and is clearl y
six—
,

si ded T h e s u p eri o r o r p r oxim al s ur fac e is

.

c o nvex i n fr o nt c o ncave b ehind and arti culates Fm 5 1

, , 3 m m m ( ri . 5
"
p nt

w ith t he i n n er facet o n th e distal end o f the rad us i m m O R AM U “ “ F S AND h OF 0 x5 ?

it o f l
.

T h e inf e ri o r o r d i stal s urf ac e i s als o c o nvex in fr o nt Cm M d n y y .

e u ar ca v u na .

and c o n cave b ehind ; it arti cul at es w it h t h e sec o nd

and t hi rd car pal b o nes The ext e r nal s u r fac e bears upper and l o w er facets o n its
.

anteri o r part f o r arti culati o n w it h t h e i ntermedi ate ; bet w een and be h ind t h ese i t is
excavat ed and r o ug h T h e an te ri o r o r d o r s al s ur fac e i s r o ug h and sli g h t l y c o nvex
.
.

The in t ern al s ur fa c e and t h e p o st e ri o r o r v e l ar s urf ac e are ro ug h and tuberculate .

THE I N TE R ME D IA T E CA R P A L B O NE
The i n term e d iate car p al b o ne (Os carpi intermedi um semi lunar lunar ) i s , ,

s o me w h at w edge sh aped w i der in fr o nt t h an be h ind T h e supe ri o r or pr o xi mal

-
,
.

s u rf a c e is sadd le shaped and a rti culates w it h t h e middle facet o n t h e d i stal end o f

-
,
 84 TH E SK E L E T ON OF TH E n OR S E

t h e rad ius T h e i nf e ri o r o r d i sta l surf ace is smaller c o nvex in fr o nt c o n cave b e

.
, ,

h ind and arti culates w it h t h e t h i rd and f o urt h carpal b o nes T h e i nte rn al su rfa c e
,
.

h as upper and l o w er facets f o r arti cu lat i o n w it h t h e rad ial c arpal and b etw een ,

t h ese i t is excavated and r o ug h T h e exte rnal s urf ac e i s simil ar t o t h e preceding .

and arti cul ates w i t h t h e ulnar carpal T h e ante ri o r o r d o rs al s u rfac e is r o u gh and .

slig h tly c o nvex The p o ste ri o r o r v o lar su rfac e bears a tuber o s ity o n its l o w e r part
. .

THE ULN A R C AR P A L B ON E
T h e u l nar carpal b o ne (Os carpi u lnare cu neif o rm ) is t h e small est and m o st ,

i rregular b o ne o f th e upper r ow T h e s upe ri o r o r pr o xi mal s ur f ac e i s c o ncave and .

,

fi ts t h e l o w er part o f t h e o uter facet o n t h e d istal end o f the radi us T h e i nf e ri o r .

o r di stal surfac e is o bl i q ue a nd undulating f o r arti culati o n w ith th e f o u rt h carpal

b o ne T h e i ntem al su rfac e h as u pper and l o w er facets f o r arti cul ati o n w i th th e
.

intermedi ate T h e ante ri o r o r d o r sal and ext ern al su rf ac e s are c o ntin u o us c o nvex
.
, ,

a n d r o ug h T h e p o ste ri o r o r v o lar su rfac e is o bli q ue and bears a c o ncave facet

.
,

f o r arti culati o n w it h the access o ry carpal b o ne ; bel o w t h is is a tubercle .

52 —L m r or H R
~
i F I G 5 L T CA R A L B ON ES
CA R P A I B o x ns H R O S E w ’
ru D rs 3 -
E I~
‘
P or O SE w rr n
EN D R m o s AN EN D A D A C E N T E N DS o r R A I S AN D M T A CAR P U
. . .
, .

TM P or a !) R OX I M A I . OF J D U
I NT R NA L V i E TERN A L V I
.
E S ;
E ew X E W

r di l r p l C i t e rmedi t e r p l C l r r p l C —
. .

A ess or y r p l b o e
Ca cc ca a n : 4Cr,rs t to a a ca a ; i, n a ca a ;
-
u u na ca a ;
'
I fi
fo rt h rp l s M I me t r p l bo es g roo e f or t e do o f e e s or rp i ob l i q s g roo e for
,
, ,

u ca a ; c I III I V, aca a n : I v n n x t n 2
l t e r l e t e s or t e do g roo e for t e do o f fl e or r p i e t e r s 4 me t rp l t b e ro s i t y (A f t e r S h m l t z
.
, , , ca uu ; , v
a a x n n n; 3 v n n

Atl d
x ca x nu ;
d l d )
, , aca a u . c a
'
as . A unt . . fe r cs .

A L B ON E THE AC C E SS OR Y C A RP

T h e acc e s s o ry carp al h o ne (Os carpi access o rium pisif o rm ) is situated b e h ind

.

the ulnar carpal b o n e and t h e o uter part o f t h e d istal end o f th e ulna I t is d is c o id .

and presents f o r descripti o n t w o surfaces and a ci rcumference Th e in te rn al .

s u rf ac e is c o n c ave and f o rms t h e o uter w al l o f th e carpal gr oo ve The e xtern al .

s urf ac e is c o nvex a n d r o ug h ; a sm oo t h gr oo ve f o r t h e o uter tend o n o f th e fl exo r

carpi externus cr o sses its anteri o r part o bl i q u ely d o w n w ard and sli g h tly f o rw ard .

T h e ante ri o r b o rd er bears t w o facets ; t h e u pper o ne is c o n cave and arti culates w ith

.

t h e b a c k o f t h e o u ter facet o n t h e d istal end o f t h e rad ius ; t h e l o w er on e i s c o nvex

and a rt iculates w i t h t h e ulnar carpal b o ne Th e remai nder o f t h e ci rcumferen ce is .

r o und ed and r o ug h .

T he a c c es s odi r e c t l y h e a r w e i g h t and ma y b e r e g a r d e d a s a s e s a mo i d b o ne
ry d o es no t
n t e r p o s e d i n t h e e mi rs e o f t h e te n d o ns o f t h e m idd l
e a n d e xte r na l fl exo rs o f t h e ca r p u s w h i c h
0 ,

i
i t e n a b l e s to a c t a t a me c h a n i c a l a d v a n ta e
T h e p o s te r i o r b o r d e r f u r n i s h e s a t ta ch m e n t to
.

g
t h e t r a n s v e r s e c a r p a l li g a me n t w h i c h c o m p l e te s t h e c a r p a l c
.

a n a l fo r t h e fl exo rs o f t h e d i g i t
.
, .
86 THE SK E L E T O N OF TH E H O R SE

THE TH I R D CA R P AL B ON E
The thir d c arpal b o ne (Os c ar p a le t e rt iu m os m a gn u m ) is m u ch the l a r gest ,

b o n e o f t h e l o we r ro w fo r m i ng mo r e th a n tw o thi r ds o f t he W i dt h of the l a tte r I t

,
- .

is fl atte n ed f ro m ab ove d o w nw a r d a nd is twi ce a s wide i n f ro n t a s behi n d The,

.

supe ri or o r pr oxim a l su rf a c e c o nsi s ts o f t w o f a c ets sep a r a ted by a n an te r o p o ste r i o r -

idge i e f cet is c ve d ti u l tes w ith t h e r a d i a l c a r p a l ; the o ute r

; t h e nn r a c o n a a n a r c a
r
f a c et —fo r t he i nte r m edi a t e c a r p a l —is c o n c ave i n f ro n t a nd c o n vex beh i n d wh e r e it ,

e n c ro a c h es o n the p o s t e r i o r su rf a ce The i n f e ri or o r d i sta l sur f a c e is sli ghtly u n

.

t i cul t es l m s t e ti ely with the l a r ge (th i r d ) met a c a r p a l b o n e

d u l a ti g a
n n.d a r a a o n r ,

bu t i t usu a lly be a rs a sm all o blique f a cet a t its i n n e r sid e fo r the i nn e r (sec on d ) m et a

c a rp a l a n d t he r e is c o m m o nly a no n a rt i cul a r dep ressi o n e x te r n a l ly Th e i n tern al
,
- .

s u rfa c e f a ces b a c kwa r d a nd i nw a r d a nd be a r s th r ee f a cets for ar t i cul a ti o n with

,

the sec o n d c a rp a l betwee n whi ch it is e x c a v a ted a n d r o ugh Th e e xtern al s urfa c e

,
. .

h a s t w o f a cets fo r a rti c u l a t i o n with the f o u r th c a r p a l a n d is dep r essed an d r o ugh ,

i n its middle Th e an te r i or o r d or s a l su rf a c e is c o nvex a n d is c r o ssed by a r o ugh

.

t ra ns ve rse r idge The p o ste r i or o r v o l ar s u rfa c e i s r el a tively sm a ll a n d is r o u n d ed ;

. ,

i t s uppe r p a rt is e n c ro a ched up o n by th e su pe r i o r a r ti cul a r su r f a ce bel o w wh i ch ,

it is ro ugh .

THE FO UR T H CA R P A L B O N E
The f o ur th c arpal b o ne (Os c a r p a l e qu a r tu m u n cif o rm ) is s om ewh a t wedge ,

sh a ped a nd is r e a dily disti nguished f r o m the sec on d by its g r e a te r si ze a n d its

,

p o ste r i o r tube r cle The su pe ri o r o r pro xi m a l s u rfa c e ar ti cu l a tes with th e i n te r

.

m edi a te a n d ul n a r ; it is c o n vex an d cu r ves o u tw a r d b a ckw ar d a n d d o w n w a r d , , ,

e nc roa chi ng o n the exte r na l a nd p o ste r i or su r f a ces Th e i nf er i or o r d i stal s u rf a c e .

be a rs tw o i nne r fa cets for th e l a r ge (th i r d ) m et a c arp a l and an o ute r o n e for the ex

t e rna l (fo u r th ) m et a c a r p a l b o n e The in tern a l s u r f a c e h as tw o o r th r ee f a cets for
.

a rticul a ti o n with the thi rd c a r p a l betwee n wh i ch it is exc a v a ted a n d r o u gh

,
Th e .

an t er i or o r d or s a l su rf a ce i s c o n ve x a nd r o ugh Th e e xte rn a l su r fa c e is sm a ll .
,

bei n g e n c ro a ched u p o n by t h e supe r i o r a r ti cul a r su r f a ce The po st eri or or v o l ar .

1
su rf a c e b a rs a tube r c le o n its l o we p a t
i
r r .

W HO L E
THE CA RP U S AS A

The b o n es o f the c a r pus excl usi ve o f the a ccess or y f or m a n i rr egul ar q

,
u a d ran ,

gul a r m a s s the width o f whi ch is a b o ut twi ce the height or th e an te r o p oste r i o r

,
-

di a mete r The ante r i o r o r d or s a l su rfa c e i s c o n vex f rom si de t o si de d ep r essed

.
,

a l o n g t h e li n e o f j u n c ti o n o f the t w o r o ws a n d p r o m i n e n t bel o w The po s t e ri or

,
.

o r v e l ar su rf a c e is i n ge n e r a l slightly c o n vex but ve r y i rr egul ar I t f o r m s wi th th e ,

.

a c c e s s o r y the c a rp a l gr oov e (S ul cus c a r pi ) whi ch i n t he r e ce n t st a te i s r e n de r ed ,

s moo th by the p o s te r i o lig a me n t : i t i s c o n ve r ted i n t o the c arp a l c an a l (C an a li s

r

c a r pi ) fo r t h e fl ex o r te nd o ns b y the t ra n s ve r s e c a r p a l l ig a m e n t whi ch st r etch es ,

a c ro s s f ro m the a c c e s s o r y b o n e t o the i nn e r side The pro x i m a l su r f a c e is wi dest i n .

t e rn a l l y a n d i s elev a ted i n f r o n t c o n c a ve behi n d ; i t i s e n ti r ely a r ti cu l a r a n d a d a pted

,

to t h e c a r p a l a r ti c ul a r s u r f a ce o f t h e r a di u s The d i sta l su r fa c e is a ls o a r ti cu l a r and

.

is i r reg u l a rly f a c eted i n a d a pt a ti o n t o th e su r f a ces o f th e m et a c a r p a l b o n es ; e a ch

o f t h e l o we r b o n e s u s u a lly a r ticul a te s wi th t w o m et a c a r p a l b o n es but s o m eti m es ,

t h e t h i rd d o e s n o t be a r o n t h e i nn e r m et a c a r p a l b o n e The l a te r a l su r f a c e s a re .

b o t h i r r egul a r a nd r o ugh t h e i n te r n a l o n e bei n g th e wi de r

, Wi th th e excepti o n o f .

the a c ce s s o ry ul n a r a n d s ec o nd e a c h b o n e a r ti c u l a te s wi th t w o b o n es o f t he o th e r
, , ,

D e ve l opm e nt —E a ch o ssifi es f ro m a si n gle ce n te r .

"Th i s p ro b a b l y e q
b o ne i s u i v a l en t , to t h e fo u r t h a nd fif t h c ar p a ls of f o rm s in w h chi five
c a r p a l e l e me nt s a re p res e n t i n t h e l o w er r ow .
 T HE M E T AC A R P U S —T HE L A R G E M E T A C A R P A L B O N E 8
'

THE ME TACAR PUS

Th r ee m e ta car pa l b o n e s (Oss a m eta c a r pa l i a ) a r e p r ese n t i n the h o rs e Of .

these o n ly o n e the thi r d o r l a rge m et a c a r p a l b on e is fully devel o ped a n d c a rr ies a

, , ,

di git ; the o t he r t w o the sec o n d a n d f ou rt h a r e m uc h r edu ced an d a re c o m m on ly

, , ,
”
c a lled t he i nt e a l a
r n n d exte r n a m
l s a l l m et a c a r p a l o r spl i n t b o ne s “
.

Tu ber osi ty

D i s ta l

meta ca r

S eco nd p h a l a

Fi r s t p ha l a nx

gr oove su r p r oces s

thi r d
p ha l a n x

Fro 56 D I S TAL R w
-
oC A R A L B ON ES N
or P E TA CA R F ro 57 —L FT E Bl E T A CA R P A L xx » D TAL B
IGI o x es or

F T AN D S E C ON D P HALAN
‘
. .
, . .

P US I RS AN D GE S HO RS E IN T NAL VER i ew (A ft Ser c h ma lt z

S ES A MO I D B ON ES O H O R SE ; P
.
, . ,

Pao xm x r. F os A tl as d . A t d Pf d
na . . er es . )
TE RI O R V W L FT S D
IE , E I E .

Th e f th ( t
ou r l ) m t p l b i w g ly
e x e rn a e aca r a o ne s ron

nu m b e r ed asI (A ft
. S h m lt z A tl
er c 1 A t d
a , as . ( . na . .

P f
e rd es . )

THE LA R G E ME T A C AR P AL B O NE
T h is (Os m et a c arp a le te rti u m ) is a ve r y st r o n g l on g b on e , pl a ced ve r ti c a lly
"

betwee n t he c a r pus a b o ve an d t he fi r st ph a l anx bel o w I t c on s i sts o f a sh a ft an d .

t w o ext r emiti es .
88 THE S KE L E T O N OF T HE H OR S E

The sh af t (C o r pus ) i s se m i cyli n d r i c a l a n d p r ese n ts tw o su r f a ces a n d t w o ,

b o r de rs Th e an t e ri or o r d or s a l su rf a c e is s m oo th c on vex f r om side t o sid e a n d

. , ,

n e a r ly st r aight i n its le n gth The p o s t er i o r or v e l ar su rf a c e i s s om ewh a t c on vex

.

f ro m s ide to si d e a nd wi t h th e sm a l l b on es fo rms a wi de g roo ve wh i ch l o dges th e

suspe ns o r y li g a me n t On eithe r sid e of its uppe r t w o—
, ,

. thi r ds i t is r o ughe n ed fo r the

a tt a chme n t o f t he s m a l l m et a c a r p a l b on es Th e n utr i e nt f o ram e n o c cu r s at the .

j u n cti o n o f the uppe r a n d m i dd le thi r ds The l o we r thi r d i s wi de r a n d fl a tte n ed . .

The b Ord ers a re r o u n d ed .

The pr o xi m a l e xtr e mity (B a sis ) be ar s a n u n dul a ti n g art i cul ar su r f a ce a d a pted

to the l o we r ro w o f c a r p a l b on es The g r e a te r p a r t supp o r ts th e thi r d c a r p a l b on e ;
.

the o bliqu e o ute r p a rt sep a r a ted f r o m the p r e ce di n g b y a r i dge a r ti cul a tes wi t h

the fo u rt h a n d a sm a l l f a cet for the sec on d is usu a lly f o u n d a t th e p oste r o —
, ,

,
i n te rn a l
a n gl e .On ei the r sid e i s a n o t ch sep a r a ti n g t w o sm a ll f a cets whi ch a r ti cul a te wi th
the p r o xi m a l e n ds o f the s m a ll m et a c ar p a l b on es T o w a r d th e i nn e r sid e of the .

a n te r i o r su r f a ce is the m eta c arp a l tu b e r o s ity , i n t o w h i ch t he ext en s o r c a r pi r a di a lis

is i n se r ted T h e p oste r i or sur f a ce is r o ugh e n ed for t h e a tt a ch m e n t of the sus

.

p e n so r y lig a m e nt .

The d i stal e xtr e mity (Tr o chle a s C a pi tul u m ) p r esen ts a n a r ti cu l ar su r f a ce .

fo r t he fi r st ph a l a n x a n d the p r o xi m a l ses a m o i d b on es whi ch is c o m p o sed o f t w o ,

c o n dyles sep ar ated by a s agi tt a l r i dge ; t h e i nn e r c o n dyl e i s sli gh tly th e l a r ge r

,
.

On eithe r side is a s m a ll f o ss a su r m o u n ted by a tube r cle for th e a tt a ch me n t of th e

, ,

l a te r a l lig a me n ts of the fetl o ck j o i n t .

Th e l a rge me t a ca rp a l i s on e o f th e s t ron gest bo nes i n th e s k ele t on T h e co m p a c t s ub s t anc e .

i s s p e c i a ll y t h i c k i n f ro n t a nd i n t e r n a ll y T h e m ed u l l a r y c a na l e x t e nd s f u r t h er t o w a r d th e end s
.

t h a n i n mos t of th e l ong b o nes o f t h e h orse a nd t h ere i s l i tt le s p o ng y b o ne .

C A RP A L B O NE S THE S M A LL M ETA

These a re si tu a ted o n ei the r si de of the p o ste r i or su r f a ce o f th e l a r ge met a c ar p a l

b o ne a n d f o r m the sides o f th e m et a c a r p a l g r oo ve
, E a ch c ons ists o f a sh a ft a n d .

tw o ext r e m i ti es .

The s h af t (C o r pu s ) is th r ee sided a n d t a pe r s t o th e di st a l en d I t i s v a r i a bly

-
.

cu rved c onvex t o w a r d the m i ddl eli n e of th e li m b

, The an te r i or su r f a ce i s fl a tte n ed .

a n d is r o ugh except i n i ts l owe r p a r t ; i t i s a tt a ch ed t o the l a r ge m et a c a r p a l b o n e

,

by a n i nte r o sse o us li g a m e n t except n e a r th e di st a l en d The a b axi a l su r f a ce is

, .

s moo th a nd r ou n ded f r om si de to S i de a b o ve gr oo ved bel o w Th e ax i a l su r f a ce is ,

.

s moo th a n d c o n c a ve f r o m edge to edge ex cept b el o w whe r e i t f or m s a r o u n ded , ,

edge .

The pr o xi m a l e xtremity or h ea d (B as is) i s r el a t ively l a r ge I n the c a se o f th e .

"

i nne r b o n e i t usu a l ly be a rs t w o f a cets a b o ve wh i ch supp o rt the sec on d an d thi r d

c ar p a l b o nes while the o ute r b o n e h as h e r e a si ngl e f a cet fo r a r ti cul a ti on wi th the
,

f ou r th c a r p a l b o n e E a ch h as a ls o t w o f a cets fo r a r ti cul a ti on wi th the l a r ge m et al

.

c a r p a l a n d is elsewhe r e ro ughen ed for the a tt a ch m e n t o f lig a m e n ts a nd muscles ]

'

The i n ne r b on e m a y p r e s e n t a s m a ll f a cet behi n d fo r th e fi r st c a r p a l b on e .

The di sta l e xtr e mity (C a pi tul u m ) is usu a ll y a s m a l l n o du le wh i ch p r o j e cts to ,

a v a r i a ble exte n t i n diff e r e n t subj ects a n d i s e a si ly felt i n th e livi n g an i m a l I t is

”

, .

situ a ted t w o t h i r ds to th ree f ou rt hs o f the w a y d o w n th e r egi on

- -
.

The s ma ll me t ac a r p a l b ones
v a ry m u c h i n l eng th t h i c k ness a n d c u r v a t u r e I n th e m a , ,
.
‘

j o r i ty o f ca s es th e i n ne r b o ne i s th e l o n ger ; i n o t h er s u b j e c t s t h e o u t er o n e i s t h e l o ng er o r t h er e
n o m a t e ri a l d i f er en c e S o m e ti mes t h e c u r v a t u r e i s v e r y p r o n o u n c ed s o t h a t th e d i st a l e n d
'

. . f
,
c a u s es a d e c i d ed p ro j e c ti o n T h e d i s t a l e n d i s v ery v a r i a b le i n s i z e a n d m a y b e a mer e p o i n t
.
.

D eve l o pme n t —The l a rge m et a c a r p a l bon e o s si fies f r o m th r ee ce n te r s Th e .

p ro xi m a l ext re m i ty u n i tes wi th the sh a ft befor e bi r th th e d i s t a l extr e m i ty t ow a r d

'

the m i d d le o f the sec o n d yea r Th e s m a ll m et a c a r p a l b on es o ssify f r o m t w o c en

.

te rs on e of whi ch i s fo r the p r o xi ma l ext r emi ty

, Thei r dist a l e n ds a r e c ar ti l a gi n o us .
 T HE P H A L A N G E S —T HE F I R S T P H A L A N X—T HE SE C ON D P HA L AN X 89

at bi rt h . Fa si e n of th e mi dd le p art of the sh a ft with the l a rge m et a c a r p a l b o n e is

c o m mon .

THE P HAL AN GE S
THE Fms r P HA L AN X

Th e fir s t ph al an x (P h a l an x p r i m a )l is a l o n g b on e si tu a ted betwee n t h e l ar ge ,

met a c arp a l b on e a b o ve an d the sec o n d ph a l a nx bel o w I t i s d i rected obli quely .

d o wn w a r d a nd f o r w ar d f o r mi n g an a n gle of 50 t o 55 deg r ees wi t h th e h ori z on t a l

pl a n e i n well —
,

f o r med li mbs I t c ons ists o f a sh a ft a n d t w o ext r emi ti es

. .

Th e s h af t (C or pus ) is wi de r a nd muc h th i cke r a b o ve t h an bel o w a n d p r ese n ts ,

tw o s u rf a ces a n d t w o b or de r s Th e an t eri o r o r d or s al s ur f a c e i s c on vex f r om sid e

.

t o si de a n d s moo th Th e p o st e r i or o r v e l ar s ur f a c e is fl a tte n ed an d be ar s a t r i an g u
.
,

l ar r o u gh a r e a b o un ded l a te ra lly by r i dges whi ch b e g i n a t th e tube r o sities a b o ve

, .

an d c on ve r ge bel o w ; this a r e a fu rni shes a tt a ch m e n t to t he i nf e r i or s esa m oi d ea n

lig a m e n ts Th e b o r d e r s i n te rn al a nd ext ern al , a re r o u n ded a n d h a ve a r o ugh ar e a
.
,

or a t ub e r cle o n t hei r m i ddl e p a r ts .

The pr o xi m al e xtr emi ty (B a sis ) i s r el a t i vely l a rge I t be a r s a n ar ti cu l ar su r .

f a ce a d a pted t o t he di st a l en d of t he l a r ge met a c a r p a l b on e c ons isti n g of t w o gle n ,

e i d c a vi ti es sep a ra ted by a s a gitt a l g r oo ve ; t h e inn e r c a v i ty is a l itt le l a r ge r th a n

th e o ute r on e Th e p o steri or an gles a r e f or m ed by b utt r ess li ke t ube r o siti es for

.
-

li g am e n t o us a tt a c h m e n t The an te r i or su r f a ce h as a S li ght elev at i on for t he at

.

t ac hm en t o f t he l a te r a l exte ns o r t e n d on .

Th e d i s tal e xtr e mi ty is s m a ll e r especi a l ly i n its an t er o p o ste r i or di a m ete r,

-
.

I t p r ese nts a t r o c h le a for a r ti c ul a ti o n w i th the sec on d ph a l anx c on sisti n g o f a ,

sh a ll o w ce n t r a l g r o o ve an d t w o l a te r a l c o n vex ar e a s or c on dyles ; t he i nn e r a r e a is a
little the l a r ge r On eit he r side j ust a b o ve t h e m a r gi n o f th e a rt i cu l ar sur fa ce is a
.
, ,

dep r essi on s u r m o u n ted by a t ube r cle t o b o t h of whi ch t he l a te ra l lig am e n t is at ,

t ach ed . B e h i n d t he tub e r cle is a di st i n ct f a cet t o whi ch the supe rfi ci a l fi ex e r t en

d on i s a tt a ched
-
.

D e v e l opm ent — The fi r st ph a l an x os si fie s f r om th r ee cen te r s Th e dist a l en d .

u ni tes w it h th e sh aft b ef o r e bi r t h t h e p r o x i m a l en d e a r ly i n th e fir st ye ar
,
.

Th e fir s t p h a l a nx c on t a i ns a s m a l l m ed ul l a r y c a n a l i n t h e mi dd l e o f th e sh a f t I t m ay h e .

r e m a r k ed t h a t t h e b o n e i s t w i s t ed S li g h tl y ; w h en p l a c ed v e l a r s u r f a ce d o w n o n t h e t a bl e, i t
t ou c h es th e l a tt er b y t hr ee p di n ts onl y, th e p ro xi m al t u b er os i ti es a nd th e i n t er n a l co n d y l e
.

THE O
S E C ND P H A L A N X
Th e s ec on d ph al anx (P h a l anx sec u n d a) is situ ated between th e fi r st a n d 2

thi r d ph a l an ges its di r ecti on c orr esp on di n g t o th a t of the fir st ph a l anx I t is

,
.

fl a tten ed f r o m b ef or e b a c kw ar d an d its wi dth is g r e ate r th a n its h eight I t may

'

b e desc r ib ed a s p o ssessi n g f o ur sur f a ces .

The upper o r pr o xi m al s u r f a c e p r ese n ts tw o gle n o id c a vi ties sep a r a ted by a

l o w ri dge a n d a r ti cul a tes wi t h th e fir st ph a l an x The m iddl e of the a n te r i or b or d e r
,
.

i s el e v a ted a n d r o ughe n ed i n f r on t for the att a ch m e n t of the a n te r i or o r c omm on

ext ens or ten d o n The p o ste r i or b o r de r i s thi ck an d o ve r h a n gi n g ; i n the fr esh
.

st a te its mi ddl e p art i s c o ve r ed wit h c ar ti l a ge o ve r whi ch th e deep fl exor te n d on ,

p a sses On eithe r S i de the r e is a n emi n e n ce t o wh i ch the l a te ra l lig a m e n t an d the

. ,

super fi ci a l fl exor te n d on a r e a tt a ched .

The i nf er i or or d i stal s ur f a c e is t ro chl e a r a n d a rti cul a tes with the thi r d ph a l ,

'
-

I t r ese m bles s o mewh a t the tr Och l ea e f the fi r st

f

a nx a n d thi r d ses am o i d b on e .

ph a l a nx b ut i s m o r e ext e n sive a n d e n c r o a ches m or e on the an te r i or a n d p oste ri or

,

s urf a ces .

Th e an teri o r or d or s al s u r fa c e i s c o n vex f rom S i de to S i de and sm o o th i n i ts

'

1
I t is l
a so ca l l ed th e l a rg e p as t ern b o ne o r os s u fi rag i ni s .

T hi s b o ne i s al s o c a l l ed th e s m a l l p as t er n b o n e o r o s co r o n ze
2 .
90 T HE S KE L E T O N or T HE H O R SE

iddle its l we p t l te l ugh dep essi o n s su r m o u nted by tube r o sities

m ; on o r ar a r e a r a r o r , ,

to b o th o f wh i ch lig a m e n t s a re a tt a ched .

The po ste r i or o r ve l ar su rf a c e is sm o o th fl a tte n ed a nd sl o pes o bl i quely d o w n

, ,

d f w d The b de s wh i ch sep r a te the a n te r i o r a n d p o ste r i o r su rf a ces

a d o
n r a r o r r a
w ar .

a re c c
on a ve f ro m a b o ve d o w n w a r d r o u n ded f r o
.
m bef o r e b a ckw a r d .

D ev e l opme nt — The sec o n d ph a l a n x os s ifi es l ike the fi rs t b u t the p r o x i m a l ,

.

e nd u n ites wit h t h e S h a ft t w o o r th r ee m o n ths e

ar lie r .

Di s ta l bor d er

Dors a l or w a l l f
s u r ace

E x ten s or pr oces s
A rti cu l a r f
s u r a ce

Th i rd P h a l a nx .
Cor ona r y bor d er
Dor s a l gr oove
Depr es si o n f or l a ter a l l i ga ment

A ngl e o r i c i ng

A r ti c u l a r s u rfa ce of thi r d s es a moi d or

Th i rd S c s m mnl ' a u ri cu l a r bo ne

Di s ta l a r ti c u l a r s u r a c ef

E mi n ence f or l a ter a l l i ga men t

S ec o nd P ho l o n r Dors a l f
s u r a ce

P r oxi ma l a r ti c u l a r s u r a ce f

Di s ta l l
a r ti c u a r s u r a c e f

E mi ne n ce f or l a tera l l i ga me nt

Dorsa l f
s u r ace

Fi r st P ha l a nr

E mi nen cc f or exte nsor ten d o ns

Tu ber osi ty
P r oxi ma l a r ti c u l a r s ur a c e f
I nter med i a te gr oove
FI G . 5Q . AN !) T n m n S ES A M OI I) or H O R SE D O R S A L A S P E C T
,
.

THE THl R D P H AL A N X
The thi rd o r u n gu al ph al an x (P h a l an x te r ti a )l is e n ti r ely i n cl o sed by the h oo f ,

to wh ich i t c o n f o r ms i n a ge n e ra l w ay I t p r ese n ts fo r ex a mi n a ti on t h r ee su rf a ces

.
,

t h ree b o rde rs a n d tw o a n gles o r wi n gs

, .

The ar ticu l ar s urf a c e (F a cies a r ti cul a r is ) f a ces upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d a nd is ,

chiefl y a d a pted to the d ist a l su r fa ce o f the sec on d ph a l a n x but a n a rro w fl a tte n ed ,

a r e a a l o n g t h e p o ste r i o r b o rde r a r ti cul a tes with th e th i r d ses a m o id The a n .

T h i s b o ne i s l
a so ca ll ed th e es ped i s or co ffi n bone .
 T HE T HI RD P HA L AN X 91

te ri or o r onar y b o r d er f o r m s a ce n t r a l e m i n e n ce the e xten s or (or py ra mid a l )

or c ,

proce s s (P r o cessus e xte n s o r i u s ) t o the f ro n t o f whi ch t he a n te r i o r exte n s o r te nd o n

,

is a tt a ched On eithe r side is a dep r essi o n for the a tt a chme n t o f the l a te r a l lig a
.

m ent .

The d ors al or w al l s ur fa c e (F a cies d or s a l is ) sl o pes d o wn w a r d an d fo rw a rd .

The an gl e of i n cl i n a ti o n on the g ro u n d pl a n e is a b o ut 4 5 to 50 deg rees i n f ro nt .

L a te ra l ly the hei ght di m i n ishes and the sl o pe bec o mes steepe r especi a lly on th e , ,

i nn e r side F r o m side to side the cu r v a tu r e is a l m o st se m i ci r cu l a r The su r f a ce

.
.

i s r o ugh a nd p o ro us r esembl i n g pumi ce st on e s o mewh a t I t is pe rf or ated by n u

, .

m e ro u s f o ra mi n a o f v a r i o us si zes ; a se r ies o f l a r ge r on es is situ a ted o n or ne a r th e

l o we r b o r de r On eith e r sid e th e d or s a l (or prepl an ta r ) gr oo v e (S ul cus d ors a lis )
.

p asses for w ar d f r o m the wi n g a n d e n ds a t o n e o f t he l ar ge r fora mi n a I n th e f r e s h .

st a te this su rfa ce is c o ve r ed by the m a t r ix of the w a l l o f the h oo f The infer i or o r .

di s tal b ord er is th i n sh ar p a n d i rr egul a r ly n o t ched ; the r e is c o mm o nl y a w ide r

, ,

n o tch i n f r o n t .

The v o l ar or inf eri o r s u rfa c e (F a ci es v o l ar is ) is a r ched a n d d ivi ded i n t o t w o ,

u n eq u a l p ar ts by a cu r v e d r o ugh li ne the s e mi lun ar c re st (C r ist a se m ilu n a r is ) , .

The l a r ge r an te r i o r a r e a is c res ce n t sh a ped c on c a ve and c o m p ar a tively s moo th ; -

, ,

i t c o rr esp on ds t o t he s o l e o f the h oo f an d m ay b e te rmed the s o l e s urf a c e The , .

p o ste ri o r p a rt is mu ch sm a l le r a n d is se m i lu n ar ; it is r el a ted t o th e deep fl exo r

,

te n d on and is he n ce c a ll ed th e fl exor or te nd on s urfa c e (F a ci es fl exori a ) I t

, .

p r ese n ts a ce n t r a l p r o mi n e n t ro ugh a r e a on ei the r side of whi ch is th e vo l ar (o r ,

pl an t a r ) for am en (F o r am e n v o l ar e ) t o wh i ch the v o l ar (or pl an t a r ) gr oov e (S ul cus ,

v o l ar is ) c on du cts fr o m th e w i n g Th e f or a mi n a le a d i n t o th e s emi l u nar c an a l.

wi th i n th e b o n e f r o m w hi ch s m a ll c an a ls le a d t o s om e o f the for ami n a of the w a l l

,

su r f a ce Th e deep fl exor ten d o n is i n se rt ed i n t o the se m ilu na r c r est and t h e

.

ce n t ra l r o ugh a r e a b e hi n d i t .

The v o l ar f o r a m i na t ra ns m i t th e t er mi na ti o ns o f th e d i gi t a l a r t er i es i n t o th e
g roo v es a nd
s emi l u n ar ca n a l w h e r e t h ey m ee t a n d f o r m a t e rm i n a l a r c h f r o m w hi c h b ra n c h es p a s s t h r o u g h
, ,

c a n a l s i n t h e b o n e a n d em er ge t hr ou g h t h e f o r a mi n a on t h e w a ll su rf ac e .

Th e an gl es o r w i ng s (A n guli ) a re p r ism a ti c m a sses whi ch p ro j ect b a ckw ar d on

eithe r side ; the i nn e r on e is usu a lly the sh o rte r E a ch is di vided i n t o uppe r a n d .

l o we r p ar ts b y a n o t ch o r is pe r f ora ted by a f o ra men whi ch le a ds t o th e v a scul ar

,
1
gr oo ve on th e side of the w a l l su r f a ce Th e uppe r b o r d e r c arr i es the l a te ra l c a rti .

l a ge .

Th e l a ter a l c ar til a g e s (C ar ti l a gi n es u n gu l ae) a re r h om b o id cu r ved pl a tes ,

whi ch su rm o u n t th e wi n gs on ei the r side Th e y a re r el atively l ar ge a nd exten d .

a b o ve t h e m ar gi n o f the h oo f suffi ci e n tly t o b e disti n ctly p a lp a ble The a b a xi a l .

s u r f a ce i s c on vex th e a xi a l c on c a ve The uppe r b o rde r is c on vex a nd thi n ; th e

,
.

l o we r i s thi cke r a n d is i n p art a tt a ched to th e wi n g The a n te r i o r end is a tt a ched .

by li g a me n t t o th e side of the se c o n d ph a l an x Th e p o ste r i or en d cu r ves t o w ard .

i ts fel l o w a t th e h eel a nd i s pe r f o r a ted b y n u m e r o us f o ra m i n a fo r t he p a ss a ge o f

,

ve i n s The ce n t r a l p a r t is m a i n l y hy a li n e t he pe r iph e r y m a i n ly fi b r ous

.
,
.

It w ill ed t h a t th e s i z e an d form of th e w i ng s v ary mu c h i n d i ff eren t s p ec i mens I n

be no t .

t h e n e w b o rn f o a l t h e w i ng i s a s m a l l p o i n t ed p ro j e c ti o n
- La t er t h e p ro c es s o f os5 1 fic a ti o n
,
.

i n v a d es t h e l o w er p ar t o f t h e c ar ti l a g e to a v ary i ng ext en t I n so m e cas es th e gr ea t er p a r t o f

—
. .

”
t h e c a r ti l a g e i s o ss ifie d a co n di ti o n comm o n l y t ermed si e e “
d b o n .

D ev e l opm en t —The o ssifi c a ti on o f the te r m i na l ph a l an x is pecu li a r Whi le .

.

t he p r o xi m a l a r ti cu l a r p a r t is still c ar ti l a gi no us a pe r i ch ond r i a l c a p o f b on e is ,

f or med i n r el a ti on t o the h o o f L a te r the p r o cess exte n ds i nt o the uppe r p a r t .

S tru c tu r e —The i n te r i o r o f this b o n e is ch a nn eled b y n ume r o us c a n a ls for

.

pp er a nd l o w er d i v i s i o ns i ng me ti mes t e r m ed the ba s i l a r a n d r e tros s a l

of th e w
1
The u a r e so

p roc ess es r es p e c ti v e l y .
 92 THE S KE L E T O N OF T HE H OR S E

vessels most o f whi ch rad i at e fr o m the se milu n a r c a n a l t o the w a ll su r f a ce ; th ese

,

a r e n o t c a n a l s for n u t r ie n t ves s els o f t he b o n e but t ra ns m i t a r te i es t o the m a t r ix

r
,

o f th e h o o f T h i ck l a ye rs o f c o m p a c t subst a n ce a re f o u n d at th e a r ti cul ar a n d
.

fl ex o r su r fa ces a nd t he exte n s o r p ro cess 13 e a t the p o i n t s o f g r e a test p r essu r e a nd ,

. .
,

t ra ct i o n .

THE SE SAMOI D B ONE S

T h e t w o proxi m a l g r e at s e s am o id s (Oss a ses a m o id e a ph a l a n gi s p r i m ae) are

or

situ at ed behi nd th e d ist a l e nd of the l a r ge m et a c a r p a l b o n e an d a re cl o sely a t ,

ta c h ed to t h e fi rst ph a l a n x by st ro n g lig a m e n ts E a ch h a s the f o r m o f a th r ee .

sided py ra m id The ante r i or o r ar ti cu l ar s urfa c e c on fo rms to the c or r esp o n di n g

.

p a rt o f th e dist a l end o f the l a r ge m et a c a r p a l b on e The po st e ri o r o r fi exor .

s ur f a c e is fl a tte ned a n d o bl ique ; i n the f resh st a te it i s c o ve red by a l a ye r o f c ar ti

l age which a ls o fil ls the i n te r v a l betwee n th e o pp o sed b or de r s o f the tw o b on es an d ,

fo r ms a s moo th g ro o ve fo r the deep fl exor te n d o n Th e ab a xi a l su rf a c e is c on c a ve .

,

a n d give s a tt a c h m e n t to p a r t o f the suspe n s o r y li g am e n t ; i t is sep ara ted f r om th e

p os t e ri o r su r fa ce by a ro ugh eve r ted b o r d e r The b a s e f a ces d ow nw a r d a n d .

,

fu r n ishes a tt a ch m e n t to th e i n fe r i o r s es a m o i d ean l ig a m e n ts Th e ap e x is di rected .

upw a rd a nd is r o un ded .

Th e thi rd s e s am o id o r nav i cu l ar b o n e (Os ses am o ideu m ph a l an gis terti ae) is

shuttle s h a ped a n d is situ a ted beh i n d the j u n cti on o f t h e se c o n d an d th i r d ph a l
-
,

a nges I ts l o ng a xis i s t r a n sve rse a nd i t p o ssesses tw o su r f a ces tw o b o r de r s a n d

.
, , ,

t w o ext r e m iti es Th e ar ti cul ar su rfa c e .

A r ttc u l a r s u r ( F a ci es a r ti cu l a r is ) f a ces upw a r d a n d

j a w f or s econd f or w ar d ; 1 t c on s i sts of a ce n t r a l emi

Pha l an x n c n oc fl an ked by c o n c a v e a r e a s a n d
A mewl " f
' , ,
i hW d
a r ti cul a tes wi th the di st a l e n d o f th e

sec o n d ph a l a nx The fl e x or or t e n d o n
Di s ta l bor d er
.

59 —
s urf a c e (F a cies fl exor i a) i s d i r ected
F ic . T mm s
. m m O i N B ON E O
es a o
d o w n w ard a n d b a ckw a r d
R A V I C U LA R
I t r ese m
E
_
- (A f t S h m lt z A t l d A
.

ll o us ns . l d l i
er c d a ) , as . na . .
’
ar es .

b les th e a r t i cu l ar su r fa ce i n fo r m but ,

is m or e exte n sive an d n ot s o s moo th .

I n th e f r esh st a te i t i s c o a ted wi th c a r til a ge an d th e deep fiex or te n d o n pl a ys o ve r

it The p ro xi m al b or d er (M a r go l ibe r ) i s wi de a n d g roo ved i n its m id dle n a r r o we r
.

a n d ro u nded o n eithe r sid e The di sta l b or d e r (M a r g o lig a m e n t i ) b e a r s i n f r on t a

. -

n a rro w f a c et for a r ti cul a ti o n with th e thi r d ph a l a n x B ehi n d this is a g r oo ve whi ch .

,

c o nt a i n s a n u mbe r o f r el a tively l a r ge fo r a mi n a a nd is b o u n ded beh i n d by a p rom i ,

n e n t edge The e x tr e miti e s a re bl u n t p o i n ted -

D eve l opm en t —I t ossi fies f r o m a si n gle ce n te r

.
.

THE B ONE S OF THE PE LVI C LI MB '

The p e lvi c gir d l e c onsi s ts o f the o ss a c o x ae wh i ch u ni te ve nt r a lly , at the sy m

phy s is pelvis a n d a r ti cul a te with the s a c r u m d or s a lly
, .

OS GOK JE
The os coxm (or os i nno mi n a tu m ) f o r m s the skelet on o f th e h i p or h a u n ch an d ,

i h
s t e a r ge s t o f the fl a t b o n es
l I t c o n si sts p r i m ar i ly o f th r ee p a r ts t h e i li um ,
.

,
i
s chi um a nd p u b i s , whi ch m eet to f o rm th e a c e tab u l u m , a l a r ge c o tyl o i d c a vi ty fo r
,

a r ti c u l a ti o n
wi th th e h e a d o f th e fe m u r Th ese p a r ts are fused a t a b o ut o n e ye ar
.
.

Of a g e b u t i t I S c o n ve n i e n t t o d e s c r ibe the
.

, m sep a r a tely .
94
TH E s k E L E T ON OF TH E H OR S E
a n d r o ugh
te b
T h e an ri or or d r o e r c r e st (C r ist a i li a c a ) is c o n c a ve thi c k , ,
.

te l b o d e is deepl c c ve i t s m i ddl e p a rt f o r m s th e l o we r b o u n d
T h e i n rna r r y o n a ;
behi n d w i th th e s u pe ri o r
a r y o f t h e gr e a t s ci a ti c f o
r a m en , a n d i t is c ti u us
o n n o

i s chi a ti c spi n e .

The exte rn al b o rd e r i s c on c a ve a n d i n g e t
r a p a r t r o ugh I t s f ore p a rt i s .

whi ch c ti n u ed on the pel v i c

c ro ssed by g ro o ves fo r t h e i l i o l u mb a r vessels a r e o n -
,

su rf a c e The nu tri e nt f ora me n is u s u a lly s itu a ted o n o r n e a r the p o ste r i or p a r t o f

.

thi s b o r de r
little b a c k
.

le ) cu rves upw a r d an d a
T he i nt e rn a l or s a c ra l a n gl e (T ube r s a cra

Fm . 61 .
—OS S A Co x x m m OF \ l . . V i cx 'r n u . Vi i zw .

I) l l iu m : S ch ” p biu s; N i schi um; a an t i

er or b o rd e r (c r e s t ) o f ili u m; b i t n e r na l a ng e l of ili um
'
c
'
'

I h
. ,
. .

e x e rnt l gl f ili m ; I g
an t
e o t h: u l ( ili r ea sc a a lii ti tc no c 0 e x t e r na b o rd e r o f u m: f ili ac s f
u r ac e
'
nen a r eu a a
a t b l ; m t a sv e b n h and
,
.
. .

gh l g m t ; f i l f : k ili p ti l li n ; I p
ro u i a en o us a re a a u r c u a r su r ace o- ec ne a e so as u e rc e r n e rs ra c

i b d e Of p b i (p t en ) : q t b l m pb i
. . ,

h f p bi ; y m ph y i p lv i ; p
' e t- u
b ra n c o t u s o ,
o , s s s e s , an er o r or r u s , u erc u u

cu iu : l p i i l mi
r. i io- :ec t b i h ii ; t i h i l h ;
nc a e l
ne nc e i ti t h; a, t b l b
u h er nd sc sc a a rc u, es s e r s c a c no c r ace a u ar ra n c a

t bu td
,

u ', s y pl y
in l b i h f i hi m
s ea bt t
ra n c f m : y ti l
o sc f uf l m
‘
rf w ob lt u ra o r o ra en ar cu a r s u r a ce o ace a u
“

z os s a
r
‘ e u

t y ; 3 b p b i g v ; 4 il p i n f er
. ,
,

I g v f ili l l
ro o e o r y g v f ili f m
o - n i n ni r a r t e rl 0 roo e o r a eo - e o rn ar er su u c ro o e e res s o or i nn

Ba m A l
. . , .

i v l n i n i
n o Z
] f
’
‘

f
t) l I i :Il l gh
o f tt h m t f d d t m l
re c i u s ei no r s (E ll b g
n , ro u a r ea or a ac en o a uc or u sc es . en er e r- u na

d . ll a u s l i c rc . )

w ar d cl o se t o th e fi r st s a c r a l spi n e an d f orms h e r e th e hi ghest p o i n t Of th e skel et on ,

I t i s s o m ewh a t thi cke n ed a nd r o ugh .

T h e e xt e m al o r c o x a l an gl e (Tube r c o x ae ) f o r m s th e b a sis o f th e p o i n t o f the

hi p I t i s a l a r ge qu a d r a n g u l a r ma ss n a rr o w i n i ts mi dd le an d e n l ar ged a t ei the r
.
, ,

e n d w he r e i t be a rs a p a i r o f tube ro si ti es
, I t is r o ughe n ed fo r muscu l a r a tt a chmen t . .

The po ste i or o r a c eta b u l ar an gl e m eets th e o th e r t w o b o n es at the a cet a b u

r
l u m o f wh i h i t f o r ms a b o ut t w o fi fths I ts p r o m i n e n t uppe r b o r de r f o r ms p ar t
c
-
. .

o f t h e supe r or i s c hi a ti c spin e wh i ch is r o ughe n ed e x te r n a lly s m o o th i n te r na lly

i ,

T w o dep re s s i o n s a b o ve a n d i n f r o n t o f t he a cet a bulu m give a tt a ch m e n t t o t h e

,
‘
 T HE I S C HI L M
’
—T HE P U B I S 95

te n d o n s o f o r igi n o f t he r e ctu s fe m o r is m u s c le Th i s an gle is c o nn ected w ith the

.

a l a o r wi de p a r t o f th e b o n e by a c o n st r i cted p a r t o f t e n te r m ed th e s h a ft The , .

l a tte r is of th r ee sided p r ism a ti c f o r m I ts exte r n a l su r f a ce i s c on vex a n d ro ugh

-
.

an d gives a tt a ch m e n t t o th e d eep gluteus m uscle I ts pelvi c su r f a c e i s s m o o th a n d

.

i s gr o o ved for t h e o btu ra t or v essels an d n e r ves I ts ve n t r a l s u r f a ce i s c ro s s ed b y

.

v a scul a r g r oo ves b el o w wh i ch i s a r o ugh a r e a b o u nded i nte rna lly by the p s o a s

, ,

t ube r cle .

THE I SCHI UM
'

The i s chi um (Os isch i i ) f or m s th e p oster i or p ar t of th e ve n t r a l w a l l o r fl o o r of

the b o ny p el vi s I t sl o p es a li ttle d o w n w ar d a nd i n w a r d but i s p ra cti c a lly h o r i
.
,

z o n t a l i n th e l o n gitu di n a l di r ecti o n I t i s i r r egul a r ly qu a d r i l a te r a l an d m ay be

.
,

desc r ibed as h a vi n g t w o su r f a ces f o u r b o r de r s a n d f o u r a n gles

, , .

The s upe ri o r or pe lvi c s u r f a c e (F a cies pelvi n a) i s sm o o th an d slightly c o n c a ve

f r o m si de to si de .

The i nf eri o r s u rf a c e (F a ci es e x te r n a ) i s n e a r ly fl a t an d i s i n g r e a t p a r t r o ugh ,

e n ed for th e a tt a ch m e n t of t h e a ddu ct o r m uscles .

The an t eri or b or d e r f o r m s th e p o ster i o r m ar gi n o f t h e o btur a t or fo r a m e n .

Th e po s teri or b o r d er i s thi ck a n d r o ugh I t sl o pes o bl i quely i n w a r d a n d fo r

.

w ar d t o meet th e b o r de r of th e o the r si de f or m i n g w i th i t th e i s c hi a l ar ch (A r cus

,

isc hi a d i cus ) .

T h e i n tern al b o r d er m eets th e o pp o sit e b o n e at t he sy m physis .

Th e extern al b o r d er is t hi ck a n d r o u n ded bu t c on c a ve i n its le n gth ; i t f orm s

,

th e l e s s er s c i a ti c n o tch , t he l o we r b o u n d a r y of the lesse r sci a ti c f oram e n .

Th e anter o -in tern al an gl e o r s ymphys e al b ran c h (R a m us sy mp h y s e os ) m eets

the pub is wi th whi ch i t f o r m s th e i nn e r b o un d ar y o f the o btur a t o r f or a m e n
,
.

Th e an ter o -extern al an gl e or a c e tab ul ar b ran ch j o i n s th e o the r tw o b on es at

the a cet a b ulu m o f w hi ch i t f or m s m or e th an h a lf S upe r i or ly i t be ar s p ar t o f the
,
.

s u pe ri o r i s chi a ti c s pin e (S pi n a i schi a d i c a ) an d i n te rn a lly i t is g r oo ved fo r t he o h

,

tu r at or vessels
The po s ter o -ext ern al an gl e i s a thi ck thr ee—
.

sided m ass the tub er i s c hii (Tube r ,

i schi a di cum ) ; its l o we r b or de r is th e inf e ri or i s c hi ati c s pi n e , to whi ch th e bi ceps

fe m or is a n d semi ten di n o sus muscl es a r e a tt a ched .

THE P UB I S
Th e pubi s (Os pub is ) is th e s m a l lest of th e th r ee p a r ts o f th e os c o xze It .

f o r m s th e an te r i o r p a rt o f th e pelvi c fl o o r a n d m ay be desc r ibed as h a vi n g t w o

,

su rf a ces th r ee b o rde r s an d th r ee an gles

, ,
.

Th e s u pe ri o r o r pe l vi c s ur f a c e (F a ci es pelvi n a ) is c o n vex i n the y o un g subj ect

a nd th e st a l li on c on c a ve a n d s m oot h i n the m a r e a n d usu a lly i n the geldi n g a ls
o .

The ur i n ar y bl a dder r ests on i t .

The inf eri or o r v e ntr a l s u rf a c e (F a ci es exte r n a ) is c on vex an d i n g r e a t p a r t ,

r o ugh for m uscu l a r a tt a chme n t N e ar the an te r i o r b o r de r it i s c ro ssed by the

.

s u b pub i c gr oo v e , t he i nn e r p ar t of whi ch is o ccupied by a l ar ge vei n the o ute p

r art

by th e p u b o—
,

fem o r a l l ig a men t .

Th e an teri o r b o r d er i s thi n i n its i n n e r p ar t (except i n t h e y o u n g subj ect and

the st a l li on ) f o r m i n g t he pecte n o ssis pub is E xt e rn a lly i t be a r s th e r o ugh i l i o
,
.

i n u o us W i t h
pec i neal emi n en c e (E m n n a
t i e ti i li pecti e ) bey d whi ch i t i s c t
o n a o n o n
,

the i li o pecti n e a l li n e
-
.

The i n tern a l b ord er j o i n s t he o pp o si te b on e a t the sym phys i s pub i s .

The po s te ri o r b o r d e r f or m s th e an te ri or m a rgi n o f the o btu r a t o r f o r a me n a n d ,

i s m ar ked exte r n a l ly by th e o btu r a t o r g r oo ve .

The i n terna l angl e meets i ts fell o w at the a n te r i or end of the sy m phys i s Th i s .

 96 T HE S K E LE T O N or T HE H OR S E

p a r t is ve ry thi ck i n the y o u n g subj ect an d th e s t a lli o n but i n th e m ar e an d usu a lly , ,

i n the geldi n g a l s o i t bec o m es thi n w i th a dv a n ci n g a g e

,
.

The exte rna l o r a cetab ul ar an gl e j o i n s the i li u m a n d ischi u m at t he acet a b u

Th p o ste r i o r an gl e j o i ns the ischi um with whi ch i t fo r m s the i nn e r b o u n d a r y

e ,

o f t h e o btu ra t o r f o r a m e n .

The pubis m a y c o n ve n i e ntly be r eg ar ded a s co rrel sti n g o f tw o b r a n ches w h i ch

0

meet a t a r ight a ngl e ; these a re te r med the tr an sv er s e o r a c e ta b ul ar b ran ch

(R am us a cet abul aris ) and the l o n gi tudina l o r symphys e a l b r an c h (R a mus sym
p h y s e os ) .

The a c e ta b u lum is a c o tyl o i d c a vity whi ch l odges the h e a d o f th e femu r I t .

f a ces d ow nw a r d a nd o u tw a rd a n d c o n sists o f a n a r ti cul a r a n d a n o n a r ti cu l a r p a r t

,
-
.

T h e articul ar p ar t (F a cies lu n a t a ) is c r esce n ti c a n d is cut i n t o i n te r n a lly by the ,

n o n a r tic ul a r p a r t whi ch li es a t a l o we r level a n d is te r m ed th e a c e ta b u l ar f o s s a

-
, ,

(Fo ss a a cet a bu li ) The i nn e r p a r t of th e r i m is c orr esp on d i n gl y c u t i n t o by th e

.

a cetab ul ar n o tc h (I n cisu ra a cet a buli ) whi ch is c o n ve r ted i n t o a f or a m e n by th e ,

t ra nsve rse lig a m e n t i n the f r esh st a te a n d t r ans m its the p u h o fe m o r a l an d r o u n d ,

-

lig a m e n ts to the h e a d of the fe m u r .

The obtur ator f o ram en (F o ra me n o btu r a tu m ) i s situ a ted b etwee n th e pubis

a n d i schi um I t i s o v a l i n o utli n e th e .
,

l on ge r axi s bei n g di r ected f o r w ar d an d

o utw a r d I ts m a r gi n i s g r oo ved an te r o .

ext e r n a lly fo r the o bt u r a t o r n e r ve a n d

vessels
D e v e l opm ent —E a ch di vi si on of th e os
.

c oxze oss i fies f r o m o n e chi ef ce n te r The .

ce n ter for th e i li u m a ppe ar s fi r st n e a r the

a cet a bul u m f o ll o wed q ui ckly by on e for ,

the ischi u m a nd a littl e l a te r by th e ,

pubi c cen te r S e c o n d a r y ce n t e r s a ppe ar .

fo r th e c r est a n d exte rn a l a n gl e o f th e
i li um the tube r a n d p o ste ri or b or de r of ,

F la 02 — O COX M
ss »
\ S O DOR S A
AR U L th e I sch u m
or i and
T A L Li
th
N,
e a cet a bu l a r ar
p t
Of ’

B m An t the pu b I S
. .

Th e p u b I S an d I S Ch l u m a r e
.

V w (A ft
i i-
: .E ll b g er en er e r- au , a .
.

f ii K l l
r ) u ns cr .

u n i ted at bi r th o r s o on a fte r but a r e ,

n o t fus ed w ith the i li u m un ti l t h e sec o n d

ye ar The epi physe a l p arts fus e w i th th e m a i n m ass at f o u r a n d a h a lf t o five

.

ye ar s of age .

T he e t a b u l a r p a r t o f th e p u b i s o s s ifies f r om a s e p a r a t e c en t er I t i s mos t d i s ti nc t i n th e
ac .

e mb ry o a t t h ree mo n t h s a nd i s o f te n c a l l ed th e os ac e t a b u li M a r ti n s ay s t h a t t h e i li u m h as a
, .
.

c e n t e r fo r t h e a c e t a b u l a r p a r t o n e fo r t h e s h a f t a n d w i n
, g a n d a t hi r d fo r t h e c r es t He a l s o , .

s t a t es th a t t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l c en t er fo r th e a c e t a b u l a r p a r t o f th e i s c hi u m
a nd a t r a ns i t ory n u c l eu s
i n th e s y mp h y s ea l p a r t o f th e p u b i s
,
.

THE P E LVI S
T h e b on y pelvi s i s c o mp o sed the o s s a c oxar u m the s a c r um an d the fi r st of , ,

th r ee c o ccyge a l ve r teb rae The d o r s a l Wa ll o r r oo f i s f or m ed by th e s a cr u m an d

.

fi r st th r ee c o ccyge a l ve r teb ra) a nd the v entr a l w a ll o r fl oor by the pubi c a n d ischi a l

,

b ones The l atera l w a ll s a r e f o r med b y the i li a a nd the a cet a bu l a r p a r t o f the

.

ischi a The d efect i n the skelet o n he r e is supplied i n the fr esh st a te by the s a c r o

.

sci a ti c lig a me n ts a nd se mi m e mb r a no sus m uscles .

Th e ante r i or ape rtu re or i nl et (A pe r tu ra pelvis c ra n i a li s ) is b o u n ded b y th e

t er min a l li n e (L i ne a te r mi na lis ) o r b r i m c o m p osed o f th e b a se o f the s a c r u m d or ,

s ally the i li o pecti n e a l li ne s l a te r a lly a n d the an te r i o r b or de r o f the pubis ve n t r a lly

,
-
, .
 T HE FE M UR 97

It is a lm ost ci r cul a r i n the m a r e se m i elli pti c a l i n the st a lli o n an d f a ces ob

,
-
,

l iq u el y d o w n w a r d a n d f o r w a r d I t h as t w o p r i n ci p a l di a mete rs
.
Of t he s e the .
,

c on j ug a t e o r s a c r o -pu b i c d i am e te r (C o n j ug a t a ) is m e a su r ed f r o m the s a c r a l p ro m

ont o r y t o th e a n te r i or e n d o f th e sy m physi s The tr an sv e r s e d i am ete r (D i a mete r

.

t r a n sve r s a ) is me a su r ed at t he g r e a test wi dth 11 e j ust a b ove the p s o a s t ube r cle ,

. .
, .

The po ste ri o r a p e rtur e o r o utl e t (A pe r tu r a pelvis c a ud a li s ) i s mu ch s m a lle r

a n d i s ve r y i n c o m pl ete i n th e skelet o n I t is b o u n ded a b o ve by t h e thi r d c o c c yge a l
.

ve rteb r a a n d be l o w by the ischi a l a r ch ; i n the f r esh st a te i t i s c o m pleted l a te ra lly

by the s a c ro sci a ti c lig a m e n t a nd the se m i m e m b r a n o sus muscle
-
.

Th e axi s of th e pelvis i s a n i m a gi n a r y li n e d r a w n t h ro ugh th e ce n te r s of the

i n let c a vi ty a nd o ut let
S e xu al D iff er e n c e s —M a r ked di ffe r e n ces exist i n t he si z e a n d f o rm o f th e pel
.
, ,

vis i n th e t w o sexes The a ve r a ge c o n j ug a te d i a m e ter is ab o ut 9 % i n ch es (c a 2 3 to

.
.

2 4 e m ) i n th e m ar e
. i n ches (e a 1 8 t o 2 0 c m ) i n the st a lli on The tr an sv er s e
,
. . .

d i a m e t er of the i n let a ve r a ges a b o ut 9 i n ch es (ca 22 t o 2 3 c m ) i n th e m a r e a n d 8 . .

,

i n ch es (ca 2 0 c m ) i n t he st a l li o n Th e o b li q
. . u ity o f the i n let is g r e a te r i n th e fe ma le ;
.

t he di ff e r e n ce is i ndi c ated by th e f a ct th a t a ve r ti c a l pl a n e f rom th e pecte n cuts

the f o u r th s a c r a l seg m e n t i n the fe m a l e th e se c o n d i n th e m a le The o utl e t is , .

a ls o l a r ge r i n the m a r e th e i s c h i a l ar ch bei n g a b o ut on e t hi r d w ide r th an i n the

,
-

st a l li on The c avity is m uch m o r e r oo my i n th e fe m a le ; t h e t r an sve r se di a m ete r

.

betwee n t he m i ddles of the supe r i or i schi a ti c spi n es i s a b o ut 8 i n ches (2 0 c m ) .

i n the m a r e 6 i n ches (1 5 c m ) i n t h e st a l li o n
,
Th e pubi c p ar t of the fl oor i n the
. .

fe m a le is c o n c a ve an d li es c o n si de r a bly l o we r th an the ischi a ti c p ar t whi ch i s wide ,

a n d r el a tively fl a t I n the st a lli o n th e pubi s is ve r y thi ck ce n t r a lly a n d this p a r t

.
,

o f t he fl oo r is c o n vex wh il e th e ischi a l p a r t i s r el a t ively n ar r o w a n d is c o n c a ve f r o m

, ,

s i de to s i de The o btu r a tor f or a m i n a a r e c or r esp on di ngly l a rge r i n the fe m a le

. .

Th e i li u m is sh or te r a n d the g r e a te r sci a t i c n ot ch deepe r a n d narro we r i n

,

the m al e The pelvis o f the geldi n g w he n c a st r a ti on h a s bee n pe r f or m ed e a r ly

.
, ,

r ese m b les th a t o f th e m a r e ; o the r w i se t he m a le ch a r a cte r s a ppe a r t o be r et a i n ed

to a l a r ge deg r ee .

THE FE MUR
Th e f e m ur or th igh b on e (Os fe m o r is ) is the l ar gest a n d m o st m a ssive of the
l o n g b on es I t ext en ds o b l i q uely d o w nw a r d a n d f or w a r d a r ti cul a ti n g wit h the
.
,

a cet a bul u m a b o ve a n d the ti bi a a n d p a tell a bel o w I t p r ese n ts for ex a mi n a ti o n a .

sh a ft an d tw o ext r e m i ti es .

Th e sh af t o r b o dy (C or pus fe mo r is ) i s i n ge n e r a l cyli n d r i c a l but fl a tte n ed ,

b ehi n d an d l ar ge r a b o ve th a n bel o w Th e an te ri or a n d l at er a l s urfa c e s ar e co n

,
.

t i nu ou s a n d st r on gly c o n vex f r o m side t o si de ; th e r e is ofte n a ce n t ra l ve r ti c a l

r o ugh l i n e o n th e p r o xi m a l p a r t b ut o the r wise these su r f a ces a r e s m ooth They
,
.

a re c o ve r ed by th e qu a d r i ceps fe m or is m uscle The po st e ri o r s ur fa c e is w ide fl a t

.
, ,

a n d s m oo t h i n i ts p r o xi m a l f o u r th B el o w this p a r t t he r e i s a r o ugh elev ati on

.

e xte r n a lly fo r th e a tt a ch m e n t o f t he fem o r a l te n d o n o f th e b i ceps fe m o r is an d a ,

r o ugh li n e i n te r n a lly t o w hi ch the q u a d r a tus fe m o r is i s a tt a ched Th e m idd le .

t h i r d is n a rr o we r a n d is r o ugh for the a tt a ch m e n t o f the a dduct or mu sc l e

,
J us t .

bel o w this a r e a a n o b li q u e g r o o ve c r o sses the su rf a ce i n di c ati ng th e posi ti on o f th e ,

fe m or a l vessels Th e i ntern a l b o r d er be ar s on its p ro xi ma l p a r t the in te rn al

.

tr o ch an t er o r tr o c h an t er mi n o r , a t h i c k r o ugh r idge t o whi ch the i li o ps o a s m u s cle

-
,

i s a tt a ched F r o m t his a r o ugh li n e cu r ves up to t he f r o n t o f t h e n eck a n d i n d i c a te s

.

t he limi t of th e a tt a ch m e n t of t h e v a stus i n te r n us m uscl e A n a r r o w r ough a r e a .

a b o ut the m i dd le gi ves a tt a ch m e n t t o the pecti n eus muscle a nd the n utr i en t ,

f or a m en i s usu a lly f o u n d j ust i n f r o n t o f this m a r k The supra c o n dyl o i d c re st i s .

s itu a ted bel o w the g r oo ve fo r the fem o r a l vessels a n d gives o r i gi n t o the i n e he d

n r a
,
 RI G HT F e mu n or l -l o ns r: Fro . (i i —R H T qIG m or H o ns »: Pos Fm . 65 .
—R TG HT F E M C-R o r Ho n s r-z ,
IN
E X T NAL V w
ER i e RI O
. V w TE R i e . T E R NAL VI E \ V
t i
n er p t I p t i p t ft h t m j ; 2
or ar ,
’
. k; 3 f v
o s er o r ar piti ; 4
o ro c a n er a or , ne c , o ea ca s cres t : 6 t
,
h n te i f ss ;
. ro cex a r c o a

ii d t
r h t ; 7 t h t mi ; 8 m i
ro c a n er f , tt h m t f b i p fem i
ro c a n er no r , e n e n ce or a ac en o ce s ro ; 9 i n te n l b o d e ; 1 0 n t ie n t
s . r a r r , u r

I g . w rof f m lv l ; 1
n: orp d y l id
e o ra t; 1 3 p d y l id f
es s e s 0 su; r a co n o c r es . su ra c o n o o sS a 1 4 t ,
h le : 1 5 te l e p i n
ro c a , ex rna co

t
x er n al nd y l ; 1 7
cot f ; 18 i t e l d y l ; 1 9 i te na l ep i
, e x e ns o r dy l ;
o ssa . n e rna co n e , n r co n e 2 0 i nt e c nd y l i d f
. ar (A fter
o o o ss .

Atl d A
as t d Pf d )
. na . . er es .
 T HE FE M UR 99

of th e g as t r o c n e m i us Th e e xt ern a l b or d e r i s p r o m i ne n t i n i t s u ppe r p a r t a n d
.

b e a r s at t he j u n cti o n of its p r o xi m a l a n d m idd le t hi rds th e e xte rn al o r th i r d tr o

ch an ter (T r o ch a nte r t e r ti us ) ; th is p r o cess i s cu r ved f o r w ar d a n d fu rn ishes i h ,

se r ti on t o th e te n d on of t h e supe r fi ci a l glut eus m uscle A t t h e l o we r p a r t i s fo u n d .

the sup r a c ond yl o id or pl an ta r f o s s a (F o ss a pl a nt a r is ) i n whi ch the supe r fi c i a l ,

fl ex or a r ises ; i t is b o u n ded exte r n a lly by a t hi ck

r o ugh m ar gi n t o whi ch th e o ute r he a d o f the
, g as tro e
n e mi u s muscle i s a tt a ched .

Th e p r o xi m al e xtr emi ty (E xt r e m i t a s p r oxi m a lis )

i s l a r ge a n d c o n si sts o f th e he a d n eck an d g r e a t tro , ,

ch a n te r The h ea d (C a p ut fe m or is ) is pl a ced at th e
.

i nn e r side a n d is d i r e cted i n w ar d upw ar d a nd s o me , ,

wh a t f o r w a r d I t i s a pp r o xi m at ely he m isphe r i c a l
.

a n d a r t i cu l a t es wi t h the a cet a bu lu m I t i s cut i n t o .

i nte rn a l ly b y a deep n o t ch th e f o v ea c apiti s , i n wh i ch

the pu b o —
,

fem o r a l an d r o u n d lig am e n ts a r e a tt a ch ed .

Th e a r t i cul a r s ur f a ce is su rr o u n ded by a di sti n ct m ar

gi n . The n e ck (C o l lu m fe m or is ) i s m o st di sti n ct i n
f r on t a n d i n te r n a l ly Th e gr ea t tr o ch an t er (T r o
.

ch an te r m a j or ) i s sit u a ted exte r n a l ly ; i t p r ese n ts

th r ee fe at u r es Th e an t e ri or p art or c onv e xi ty is
.

situ a ted o pp o sit e t o th e h e a d an d r ises litt le ab ove

t h e level o f t he l a tte r ; i t g i ves a tt a ch m e n t to the
deep gl uteus m uscl e a n d i n t h e f r esh st at e its o ute r
,

sur f a ce i s c oa t ed w i th c a r t i l a ge o ve r wh i ch a ten d on,

of the mi ddl e gl uteus p a sses t o b e i n se r t ed i nt o th e

,

c r e st , whi ch i s p l a ced b el o w a n d b ehi n d t he c o n vex

ity T h e po ste ri or par t o r s ummi t i s sep a r at ed f r o m

.

t he c on vexi ty by a n o t c h ; it i s sit u a ted b ehi n d th e

pl an e of th e h e a d a n d r ises t o a mu ch g r e a te r hei ght .

I t fur n i shes i n se r t i o n t o p a r t o f t he mi dd le gl uteus

m uscl e I t s p o ste r i o r b or de r i s c o n t i n u ed d o wn w a r d
.

as th e tr o ch an t e ri c r i dg e , wh i ch f o r m s t h e o ute r w a ll

o f the tr o c h an t e ri c f o s s a A n um be r o f f or a m i n a a r e
.

f o u n d i n th e c o n c a ve ar e a i n te r n a l t o th e c on
v e xi t y .

Th e d i stal e xtr e mi ty (E xt r e m i t a s dist ali s ) i s

l ar ge i n b o th d i r ect i o n s a n d c o m p r ises th e t r o chle a
i n f r o n t an d t w o c o n dyles beh i n d The tro chl ea .

c on sists o f t w o r i dges sep a r a ted b y a g roo ve an d ,

f o r m s an ext en sive su r f a ce (F a cies p atel l a r is ) for

a r ti cul at i on with th e p a tel l a I t is ve r y u n sy m
. Fm 6 6 s m L . . ta ox or EP r

H “ T
m et r i c a l ; th e i nn e r r idge o r lip i s m u ch i
i
“
w de r
f?
“ O O
,
F RS E E RI

m o r e p r o m i n e n t a n d ext e n ds up highe r th a n the ex

,
T b; é g m h o s th t th m e S w a e e“

te r n a l on e a n d the t w o c on ve r ge bel o w Th e c on d u y v it y i t d f th m t -
r a v e rs e or e os

p t b y fi b y "b l
,
.
u ar ca s

d yl e s , i n te rnal a n d e xt ern al (Co n dylus m edi a lis ,

ar ne on a ec u f f

l a te ralis ) a r e sep ar a ted b y th e deep in t er c on dyl o i d

,

f o s s a (F o ss a i n te r c on dyl o i de a ) an d ar ti cul a t e w it h the c o n dyles o f t he tibi a a n d th e

,

se m i lu n a r c a rt i l a ges of th e st ifle j o i n t A r idge c o nn ec t s e a ch c on dyle with the l owe r

.

p ar t of the c or r esp on d i n g li p o f th e t r o chl e a Th e i nte r c o n dyl o id f oss a l odges t h e

.

spi n e of th e t ib i a a n d t he c r u ci a l lig a m e n t s of t h e sti fl e j o i n t whi ch a r e a tt a ched he r e ,

.

q
Th e co n d y l es ar e o b li u e l y p l a c ed w i t h t h ei r l o n g a xes di rec t ed d o wn w a rd f o rw a rd a n d , ,

i n w ar d T h e ar ti cu l a r s ur f a c e o f t h e ex t ern a l c o n d y l e i s mo re s t r on g l y co n v ex f ro m S i d e t o S i d e
.

t h an t h a t of th e i nn er on e , a n d th e ri d g e w hi c h co nn ec t s i t W i t h t h e t r o c h l ea l S m u c h n a rr o w er .
1 00 T HE S KE L E T O N or T HE H ORS E

The in tern al e pi c on d yl e (E pi c o n dylus m ed i a lis ) i s a r o u n ded p ro mi n e n ce on

the i n te r n a l su r f a c e o f the i n te r na l c o n dyl e t o whi ch the i nte r n a l l a te r a l l i g a m e n t ,

a n d the a dd uct o r mus cle a r e a tt a ched The c or r esp o n di n g e xterna l e pi c o nd yl e

.

(E pi c ondylus l ate r a lis ) is less di s ti n ct ; i t p r ese n ts a m a r k whe r e the l a te r a l l ig a

me n t i s a tt a ched bel o w a n d beh i n d whi ch th e r e is a dep r essi o n (F o ss a m us cul i
,

p o pli tei ) i n whi ch the p o pli teus m uscle a ri ses B etwee n the exte r n a l c on dyle an d .

t r o c hle a is the e xt e n s or f o s s a (F oss a e xtens o r i a ) i n whi ch th e te n d on o f o r i gi n o f ,

the a nt e r i or exte ns o r a n d pe r o n eus te rt ius i s a tt a ched .

D e v e l opm e nt —Th e sh a ft a nd th e d ist a l e n d e a ch ossify f r om on e ce n te r b ut ,

the p rox i ma l en d h a s tw o ce nte r s o ne o f whi ch is fo r th e g r e a t t r o ch a n te r The

,
.

edge o f the exte r n a l t ro ch a nt e r a ls o h as a sep a ra te ce n te r The p r o xi m a l en d fuses .

wi t h the sh aft a t th ree t o t h r ee a n d a h a lf ye a rs the d ist a l a t a b o ut th r ee an d a ,

h a lf y e a rs .

i nn er r i d ge

Troc kl ea 1

Lo u ter r i d ge

I n ter na l ep i c o n d yl e

E xter na l . ep i co n d y l e

D ep r es s i on f o r or i gi n of .

po p l i te us

E xter na l co nd y l e
—1 n t c r na l con d y l e

I n tercon d yl oi d f ossa
FI G GT .
—D TAL E
IS XT R EMII Y
'
OF R IG H T FE RMU or HO RS E , END V WI E .

THE TI BI A

The tib i a i s a l on g b on e wh i ch exte n ds o bl iqu ely d o w n w a r d a n d b a ckw ar d

f r o m the sti fle t o the h o ck I t a r ti cu l a tes a b o ve wi th th e fe m u r bel o w wi th th e
.
,

t a rsus a nd ex te r na lly with the fibu l a I t p ossesses a sh a ft a nd tw o ext remiti es

, . .

The s h af t o r b o dy (C o r pus tibi ae ) l a r ge a n d th r ee sid ed a b o ve be c o m es s m a lle r

,
-
,

a n d fl a tte n ed i n the s a gitt a l d i r e cti o n bel o w but wi de n s a li ttl e a t the dist a l e n d ,

.

I t p r ese n ts fo r n o ti ce th r ee su r f a ces a n d th r ee b o r de rs The in t e rn a l s u rfa c e .

(F a c ies m edi a lis ) i s b r oa d a b o ve whe r e i t fu r n ishes i n se r ti o n t o th e i n te rn a l l a te r a l

,

lig a me nt a n d the s a r to r i us a n d gra cil is m us cles ; bel o w thi s it i s c o n vex a n d sub

cut a ne o us The e xtern al su rf a c e (F a cies l a te r a l is ) is s m o o th and s omewh a t spi ra l
. .

I t is wide a n d c o n c a ve i n i ts uppe r p a r t bel o w wh i ch i t b e c om es n a rr o we r a nd ,

sli ghtly c on vex a nd wi n ds g r a d u a lly t o the f r on t o f th e b o n e ; n e ar the d ist a l e nd

,

i t wide n s a li ttle be c o m es fl a t a n d f a ces f orw a r d

, Th e po s te ri or su rfa c e (F a cies
, .

p oste ri or ) is fl a tte ned a nd i s d ivid ed i n t o tw o p ar ts by th e ro ugh popli te a l l in e ,

,

whi ch ru ns o bliq uely f r o m th e uppe r p a r t o f th e exte rn a l b o r d e r t o th e m iddle of

the i n te r na l b o r d e r The t r i a n gul a r a r e a a b o ve t he li n e i s o ccu pi ed b y th e p o pli teus
.

m uscle whi le the a r e a b el o w is ma r ked by r o ugh l i n es (L i n e a mus cu l ar es ) to wh i ch

,

the deep fl exo r m u s cle o f th e di gi t is a tt a ched ; the li n es f a de ou t bel o w whe r e th e ,

su r f a ce is s m oo th a nd fl a t The n utri e n t foram e n is si tu a ted o n o r n e a r the

.

p o plite a l li n e The an teri o r b or d er is ve r y p r o m i n e n t i n i ts u ppe r th i r d f o r m i n g

.
,

the ti b i a l c r e st (C r ist a tibi ae ) ; bel o w i t is r ed uced t o a ro ugh li n e whi ch e n ds at a ,

 1 02 T HE S K E LE T O N OF T H E H OR S E

o ute r p a r t (T u b e r c u l u m i nt e r co nd y l o i d e u m m ed i a le l a te ra le ) On bef or e and ,

.
, ,

behi n d t h e spi n e a re the an te ri or a n d p o st eri or in te r c on dyl o i d f o s s a , i n whi ch

t h e a n t e r i or c r u ci a l li g a m e n t a n d the se m il u n a r c a r til a ges a re a tt a ched The .

c o n dyles a r e sep a ra t ed behi n d by the d eep p opli te a l n otch (I n cisu r a p o plite a ) on ,

th e i n n e r side o f w hi ch is a t ube r cle fo r the a tt a ch m e n t o f t h e p oste r i or c r uci a l

lig a m e n t The exte r na l c o ndyle h as a n o ve rh an gi n g o ute r m a rgi n b el o w wh i ch is
.
,

Fossa .
f or a n ter i o r c r u c i a l l i ga ment

P opl i tea l notc h

I nter n a l c o nd y l e E x ter na l co nd y l e

T u ber el e to r p os ter i o r cr uci a l

( I
Hea d Of fi l m!“
l i ga m en t

I mp res s i o n o f a n ter i o r res-

s e ts

N u tr i e nt f or a me n I n te r os s eo u s s pa ce

S h af t of fi b u l a

M u s c u l a r l i n es

Groo ae f o r te n d o n of i n ner hea d

o f fl a vo r p er fo ra ns E xter n a l m a l l eo l u s

I nte r n a l i n a l l e oZu S

Fm . (I Q —R IG H T Tm u AN D Fl nu m or HO RS E , P OS T l -tm o n

a f a cet fo r ti cul a ti o n wi th th e fibul a The l a r ge a n te r i o r e m i n e n ce is the tu

ar .

b e r o s i ty o ft he tibi a (Tube r o si t a s t ib i ze ) I t is m a r ked i n fro n t b y a gro ov e , th e

.
.

l o we r p a r t o f w h i ch gives a tt a ch m e n t t o th e m iddle p a tell a r lig a m e n t a n d th e ,

g ro o ve i s fl a n ked by ro ugh a r e a s fo r the at t a ch m e nt o f th e i nt e rn a l a n d exte r n a l .

p a tell a r lig am e nts A s e mi ci r cul ar s m oo th n o tch (S ul cus m uscul a r is ) sep a r a tes th e

.

tube r osity f r o m the exte r na l c o n dyle a nd gi ves p a ss a ge to t he te n d o n o f or igi n o f

,

the a nte r i o r e x te n s o r a nd the pe ro n eus te r ti us .

 T HE TI BI A 1 03

The di stal e xtre mi ty (E xt r e m it as d i s t a lis ) is much s m a lle r th a n t he p ro xi ma l ;

i t is qu a d r a n gul a r i n f o r m a n d l a r ge r i nt e rn a lly t h a n e x t e r n a lly I t p r ese nt s a n .

arti c u l ar s ur f a c e (C o chl e a tibi ae ) w hic h is a d a pted t o t he t ro chle a o f t he tibi a l

,

t a rs a l b on e (a st ra g a lus ) a n d c o nsists of t w o g ro o ves se pa ra t ed by a r idge The

, .

r idge a n d g roo ves a re di r ected o bli quely f o r w a r d a n d o utw a r d a n d a re b o u nded .

l a te r a lly by the m a ll e o li t o whi ch t he l at e ra l lig a m e n t s o f t he h o ck j o i nt a r e a t

,

T u beros i ty
Groore for m td d te p a tel l a r l i ga me nt
S u l c u s mus c u l a r i s
I nter na l co nd yl e

E xte r na l co n dyl e

Hea d of fibul a

I nteros s eo u s sp (l cc
I mpr t nt fo r i ns erti o n o f yra ez tzs

Cres t
E xter na l f
s u r a ce
I mp r i nt for i ns erti o n of s emttend i
n o s us

S haf t of fi bul a

I nte r na l s u r a cef

I nte r na 1 ma 11 1u s
.

E xter na l ma l l e ol u s

FI G .
70 —R i o Hr T ra m AN D F mre or Ho u s e , A xr s ru o n h aw

The i t m o lu s M l le l us t ib i lis ) is the m r e pr o m i n e nt o f the

t ac h ed . n ern al a l l e ( a o a o

f ms t he te i b u d f g ve f t h t e n d o n o f t h e i nn er
t w o a n d or
,
an r or o n a ry o a r o o o r e

he a d of t he fiex o r pe r f o r a n s The e xte r al . n m a ll e o lu s ( M a lle o lus fi bul a r i s ) i s

b r oa de r an d i s m a r ked by a ve r t i c a l g ro o ve fo r t h e p a ss a ge o f t h e l a t e r a l ex t e n s o r
,

t e nd o n
D e v e l opm ent —
.

The tibi a h as th e usu a l t h r ee c h ief ce n t e rs o f o ss 1 fic a t i o n a n d

.

supple m en t ar y o n es fo r t he t u b ero si t v a n d the ext e rna l m a ll e o l us T h e l a tte r is .

 1 04 T HE S K E LE TO N OF T HE H O R SE

e lly the dist a l e nd o f th e fi bu l a ; i t is a sep a ra te pi ece a t bi r th an d th e li n e of

r a ,

u n i o n is c o mm o n ly quite evide n t i n the ad ul t i n th e exte rn a l a r ti cu l a r g ro o ve Th e .

p roxi m a l e nd u n i t e s wi t h t h e sh a ft a t a b o u t th r ee a nd a h alf ye ar s a nd the d ist a l ,

e n d a t a b o ut t w o ye a r s Of a g e .

THE F I BU L A
The fib ul a o f the h o rse is a m uch r ed u ced l o n g b on e si tu a ted a l o n g the o ute r ,

sid e o f the ti bi a .

The sh aft o r b o dy (C o r pus fib u l ze ) is a sle n de r r o d whi ch f or m s th e o ute r b o u n d

a r v o f th e i n te r osse o us sp a ce ; it usu a l ly te r m i n a tes bel o w i n a p o i n ted en d a b o ut

o n e h a l f t o t w o thi r d s o f the w a y d o w n th e ex te r n a l b o r de r o f the t ibi a

- -
.

T h e p rox im al e xtr e mi ty o r h e a d (C a pitulu m fib u l ae) is r el a tively l ar ge a n d i s ,

fl a t t e n ed t r an sve rsely I ts i nte r na l su r f a ce p r ese nts a n a r r o w a r e a a l on g th e uppe r

.

b o rd e r fo r a r t i cul a t i o n w it h t h e tibi a The e xte r na l su r f a ce is r o ugh a nd gives

.

a tt a c h m e n t t o t h e e x te r n a l l a te r a l li g a m e n t o f t he st i fl e j o i n t I t h a s r o u n ded .

an te r i o r a nd p o ste r i o r b o r de rs .

P o p l i tea l

”mo r e for p p l i te uso te nd o n

I n ter n a l c o n d y l e

co nd yl e
l E x ter n a l a n d i n ter na l
f tu ber c l es of s p i ne

G roo ve f or te n d o n of ex ten s o r
l o ngus an d p er on e u s ter ti us

Groo ve f or mi ddl e p a tel l a r l i ga ment

T u beros i ty

Fm . 7l .
—p R OX I M A L EX T M TY RE I OF RIG H T T B A OF H O S
I I R E , END V W IE .

D p
e i
re s s o n s fo r a tt ac h me n t f t i
o a n er o r an d p t i os i l li g m
e r o r c ru c a a ents ; I , m m d e p re s s
. ,
i o ns fo r at

ta c h m e n t of se mi l n u til g
ar car a es .

T he d i sta l extremi ty is fused w it h th e t ibi a c o n st ituti n g th e exte rn a l m a lle o lus

—
, .

D eve l pmeo n t This r esemb les th a t o f th e u l n a Th e e m b r y on i c c a r ti l a gi no us .

fibul a exte nds t h e e n ti r e le n gt h o f t he leg bu t d o es n ot a r ti cul a te wi th th e fe m u r , .

The l o we r p a r t o f t h e sh a f t is usu a lly r ed u ced to a fib r o us b a n d Th r ee ce n te r s o f .

o ssifi c a t i o n a ppe a r o n e e a ch fo r the sh a ft a n d th e ext r e m ities The d ista l end .

u n i tes e a r ly with the tibi a f o r m i n g the exte r n a l m a lle o l us

, .

I t is i n teres ti ng to not e t h a t i n so m e c a s es th e en ti re s h a f t of th e fi b u l a d e v e l o p s , a r e v ers i o n

to t h e c o n d i t i o n i n t h e M i o c e ne a n c es t o r s o f t h e p r es en t h ors e .

THE P ATE LL A

Th e p ate ll a is a l arge ses a mo id b o n e whi ch a r ti cul at es with th e t ro ch le a of

the fe mu r I t p r ese nt s fo r d e s c r ipti o n t w o su rf a c es t w o b or d e rs a b a se a nd a n
.

, , ,

a pex .

The a nte r i or o r f r e e su rf a c e (F a ci es l ibe ra ) is i rr egul ar l y q u a d r i l a te r a l c on vex , ,

a n d ro ugh fo r m u s c u l a r a n d lig a m e n t o us
a t t a ch m e n t .

The p o ste r i or o r a r t i cu l ar s u r f a c e i s s m a lle r a n d is t r i a n gul a r i n o utli n e I t .

p r e s e n t s a ve rt i c a l ro u n ded r id ge whi ch c o rr e s p on ds to th e g ro o ve o n t he t r o chle a

,

o f th e fe mu r a n d s ep a r a te s t w o c o n c a ve a r e a s
, Of t he l a t te r th e i n n e r c a vi ty i s .
,
1 06 T HE SKE L E T O N OF T HE H OR S E

i n te r n a l l a te r a l lig a m e n t The exte rn a l s u rf a c e is s m a lle r th a n th e i n te r n a l

. , an d

i s m a r ked by a wide r o ugh f o ss a i n wh i ch the exte r n a l lig a m e n t i s a tt a ched .

THE Fl B U L A R TA R S AL B ON E
The fib u l ar tar s a l b on e (Os t a r si fib ul a r e c a l c a n eu m o s c a l cis ) is th e l a r gest , ,

b on e Of the h e c k I t is el o n g a t ed fl a tte n ed f ro m side t o s id e a n d f or m s a l eve r

.
, ,

T u ber ca l c i s Tu ber c a l ci s

Gr oove f o r d eep
fi exor te nd on

S u s l e n ta c u l u m

Ce n tra l t

Thi rd ta

I l l eta tnr s a l

Fro . 75 .
—e rr T a ns u s AN D U m P A T O M TA
p -
zn R F E Fm . 76 .
—R H T TA U AND U P P
IG RS S ER P A T R OF M TA E

T \ ns u s
. HO
OF RS E ,
I NT NAL V W (A ft
ER I E . er TA S U S R OF HO RS E , P o s T E m OR (P LAN TA ) R

S c h ma l t z A tl d, as . A t d Pf d )
na . . er es . V| E w .
(A ft e r Schma lt z , A t l as (1
. A t dna . .

P fe rd e s . )

fo r th e m uscles w h i ch exte n d th e h o ck j o i n t I t c o n sists Of a b o dy a n d a n i nn e r .

p ro c ess th e suste n t a c ul u m t a li
, .

The b o dy (C o r pus c a lc a n ei ) is e n l a r ged a t i ts p r o x i m a l en d to f or m th e tu b er

Fa cets for fibu l a r ta rs a l

Groo ve of troch l ea

T u ber os i ty Fossa
S u rf /ree f e r for i n ter n a l De p re ss i o n f or .

ce n tr a l ta r s a l l a ter a l ti ga ex te r na l l a ter a l
me n t l i ga m ent
—R m u r .
'
TI NI A L TA A RS I. B N O E HO o r RS E . FI G . 78 .
—R I G H T Tl Bl A b TA AL B O N O " H O
RS E I RS E

V I I-
:w .
(A ft er Sc h ma lt z A tl , as d . E X T NAL V W
ER I E .
(A ft S h m lt z A tl
er c a , as (1 .

A t na . d . P f
er d es )
.
A na t d - . . I’ fe r d es ) .

c a lci s o r p o i nt o f th e h o c k Th e p o ste r i or p ar t Of this e m i n e n ce gives a tt a ch

.

m e n t to th e te n d o n o f the g a st ro c n e mi us w hi le i n f ro nt a n d l a te r a l ly i t fu r n ishes ,

i ns e r ti o n to te n d o n s o f th e fl e x o r pe rf or a tus bi cep s a n d se m i te nd i no sus m uscles ,

,
.

Th e i nf e r i or extr e m ity be a rs a c o n c a ve f a cet fo r a r ti cul a ti o n wit h th e f o u r th t a r s a l

b o ne The i nte rn a l su rf a c e h as o n i ts l o we r p a r t a st ro ng p r o cess th e s u s te nta cu
. ,

lu m ta li , w hi ch p r o j ec ts i n w a rd The p r o cess h as a l a r ge o v a l sli gh tly c on c a ve

‘

.
, ,
 T HE T A RS US 1 07

f a cet i n f r on t for a r ti cu l a ti o n wit h the tibi a l t a rs a l a nd s o m e t i m e s a s ma ll a r ti c ul ar ,

su rf a c e b el o w fo r the ce nt r a l t ar s a l b o n e I ts pl a n t a r su r f a ce f o rms wi th the s mo o t h .

i nn e r su r f a ce Of th e b o dy a g ro o ve fo r the deep fl c xo r te nd o n (S ul cus m usculi fl e xo ri s

h a ll uci s l o n gi ) I ts i nn e r su r f a ce h as a p ro m i n e n ce o n the l owe r p a r t fo r th e a t
.

t ac h m en t Of the l a te r a l li g a m e n t The e xte rn a l su rf a c e o f the b o dy i s fl a tte n ed .

except bel o w whe r e th e r e is a r o ugh p r o m i n e nce fo r the a tt a ch m e n t Of the l a te ra l

,

Fos s a

Fa cet f or Fa cct f or
tars a l bo ne ti bi a l ta rs a l ce ntr a l ta r s a l ti bi a l ta r s a l

h e 79 —R rG HT F I BU LAR TA R S AL FI G SO —R H T F U T H T
IG O R AR FI G Sl —R I ( : I IT C N T AL
E R TA R
B B N B N
. . . . .

N O HO
O E F RS E AN T E R I OR S AL HO E OF OR S E SAL O E or HO R s E
U FAC
,

V W (A f t
I E . er Sc h ma lt z , U PP ER S R E .
(A f te r UPPER U FA C
S R E .
( A ft er

A tl d A t as . na . d . f
P e rd e s ) . S c h ma l tz A tl
, as d . A t na . Sc h m a lt z A t l
, as d . A t
na .

d . P f e rd e s . ) d . P fe rd e s . )

l ig a me n t The an te ri or or d or s al b or d er is c on c a ve i n i ts le n gth s m o o th an d
.
,

r o u n ded i n i ts uppe r p a r t A b o ut its mi ddl e is a b lu n t p o i n ted p ro j ecti o n (P r o

.
-

cessu s c o ch le ar i s ) wh i ch b e a r s f a cets o n i ts i n n e r a n d l o we r su r f a ces fo r a r ti cu l a ti on

wi th the ti bi a l t a r s a l b on e a n d i s r o ughe n ed o utw a r dl y for lig am e n t o us att a ch me n t

,
.

B el o w t his a r e t w o f a cets for th e t ibi a l t a r s a l a n d an exte nsi ve ro ugh f oss a whi ch ,

c on cu r s i n the f o r ma ti o n o f th e si n us t a r si The p o ster i or o r pl an tar b or d er is .

F0 a r th (exter na l )
meta ta r sa l

S eco nd (i nter

F u s ed fir s t a nd
s ec on d ta rs a l s

Fa c el s for s ec Fa c e ts f o r
0 n d a n d th i r d Fa cel f o r th i r d j o u r th (a r
Thi rd ta r s a l ta r s a l s ta r sa l sa l

FI G 82 —R H T F T
IG I RS CO N D AN D T H D TA AL
SE IR RS FI G SR —P R O X MAL A T C U LA I R I R Si mm e r-
1s OE LE I-
T

B N M TATA AL B O N
. . .
.
, ,

O ES or HO RS E ,
U PP R S U FAC E (A ft R E . er E RSO ES F H OM E .
(A ft er

Sc h ma lt z A tl d
, as . A t d Pf d )
na . . er es . S h lt cA tl d A t d
i na z ,
as . na . . Pf d er es . )

st r a ight a n d thi ck a n d wi de n s a li ttle at eith er e nd ; it is ro ugh , a nd gi ves a tt a c h

,

m e n t t o th e l o n g p l a n t a r l ig a m e n t .

THE CE N T R AL TA R S A L B ON E
The c en tra l tar s a l b o n e (Os t a r si ce nt r a le s c a ph o id o r n a vi cu l a r ) is i rr eg u l a r ly , ,

q u a d r i l a te r a l a n d is situ a ted betwee n th e ti bi a l t a rs a l a b o ve a n

, d
d t h e th i r t a rs a l
bel o w I t is fl a tte n ed f r o m a b o ve d o w n w a r d an d m ay be d esc ri bed a s h a y i ng tw o
.
,
 1 08 T HE S KE L E T O N OF T HE H OR S E

su rf a ces a nd f o u r b o r d e r s Th e s up e ri or s u rf a c e is c on c a ve f r o m bef or e b a ckw ar d

.
,

a n d a l mo s t a l l o f it a r ti cul a tes with the tib i a l t a r s a l ; a n o n a r ti cul a r dep r essi on -

cuts i n t o i ts o ute r p a r t a nd s o m eti mes the r e is a f a cet fo r the fib u l ar t ars a l b o n e on

,

th e p o ste r i o r a n gl e The i nf e r i or su r fa c e i s c o nvex a n d is c r ossed by a n on ar ti c u

.
,
-

l a r g r o o ve whi ch s ep a r a tes f a cets fo r a r ti cul a ti o n wi th th e thi r d a n d th e fi r st a n d

,

Tu ber c a l ci s

Fi h a l a r ta r s a l

Tr ochl ea o f ti bi a l ta rs a l

Depr es s i o n f or exter na l
l a ter a l l i ga m en t

Fo u r th ta rs a

Centr a l ta r s a l

Thi r d ta rs a l

Gr o oac for gr ea t m eta Va s cu l a r ca n a l

ta rs a l a r ter y

Thi rd (l a r ge) meta ta rsa l

Fo ur th (exter na l )
ta rs a l

E mi n e n ce f or l a ter a l l i ga men t
84 .
—
RIG HT T A AL AN D
RS ME T AI ’ ‘
A RS A L B N
O ES or ll o n s r-
z, E X T NAL
ER Vmw . ( A ft er Sch m a lt z A tl as
, (1 .

A n al . d . P fe rd e s .
)

se c on d (fused ) t a rs a ls The ante r i or o r d or s a l b or d e r an d t he i nterna l b or d er

.

a re c o n ti n u o us c o n vex a n d r o ugh
,
, The p o ste r i or o r pl an tar b o r d e r b e a r s tw o p r om
.

i ne n c e s sep a r a ted by a n o tch

, Th e e xte rna l b o r d e r i s o bliq u e a n d be a r s a n te r i or
.
,

a n d p o ste r i o r f a cets fo r a r ti cul a ti o n with the f o u r th t a r s a l betwee n wh i ch i t is ex

,

c a v a ted a n d r o ugh .
1 10 T HE S K E LE TO N OF T HE H OR S E

D e ve l opm ent —The fi bul ar t a r s a l b o n e h as t w o c e n te rs o f ossific a ti on one for ,

the m a i n mass a nd the o t he r fo r t h e tube r c a l cis ; the l a tte r fuses with th e rest of the
b o ne a t a b o ut th r ee ye a r s o f a g e The fi r st a nd sec o nd t ars a ls h a ve sep ara te cen
.

te rs b u t f u s i o n usu a lly o c c u rs bef o r e bi r t h

,
.
E a ch o f the o the r b o n es os s i fies f r o m
.

a si n gle ce nte r .

T u beros i ty

P h a l a nx I P ha l a nx I

_ P ha l a nx [ I
P ha l a n x I I
Ca l u l g l c

Ve l a r

P ha l a n x I I I
Fm S ir —D ra w n B N O ES or Fo n t: Lm n o r HO RS E F ro S7 —D TAL B N
IGI O ES or Na Lm n or HO
RS E

V O LA A P CT
. . . .
,

R S E . V O LA A P CT
R S E .

THE ME TATAR S U S

m etatar s a l b on es (Oss a m et a t a rs a li a ) th ree i n n u m be r h a ve th e s ame

T he .
, ,

ge n e ra l a rra n ge m e n t as the m et a c a rp a l b o n e s bu t p r ese n t s om e i m p o r t an t di ffe r ,

en ces Th ei r d i r e cti o n i s slightly o bl iq ue d o w n w a r d an d a li ttl e f or w a r d

.
,

The l ar ge o r th i rd m eta tar s a l b o n e is a b o u t o n e sixth l on ge r t h a n t he c o rr e -

s po n d i ng m e ta c a rp a l ; i n a n a n i m a l o f m ed iu m si ze the d iffe r e n ce i s a b o ut t w o i n ch es .

T h e sh af t is m o re cyli n d r i c a l a n d i s a l m o st c i r cul a r o n c ro ss secti o n except i n its

.
,
-
,

l o we r p a r t A t t h e uppe r p a r t o f i ts exte r n a l su r f a ce t h e r e is a g r oo ve w hi ch is
.
,

di r e cted o bl iquely d o w nw a rd a nd b a ckw a r d a nd is c on ti n ued by the fu rro w f or med ,

by th e a pp o s i t i o n o f the exte rn a l m et a t a r s a l b on e ; i t i nd i c a tes the c o u r se of th e

.

g r e at m et a t a rs a l a r te ry A f a i n t i m p r essi o n i n a si m il a r pl a ce o n th e i n n e r side
.
 T HE P HA L A N G E S A N D S E SA M OI D S 111

m a r ks the p o siti o n of th e
c o rr esp o n d i n g vei n The n ut r ie n t f o r a m e n is r el a tively
.

hi ghe r th a n on the m et a c a r p a l b o n e The p ro xi m a l ext r e m ity is m u ch w ide r f ro m

.

b ef o r e b a c kw a r d t h a n th a t of the m et a c a r p a l b on e I t s a r ti cu l a r su r f a c e is slightl y
.

c on c a ve a n d is m ar ked by a l a r ge ce n t ra l n on a r ti cul a r dep r essi o n c on ti n ued o u t

,
-
,

w ar d by a deep n o tch The gr e a te r p a r t o f the su rf a ce a r ti cul a tes with the th i r d

.

t ar s a l but t he r e is a n o ute r f a cet for the f o u r th a nd usu a l ly a s m a ll f a cet p oste ro

, ,

i n te rn a lly for th e se c on d t a r s a l b on e P o ste r i or ly the r e a re t w o p a i r s of f a cets fo r

.

a r ti cul a ti o n wi th the s m al l m et a t a r s a l b o n es The f ron t is c r ossed by a ro ugh r idge

.

for i n se r ti o n wh i ch bec o m es l a r ge r a n d tu r n s d o w n w a r d on t h e o ute r sid e b ehi n d the

,

v a scul ar g r oo ve Th e d ist a l ext r e m i ty cl osely r ese m bles th a t of the c orr esp on di n g

.

met a c a r p a l b o n e .

In s om ees th e l o w er p a r t o f th e s h a f t i s b en t b a c k w ar d s o m e w h a t T h e a r ti cu l a r su r
cas .

f a c e ext en d s a li ttl e hi g h er b ehi n d t h a n i n t h e c as e o f t h e me ta c a r p a l b o n e T h e l a rg e me t a t a rs a l

.

b o ne i s e v en m or e s t r o n g l y c o ns t r u c t ed t h a n t h e m e t a ca r p a l T h e s h e l l o f co m p a c t s u b s t an ce i s
.

v ery t hi c k i n t h e mi dd le of th e s h a f t es p ec i a l l y i n f ro n t a n d i n t ern a ll y
, .

The sm al l m e ta ta r s a l b on es a r e a l ittle l o n ge r t h a n t h e c orr esp on di n g m et a

c a r p a ls . The e xtern al (f o u r th ) m e ta ta r s al is r el a tively m a ssive especi a lly i n its ,

uppe r p a r t The he a d is l a r ge a n d o utst an di n g a n d b e a r s tw o f a cets ab ove for th e

.
,

f o u r th t ar s a l an d tw o i n fr on t an d i n te rn a l ly for a r ti c ul a ti on with the l a r ge m et a

,

t ar s a l ; elsewhe r e i t i s r o ughe n ed for a tt a c hm e n t Th e i n te rn a l (sec on d ) m e ta

.

tar s al is mu ch m or e sle n de r th a n the o ute r on e espe ci a l ly i n its uppe r p art The ,

.

he a d be a r s t w o f a cets a b o ve for the fi r st a n d sec on d t a r s a ls an d s o meti m es on e for ,

the thi r d t ars a l .

THE P HAL AN GE S AN D SE SAMOI D S

The ax is of t h e p h a l an ges o f the h i n d li m b is a b o ut fiv e de g r ees less ob li que
th a n th a t of th e f or e l i m b a n d the ch ief di ffe r e n ces i n t he f or m an d si ze of th e b on es
,

a r e as f ol l o ws :

The fir st ph a l an x is a little sh or t e r wi de r a b ove and n a rro we r b el o w

, ,
.

The s e c on d ph a l anx is n a rr o we r a n d slightly l on ger .

The thi r d ph al an x i s n a rro we r th e an gle o f i n cli n a ti on of the w a ll su r f a ce is a

,

l ittle (c a 5 de g r ees ) gr e a te r the s o l e su r f a ce is m o r e c on c a ve an d the wi n gs a re

.
, ,

less p r o mi n en t a n d cl ose r t o gethe r .

Th e pr oxi m a l s e s am o id s a r e a l ittle s m a ll e r except i n th i c k ness The th i rd,

.

s e s a m o i d o r n avi cu l ar b o n e is n arr o we r a n d sh ort e r .

1 12 S KE L E TO N or T HE ox

SKE L E TON OF THE OX

VE R TE B RAL COLU MN

The ve r teb ra l f o r m ul a is C 7T 1 3 L OS SC y , B 2 0 _ .

The c e rvic a l ve rt e b ra a re m u ch sh o r te r th an th ose o f the h o r se and are sm a l le r

i n thei r o the r d i me n si o n s Th e ar ti cul ar pro c e s s e s a r e s m a lle r th an i n the h o r se
. ,

a n d a pl a te o f b o n e c o nn ects e a ch t w o o f the s a m e side The tr an sv er s e pro c e s s e s .

o f the thi rd f o u r t h a n d fifth a re d o uble ; t h e uppe r p a r t p r o j ects b a ckw a r d an d ,

, ,

is sh o r t a nd st o ut ; t he l o we r p a r t is di r ected d o w n w a r d an d f or w a rd an d is l on ge r ,

a nd m o r e pl a te li ke - The l o we r p a r t o f t h e sixth t ra n sve r se p r o cess is a l a r ge

.

th i ck qu a d r il a te r a l a nd a lm ost s a gi t t a l pl at e di r e cted d ow n w ar d Th e seve n th

, ,
.

t r a n sve rse p ro c ess is si n gle sh o r t a nd thi ck an d p r ese n ts no f or am e n t r a n sve r s a

, , ,

r i u m ; it is i n se r ies with the uppe r p a r t o f th e p r e cedi n g p r o cesses The s pin ou s .

pro c e s s e s a re wel l devel o ped a n d i n c r e a se i n h ei gh t f r o m bef o r e b a ckw a r d

,
They .

a re d i r ected upw a r d a n d fo r w a r d w i th t h e except i on of th e l a st wh i ch is n e a r ly

, ,

ve r ti c a l and is ab o ut f o u r or five i n ch es (c a 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) i n h ei ght Th e su mm i t o f

. . .

th a t of the thi rd b on e is usu a lly b i fid Th e v e n tr a l s pin e s a re p rom i n e n t an d t hi ck

.

i n thei r p o ste r i o r p a r t ; they a re a bse n t o n t h e l ast tw o .

The a tl a s h as a l a rge ro ugh tub e r o s ity o n i t s d o r s a l a r ch Th e v entr a l ar ch .

is ve r y thi ck The w i ngs a r e l ess cu r v ed th a n i n th e h or se and th e f or am en t r an s

.
,

v e r s a r i u m (p o ste r i or f o ra me n ) is a bse n t Th e c a vit i es for th e o ccipit a l c on dyles

.

a re d ivided i n t o uppe r a n d l o we r p a r ts b y a n o n a r ti cul ar a r e a a n d ar e sep a r a ted

-
,

b y a n a rro w i n te r v a l bel o w The po st e r i or ar ti cu l a r s ur fa c e s ar e fl a tte n ed b eh i n d

.

a n d a r e c o n ti n ued i n t o the ve r teb r a l c a n a l f o r m i n g a n exte n sive a r e a fo r th e o d o n

,

t o i d p r o cess o f th e a xis .

The axi s is sh or t The s pi ne p r o j e cts a litt l e i n f r on t an d i n c r e a ses i n h ei ght

.
,

a nd th i ck n ess beh i nd ; i ts p oste r i o r b o r d e r d esce n ds a b r uptly Th e o d onto i d .

pro c e s s (de n s ) is wide a n d its uppe r s u r f a ce i s deeply c on c a ve f r o m side t o side

,
.

The i nterv erte b ra l f ora m e n i s ci r cul a r a n d n ot so cl o se t o the an te r i o r b orde r of the

a r ch a s i n the h o r se The p o st e r i or n o tch e s ar e n ot so deep Th e tr an sv er s e
. .

pro c e s s e s are st o ute r but the f or a m e n tr a n sv er s ar iu m i s sm a ll an d s o m eti m es

,

a bse n t .

The th o ra ci c v e rte b r a , thi r tee n i n n u mb e r a r e l a r ge r t h a n th o se o f th e h o rse , .

The b o di e s a re l o n ge r a nd a re disti n ct l y c o n st r i ct ed i n th e middle Th ey b e a r a .

th i n edged ve nt ra l c rest The a r ch e s — i n a d d iti on t o th e usu a l n o tches wh i ch are

-

sh a ll o w —a re pe rfo ra ted i n the p o ste r i o r p a r t by a fo r am e n Th e tr an s v ers e

.
,

pro c e s s e s a re thi ck a n d st r o n g a n d b e ar r o u n ded m a mm ill a ry p ro cesses (except

,

a t the p o ste r i o r e n d o f th e se r i es ) ; th e l a st tw o a l th o u gh p ro m i n e n t d o n o t a lw a ys
, ,

a r ti c ul a te with the r ibs Th e spi n o u s pr o c e s s e s a re l o ng The fi r st is mu ch hi gh e r

. .

th a n i n the h o rse the n ext t w o a re usu a lly the m o st p r om i n e n t a n d b ehi n d this

, ,

the r e is a ve r y g rad u a l d i m i n u ti on i n hei ght Th e b a ckw a r d sl o pe sli ght a t fi r st .

, ,

i n c re a ses to the te n th ; th e l a st is ve r ti c a l an d lu m b a r i n ch ara cte r The su mm it .

i s usu a lly p o i nted o n the fi rst a n d th e thi c ke n i n g on t h o se fu r the r b a ck is less th an

,

i n the h o rse . T h e wi d th di m i n ishes f r o m t h e fi fth t o th e eleve n th usu a lly B o th .

b o rde rs o f the spi n es a re i n ge n e ra l th i n a n d sh ar p but th e l ast th r ee or f o u r s om e ,

ti mes h a ve thi ck p o ste r i o r m a r gi n s .

The lu m b ar ve r teb ra , six i n n umbe r a r e mu ch l on ge r th a n i n th e h or se The

, .

b od i e s a re m u ch c on st r i cted i n the m i ddle exp an ded a t ei th e r en d an d be a r r ud i , ,

me nt a r y ven t ra l c r e s ts Th e f o u r th a nd fifth are usu a lly the l o n gest The

.
.

i nt er v e rt e b ra l f o r ami n a a r e o fte n d o uble i n the a n te r i o r p a r t o f th e se r i es a nd a re ,

1 14 S KE L E T O N or T HE ox

ve r y l a r ge fu r the r b a ck The ar ti cu l ar p r o c e s s e s a re l a r ge an d thei r f a cets ar e

. ,

m o r e s t r o n gly cu r ved th a n i n the h o r se

. Th e tran sv er s e pr o c e s s e s a l l cu r ve
.

f o r w a r d Th e v a re s ep a r a ted by c on si de r a ble i n te r v a ls an d f or m n o a r ti cu l a ti on s
.
.
,

w i th e a ch o the r o r wi th th e s a c r u m Thei r b o r de r s a re thi n a n d i rr egu l a r an d o fte n

. ,

b e a r p r o j ecti o n s o f v a r i a ble si z e a nd f o r m The fi rst is the sh or test a n d the le n g th

.

i n c r e a ses t o the fifth the l ast bei n g c o n sid e ra b ly sh or te r The s pi no u s pr o c e s s e s

,
.

a re r el a ti vely l o w a n d w ide the l a st b ei n g the s m a llest ; t hei r su mm i ts a r e m o de r

,

a tely thi cke n ed .

The s a c ru m i s l o nge r th a n th a t o f the h o r se I t c o n sists o r igi n a lly o f fiv e .

seg me n t s but fusi o n is m o r e c o mplete an d i nv o lves t he spi n o us p ro cesses whi ch

, ,

a r e u n ited t o f o r m a m e d i an s a c r al c r e st with a c o n vex th i ck a n d r o ugh m ar gi n

,
.

A l a te ral c r e st is f o r m ed by t he fusi o n o f the a r ti cu l a r p r o cesses Th e pe lvi c .

s u rf a c e is c o n c a ve i n b o th di r ecti on s a n d is m ar ked by a ce n t r a l gr oo v e , wh i ch
,

i n di c a tes the c o u r se of the m idd le s a c ra l ar t er v The inf er i or s a c ra l f ora mi n a are

.

l a rge The wi n gs a re qu a d r a n gul ar sh or t c o m p r essed f r om b ef or e b a ckw ar d

.
, , ,

a n d high d o r s o ve n t r a l ly - They h a ve a n exte n si ve a n te r i o r su r f a ce w hi ch i s

.
,

c o n c a ve f r o m si d e t o s ide an d n o n a r ti cul a r The p oste r i o r su r f a ce i s r o ugh an d

,
-
.
,

be a r s a t r i a n gul a r a r e a bel o w fo r ar ti cu l a ti on w i th t he i li u m Th e b o dy of t h e .

fi rst seg me n t i s ve r y wid e a n d th e e n t r an ce t o th e s a c ra l c a n a l c or r esp on di n gly

,

wide a n d l ow The ante r i o r art i cul ar p r o c e s s e s a r e l a r ge an d a r e c o n c a ve a n d

.
,

se m i cyli nd r i c a l i n cu r v a tu r e i n te r n a lly Th e l a t era l b or d e r s a re thi n sh a r p a n d

- .
, ,

i r r egul a r Th e apex i s wi de r th a n i n th e h or se an d th e p o ste r i or en d of th e c r est

.
,

f o r m s a p oi n ted p r oj ecti on o ve r th e o pen i n g o f the s a c r a l c an a l .

The c o ccyge a l v erte b ra a re l o n ge r an d bett e r devel o ped th an i n th e h or se .

The fi r st five o r s i x h a ve c o mplete a r ches an d sp i no us p r o cesses The t r an sve r s e .

p ro cesses a r e r el a ti vely l a rge i n t he a n te r i or p ar t of th e se r i es i n wh i ch th e r e a re ,

a ls o a nte r i or a r ti cul a r p r o cesses (whi ch d o n o t a r ti cu l a te ) an d a p a i r o f ve n t r a l ,

spi n es whi ch f o r m a h a m a l g r o o ve fo r the m i ddle c o c cyge a l a r t er v .

Ve r t eb r a l c u r v es : T h e c er v i c a l cu r v e i s v ery s li g h t a n d i s c o n c a v e d o r s a l l y T h e t h orac i c .

a nd l u m b a r reg i o n s f o r m a g en tl e c u r v e , co n c a v e v en t ra ll y T h e p ro m o n t o r y i s m o r e p ro no u n c ed
.

t h a n i n th e h o rs e , es p ec i a ll y i n s u b j ec t s i n w hi c h t h e s a c r u m i s i n c l i n ed u p w a rd b eh i nd An o t h er .

p ro mo n to r y oc cu rs a t th e j u n c ti o n o f t h e s a c ru m a n d fi rs t co c cy g ea l v er t eb r a .

Len g t h : T h e f o ll o w i n g t a b l e g i v es t h e l en g t h s o f t h e r eg i o n s o f a s h o r t h o r n c o w o f m ed i u m

C er v i c a l
T h o ra c i c
Lu m b a r
S a c ra l
C o cc y g ea l

2 61 cm .

Va r i a ti o ns : S o m e ti mes f ou r t een t h o ra c i c v e r t eb r a a nd f o u r t ee n p a i rs o f r i b s a r e p res en t ;

red u c ti o n t o t w e l v e w i t h t h e n o rm a l n u m b e r o f l u m b a r v e r t eb ra i s v e ry r a r e A c c o r d i n g to .

F ra n c k , t h ere a r e s o meti mes s e v en l u m b a r v erte b r a w i t h t h e no r ma l n u mb er i n t h e t h ora c i c

r eg i o n .T h e n u m b e r o f co c c ygea l v e r t eb r a m a y v a r y f r o m s i x t een to t w e n t y - o n e .

THE R I B S
Thi r tee n p a i r s o f r ibs a r e n or m a lly p r ese n t of whi ch ei ght a re ste r n a l a n d five
,
.

a ste r n a l They a r e i n ge n e ra l l o n ge r wide r fl a tte r less cu r ved a n d less r egul ar

.

, , , ,

i n f o r m th a n i n the h or se Th e ei ght h n i n th a n d te n t h a r e the l o n gest an d wi dest

.
, .
,

The width o f m o st o f the r i bs i n c r e a s es c o n si de r a b ly i n the m iddle a n d the b r e a dth ,

o f the i n te r c o s t a l sp a c e s is c o rr esp o n di n gl
y di mi n ished The n eck i s l on g an d f o rm s .
,

(excep t i n the p o s te r i o r p a r t o f t he se r i es ) a s m a l le r a n gle wi th the sh a ft th an i n t he

h o r se The a rt i cul a r su rf a ce o f th e tu be r cl e is c o n c a ve t r a n sve r sel y except o n th e
.

l a st tw o o r th r ee wh e r e the f a cet i s s m a ll a n d fl a t o r a b s e n t Th e l o we r e n ds of t he
, .

sec on d t o t h e t e n th o r eleve n th i n clusi ve f o r m di a r th r o di a l j o i n ts with the c o st a l

 T HE T H OR AX —B OXE S OF T HE S K ULL —B ON E S OF T HE C R A N I UM 1 15

c a r ti l a ges Th e fi r st c ost a l c a r ti l a ges a r e ve ry sh o r t ; they

.
ar ti cul a te by t hei r
i nte r n a l su r f a ces w i t h t h e ste rn u m but n ot w it h e a ch o the r , .

Th e pres e n c e o f a f o ur t een t h r i b i s no t v ery ra re I t i s u s u a l l y fl o a t i ng a n d ma y c o r res p o nd

.

to a n a d d i t i o n a l t h o r a c i c v e r t eb r a o r t o t h e fi rs t l u m b a r R ed u c ti o n o f t h e t h i r t ee n t h i s mo re
.

c o mm o n T h e e i g h t h c a r t i l ag e o f t e n d o es n o t rea c h t h e s t er n u m , b u t a r ti c u l a t e s wi t h th e s e v e nt h
.

.
.

The ste rn um c o n sists o f seve n ste rn eb ra most of whi ch a r e d evel o ped f r o m ,

t w o l a te ra l ce n t e r s
a n d the ve n t r a l c r est o r
I t is w i de r fl a tt e r a n d r el a ti vely l o n ge r t h a n i n t h e h o r se
.
, , ,
” “
keel is a bse n t The m a n ub r i u m is s o m ewh a t wedge .

sh a ped a n d l a te r a lly c o m p r essed I ts b ase f or m s a di a rt h r o di a l j o i n t wi th the

.

b o dy o f the b on e a n d l a te r a lly it be a r s e xte ns ive f a cets fo r a r ti cu l a ti on wit h the

,

fir st p a i r o f c o st a l c a r ti l a ges The b o dy wi de ns f r o m b ef or e b a ckw a r d but behi n d

.
,

th e l a st p a i r of c o st a l f a cets it b ec o m es m u ch n a rr owe r Th e ve nt r a l su r f a ce i s .

p r o mi n e n t on th e sec o n d a n d thi r d segme n ts c on c a ve fu r t he r b a ck The l a te ra l , .

b or de r s a r e n o t ch ed for t h e p a ss a ge o f vessels The c a r i n i f o r m c a rti l a ge i s a bse n t

.
.

The xi ph o i d c a rti l a ge i s li ke t h a t o f t he h or se but i s s m a lle r .

THE THORA X

The b on y t h or a x is sh ort e r th an i n th e h or se The i n let i s highe r The r o o f . .

i s sh or t a n d th e fl o o r w i de r a n d r el a ti vely l on ge r The t ra n sve r se di a m ete r is

,
.

w i de r i n th e p o ste r i o r p a rt Th e su m mi ts of th e spi n o us p r o cesses ar e a l m os t i n a

.

st ra ight li n e f r om t h e sec on d t h o r a ci c t o th e m i ddl e o f the l u m b ar r egi on .

B ONE S OF THE S UL L K
B ONE S o n T HE Q QA N I U M

Th e o ccipital b on e i s situ a ted i n t h e l o we r p ar t o n ly o f the p o st e r i or su r f a ce of

th e sku ll an d is sep a r a ted f r o m t he h ighest p ar t (th e f r on t a l e m i n e n ce ) by the
,

p ar i et a l a n d i nt e r p a r i et a l b o n es The sup r a o cci pit a l i n ter p a r i e t a l s a n d p ar iet a ls

.
, ,

fuse bef or e bi r th o r s oon a fte r an d t h e m as s s o f or m ed is sep a ra t ed f ro m the l a te r a l

,

p a r ts o f t he o c ci pit a l b on e by a t r a n sve r se sut u r e i n t he sku ll o f the c a lf A b o ve .

t hi s sut u r e is a ce n t r a l t ube r o si ty t o wh i ch t he lig a m e n tu m n u ch a is a tt a ched a n d

, ,

t he su r f a ce o n eit he r side is d ep r essed a n d ro ugh fo r m uscul a r a tt a ch m e nt B el o w .

th e sutu r e the b on e is m u ch w i de r th a n t h a t o f t he h or se Th e f o r am en m a gn u m .

is wi de so th a t the c on dyles a r e fu r the r a p a r t except bel ow The p a r am a st o id

,
.

p r o cesses a r e sh or t a n d w i de a n d a r e b e n t i n w a r d T w o c on st an t fora m i n a a re .

f o un d i n th e c o n dyl o i d f oss a ; th e a n te r i or o n e is the hyp ogl o ss a l t he ot he r (s om e ,

ti m es d o ubl e ) c o n du cts a vei n f r om t h e c on dyl o id c an al Th e l a tte r p a sses upw ar d .

f r o m a f or a m e n on t he i nn e r si de o f t he c on dyle a n d o pe n s i n t o t h e p ar iet o te m p o r a l -

c an a l . The c r a n i a l su r f a ce of th e sup r ao ccipit a l p r ese n t s a ce nt ra l dep r essi o n a n d .

a b o ve t his i s a v a r i a b le b ut n eve r ve r y p r o n o u n ced e m i n e n ce whi ch c orr esp o n ds ,

t o t he te nt or ium o sseum of th e h o r se On eithe r side is a g roo ve le a di n g t o t h e

p a r i et o—
.

te m p or a l c a n a l Th e b a si l a r p ro cess is sh o rt a n d wid e ; i t s c r a ni a l s u rf a ce
.

i s deeply c on c a ve a n d t h e i n te r n a l sph e n o o cci pit a l c r est is p r o m i n e nt T w o l a rge

,
- .

t ub e r cles bel o w m a r k th e j u n cti on w it h the sphe n o id The f o r a m e n l a ce r u m is .

sh or t a n d ve r y n arr o w I n t he a dult a ni m a l t he b o n e is exc a v a ted to c o n t a i n a n

.

a i r c a vity wh i ch i s r eg a r ded a s a p a r t o f t h e f r o n t a l si n us
- .

The sph en o i d b on e i s sh o r t The c r a ni a l su r f a ce o f t he b od y p r ese n ts a deep

.

se l l a tur ci c a i n f r on t o f whi ch it r ises a b r up t ly The high a n t e r i o r p a rt be a rs a

,
. .

ce n t r a l r idge (R o st r um sph e n o id a le ) whi ch j o i ns the c r ist a g a lli o f t h e et h mo id

,
.

Tw o f or a m i n a o ccu r o n eit he r sid e Of these t h e l a r ge a n t e ri o r o n e is equ i v a le nt

.
,

t o the f or a m e n r o t u n du m l a ce r u m o r bi t a le a n d p a t h e ti c u m o f t he h o r se ,
T he .

p oste r i o r o n e is t h e f o ra m e n o v al e , whi ch t ra n s m i t s t h e i n fe r i o r m a xi ll a r y n e r ve .
1 16 S KE L E T O N or T HE ox

Th e o r bi t a l w i n g i s thi ck a nd is o ve r l a pped by t he f ro n t a l i n such m ann e r as t o

r

a ppe a r exte r n a lly t o divide i n t o t w o b r a n ches ; t he a n te r i o r p a r t j o

m s t he e t h mmd
cl o se to the sphe nop a l a ti n e f o r a m e n a n d c on t a i n s a s m a l l s m us whi ch c o mmu ni ,

c a tes wi th a n eth mo i d a l m e a tus The te m p o r a l wi n g is s m a l l but f o r m s a p r om i . ,

n e n t thi c k pte r yg o id c r e s t The pte r yg o id p r o cess i s w ide an d the pter yg oi d or

. ,

a l a r f or a m e n a bse n t sphe n o id a l si n us is a bse n t

.
c a lf sma l l i n

Fro . 89 .
—S K U LL AN D A T LAS
AT AL V W or Ox , L ER IE .

9 Z y g m ti
. oh; I ]
a c id p
a rc ; 1 ,
p b it l p
c o r o no ; p m t id ty l i d p
ro c e s s 0
; su ra o r a ro c ess a ra as o or s o ro ce s s

occi p it l d yl : I 4 p i t l b
a con e ; 1 5 f, t l b : 16 q m
ar e a t mp l b ; 1 7
o ne , t l di
ro n a o ne , s ua ou s e o ra o ne ,
e x e r na au

t y m t ; I S t mp l
or ea us d yl : 1 9
e b it l
o ra f
co n f l c im l b
e ; 20 m l b
, ; 91
or f i l f
a f
s u r ace o a r a o ne , a ar o ne ,
ac a s u r a ce o

l im l b ;
ac r a o ne lb : 0 9
lp
n as a o ne f p m ill ; nas ai i t t h ; 26 m ill : 2 f i l t b
ro c es s o re ax a nc so r ee , ax a 7 , ac a u er

osi ty : i f b it l f
n ra o r m i f
a t f 537 : l
o ra en m l n p t f m f m d i b l ; 3 0 b d v ti l p t f m
ro n o o ar ar o ra us o an e ro a er ca ar o ra us

B m A t fii
.

angl f j
e o ; 31 d yl
aw f m d ibl ; 82
, con tl :
e wi g
o f tl (A ft
an E ll b g e , a as r , n o a as . er en er e r- au , na . r

K ii ns t l e r ) .

the a dul t ; i t c o mm u n i c a tes by on e o r tw o s m a ll o pe n i n gs w i th a n eth m o id a l m e atus ,

a n d s o wi th the n a s a l c a vi ty .

Th e eth m o id b on e h as a n exte n si ve p e r pe n di cul a r pl a te The l a te r a l m ass .

c o nsists o f five e n d o t u r bi n al s a n d eightee n e ct o tu rb i n al s (P a u l l i ) Th e l ar gest .

eth m o tu r bi n a l i s s o e x te nsive a s to be te r med a thi r d o r midd le tu r bi n a l b on e ; i t

p r o j ects f o r w a rd bet wee n t h e uppe r a n d l o we r tu r bi n a ls Th e l a m i n a p a py r a ce a . .

a ppe a r s t o a s m a ll exte n t ext e r n a lly i n t he p t e ry g o p a l a ti n e f o ss a f orm i n g p ar t -

,

o f th e u ppe r m a r gi n o f th e s phe n o p a l a ti ne f o r a m e n .

The i nte rpar i e tal s a re p r i mitively p a i r ed but u n ite bef or e bi r th A s a l r e a dy , .

1 18 S KE L E T O N or T HE ox

The d i ti o n i n t h e y o u ng s u b j ec t i s a s f o ll o w s : 'T h e t w o p a r i e t a l s a re u n i t ed w i t h ea c h o t h er
con

a nd a l s o w i t h t h e i n t e r p a r i e t a l a nd s u p r a o c c i p i t a l l h e res u l t i ng m as s 1 8 s o me w h a t h o rs es h o e .

s h a pet l l t s o c c i p it a l p a r t (P l a n u m o c c i p i ta l e ) f o r ms t h e g re a t e r p a r t o f t h e p os t e ri o r w a ll o f
.

t h e c ra n i u m a nd b ea rs a bo u t i ts c e n t e r t h e t u b e ro s i t y for t h e a tt a c me t o
- h n f t h e l i g a men t u m .

n u c h ae .
F ro m e it h er s i d e o f t h i s a l i ne c u rv es o u t w a rd a nd d i v i d es t h e s u rf a c e i nt o a n u pper
. ,

s c u l a r a t t a c h me nt T h e u pp er b o r d e r 1 0 1 11 8
s m o o t h a r ea a n d a l o w e r a re a w h i c h i s r o u g h fo r m u
.

t h e f ro n t a l b o n e a n d c o n c u rs i n t h e f o r m a ti o n o f t h e f ro n t a l e m i ne n c e T h e t em p o r a l p a r t s .

P l m l i l m c h s ma l l er a nd a re c o n ca v e e x t er n a ll y ; t h ey t h e f ro n t a l a b o v e a n d
( a n a t e p o r a a a r e u

q
t h e s u a mo u s t em p o ra l b e l o w .

Fm .
—S K U LL on Ox , D o ns “ , V rE w W T H MA N D I B L E)
( I .

1 ° Su p ra o r b it l p
a ro c e ss ; 1 4 , p i
a r e ta lb o ne ; 1 6, f
t lb n
ro n a o e ; q m t mp l b
s ua ous e o ra o ne ; o rb it ; 20 .

mal ar b o ne ; 21 1a c r i m al b o n e ; 2 2 n as a l b o ne ; 25 , p m ill ;
re ax a m ill ; 2 7 f i l t b
ax a ac a u e ro s ity ; 24, i nc is o r
B
, , ,

t th
ee . ( A ft er E ll en b e rg e r - au m ,
A t f na . . li u ns t l e r .
)

The f ronta l b o n e s a re ve r y exte ns ive f o r mi n g a b o ut on e h a lf o f th e e n ti r e ,

-

le n gth o f t h e skull a n d a l l o f th e r oo f o f th e c r an i u m
,
The p o ste r i o r b o r de rs .

f o r m wi th the p a r iet al s a l a r ge ce n t r a l fr on ta l e mi n e n c e (T o r us f r on t a lis ) th e ,

highest p o i n t o f the sku ll A t th e j u n cti o n o f the p o s t e r i o r a n d th e l a te r a l b o r de r s

.
.

”
a re t h e p o c e s su s c o rn u o r
r h or n c o r es fo r the supp or t of th e h o r n s Thes e -
,
.

p ro cesse s a re o f el o n g a ted c on i c a l f o r m a n d v a r y g r e a tly i n si ze le n gt h cu r v a tu r e , , , ,

a n d d i r ecti o n T h e exte r n a l su r f a ce i s r o ugh an d p o r o us m a r ked by n u m e r o us

.
,

g r oo ves a n d fo r a m i na ; i n the f r esh st a te they a r e c o ve r ed by t he m a t r i x o f the h orn s .

The b a s e h a s a c o ns t r i cti on the n eck Th e i n te r i or i s exc a v a ted to f o r m a n u m b e r

, .
 B ONES or T HE C R A N I UM 119

of i rr egul a r i nte r c o mm u n i c a t i n g sp a ces di vided by b o n y sept a a n d c o mmu

ni c a t
,
,
i ng W i th the f r o n t a l si n us I n the p o lled b reeds the s e p r o c e s ses a r e a b s e n t
the
.

skull is na rr o we r i n thi s r egi on an d the f ron t a l e mi n e n ce mo r e p ro n o u n c ed T h e

,
.

sup rao r bit a l p ro cess is situ a ted a b o ut h a lf w a y betwee n the a nt e r i or a n d p o s te r i o r -

m a r gi n s ; i t is sh o r t a n d j o i n s the f ro n t a l p ro cess o f the m a l a r b e Th e sup ra

on .

o r b i t a l f o r a me n (o fte n d o ubl e ) is si tu a ted a b o ut an i n ch i n w a r d f ro m t h e roo t o f

the p r o cess ; i t i s the exte rn a l or i fi ce o f the s up r a o r b ita l c a na l (C a n a lis s u r a o r b i
p

E a ter n u l
‘

a u d i to r y
mea tus
Sq
u a m o u s te mp or a l bo n e

Z ygo ma ti c a rc h

M a xi l l

Fa ci a l tu beros i ty

Ra mu s of ma nd i bl e

P r ema x i l l a

FI G . 92 .
—S KL LL
’

. A T LA
«x n S or Ox V E N T R M
, .

13 B i— ip it l :
as occ a 13 p ma s o d
a ra t i or t y l id p
s o r e c es s : occip it l a c o nd ly e ; i isnc or teeth ;

B
,

b od y of m a nd b i l l o f m a nd b e ; i l 32 v t lt l tl (A ft E ll
'
e ; 3 1 , c o nd y e . en ra u b e rc e of a as . er en b e rg e r - aum , A na l . tii r
K ii ns t l e r )
.

t a lis ) wh i ch p a sses d o wn w a r d an d f or w a r d i n t o th e or bi t The f o r a me n is i n the

, .

c o u rse o f t he supr a o rb ita l gr oo v e (S u l cus sup r a or bit a lis ) whi ch m a r ks the c o u rse ,

o f th e f r on t a l vei n Th e a n te r i or e n ds o f the n a s o f ron t a l p a r ts fo r m a n o t c h whi ch

.
-

r eceives the n a s a l b o n es a n d sutu ra l o r W o r m i a n b o n es a re o ft e n f o u n d a t this

,

j un cti on (n a s o f r on t a l sutu r e ) Th e o r bit a l p ar t is e xt e nsive ; i t is pe r f o rat ed

-
.

behi n d by t he or bit a l o pe ni n g o f th e sup r aor bi t a l c a n a l a n d bel o w by t he e t h m o id a l ,

or i n te r n a l or bit a l f o r a m e n I t d o es n ot a rti cul a te wi t h t he p a l a t i n e f r o m whi ch

.
,

i t is sep a r a ted by t h e o r bi t a l wi n g o f the sphe n o id T h e te m p or a l p a r t is a ls o m o r e .

1 20 SK E L E T O N OF T HE ox

e xte nsi ve th a n i n t h e h o rse The f r o n t a l si n us i s ve r y exten si ve b ei n g c on tin ued

. ,

i n t o th e p a r iet a ls a n d o ccipit a l a nd the h o r n p r o cesses whe n p r ese n t

u a m o u s a nd petr o u s p arts Of the te mp ora l b on e fuse e ar ly—i n fact
.

The s q ,

u n i o n i s n e a r ly c o mplete at bi r t h The squ a m o us p a r t i s r el a tively sm a l l I ts.

.

exte r n a l su rf a c e i s di vid ed i n t o t w o p a r ts by the p r om i n e n t te m p or a l c r est wh i ch i s ,

c on ti n u o us wi th t he p a r i et a l c r e s t a b o ve a n d tu r n s f or w a r d bel o w en di n g at a , .

tube r cle a b o ve the e x te r n a l a udi tor y m e a tus Th e p a r t b ehi n d th e c r est f a ces .

b a ckw a rd a n d i s p a r t ly f r ee p a r tly u n ited w i th the o ccipit a l

, ,
Th e a r e a i n f r on t .

o f the c r est is c o n c a ve a nd e n te r s i n t o the f o r m a ti o n Of th e t e m p o r a l f o ss a ; it is

pe rfo ra ted by f o r a m i n a whi ch c o mm u n i c a te with th e p a r i et o— te m p o r a l c an a l .

The zyg o m a ti c p ro ce s s is m uch sh or te r a n d we a ke r th an i n the h o rse a n d a rt i c u ,

l a tes wi th the m a l a r o n ly The c on dyl e is c o n v ex i n b o th di r ecti on s T he p o st

.
.

gle n o id p ro ce s s is less p ro mi n e n t a nd beh i n d i t i s th e ch i ef exte r n a l o pe n i n g o f th e

,

p a r iet o te m p o ra l c a n a l The i n te r n a l su r f a ce i s a l m o st c om pletely o ve r l a pped b y

- .

the p a r i et a l a n d sphe n o i d The pet r o us p a r t p r o pe r is s m a l l but th e ty m p ani c

.
,

p a r t i s exte nsi ve The exte r n a l a udi t or y m e a t u s is sm a lle r th an i n th e h or se and i s

.

d i r ected o utw a r d F r o m it a pl a te p r o j ects d ow n w a r d a nd h elps to i n cl o se th e

.

deep dep r essi o n i n whi ch the hy o i d p r o cess is p l a ced B ehi n d this pl ate is th e styl o .

m a st o i d f o r a m e n The muscul a r p r o cess i s l a r ge an d o fte n bi fid at i ts f r ee en d

.
.

The bul l a o sse a is l a r ge a n d l a te r a l l y c o m p r essed I t is sep ar a t ed f r o m th e o c ci pi .

t a l b o n e by a n a rr o w o pe n i n g whi ch i s e q u i v a len t t o p a r t o f the f o r am e n l a ce r um

b a sis c ra n i i o f the h o r se The p ar i et o te m p o r a l c an a l i s f o r med e n ti r ely i n t h e
.
-

te m p o r a l b on e The f a ci a l c a n a l o n th e o th e r h an d is b o u n ded p ar tly by the occ i

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pi t a l b o n e .

F A CE BO N E S OF T HE

The m ax ill a is sh orte r but b r oa de r an d r el a tively high e r th an i n t h e h orse .

I ts exte r n a l su r f a ce be a r s i n ste a d Of th e f a ci a l c r est a ro ugh f ac i al tu b er o s i ty

(Tube r m a l a r e ) pl a ced a b o ve th e thi r d ch eek t oo th ; a r o u gh cu r ved li n e Ofte n
,

exte n ds f r o m i t t o the uppe r p a r t of the m a l ar b on e Th e i n f r a o r bi t a l f or am e n .

o fte n d o ubl e
— is situ a ted a b o ve th e fi r st ch eek t o o th Th e t ub e r m axi l l ar e i s .

s ma ll l a te ra lly c om p r essed a n d usu a lly b e a r s a s m a l l p o i n ted p r o cess (P r o cessus

, ,

pte r yg o ideus ) The zyg o m a ti c p r o cess i s v e r y s m a ll

. The i n te r a lve o l a r b o r der i s .

c o n c a ve an d the r e is no a lve o l us fo r a c a n i n e t ooth Th e p a l a ti n e p r o cess is wi de r

,
.
,

but s om ewh a t sh or te r th a n i n the h o r se I t i n cl o ses a l a r ge ai r sp a ce whi ch i s .

-
,
.

c o n ti nu o us behi n d wi th a li ke c a vity i n th e h o r i z on t a l p a r t Of the p a l a t e b on e f orm ,

i ng the p a l a tin e s in u s This c o m m u n i c a tes exte r n a lly (o ve r th e i n fr a o r bi t a l c a n a l )

.

with the m a xi ll a r y si n us ; i n th e m a ce r a ted sku ll i t c o m m u n i c a tes w i th th e n a s a l

c a vity by a l a r ge o v a l Ope n i n g whi ch i s cl o sed by mu c o us me m b r a n e i n the f r esh
,

st a te A med i an septu m sep ara tes th e t w o p a l a ti n e si n uses Th e a lve o li for the

. .

cheek teeth i n c r e ase i n si z e f r o m bef or e b a ckw a r d The m axi ll a r y si n us p r ope r i s .

s ma l l an d is u n d ivided Th e m a x il l a r y f o r a m e n i s a n a rr ow fissu r e deeply pl a ced

.
,

a t the i nn e r side o f the l a c r i m a l bull a Th e m a xi ll a t a kes n o p ar t i n the f or m a ti on

.

o f the p a l a ti n e c a n a l S utu r a l (o r W o r m i a n ) b o n es m a y b e f o u n d at i ts j u n cti o n

.

wi th the l a c r i ma l a nd m a l a r b o n es .

The b o dy o f th e pr e mai a i s th i n a n d fl a tte n ed a n d h as n o a lve o li si n ce , ,

t h e c a n i n e a n d uppe r i n ci s o r t eeth a r e a bse n t A deep n o t-eh t a kes th e pl a ce Of .

the f o r am e n i n ci s i vu m T h e n a s a l p r o cess i s sh o r t c o n vex e xt e r n a lly a nd is n ot

.
, ,

c l o sely a tt a ched t o the n a s a l b o n e

; the S p a ce betwee n th e tw o p ro cesses i s g r e a te r
t h a n i n the h o r se The p a l at i n e p ro cess i s n a rr o w a nd i s g roo ved o n its n a s a l su r
.

f a ce fo r the s ept a l c a rti l age a n d the v o m e r The p a l a ti n e cleft i s ve r y wid e . .

The p a l ati n e b on e i s ve ry exte n si ve The h o ri z o nta l p a rt f o r m s on e f ou r th or .

-

mo r e o f t h e h a r d p a l a te The a n te r i o r p a l a ti n e f o r a m e n o pe n s n e a r th e j u n cti on
.

with t h e m a xi ll a a b o u t h a lf a n i n ch f ro m the m edi a n p a l a ti n e sutu r e a n d c r est

, .
1 22 S KE L E TO N OF T HE ox

of these the f ro n t a l p r o cess tu r ns upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d a nd j o i n s th e sup r a o r bit al

,

p ro cess o f the fr o nt a l b o n e ; t h e te m p ora l p ro cess c o n ti n ues b a ckw a r d a n d is o ve r ,

l a pped by t h e zyg om ati c p ro c ess o f th e temp or a l b o ne c o m plet i n g the zyg o m a t i c ,

a rc h .

The su peri or tu r b in a l b one is less c r ib r if or m a nd f ra gile th a n i n th e h o rse a nd ,

i s t hi ckest i n i t s m iddle s m a l l a t ei the r e nd

.
I t is a tt a ch ed t o the tu r bi n a l c r est
,
.

o f t h e na s a l b o n e a n d cu r ves d o w n w a r d o utw a r d a n d upw

a r d t o b e a ppli ed ou t ,
, ,

w a rd l y t o t h e f ro n t a l a n d l a c r i m a l b o n es I t thus i n cl o ses a c a vity wh i ch c o m m u n i .

c a tes with the middle m e a t us n a si ( I n the m a ce ra ted s ku ll it o pe n s i n t o th e f r o n t a l

.

si n us but t his c o mm u ni c a ti o n is cl o sed by mu c o us m e m b ra n e i n the f r esh st a te )

,
.

The inf e r i or tu r b i nal b on e is sh o r te r b ut mu ch b r oade r th an i n t he h o r se I t .

is a tt a c h ed to the m a xill a by a b a s a l l am ell a a b o ut an i n ch (e a 2 t o 3 cm ) w ide . .

,

whi ch s l o pes d o w nw a rd a n d i n w a r d A t the i nn e r edge of th is it splits i n t o tw o .

pl a tes whi c h a re r o lled i n Opp o sit e di r ecti o n s a n d i n cl o se t w o sep a ra te c a viti es

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s u bd ivided by seve ra l sept a The uppe r o n e Ope n s i n t o th e m i ddle me a tus th e . ,

l owe r one i n t o th e i nfe r i o r m e a tus

n a si

Th e v o m er f o r m s a w ide r a n d
deepe r gr oo ve th a n i n the h orse I ts .

a nte r i o r e n d r ests i n a groo ve f o r m ed

by the e n ds of the p a l a ti n e p r o cesses

o f the pr emax i l l z e Th e an te r i or thi r d .

of its th i n l o we r e d ge fits i n t o th e
n a s a l c rest of th e m a xi ll a ; beh i n d '

this i t is f r ee an d sep ara ted by a

c on side r a bl e i n te r v a l fro m the na s a l
fl oor
The tw o h a lves of the m an d ib l e
d o n o t fuse c om pl e tely eve n i n a d
v a n c ed a ge The sy m physe a l su r .

f a ces are ext r e m ely r o ugh a n d a re

m ar ked by r ecip r o c a l p r o j ecti o ns and
PW B O N E O OX c a viti es Th e b o dy is sh or te r wide r
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.

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usc u a r gl f f an (E ll b g e o . en er e r- au , na . .

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aus d e re
a lve o li fo r the l o we r i n cis or s Th e .

i n te r a lve o l a r b o r de r is l on g cu rved , ,

thi n a nd sh a r p The r e a r e n o a lve o li fo r the c a n i n e teeth wh i ch ar e a bse n t

.
,
.

The a n te r i o r p a r t o f the ra m us c on stitutes a l on g n a rr o w n e ck The m e n t a l .

f or a me n is fu r the r f o rw a rd t h a n i n the h orse an d is i n th e p o ste r i o r en d ,

o f a f o ss a The r a m i dive r ge mor e s o th a t th e sub m a xill ary sp a ce is wi de r

.
,

th an i n the h o r se They a r e a ls o mo r e st ro n gly cu r v ed a n d the a n gl e is m o r e

.
,

p ro no u n ced The mo l a r p a r t i s n ot s o high espe ci a lly i n i ts an te r i o r p a r t I ts

.
,
.

l o we r b o rde r is c o nve x i n i t s l e ngt h I ts uppe r b or de r be a rs six a lve o l i fo r the .

l o we r cheek teeth ; the fi rs t i s q uite s m a ll a n d they i n c r e a se i n si ze f rom b efor e ,

b a ckwa rd The ve r tic a l p a r t is m u ch s ma lle r t h a n i n th e h o rse and its p oste r i o r

.

b o rde r is r el a tively th i n bel o w c o n c ave a nd wide r a b o ve Th e m a n dibul ar f o r a

,
.

m e n is a b o u t i n the m iddle o f i ts i n n e r su r f a ce a n d a gr oo ve fo r th e l i n gu a l n e r ve ,

cu rves d o w nw a rd an d fo r wa rd f r o m i t The c on dyle p r o j ects i n w a r d fu rth e r th a n .

i n the h o rse a n d is c o n c a ve f ro m side to side

, Th e c o ro n o id p r o cess is ext en sive .

a n d cu rves b a c kw a rd .

The h yo id b on e h a s a sh o r t tube r o us l i n gu a l p ro cess The m idd le c o rn u a .

a r e a l m os t as l a r ge a s t h e s m a l l c or n u a The g r e a t c o rn u a a r e n ar r o w except .
,

a t the e nds The uppe r e n d divides i n t o t w o b r a n ches whi ch c o rr esp on d

.
,
 SK ULL OF T HE ox AS A w HOL E 1 23

to the t w o an gles of th a t o f the h o rse . The t hy ro id c o rn u a d o n ot fuse w ith

the b o dy .

S K UL L OF THE OX AS A WHOL E
The sku ll o f the o x i s m o r e c le a r ly py r a m id a l t h a n th a t o f the h o rse a nd i s ,

sh o rte r a n d r el a tively wide r Th e c ra n i u m i s qu a d r a n gu l a r an d l a r ge r e x te r na lly

.

th a n i n the h o r se ; its l a r ge si ze is du e m a i n ly t o the gr e at exte nt o f t he f ro nt a l si n us ,

a n d d o es n o t a ffect the c r a ni a l c a vity wh i c h is s m a lle r th a n i n the h o r se, .

Th e s u p e ri o r or f r o n tal s u rfa c e is for med by the f ro n t a ls n a s a ls a nd pre , ,

m a xi ll ae . The f ro nt a l p a r t i s qu a d r i l a te r a l a n d ve r y e xte n sive t h e g r e a t est w idt h ,

bei n g a t th e o r bits I t p r ese n ts a c e n t r a l dep r essi on on its a n te r i o r p a rt a nd on

.

eithe r S ide a re th e sup r a o r b it a l g r oo ves a n d fo r a mi n a B eh i n d is the m edi a n f r on t a l

—
.

”
e mi n e n ce a n d a t th e l a te r a l a n gles the h o rn c o r es p r o j ect i n h or ned c attle The
, .

n a s a l p a r t is ve r y sh o r t Th e o sse o us n a s a l a pe r tu r e is w ide Th e p r e ma xi ll ae
. .

d o n o t b e n d d o wn w a r d as in the h o r se ; t hey a r e r el at ively th i n a n d we a k an d are ,

sep ar ated by a n i n te r v a l wh i c h h as a w id e an te r i or p a r t i n pl a ce o f the fo r am e n

i n c isivu m .

The l a teral s u r f a c e is m o r e t r i a n gul ar t h a n i n t he h or se Th e te m p o r a l fo ss a .

is c o nfi n ed t o this sur f a c e I t is deep an d n a r ro w a n d i ts b o u n d a r ies a re m o r e

.
,

c o mplete I t is li mited a b o ve b y a c r est wh i ch exte n ds f r om t h e p oste r o—

. exte rn a l
a n gle o f the f r o n t a l t o the sup r a o r b it a l p r o cess a n d i s a n a l o g o us t o t h e s a gitt a l ,

cres t o f the h o r se B ehi n d it is b o u n ded by the t emp or a l c r est I t is cle a r ly

. .

m a r ked off f r o m the or b i t b y th e r o u n ded p o ste r i o r or bit a l r idge a n d t h e pte r yg o id

c r est The zyg o m a ti c p r o cess is sh or t we a k a n d fl att e n ed an d i s fo r m ed by t h e
.
, , ,

temp ora l a nd m a l a r onl y I ts c o n dyl e is c o n vex a n d is w i de f rom befor e b a ckw a rd

. .

The gle no id c a vi ty an d p o stgle n o id p ro cess a r e s m a ll The or bit is e n c ro a ched .

up on bel o w b y th e l a c r i m a l bu ll a a n d p r ese n ts th e o r ifi ce o f the sup r aor bit a l c an a l

,

be h i n d The m a r gi n i s c o m pleted beh i n d b y the f r on t a l p r o cess of t h e m al ar ; its

.

l o we r p a rt is p r omi n e n t a n d r o u gh n ot sm oot h a nd r o u n ded a s i n the h or se The

,
.

pter yg o p a l a ti n e f o ss a is m u ch l a r ge r deepe r an d m o r e cle a r ly defi n ed I t h as a

- .
, ,

l on g n a rro w fo r w a r d exte n si on (m a xi ll ar y h i a tus ) betwee n t he ve rti c a l pl a te of

t he p a l a te b on e i n te r n al l y a n d th e m a xi ll a a n d l a c r i m a l bull a ext e rn ally ; thus the
sphe no p a l a ti n e a n d m a xi ll a r y f or a mi n a ar e deepl y pl a ced Th e p r e or bit a l r e g i on .

is sh o r t b ut r el a tively h igh A tube ro sity an d cu r ved li n e t a ke t h e pl a ce o f th e

.

f a ci a l c r est The i n fr a or b it a l f or am e n is sit u a ted a b o ve t he fi r st cheek t oot h an d is

.

o fte n d o uble .

Th e b a s al s urf a c e is S h or t a n d w i de especi a lly i n its c r an i a l p ar t Th e occ i pi

,
.

t al c o n dyl es a r e l i mited i n f r on t b y t r a n sve r se r idges The tube r cles a t th e j u n c .

t i on of t he o c cipit a l a n d sphen o i d a re l ar ge The c on dyl o id foss ae c on t a i n t w o .

f or am i n a the hyp ogl o ss a l b el o w an d i n f r on t a n d th e c on dyl o id ab o ve a n d behi n d ;

, ,

o the r i n c o nst an t on es o c cu r Th e p a r a m ast o id p r o cesses a re S h o r t a n d co n ve r ge nt

.
.

The f or am e n l a ce r um i s S li t l i ke Th e bull a o sse a is a l a r ge l a te r ally c om p r es s ed

-
. ,

p ro mi n e n ce T he m uscul a r p r o cesses a re usu a lly l on g an d n a rro w t r i a n gul ar pl ates

. ,

wi th on e or t w o sh a r p p o i n ts The ext e rn a l a udit or y p ro cess is di r ected al most

.

st r a i ght o utw a r d A cu r ved pl a t e ext e n ds d o wn w a r d fro m it a nd j o i ns th e bu ll a

.

o sse a i n te r n a lly c o m pl eti n g t h e deep c a vity w h i ch r eceives the a r t i cul a r a n gle o f

,

the hy o i d b o n e Th e chi ef ext e rn a l o pe n i n g o f the t e m p ora l c a n a l is i n f ro nt o f

.

t his pl a te a n d a n a c cess or y on e li es b ehi n d i t Th e i n f r atemp or a l f o s s a is s m a ll

,
. ,

a n d p r ese n ts the f or a m e n o v a le The p o ste r i o r n a r es a r e ve r y n a r r ow a nd the

.
,

v om e r d o es n ot r e a ch t o t h e level o f t hei r m a r gi n The h a r d p a l at e is wide a nd . ,

for ms a b o ut th r ee fifth s o f th e e nti r e le n gt h o f t h e sku ll A s m a ll c e nt ra l p a r t

- .

o nl y o f its p o ste r i o r b o r de r e n t e r s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f the p o s te i o

r r n a r es ;
the .

l a te r a l p a rts a re n o t ched a n d j ust a b o ve t hem a r e the p oste ri or p a l at i ne for am i n a .

1 24 S KE L E T O N OF T HE ox

The te r i o r p a l at i n e fo r a m i n a a re a n i n ch o r m o r e f r o m th e p o ste r i o r m ar gi n
an ,

a n d a b o ut the s a m e d ist a n ce a p a rt T h e p a l a t i n e g r o o ves a r e disti n c t fo r a sh or t .

d is t a nce o n ly J ust bey o n d the cheek tee t h t he p a l a t e n a rr ows an d be c om es con

.

c a ve ; bey o n d t his i t wide n s a n d fl at te n s .

The po ste r i or o r n uch a l s u rf a c e is exte n sive a nd s omewh a t pe n t a gon a l i n

o u tli n e i n the a du lt A b o ut its ce n te r is t h e e m i n e n ce fo r t h e a tt a ch m e n t o f the
.

li g am e n tu m n u ch ae F r o m this a medi a n c rest exte n ds t o w ar d th e f or a me n m ag

.

n u m a nd l a te r a lly t w o li n es (L i n e ae n u c h ze supe r i o r es ) cu r ve o utw a r d m a r ki n g the

,
,

uppe r li m i t o f th e a r e a whi ch is ro ughe ned fo r m uscul a r a tt a chm e n t Th e su r f a ce .

a b o ve th e li n es is r el a tively s m oo th a n d i s c ove r ed o n ly by the ski n a n d th e th i n ,

a u r i c u l a r m u s c le s i n t h e l ivi n g a n i m a l I t i s sep a r a ted f r o m t he c r a n i a l r oo f by a .

t h i ck b o r de r wh i ch f o rm s ce n t r a lly t he f r o n t a l e m i n e n ce an d b e ar s a t its e xt remi

, ,

95 —
N S K U LL Ox
C R OS S -S E CT
S CT O N IOFm 96 CRO
or CT O N O S K U L L orOx S E C T I ON E I — SS « S E I F or

P A SSES T H R OU G H S E C ON D C H
. . . . .

P A SSES T H U H 1 C R E E K T O OT H RO G 3 1 1-
e T OOT H . EER .

S p i mi d d l i f i m t ; b i ti b tw mid d l m t v it y f pp '
b a , , c. u er mm
o r, e, n er or d ea us , co u n ca on e ee n e ea us an ca o u er

p t f i f i t bi l ;
ar o n er ormm i ti b tw
ur i f i m t
na c
’
d l w
, co p t f i f i t b i l ; f v it y
u n ca on e een n er or ea us an o er ar o n er or ur na o , ca

o f p i t bi l ;
su er or t d i
ur na ll f d ; g 1 pp d l w
ou v iti f i f i t b i l b ;
e r an n ne r w a s O 1 u er an o er c a es o n er or ur na o ne

l l m ll f i f i t b i l ; " t bi l b ; k fl
, .

b a sa a e a o pp d l w
n er o r d ivi i urf i f i na z ,
f
u ler an o er s o ns o n er or ur na o ne ,
oo r o nasa cav

i ty ; m l im l i ; m ill y i
ac r a ; p p l ti
s nu s i ; 1 pt m b t w
n ax m ill y
ar d p l ti
s nu s i ; a a ne S n u s ( se u e een ax ar an a a n e s n u ses

l; fl
, , , ,

r ,i f b it l
n ra o r l: pt m b t a p l ti
c a na i ; t
s, se mm m t ; u e l im lw ee n a a f ne s n u s es , co on ea us u , no se - a c r a c a na oo r o

na s a l v i ty dca f f p l ti i ; I pt m
an ro o i; 2 p t i p t f
o a a d h k t th ; 3 p t i
ne s n u s se u na s os er o r ar o s ec o n c ee oo os e r or

p t f fi f th h k t th : 4 h d p l t
, , ,

(A f t E ll b g i g A tl
'
ar o c ee oo i L i . )
ar a a e . er en er er, n e se r n s as .

ti es the p ro cessus c om a —except i n the p o lled b r eeds Th e c o n dyles a r e fu r the r .

a p a r t a n d the a r ti c u l a r su r f a ces a re m o r e cle a r ly d ivided i n t o uppe r a n d l o we r p a r ts

,

th a n i n the h o r se .

Th e c ran i al c a vi ty i s sh o r te r a n d its l o n g a xis is m o r e o bli qu e th a n i n the h o r se ,

bu t i t i s r el a ti vely h igh a n d wide The a n te r i or fo ss a li es a t a mu ch h igh e r level .

th a n th e r e s t o f the fl oo r Th e o lf a ct o r y f o ss ae a r e s m a l le r a n d th e sel l a t u r ci c a i s
.
,

m u c h deepe r th a n i n the h o rse A d eep g ro o ve le a ds f r o m th e pet r o us te m p o r a l .

f o rw a rd o ve r th e f o r a me n o v a le t o th e f o r am e n ro tu n du m B ehi n d th e sell a th er e .

i s o fte n a di s ti n ct p ro m i ne n ce (D o rsu m sell ae ) Th e i n te rn a l s a gitt a l c r est i s p r o m i .

n e n t a nte r i o r l y bu t a bse n t fu rthe r b a ck A f a i n tly m a r ked elev a ti o n t a kes th e

, .

pl a c e o f th e te n t o r i u m os s c mn Th e s m a l l pet ro us te m p o r a l b o n e p r o j e cts i n t o .

th e c a vi ty l a te r a l ly Th e r id ges a n d di git a l i m p r essi on s a r e ve r y p r on o u n ced

. .

The p a r i eto te m p or a l c a na l i s f o r med e n ti r el y i n th e te m p ora l b o n e an d o pe n s at

-
,
1 26 SKE L E T O N OF T HE ox

th e t w o pl a tes o f the b o n e c o m e t o gethe r The c a vity is ve r y i rr egul a r an d i s sub .

di vid ed i nt o n u m e ro us sp a ces by r idges a nd p a r ti a l sept a This multi l o cul a r .

ch a ra cte r i s m o st m a r ked i n the a n te r i o r p a r t a nd he r e seve r a l s m a l l sp a ces a ppe ar ,

to be cut o ff f ro m the m a i n c a vi ty (B a u m ) Th e sup r aor bi t a l c a n a l p asses th r ough .

th e si n us S eve ra l s ma ll o pe n i n gs le a d f r o m th e si n us to the eth mo id a l me a tuses

.
,

a n d thus i n d i r e ctly t o th e uppe r di visi o n o f the middle m e a tus n a si The c om m u n i .

c a ti o ns with the c a vity o f t he supe r i o r tu r bi n a l a nd wi th th e l a c r i m a l p ar t o f th e

m a x il l a ry si n us whi ch a re see n i n the m a ce ra ted sku ll a r e cl o sed i n th e f r esh st a te
by m u c o us m e m b r a n e .

The m a xi ll ary s in u s i s exc a v a ted ch i efl y i n th e m ax il l a l a c r i m a l a n d m a l ar , , ,

a n d is n o t divided by a septu m a s i n the h o r se I t exte n ds f o r w a r d a s fa r a s the .

f a ci a l tube r osity o r a little fu r the r i n o l d a n i m a ls I ts u ppe r limit i s i n d i c a ted

,
.

a pp r o xi m a tely by a li n e d r a w n f ro m th e i n f ra o r bit a l f o r a m e n t o th e uppe r m a r gi n o f

th e o r bi t I t i s c o n ti n ued di r ectly b a ckw a r d i n to th e l a c r i m a l b ul l a t o a p o i n t

.

n e a r ly Opp o si te t o the bifu r c a ti o n o f th e zyg o m a ti c p r o cess o f th e m a l ar I t a ls o .

e x te nds upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d th ro ugh a l a r ge Ope n i n g i n t o a c a vi ty f o r med by the

FI G . 98 .
—
S K U LL AT AL V I E W W HO M m m
OF Ox , L ER TT UT AN E .

l i l
T h e ma x a r y ill
a c r ma an . , d t bi ur l i h v b
na p d
s n u s es d p ti
a f the b it m v d
ee n o e ne , an a or on o e or re o e . a ,

C v it
a p i t i l
y o f s u e r o r u rb n a b o ne ; l i m l i ; m ill y i ; d mm i t i b tw
ac r a s nu s c, ax m i ll y
ar d
s nus , co u n ca on e ee n ax ar an

p l ti
a a in ;
ne s p n i ng b t
u s es 0 , O e e w een m ill y ax d l im l i
ar ; f th i
an ac rb ll ; a l a i m l b ll ;
s n u s es , n o ss e o u s u a , acr a u a

h bi t; 1
or h ee k t t h ; 7 n as
c ee a l b ; 8 p m i ll (
o ne lp re ) ; 9 m i ll ;
ax a i f b it l f m ;
n as a r o c ess ax a n ra o r a o ra en

; 13 fi
, , , ,

10 f , t l bon ;
ro n a l im l be ac r a o ne ; 12 m l , b a ar b two ne lb d m , ill ; 1 4 t mp l
ss u r e e ee n n as a o ne a n ax a , e ora

bo ne ( q m s ); 1 5
ua t
ou s l ,
ex e r na au d it y m t ; 1 6
or ty l i d
ea us p m t id p , ; 1 7
s i pit l
o ordyl ; a ra as o ro c e s s , occ a co n e

1 8 p l t b n (p p nd i
, a a e o e l p er e cu ar ar t ) ; 1 9 pt y g i d b
, (h m l ) ; 2 0 t y m p i p t f t m p
er o o ne a l; u usm , an c ar o e o ra us

l
cu ar p ss o f p t
ro c e t mp l e ro u s e o ra .
(A ft E ll b g
er i L i i g
en A tl )
er er , n e ser n
’
s as .

lacr i m a l , f r o n t a l , e th m o id ,
a n d tu r bi n a l b o n es a t th e i n n e r S id e o f t h e o r bit ,
.
1

The fl oo r o f the c a vity is i rr egul a r a n d th e ro o ts o f th e l a st th r ee o r f o u r ch eek

teeth p ro j e ct u p i n t o i t c o ve r ed by a pl a te o f b o n e Th e si n u s c o mm u ni c a tes w i th
, .

th e p a l a ti n e S i nu s f r eely o ve r th e i n f r a o r bit a l c an a l th ro u gh a n o v a l Ope n i n g a b o u t

t w o t o th ree i n ch es (c a 5 t o cm ) l o n g Ab o ve th is i t c o m m u n i c a tes b y a
. . .

sh or te r a n d m u ch n a rro we r o pe n i n g with th e midd le m e a tus n a si .

Th e p a l a ti ne s in u s i s exc a v a ted i n th e h ar d p a l a te a n d is sep a r a ted f r o m th a t ,

o f th e Opp o si te S id e by a m ed i a n septu m I t e x te n ds f r o m t h e p o ste r i o r b o r de r o f .

th e p a l a te t o a pl a n e a n i n ch o r m o r e to 3 c m ) i n f ro n t o f th e fi r st c hee k t e e th . .

As m e n ti o n ed a b o ve the re i s a l a r ge c o m m u n i c a ti o n wit h th e m a xi l l a r y S i n us o ve r
,

the i n f ra o rbi t a l c a n a l s o th a t the c a vi ty i s s o m eti m es reg a r ded a s a p a r t o f th a t S i n us

, .

Th e l a r ge defe c t i n the b o ny ro o f o f the S i n us is cl o sed by tw o l a ye r s o f m u c o us

m e m b ra n e i n th e f r esh st a te Th e p a l a ti n e c a n a l p a sses o bl i quely th r o u gh th e
.

p o s te r i o r p a r t o f th e si n us .

"l h is i te
‘
s l a c r i m a l s i nu s b y s o m a u t h o rs I t is s i m i l a r i n l o ca ti o n a n d i n t h e p os i
r m ed the e
.

t i o n Of i ts o r i fi c e to t h e t u r b i na l p a r t o f t h e f ro n t a l s u ms o f t h e h o rs e W i t h t h e i m p o r t a n t d i ff er en ce
.
,

t h a t i t d o es n o t c o m m u n i c a te W i t h t h e f ro n ta l s i n u s es i n t h e o x
. . .
 B ON E S OF T HE T H OR A C I C LI MB 1 27

Th e sph eno i d al s in u s i s a l m o st e n ti r ely i n th e sph e no id b o n e a n d d o es n o t

c o m m u n i c a te w it h th e p a l a ti n e a n d m a xi ll a ry si n us I t h as o ne o r t w o Ope n i n gs .

i n t o t h e ve n t r a l ethm o id a l m e a tuses The r e i s n o c a vity i n the pe r pe n di cul a r p a r t

.

Of th e p a l a te b o n e .

The r e a r e seve r a l s m a ll a i r c a viti es b etwee n the l a te r a l m a ss o f the eth mo id

-

a n d the a n te r i or p a r t Of t h e f r o n t a l si n us wh i ch c om mu n i c a te sep a r a tely wi th ,

ethm o id a l m e at uses .

B ONE S OF THE THOR ACI C

LI MB
The s c apu l a i s m o r e r egul a r ly t r i a n gul a r t h a n i n the h o rse r el a tively wide r a t ,

th e ve r teb r a l e n d a n d n a r r o we r a t th e l o we r e n d The sc a pul ar i n d ex is a b o ut .

1 T h e spi n e i s m o r e p ro mi n e n t a n d is pl a ced fu r the r f o r w a r d s o t h a t t he ,

sup ra spi n o us f o ss a is n a rr o w a n d d o es n ot exte n d t o the l o we r p a r t Of the b on e .

The spi n e is si n u o us be n t b a ckw a r d i n its m iddle f or w a r d bel o w I ts f r ee b o rde r

, , .

is s om ewh a t t hi cke n ed i n i ts midd le b ut be a r s n o d isti n ct tube r cle I nste a d Of , .

subsidi n g bel o w a s i n t he h or se the spi n e bec o m es a l ittl e m o r e p rom i n e n t a n d is ,

p r o l o n ged b y a p o i n ted p r oj e cti o n t he a c r o mi on , f rom whi ch p a r t Of t he delt o id

,

mus cl e a r ise s Th e subs c a pul a r f o ss a i s sh a ll o w The a r e a s for the a tt a ch m e n t

. .

o f the se rr a tus m us cl e a r e n o t ve r y d isti n ct The n ut r ie n t f or a m e n is usu a lly i n .

the l o we r thi r d Of th e p o ste r i or b or de r The gl e n o id c a vi ty is a l m o st ci r cul a r a nd.

with o ut a n y disti n ct n o t ch T he t ube r osity is s m a ll a n d cl o se to t he gle no id

.

c a vity Th e c o r a c o i d p r o cess i s sh o r t a n d ro u n ded The c a rtil a ge r ese m bles

. .

th a t Of th e h o r se
T h e h u m e r u s h a s a sh a ll o w m u s c u l o —
.

spi r a l g roo ve The delt o id t ube r o sity .

i s less p ro mi n e n t t h an i n t h e h o r se a nd th e cu r ved li n e r u nn i n g f r om i t to the n eck

,

be a r s a wel l m ar ked t ub e r cl e o n its uppe r p a r t The n ut r ie n t f o r a m e n is usu a l ly

-
.

i n t h e l o we r t hi r d Of the p o ste r i o r su r f a ce The exte r n a l t ube r osity i s ve r y l a r ge .

,

a n d r ises a n i n ch o r m o r e (ca 3 cm ) a b o ve th e l evel Of th e he a d

. . I t s a n te r i o r p ar t .

cu r ves i n w a r d o ve r t h e bi cipit a l g roo ve a n d b el o w i t exte rn a lly the r e is a p r o m i ,

n e n t ci r cul ar r o ugh a r e a fo r th e i n se r ti o n o f the te n d o n Of the sup r a spi n a tus The .

a n te r i o r p a r t Of t h e i n te r n a l tube r o sity h a s a s m a l l p r oj ecti o n wh i ch cu r ves o ve r

th e g r oo ve Th e g r oo v e i s u n divi ded The dist a l a r ti cul ar su r f a ce i s de cidedly

. .

Obl i q ue a n d th e g roo ves a n d r idge a r e ve r y wel l m a r ked

,
The c or on o id a nd .

Ole c r an o n f o ss ae a r e d eep a n d w ide Th e exte r n a l c o ndyl o id c r est is r ep r ese nted by

.

a r o ugh ra ise d a r e a The p r o xi m a l e n d u n ites wi th the sh a ft a t th r ee a n d on e h a lf

.
-

t o f o u r ye ar s a n d t he dist a l a t a b o ut o n e a n d o n e h a lf ye a r s
,
-
.

Th e r a d i u s i s sh o r t a nd r el at ively b roa d I t is s om ewh a t Obl ique the l o we r .

,

en d b ei n g n e a r e r th e m edi a n pl a n e th a n the uppe r The cu r v a tu r e is m o r e p ro .

n o u n c e d b el o w t h a n a b o v e Th e sh a ft i s p r is m a ti c i n i ts mi ddle p ar t a n d h as
.

a n te r i o r exte r na l an d p o ste r i o r f a c es
, ,
The r e i s a m ar ked i n c r e ase i n wi dth a n d
.

th i c k n ess bel o w Th e p roxi m a l a rt i cul a r su r f a ce p r ese n ts a sy n o vi a l f oss a wh i ch

.

ext e n ds i n w a r d f r o m t he deep g roo ve b etwee n t he t w o gle n o id c a vities The .

bi cipit a l tub e r o sit y i s r ep r ese nted by a sli ghtly elev a ted r o ugh a r e a The p oste r i or .

fa cets for the u l n a a re l a r ge r th a n i n th e h o r se Th e t w o b on es c o mm o n ly fuse .

a b o ve t he p r o xi m a l i n te r o sse o us sp a ce a n d a lw a ys fuse bel o w i t except n e a r the ,

dist a l e n d whe r e th e r e i s a s m a l l d ist a l i nte r o sse o us sp a ce A g roove c on n ects

,
.

the tw o sp a ces exte r n a lly Th e d ist a l ext r e m ity is l a rge a n d is th i ckest i n t e r nall y
. ,
.

I ts a r ti cul a r su r f a ce is Obl iqu e i n t w o d i r ect i o n s i a f r o m w ithi n upw a r d a n d ,

.
,

b a ckw a r d Th e g r oo ves for t he exte n s or te n d o ns a r e sh a ll o w T h e p ro xi m a l e nd

u ni tes wi th th e sh a ft at o n e t o o n e a n d o ne—
.
.

h a lf ye a rs a nd t h e dist a l at t h r ee a nd ,

o ne h a lf t o f o u r ye a r s
-
.

T h e a pp ro xi m a ti o n Of t h e l o w er en d s o f t h e f o re a r m s a nd th e c a r p i g i v es t he k n o c k k need
-

a pp ea ra n c e i n c a ttl e T h e o b li qui t y o f t h e j o i n t s u r f a c es p ro d u c es l a ter a l d efl a t i o n o f t

.
h e l o w er
1 28 S KE L E T O N OF T HE ox

p a rt of l fl exi o n T h e f a c e ts fo r t h e ra d i a l a nd i n t er med i a t e ca r p a l s a r e n a rro w er t h a n

th e i m b i n .

i n t h e h o rs e a n d ru n o b li q u e l y f o r w a r d a nd o u t w a rd T h e s u r f a c e fo r t h e u l n a r ca r p a l i s ex t ens i v e
.

a nd s a d d l e s h a p ed ; i t s o u t e r p a r t i s f u rn i
- s h e d b y th e u l n a .

Th e u ln a i s m o r e fully devel o ped th a n i n t he h o r se . Th e S h a ft i s c o mplete ,

E xter n a l tu ber os i ty f
o h u meru s

B i c i pi ta l gr oove

D el totd tu ber os i ty

JV
I u s c u l o-S p tra l gr oove

E x ter na l c on d yl oi d cr es t

S haf t of rad i us

Ul na r ca r p a l bo ne

I n tcr med “1 te ca r p a l
.
'

bo ne
R a di a l ca r pa l bo ne
Fou r th ca r p a l b0 7l e
Fus ed s econ d a n d thi r d c a r pa l bo nes
I cta ca r pa l tu ber osi ty
lV

A nter i or groove o f l a rge meta ca r p a l bone

Fi rs t p ha l a nx

S econd pha l a n x

p ha l a nx

90 —S K E I E T ON o r F OR L I M B
E or Ox F OM S H O U LD
R ER AN T E RI OR V W I E (A fte r E ll e n
B
. .
, .

m A t f i K il
'

b e rg e r - au , na . ir ns tle r . )

th ree S ided
-
, and
st ron gl y cu rved I t is fused with th e ra dius i n t h e a d ult except
.
,

a t t h e tw o i n te r o sse o us sp a ces m e n ti on ed a b o ve I ts uppe r p a r t c o n t a i n s a m e d u l .

l a r y c a n a l wh i ch exte nds s o mewh a t i n t o the p rox i ma l e nd Th e Olec r a n on i s .

l a rge a n d be a rs a r o u n ded tube ro si ty a b o ve Th e d ist a l e n d is fused with th e .

1 30 SKE L E T O N OF THE ox

l a tes w i t h t h e u l na r c a r p a l o nl y Th e fi r st c ar p a l i s a bse n t Th e sec on d a n d th i r d

. .

c a r p a ls a re fus ed t o f o r m a l a rge q u ad r il a te r a l b on e Th e f o u rt h c ar p a l i s a sm a l le r .

qu a d r il a t e ra l b o n e .

T h e m e ta c a rpu s c o n sists Of a l a r ge met a c a r p a l a n d a n ext e r n a l s m a l l m et a

c a r p a l b o n e T h e l a r ge m et a c a r p a l b on e (M e 3
.
4 ) r esu lts f ro m t h e fusi on Of t h e
.

t hi r d a n d f o u rth b on es Of t he f oetus a n d be a r s evid e n ces Of i ts d o uble o r igi n eve n

,

i n the a dult st a te T h e S h a ft i s sh o r te r th a n i n t he h o r se a n d i s r el a tively wi de r a nd

. ,

fl atte r The a n te r i o r su r f a ce i s ro u n ded an d is m ar ked by a ve r t i c a l v a scul a r

. ,

g roo ve c o nn e ct i n g t w o c a n a ls whi ch t ra ve r se th e e n ds o f th e S h a ft f r o m b ef o r e
b a c kw a rd The p o ste r i o r su r f a ce i s fl a t an d p r ese n ts a si m i l a r b ut mu ch f a i n t e r
.

g ro o ve The b or de r s a re ro ugh i n the u ppe r th i r d

.
Th e p r o xi m a l en d be a r s tw o .

slight ly c o n c a ve f a c ets fo r a rt ic ul a ti on w i th t he b o n es Of the l o we r r ow Of t he c ar

u t he i n n e r a r e a is t h e l a r ge r a n d th ey a re sep a r a ted b y a r idge i n f r o n t a n d a
p s ; ,

n o tch behi n d Th e o ute r a n gle h a s a f a cet behi n d fo r t he s m a ll m et a c ar p a l b on e

.
.

The i nn e r p a r t Of th e e x t r e m i ty h as a n te r i or a n d p oste r i o r tu be r osities Th e dist a l .

e n d is d ivided i n t o t w o p a r ts b y a s a gitt a l n ot ch E a ch d ivisi o n be a r s a n a r ti cul ar .

s u r f a ce si m i l a r t o t h a t i n the h o r se bu t m u ch sm a lle r The m e du l l ar y c an a l is

,
.

divided i nt o tw o p ar ts by a v e r ti c a l s eptu m whi ch i s usu a ll y i n c om plet e i n t h e a dult .

The sm al l m e ta c ar pa l b o n e (M e 5) is a r o u n ded r o d a b o u t a n i n ch a n d a .

h a lf (ca to 4 c m ) i n le n g t h w hi ch l i es a g a i n st th e u ppe r p a r t Of th e o u t e r b o r de r
. .
,

Of the l ar ge b o n e I ts u ppe r e n d a r t i cul a tes w it h th e l a tte r b ut n o t w it h th e c a r pus

.
,
.

The l o we r en d i s p o i nt ed .

Fo u r ti l a g i no u s me t a ca r p a l s ar e p res en t i n th e ea r l y f oet a l s t a t e v i z th e sec on d t h i rd

c ar ,
.
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f o u r t h a n d fif t h T h e sec o nd co mm o n l y ei t h er d i s a pp ea rs o r u n i t es w i t h t h e t h i r d ; s o me ti m es
,
.

i t d e v el o p s a s a s ma l l r od o f b o ne T h e th i r d a n d f o u r t h g ra d u a l l y u ni t e b u t c a n b e cu t a p a r t
.
,

at bi rt h .E a c h h a s t h ree c e n t ers o f os s i fi ca ti o n ; t h e p r o x i m a l e p i p h y s i s f u s es w i t h t h e sh a f t
b e f o re b i r th t h e d i s t a l a t t w o to t w o a n d o n e h a l f y e ars
,
-

F o u r digit s a r e p r ese n t i n t h e ox Of these tw o— th e thi r d an d f o u rt h —ar e .

,

full y devel o ped a nd h a ve th r ee p h a l an ges a nd t h r ee ses a m o ids e a ch T he se c on d .

a n d fi fth a r e vesti ges a n d a r e pl a ced b ehi n d th e fetl o ck ; e a ch c o n t a i n s o n e o r t w o

s ma l l b o n es whi c h d o n o t a rti cul a t e wit h th e r est Of the skelet o n .

The fir st ph a l ang e s a re S h o rt e r a n d n a r r o we r th a n i n th e h or se a n d a re t h r ee
S ided . The i n te r digi t a l su r f a ce is fl atte n ed a n d i ts p oste r i o r p ar t b e a r s a p r o m i
n e n ce for th e a tt a ch m e n t Of t h e i n te r di git a l li g a me n ts Th e p r o xi m a l ext r e m i ty i s .

r el a ti vel y l a r ge a n d i s s o m ewh a t c o m p r essed f r o m si de t o si de

, Th e a r t i cul ar .

su r f a ce is c o n c a ve f ro m bef o r e b a ckw ar d a n d i s d ivi ded b y a s a gitt a l g r oo ve i n t o

tw o a r e a s o f whi c h the a b a xi a l o n e i s th e l ar ge r a n d h igh e r
, B eh i n d th ese a r e .

t w o f a cets fo r a r ti cul a ti o n w i th t h e ses a m o i d b o n es Th e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce b e ar s .

t w o t ube ro si ties sep a r a ted b y a d eep dep r essi o n Th e d ist a l ext r e m ity is s m a lle r .

th a n th e p r o x i m a l especi a ll y i n t h e a n t e r o p os t e r i or di r e ct i on I ts a r ti cul ar
,
-
.

su r f a ce is divided by a s a gi tt a l g ro o ve i n t o tw o c o n vex f a cets Of w h i ch th e a b axi a l ,

o n e i s decidedly th e l a r ge r The r e a re dep r essi o ns o n eithe r side for li g a m e n t ou s

The b o n e c o n sists a t bi rt h Of tw o pi e ces—th e d ist a l e nd a n d t h e fused
.

a tt a ch m e n t .

sh a ft a nd uppe r ext re mi ty U n i o n o ccu r s a t on e a n d on e h a lf t o t w o ye ar s -

The s e c on d ph a l ang e s a re a b o u t t w o —
. .

th i r ds Of t h e le n gt h Of th e fi rst a n d a r e
disti n c t ly th r ee sid ed The p r oxi m a l a r ti cul a r su rf a ce i s d ivid ed b y a s a gi tta l
-
.

r idge i nt o t w o gle n o id c a vi ti es Of wh i ch th e a b a xi a l On e i s mu ch th e l a r ge r Th e r e .
,

is a ce nt r a l p ro mi n e n ce i n f ro nt a n d t w o l a te r a l t ube r cles beh i n d Th e d ist a l ex .

t ro m i t y i s s mall e r t h a n t h e p ro xi m a l I ts a r ti cul ar su r f a ce e n c r o a ch es c o n si de r
.

a bly o n the a n te r i o r a n d p o ste r i o r su r f a ces a n d i s d ivided i n t o t w o l a te r a l p a r t s b y

,

a g ro o ve T h e r e i s a d eep dep r essi o n fo r lig a m e n t o us a t t a ch m e n t o n th e i n te r

.

d igit a l side Th e b o n e c o nt a i n s a s m a l l m ed ull a r y c a n a l

.
Th e d ist a l e n d u n ites .

wi th th e r est o f t h e b o n e a b ou t t h e m iddle o f th e sec on d ye ar .

The th ir d ph a l ang e s r ese m ble i n a ge n e ra l w ay o n e h a lf of the b o n e Of th e h o r se -

.
 B O N ES OF THE PE L VI C LI MB 1 31

E a ch h as f o u r su r f a ces Th e d o r s a l o r w a l l su r f a c e i s m a r ked i n i t s l o we r p a r t by a
.

sh a ll o w g r oo ve a l o ng wh i ch th e r e a r e seve r a l f o ra mi n a o f c o nside r a ble si ze ; the

,

p oste r i o r o n e o f th e se r i es is t he l a r gest a nd c o n du cts t o a c an a l i n th e i n te ri or o f

,

the b on e B el o w th e g roo ve the su r f a ce is p r om i n e n t r o ugh an d p o ro u s N e a r

.
, , .

a n d o n th e exte n s o r p r o cess a r e seve r a l r el a tively l a r ge f o r a m i n a Th e sl o pe o f t h e .

.

su r f a ce is ve r y steep p o ste r i o r ly b u t i n f r on t i t f o rm s a n a n gl e Of 2 5 to 3 0 d eg rees

,

wi th th e g ro u n d pl a n e Th e ar ti cu l a r su r f a ce is n a rr o w f ro m sid e t o side a n d
.

sl o pes d o wn w a r d a n d b a ckw a r d I t i s a ls o o bliqu e t ra n sve r sely t he i n te rdigit a l

.
,

sid e bei n g the l o we r I t i s a d a pted t o th e dist a l su r f a ce Of th e sec on d ph a l a nx w it h

.

th e excepti o n Of a f a cet behi n d fo r th e d ist a l ses a m o id The e x te n s or p ro cess is .

ve r y r o ugh Th e v o l a r o r s o le su r f a ce is n a rr o w a n d slightly c o n c a ve a n d p r ese n ts

.
,

tw o or th r ee f o r a mi n a o f c o n side r a ble si ze I t i s sep a r a ted f r o m the w a ll su r f a ce

.

b y a b or de r whi ch is sh a r p i n f r o n t r ou n ded beh i nd The r e is n o semi lu n ar c re s t

, .
,

si n ce th e d eep fl ex or te n d o n is a tt a ch ed t o the thi ck p o ste r i or b o r de r o f the s ole

su r f a ce Th e i n te r d i git a l su r f a ce is sm o o th a n d g r oo ved bel o w ro ugh a nd p o r ous
.
,

a b o ve .A t th e uppe r a n gl e i t is pe r f o r a ted b y a l a r ge f o r a me n wh i ch is eq ui v a le n t ,

t o th e v o l ar f or am e n Of t h e h o r se a nd le a ds t o a c a vity i n the mi dd le Of t he b o n e .

Th e su r fa ce i s sep a r a ted b y a ro u n ded b o r de r fr o m th e w a ll su r f a ce a nd b y a sh a r p ,

edg e f ro m t h e s o l e su r fa ce The wi n g or a n gle i s ve r y sh o r t a n d blu n t a n d t he r e

.
,

i s n o l a te r a l c a rti l a ge .

F o u r pr oxim al s e s a m o id s a re p r ese n t tw o fo r e a ch d igit They a r e m u c h ,

.

sm a l le r th an i n th e h o r se T h e b o n es Of e a c h p a i r a r ti cul a te with the c o rr esp o n d

.

i n g p a r t Of t he dist a l en d Of th e l a r ge m et a c a r p a l b on e by thei r a n te r i o r su r f a ces ,

with e a ch o th e r a n d wi t h t h e fi r st ph al a n x b y s m a l l f a cets .

Th e t w o d i stal s e s a m o i d s a r e sh o r t a nd thei r e n ds a r e but little n arr owe r th a n

th e mi ddl e .

B ONE S OF THE P E LVI C

LI M B
Th e i l i a a r e a l m o st p a ra ll el t o e a ch o th e r a n d a r e a ls o less Obl ique wit h r eg a r d
t o t h e h or i z on t a l p l a n e t h a n i n t h e h o r se They a r e r el a tively s m a ll Th e glute a l. .

l i n e i s p ro m i n e n t a n d i s n e a r l y p a r a ll el t o t he exte rn a l b o r de r ; i t j o i n s the supe r i o r

ischi a ti c spi n e A ro u n ded r idge sep a r a tes th e tw o p a r ts Of th e ve n t ra l su r f a ce
.
.

Th e su r f a ce fo r a rti cul a ti on wit h t h e s a c r u m i s t r i a n gul a r Th e i n te rn a l a n gle is .

t r u n c a ted d o es n ot exte n d as high a s th e ve r teb ra l spi n es an d i s sep a r a ted f r om

, ,

th e Opp o sit e an gl e b y a w ide r i n te r v a l t h an i n the h or se The exte rn a l a n gle is .

r el a tively l a r g e a n d p ro m i n e n t ; i t i s n o t so Obl ique as i n t he h o r se a n d i s wide i n ,

the m iddle s m a lle r at e ithe r e n d

,
Th e sh a ft is sh o r t a nd c o m p r essed fr om sid e
.

t o si de .

Th e i s chi um i s l a r ge I ts l o n g a xis i s d i r ected o bli qu el y u pw ar d a n d b a ck

.

w a r d f or mi n g a n a n gl e o f a b o ut 4 5 t o 50 degr ees wit h th e h o r iz o n t a l pl a n e The

,
.

t r ansve r se a xi s i s Ob li q ue d o w n w a r d a n d i n w a r d at a simi l a r a n gle s o t h a t t hi s ,

p a r t o f t he pelvi c fl o o r is deepl y c on c a ve f r o m sid e t o sid e The m iddl e o f th e .

ve n t ra l su r f a ce b e ar s a ro ugh r idge or i m p r i n t fo r muscul a r a tt a ch m e n t Th e .

supe r i or isch i a ti c spi n e is high a nd t hi n a nd be a r s a se r ies Of a lm o st ve rt i c a l r o ugh

,

li n es exte r n a ll y Th e tube r ischi i i s l ar ge an d th r ee sided be a r i n g uppe r l o we r

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a n d exte r n a l tub e r o siti es Th e isch i a l ar ch i s n arr ow a nd deep The sy m physis

.
.

be a r s a ve n t r a l r idge wh i ch f a des o u t n e ar t he is ch i a l a r ch
,
.

Th e a cet a b ul a r b r an ch Of the pub i s i s n a r r o w a n d is di r ected o utw a r d a n d a ,

littl e f or w a r d T h e a n te r i or b o r de r i s m ar ked b y a t r a n sve r se g r oo ve w h ich e nds

.

bel o w th e r o ugh i li o pecti n e a l emi n e n ce The l o n gi tudi n a l b ra n ch is wid e a n d

- .

thi n .

Th e a c e ta b u lu m is sm a lle r th a n i n th e h o r se The ri m i s r o u n ded a n d i s .

usu a lly m a r ked by t w o n ot ches On e Of th ese i s p o ste r o i n te r na l a n d is n a rro w

.
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an d deep i t l e a ds to t h e deep a cet a b ul a r f o ss a a n d is c o m m o nl y a lm o st c on ve r ted

;
1 32 SKE L E T O N OF TH E ox

i nto a f o ra me n b y a b a r o f b on e The o th e r n o tch i s a nt e r o i n te rn a l s m a ll

.
-
, , and

s o m eti m es r epl a ced b y a fo r a m e n o r a bse n t .

The ob tu r ator f oram e n i s l a r ge a nd elli pti c a l I t s i n n e r b o r de r i s t h i n . an d

sh a r p .

E xter n a l f f c mu r
c on d y l e o

E xter na l tu berosi ty o f ti bi a

I nter n a l ma l l eol us
E x ter n a l m a l l eol u s
ta r s a l bon e
Fi lm l a r ta r s a l bone
Ce n tr a l f ou r th ta r s a l bo ne
S econ d ta rs a l bon e
Fi r s t ta r s a l bon e
S ma l l meta ta r sa l bon e

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Fi r s t p h a l a n x

l ol .
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u be r ca c s l a rg e me t t a a rs a lb (A ft
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, . f ij r l i i i ns tle r ) .

Th e pe l vi c i n l e t is ellipti c a l a n d i s m o r e Obli qu e th a n i n the h o r se I n a c o w .

o f m ediu m si ze t he c on j ug a te di a m e te r is a b o ut n i n e a n d a h a lf i n ch es
(ca 2 3 t o 24 .

a n d the t r a n sve r se a b o u t seve n i n ch es The a n te r i or e n d Of the

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1 34 SKE L E T O N OF THE ox

b el o w Th e p r o x i ma l ex t r e m i t y u n it es w ith the sh a ft a t a b o ut t h r ee a n d o n e h a lf
.
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ye a r s t h e d i s t a l a t th r ee a nd o n e h a lf t o f o u r ye a r s
,
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.

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.

Th e sh a ft i s d is t i n c t ly c u r ved so t h a t th e i nn e r sid e i s c o n vex Th e po ste r i o r

,
.

su r fa c e is n o t di vided i nt o t w o a r e a s a n d the li n e ar: m uscul a r es a r e fewe r a n d exte n d

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up highe r t h a n i n t h e h o rse The a r ti cul a r g r oo ves a n d r idge Of th e d ist a l e n d a r e

.

a l mo st s a gitt a l i n di r ecti o n a n d p r ese n t a n exte n sive b ut sh a ll o w sy n o vi a l f o ss a

,
.

T h e e x te r na l g r oo ve i s sep a ra ted by a sh a r p r idge f r o m a n o ute r a r e a w hi ch i s fo r

a r t i c ul a t i o n w i t h t he ext e r n a l m a lle o l us The a n te r i o r p a r t o f th e i n te rn a l m a lle
.

Ol us i s p ro l o n ged d o w n w a r d a n d h a s a p o i n ted e n d Th e gro o ve behi n d i t i s b ro a d .

a n d well defi n ed E x te r n a lly t he r e i s a deep n a r r o w g roo ve whi ch sep a r a tes t w o

p ro m i n e n c e s T h e p r oxi m a l ext r e m ity fuses with th e sh a ft a t th r ee a n d o n e —
.

ha l f
t o f o u r ye a rs th e d ist a l a t t w o to t w o a n d o n e—
.

,
h a lf ye a r s .

The fibu l a usu ally c o nsists Of th e tw o ext r e m iti es o n l y Th e he a d i s fused with

t h e e x te r n a l c on dyl e Of th e tibi a a n d be a r s a s m a l l b lu n t —
.

p o i nt ed p r o l on g ati o n
bel o w The di s t a l e n d r e m a i n s sep a ra te a n d f or ms the exte r n a l m a lle o lus (s o me
“

t imes c a l led the O S m a l le o l a r e ) I t i s qu a d r il a te r a l i n o utl i n e an d c o mp r essed f r o m

.

sid e to si de Th e p r oxi m a l su r f a ce a r ti cul ates w ith th e d ist a l e n d Of th e t ibi a a n d

.
,

be a r s a s m a l l spi n e wh i ch fits i nt o th e g ro o ve o n th a t b on e Th e d ist a l su r f a ce .

r es t s o n the fi b u l a r t a r s a l a n d th e i nn e r a r ti cul a tes with th e exte r n a l r idge o f th e

,

t ibi a l t a rs a l b on e Th e o u te r su r f a ce i s r o ugh a n d i rr egul ar

. .

Th e e a r ly c a r til a gi n o us fib u l a is c om plete b u t l a te r th e S h a ft i s r edu ced a n d is

,

u su a lly r ep r ese nt ed b y a fib r o u s c or d whi ch c o nn ects th e t w o e n ds I n s o me c a ses .

,

h o weve r t he u ppe r p a r t u n de r go es p a r ti a l o ssific a ti on f or m i n g a sle n de r r o d whi ch

, ,

i s usu a lly u n ited w it h th e o ute r b o r de r of t he ti bi a a n d i s j o i n ed t o t he h e a d by

fib r o us tissue .

Th e p a te l l a i s l on g n a r r o w a n d ve r y th i ck Th e a n te r i o r su r f a ce i s st r on gl y
, ,
.

c o n vex a n d ve r y ro ugh a nd i rr e g ul a r Th e a r ti cul ar s u r f a ce i s c o n vex f r om s id e

.

t o sid e a n d n e a r l y st ra igh t i n th e ve rti c a l d i r e cti o n The l a r ge p r o m i n e n ce o n th e .

i nne r side fo r th e a tt a ch m e n t o f the a ccess o r y c a rti l a ge a l l o ws p r o m pt dete r m i n a

t i on Of t h e side t o whi ch the b on e bel o n gs The a pex is m o r e p o i n ted th a n i n t h e
.

h o rse .

Th e tar su s c on sists Of fi ve pi e ces ; t h e ce n t ra l a n d f o u r th a n d the se c on d a nd ,

t hi r d t a rs a l b o n es a r e fused .

Th e ti b i a l tar s a l b o n e i s r el atively l o n g a n d n a rr o w a n d i s s om ewh a t fl a tte n ed ,

f ro m bef o r e b a ckw a rd I t be a r s a t r o ch le a a t e ithe r e n d

. The g r o ove a n d r idges .

o f th e p r o xi m a l t ro chle a a r e n o t spi r a l b ut a l m o s t s a gi tt a l ; th e o ute r r idge is t he

,

wid e r a n d a r ti cul a tes wi th b o t h ti bi a a n d fi bul a The d ist a l t r o chle a c o n sists

, .

o f t w o c o ndyles d ivid ed by a g roo ve a n d a r ti cul a tes w ith th e c o m b i n ed ce n t ra l

,

a n d f o u r th t a rs a l s The p oste r i or su r f a ce be a r s a l a r ge o v a l f a cet fo r a r ti cu l at i o n

.

w i th t he fib u l a r t a rs a l ; th is o c cupies m o st o f th e su r f a ce a n d i s c o n vex a n d g r oo ved ,

f ro m a b o ve d o w nwa r d The o ute r su r f a ce p r ese n ts t w o f a cets fo r a r ti cu l a ti on with

.

t h e fi b u l a r t a rs a l a nd is ex c a v a ted a n d r o ugh elsewhe r e

, The i nn e r su rf a ce b e a r s .

a tube r o si ty a t i t s u ppe r p a r t a n d is fl a tte n ed bel o w, .

Th e fib u l ar tar s a l b o n e i s l o n ge r a nd m o r e sl e n de r th a n i n t h e h or se The .

d ist a l p a r t o f the b o d y i s c o m p r essed l a te ra lly a n d be a r s a p r o j e ct i o n i n f r o n t whi c h

,

a rt i cul a tes w ith t h e exte r na l m a l le o lus The t ube r c a l cis i s m a r ked p o ste ri o rly b y
.

a w id e sh a ll o w g r o o ve whi ch is c o a ted wit h c a r ti l a ge i n t h e f r esh st a te

, .

The c e n tra l a n d f ou r th tar s a l s a r e fused t o fo r m a l a r ge b o n e (Os ce nt ro t ar s a l e

q u a rtu m s c a ph o cub o id ) whi ch exte nds a c r o ss th e e nt i r e wi dt h Of t h e t a r sus a n d
,
-
,

a r t i c ul a tes w i t h a l l o f th e o the r b o n es T he g r e a te r p a r t Of th e u ppe r su r f a ce i s

.

m o lded o n t h e d i s t a l t ro c h le a o f th e t ibi a l t a r s a l a n d i ts i nn e r p a r t r ises h igh a b o ve

,

t h e res t p o s te r i o r ly E xt e r n a l ly t he r e is a n a rro w u n dul a ti n g su r f a ce fo r a r t i cul a

.

t i o n w i t h t h e d ist a l e nd Of t he fi bu l a r t a r s a l b o n e Th e p o st e r i or su r f a ce be a r s t w o .
 B ONES or T HE P E Lv i e LI M B 1 35

tube r o sit ies o f wh i ch the o ute r o n e i s ro u nded th e i nn e r m or e p r o m i n e n t a n d n a r

, ,

r o we r .

The fir st ta r s al b o n e i s q u ad r i l a te ra l a n d s m al l I t a r ti cul ates with the ce nt ra l .

a b o ve th e m et at a r sus b el o w a n d t h e sec o n d t a rs a l i n f r on t
, , .

The s e c on d a n d th i rd tar s al s ar e fused t o f o r m a r h o m b o id piece The p ro x i

mal su r f a ce i s c on c a v o—
.

c o n vex a n d a rt i cu l at es w it h t he ce n t ra l c o m p on e nt Th e
, .

di st a l s ur f a ce is u n dul a t i n g a nd r ests on th e met a t ar sus The e x te rn a l su r f a ce .

b e ar s a s m a ll f a cet i n f ron t for the f o u r t h t ar s a l c o mp on e nt a n d th e p os t e r i o r s u r ,

f a ce a ve r y s m a ll one for t h e fi r st t a r s a l b o n e .

The l ar g e m e ta ta r s al b o n e i s a b o ut o n e seve n th (c a 3 c m ) l onge r th a n t h e -

. .

c o rr esp o nd i n g m et a c arp a l I ts sh a ft i s c om p r essed l a te r a lly a n d is d ist i n ctly

.

Ti bi a l ta r sa l bone
Centr a l f ou r th ta rs a l bo ne
Fi r s t ta rs a l bo ne
S eco nd th i r d ta r s a l bon e

P r oxi mal s es a moi d

D is ta l ses a moi d

FI G 1 04 —K S EL T ON
E D TAL P
or L F H ND L
IS a nr
-
or E T I u re o r Ox I NT . ER NAL V W IE .

l b ; 8 0 fi t ph l ; 3 1
. .

2 4 Tu be r l
ca c is ; 25 l a rg e m t t
e a a rs a o ne rs a a nx s ec o n d ph l
a a nx ; t h i d ph l
r a a nx (A fte r
B m A t f Kfi
.
. , ,
,

E ll b g en er er- au , na . ur ns t l e r .
)

f o ur —
si ded The g r oo v e on t he ante r i or s ur f a ce is deep an d wi de Th e p o ste r i o r
.
.

su r fa ce is m ar ked b y v a r i a b l e gr oo ves Th e uppe r f or am e n o n t h is s u r f a ce d oes .

n ot pe r f or a te th e sh a ft b ut p a sses o b li qu el y th ro ugh the e x t r e m ity o pe n i n g o n t h e ,

p o ste r i or p ar t of its p r o xi m a l su r f a ce Th e p o st e r o—
,

i n t e r n a l a n gle o f th e p r o xi ma l
.

e n d b e a r s a f a cet for a r t i cul a t i o n w it h th e s m a ll m e t a t a r s a l b o n e .

Th e s m al l m e ta tar s al b on e is a q u a d r il a te ra l d is c a li t tle less t h a n a n i n ch i n

W idth a n d heigh t I t s a n te r i or f a ce b e a r s a f a cet fo r a r ti cul ati o n wi t h the l a r ge
.

m et a t ars a l b o n e .

The l a rg e m e t a t arsa l bon e i s u s u a l l y reg ard ed a s c ons i s ti n g o f th e f u s ed t h i rd a n d f o u r t h

m e t a t ars a l b on es T h e m e d ul l a ry c a vi t y i s s u b di v i d ed li k e t h a t o f t h e l a r g e m e t a c a r p a l b o n e
.
.

S o me a n a t o m i s t s h o w e v er co n s i d e r t h a t t h e r i d ges a t t h e u p p er e nd o f ea c h b o r d e r re p r es en t t h e
, ,

s eco n d a n d fif t h m e t a t a r s a l s (R o s en b e rg a n d R e t t e re r ) On t h i s b as ts t h e s ma ll b o n e w o u l d be
'

th e firs t m e t a t a r sa l .
1 36 S KE L E T O N OF T HE P I G

The ph al an g e s a nd s e s am o id s r ese m ble th o se Of th e th o ra ci c limb s o cl osel y

as to r e nde r sep a r a te desc r i pti o n u nn ecess a r y .

SKE L E TON OF THE PI G

VE R TE B R AL COLUMN
The ve r teb ra l f ormu l a is C -T s

Th e c e rv i c a l ve rteb rae a re s hoii e md wi de Th e b od i es a r e ellipti c a l i n c ro ss .

secti o n th e l o n g di a m ete r bei n g t ra n sve r se Th e a n te r i or a r ti cul ar su r f a ces a r e

,
.

S lightly c o n vex f r om side t o side a n d c o n c a ve d o r s o ve n t ra lly ; th e p o ste r i o r o n es -

a re s l ightly c o n c a ve A ve nt r a l c r est is n o t p r ese n t .The a r ch es a r e wide f r o m .

side to sid e bu t the l a mi nae a re n ar ro w so th a t a c on side r a bl e i nte r v a l (Sp a ti u m

, ,

i n te r a rcu a l e ) sep a r a tes a dj a ce n t a r ch es d o rs a lly Th e pedi cl es a r e pe r f or a ted by a .

f or am e n o n eithe r side i n a dd iti on to the usu a l i n te r ve r teb ra l f o ra m i n a Th e .

Il l?91

AT AL V W F rc . l o5 .
—S K L T N E E O or P ro L ER IE .

C i m : b pp j w ;
0 ra n u l w j w ; I I I —7 I I
u er vi l v t b : I R w fi t t h
a c, o i v t b ; 13
er a c er ca er e r ae rs o ra c c er e ra

i v t b ( t t l t) ; 1 L fi t l m b v t b ; 6 1 i t h l m b v t b ( t
, , . .
. . .
,

R w th i t th th r ee n o ra c c er e ra ne x o as rs u ar er e ra s x u ar er e ra ne x

l v t b : l i t fi t ib ; M R l t i b : R k
. .
.
.
h
,

to l t as ll y ) ; K
u sua m; S yg s a c ru .
, c oc c t l til g ; S L
ea er e ra ,
rs r as r . n .
, c os a car a es ,

t
s e rn um; d p pi , f su f p l ; d i f pi
ra s no us f
os s a ; I pi o f p l ; 2
sca k f p l ;
u a
'
, n ras no u s os s a , s ne o s ca u a , nec o sc a u a e.

h m u ; 3 h
e ru s d f h m , : 4 t b
ea iti f h m
o u ; 5 d lt i d t b
e ru s it y ;
. u t l pi
e ro s dyl f es o u e ru s , e o u e ro s e x e r na e co n e o

h m u ; f
e ru s di ; a
, l : 7 Ol
ra us ; h p ; 1 8 25
. u na p lb
. : i m t
e c r a no np ; k p im l , car us -
. ca r a o n es e aca r us ro x a

ph l g ; I
a an es m i d d l ph l g ; m d i t l ph l e
g ; a an m i d ; p ili m ; 8
es t l gl f s a a an es n, o, s es a o s . u , ex e rna an e o

ili m (t b
u u ); 9 i t
e r c o x ar l g l f ili m (t b . l ) ; 1 0 p i i h i ti pi ; q i h i m ; I I t b
n e rna an e o u u e r s a c ra e , su er or sc a c s ne . sc u , u er

i h ii ; p b i ; 1 3
sc r, u t b l m : f m ; I 3 t h t m j ; I 4 t h t mi ; 1 5 t
s l pi d y l ;
26 —
, a ce a u u s, e ur . roc an er a or roc a n er no r e x e r na e con e
, ,

t p t ll ;
, a e ti bi ;
a u 16 , t f t i bi ; 1 7 xt
a l .d ylc re sf ti b i ;
o fib l ; w t a ; 5 31 t . lb e; e r na con e o a r, u a , a rs u s , a rs a o ne s
t b u l i (A ft E ll b g i L i i g A tl )
er ca c s . er en er er, n e se r n
'
s as .

t r a n sve rse p ro cesses d i vid e i n t o tw o b ra n ch es b o th o f wh i ch i n c r e a se i n si z e f r o m ,

t h e thi r d t o th e si xt h Th e uppe r b ra n ch p r o j ects o ut w a r d a n d b a ck w a rd ; i t

.

is sh o r t a nd i s thi cke n ed a t i t s f r ee e nd Th e l o we r b r a n ch is a q u a d r il a te r a l pl a te .

d i re c t ed ve nt ra lly ; e a ch o ve r l a ps th e su c ceed i n g o n e t o a s m a ll exte n t a nd th e ,

se r ies fo r ms the l a te ra l b o u nd a r y Of a d eep a nd w id e g r o o ve be n e a th t h e b od ies

.
.

T h e spi n es i n c r e a se i n h eight f ro m th e t h i r d t o t h e l a st ; th e a n te r i o r o n es a r e i n
c l i n e d b a ckw a r d th e p o st e r i o r o n es f o r w a rd , The l a st ce r vi c a l is r ec o g n i z ed by .

the g r e a t le ng th Of i ts S pi n e (c a 1 0 c m i n th e a dult ) t h e a bse n ce o f t h e ve n t r a l . .

,

pl a te o f t h e t r a nsve rse p ro cess a nd th e fl a t n ess o f t h e b o dy wh i ch be a r s a p a i r Of , ,

1 38 S KE L E T O N OF T HE PI G

T he e e o f fif t een t h o ra c i c v er t eb r ae a pp ea rs to
o cc u r r n c be qite u co mmo n , a nd so me Ob s er v ers
h a v e re co rd ed t h e exi s t e n c e o f s i xt ee n a nd e v e n s e v e n t ee n ; a r ed u c t i o n to t h i rt een l s ra r e .

Th e lumb ar ve rteb r a a r e six o r seve n i n n u m be r Th e b o di es ar e l o n ge r th an .

i n t h e t h o r a ci c r egi o n a n d be a r a ve nt ra l c r est Th ey be c o m e wi de r a n d fl atte r .

i n the p o s te r i o r p a rt o f t he s e r ies The a rches a re deeply n o tched a n d are sep a ra ted . ,

by a n i n c re a si n g S p a ce d o rs a l ly Th e m a m m i ll a r y p r o cesses p r o j ect o utw a r d a nd.

b a ckw a r d T h e t r an sve r se p ro cesses a r e be n t d ow n w a r d a n d i n cl i n e a litt le fo r

.

w a r d Thei r l c ng t l i i n c r e a s es to the fifth a n d is m u ch d i m i n ish ed i n th e l a st Th ey

.
.

f o r m n o a rt i cul a ti o n w i th e a ch o th e r o r with the s a c r u m Th e p oste r i or edge o f th e .

roo t Of the p r o cess is m a r ked by a no tch i n the a n te r i o r p a r t Of th e se r ies a f o r a ,

m e n i n th e p o ste r i o r p a r t Th e spi n es .

a r e b r o a d a n d i n cli n e f or w ar d with the ,

excepti o n o f th e l a st wh i ch i s n a rro w ,

a n d ve r ti c a l .

L esb r e s t a t es t h a t s i x a n d se v en l u m b a r
v er t eb ra Occ u r w it h a l mos t e u a l f r e u en c y q q .

T h e n u mb er ma y b e r ed u c ed to fi v e , a n d t h e
n u m b er of p resac r a l v er t eb ra v ar i es f r o m
t w en t y-s i x to t w ent y- n i ne .

Th e s a c ru m c on sists usu a lly o f f o u r

ve r teb r a wh i ch fuse l a te r a n d less c om ,

p l et el y th a n i n th e o the r d o mesti c a ted

a n i m a ls I t is less cu r ved th a n i n th e .

ox Th e spi n es a r e a bse n t excepti n g .

,

s m a l l r udi m e n ts on the l a st t w o seg

m e n ts Th e m i ddl e of th e d ors a l su r f a ce .

is fl a tte ned a n d s moo th a n d p r ese nts ,

Ope n i n gs i n t o th e s a c r a l c a n a l betwee n
a dj a ce n t a r ches (S p a ti a i n te r a r cu a l i a ) On .

ei the r side a r e th e su pe r i or s a c ra l f or a
m i n a a n d tub e r cl es wh i ch i n d i c a te th e ,

fused a r ti cul a r p r o cesses Th e w i n gs re .

se m bl e th o se o f the o x Th e a n te r i or
l OS — SA C UM o P D O RS A L V w
.

F ro R r ro i e
a r tl c U I a r p r o cesses are ve r y l ar ge Th e
. . .
,

W i ng ; b d
(1 l l f mi ; ti lo rs a s a c ra o ra na e, a r c u ar
'

1—
, ,

pel v I C su r f a ce r esembles th a t Of t h e OK
,

p O
r c es s
; 4 gm t lv t b
, se (E ll en s or s a c ra er e ra . en ,

m -A fi i H ti m
b g
er B
ev fl ll fl a
bu t is n o t so st r on gly cu r ved a n d th e
aus e
,

t ra n sve r se l i n es ar e ve r y d ist i n ct .

Th e c o ccyg eal v erteb ra a re speci al l y ch ara cte ri z ed b y th e p r ese n ce o f fu n c

ti o n al a r ticul a r p r o cesses o n the fi r st f o u r o r fi ve b ey on d whi ch th ese p r o cesses ,

bec om e n on a r ti cu l a r a n d sm a lle r Th e a r ches o f th e fi r st fi ve o r six a r e c o mpl ete

-
. .

The t ra n sve rse p ro cesses a re b ro a d a n d pl a te li ke i n th e a n te r i or p a r t Of th e se r ies -

a nd di m i n ish ve r y g r a d u a lly .

The e i l v a r i a ti o n h ere i s t w en t y to t w en t y s i x a c cord i n g to th e o b s er v a t i o n of s e v era l

n u m r ca -

a n a to rru s ts . L es b re s t a t es t h a t h e h as f o u n d t w e n t y t h ree mos t f re qu en t l y -

.

C u rv e s .
—T h e ce r vi c a l r egi o n i s p ra cti c a lly st ra ight
The th o r a ci c a n d l u m b a r .

r egi on s f orm a ge n tle cu r ve c o n c a ve v e n t r a lly t he h ighest p o i n t o f wh i ch is a t th e

, ,

j u n cti o n o f t he t w o r egi on s Th e s a c r a l p r o m o n t o r y i s n ot so p r on o u n ced as i n the

.

o x a n d the s a c r a l cu r ve i s fl a tte r
, .

THE R I BS
ib s n u m be r f o u r tee n o r fiftee n p a i r s Of wh i ch seve n a r e ste rn a l a n d seve n
r
. The ,

or e i ght a ste rn a l u s u a lly Th ey ar e i n ge n e r a l st r on gly cu r ved i n th e i m p r o ved

.
.
 T HE STE RN UM fi

B ON E S OF T HE S K U LL —C R A N I U M 1 39

b reeds s o th a t the r e i s a f a i r ly disti n ct a n gle except t o w a r d the e n d o f th e s e r i e s

, , .

Th e b a ckw a r d sl o pe o f th e p oste r i or r ibs i s slight The fi rst r i b i s p r is ma t i c h a s a .

,

l a r ge ste r n a l e n d a n d a ve ry sh or t c a r til a ge Th e wid th is g r e a test i n the thi rd

, .

t o the sixth a n d th e le n gth i n th e sixth an d seve n th usu a lly

,
Th e tube r osi ty fuses .

wi th th e he a d on th e l a st five o r six Th e se c o n d t o th e fifth f o r m d i a r th ro d i a l .

.

j o i nts wit h thei r c a r ti l a ges wh i ch a re w ide a n d pl ate l i ke ,

-
.

THE S TE RN UM

The stern u m c on sists o f six s eg m e n ts a n d r esembl es th a t o f th e o x i n g en e ra l

for m The fi r st segme n t (M an ub r ium ) is l on g fl a tte n ed l a te r a lly a n d be a rs a
b lu n t —
.
, ,

p o i n ted c a r ti l a ge on i ts a n te r i o r e n d ; its p o ste r i o r en d f o r m s a d i ar th rod i a l

j oi n t w i th th e b o dy Th e l a tte r i s fl a tte n ed w i de i n its m iddle n arr o w a t eithe r
.
, ,

end Th e widest se gme n ts a r e fo r med o f tw o l a te r a l p a rts wh i ch a re n ot c om

.
,

p l etel y fused i n th e a d ult Th e l a st s eg m e n t h as a l on g n a rr o w p ar t whi ch be a rs

.

t he xiph o id c artil a ge
The th orax i s l on g an d i s m o r e b ar r el —
.

sh a ped th a n i n th e h o r se o r o x si n ce the ,

r ibs a r e m o r e st ron gl y cu r ved a n d d i ffe r l ess i n r el a tive le n g th .

Occi p i ta l P a ri eta l
bon e bone Fr onta l
bon e S u pr aor bi ta l
process

N a sa l
bon e I nf r a or bi l a l
f ora men
P rema x i l la

1 09 .
—S K U LL
L A T E R AL V I E W WI T H OU T MAN DI L E or PI G, E .

1 O c i p it l c o n d y l e ; 2 p
, c a m s t i d o s t y l i d p oc
, ; 3 b ul l
a ra a e ; o4 te n l d it y m at
r o r es s , a o ss a , ex r a au or e us ,

6 z y g o m ti c p es of t mpo l b o n ; 6 p h noi d b n ; 7 b it l p ni ng o f p b it l c n l : 8 m l
e ra e s e o e or a o e su ra o r a a a a ar

—
a roc s , , ,

3 i ci
,

p t i
ygo d b p t i d p f p h i d 1 1 p t i d p f p l a t e b o ; 1 1 ne n so r

—
0 oc ss er o r e o a
b on ; 9 1 y g
t th ; C c a ni ne to o th ; P I —
e o ne ;er yg o o ,
e n o ; er ro c es s s , ,
,

ee , 4 p m ol s ; 11 1 3 m l , re ar 1 , o a rs .

B ONE S OF THE SK U LL
CR A N I U M
The o ccipi ta l b on e h a s a n exte n sive squ am o us p a r t o r sup r ao cci pit a l w hi ch ,

f o rm s a ve r y b r o a d an d p r o mi n e n t c r est The l a tte r is c on c a ve a n d is t h i ck an d . ,

ro ugh a b o ve whe r e i t f or ms the hi ghest p a r t o f the skull ; l a te r a lly i t be c o m es

,

thi nn e r tu rn s d o w n w a r d an d is c on ti n u o us wit h the te m p ora l c r est T w o d ive r

, ,
.

ge n t r idges p a ss upw a r d fr o m th e f o ra me n m a g n u m an d t h e su r f a ce betwee n t h e m ,

is c on c a ve a n d sm oo th Th e g r e a te r p a r t o f the i nn e r (o r a nte r i o r ) su r fa c e o f th e
.

sup r ao c ci pit a l is u n i ted with the p a r iet a l b on es b ut a l o w e r c o n c ave a r e a f a ces ,

1 40 S KE L E T O N or T HE PI G

i n t o the c ra n i a l c a vity Th e f o r a m e n m a g n u m is a lm o st t r i an gul ar a nd i s

. ,

n a rro w a b o ve wh e r e it is fl an ked by t w o s m a ll tube r o si ti es Th e p ar am a st o id

,
.

p ro cesses a re ext r e m ely l on g a n d p roj ect a l mo st st r a ight d o w n w a r d The hyp o .

gl o ss a l f o r a me n is a t the i nn e r side o f th e r o o t o f the p r o cess Th e b a sil ar .

p ar t is sh o r t a nd wi de ; its l o we r su r f a ce be a r s a thi n m ed i a n r idge an d t w o

l a te ra l i m p r i n ts o r tube r cles whi ch c o n ve r ge a t th e j u n ct i on w ith the sphe no id
b on e .

Occi pi ta l cr e s t

Temp ora l c r es t

P a r i eta l cr es t

I nf r a or bl ta l f or a men
'

N as a l pr oc es s f
o p r em ax i l l a

N a s a l bon e

Ca ni ne tooth

P a l a ti n c cl e ft

B od y o f p r e ma r i tl a

F ro . 1 10 — U LL
SK or P ro . D o ns “ . V W
IE .

Th e i nt e rpar i eta l fuses bef o r e b i rt h w ith th e o cci pit a l Th e te n t or iu m o sseu m

. .

i s a bse n t .

T h e p ar i e ta l i s o ve r l a pped b y th e o cci pit a l b o n e behi n d a n d c o n cu r s i n th e

f o r m a ti o n o f th e o cci pit a l c r est I ts exte r n a l su r f a ce i s d ivided by t h e p a r iet a l
.

c r est i n t o t w o p a r ts The i n ne r p a r t (P l a nu m p a r iet a le ) f a ces u pw a r d a n d f o r w a rd

.
,

a n d i s fl a tte n ed a n d s m oo th I ts i nn e r b o rd e r is sh o r t a n d st r a i ght a n d u n ites e a r ly

.

w i th th e o pp o site b o n e I ts a n te r i or b o rde r i s c o n c a ve a nd j o i n s the f ro n t a l b o n e

. .

The o ute r p a r t (P l a n u m te m p o r a le ) f a ces o utw a r d a nd is m o r e e x te nsi ve ; it i s

c o n c a ve f o r m s a l a r ge p a r t o f th e te m p o r a l f o s s a a n d i s o ve r l a pped bel o w by the
, ,

sq u a m o us te m p o ra l The p a r iet a l c r est exte n d s i n a cu r ve f r om the o cci pi t a l c r est

.
1 42 S KE L E T O N OF T HE PI G

is n a rr o w The pitui t ar y f oss a i s ve r y deep a n d is li mi ted beh i n d by a p r om i n e n t

.
,

d or su m sell a ; the d o r sum be a r s l a te r a l p ro j ecti o ns th e p o st e ri or c l in o i d p ro c e s s e s

, .

Th e f ora m e n o v a le i s a bse n t bei n g i n cluded i n the f o ra m e n l a ce r u m a n te r ius

, .

Th e o the r f o ra m i n a a re li ke th o se o f th e o x The pte ryg o i d p r o cess i s b r oa d a n d .

t w isted I ts b a se is n ot pe r f o ra ted an d i ts fr ee ed ge is t hi n an d sh a r p I t c on cu r s
. .

w i th the pte r yg o i d a n d p a l at e b o n es i n th e f o r m a ti o n o f th e pte r yg o i d f o ss a whi ch ,

o pe n s b a ck w a r d a n d i s n o t p r ese n t i n th e h or se o r o x Th e sphe n o i d a l si n us i s .

ve r y l a r ge a n d o ccupies th e b o dy t h e te m p o r a l w i n gs a n d a g r e a t p a r t o f the p t er y
, ,

g o i d p r o cesses i n the a dult ; i t i s c on ti n ue d i n t o th e temp o r a l b o n e a s m e n ti on ed

a b o ve .

The e thm o id b o n e h as a r el a ti vely l on g pe r pe n di cul a r pl a te wh i ch i s m ar ked ,

by r idges c o rresp on di n g t o t h e eth m o id a l m e a tuses T he c r ib r if o r m pl a te i s ex .

te n sive a n d ve r y o bli q ue s o th a t i t a n d th e c r ist a g a lli a re a l m ost i n l i n e with t he

,

b a si c r a n i a l a xi s A l i n e a r se r ies o f r el a tivel y l a r ge f o ra mi n a i s f o u n d o n eith e r

- .

si de o f the c r ist a The l a te ra l m a ss c on sists o f fi ve en d ot u r b i n a l s a n d eightee n

.

ec t o t u r b i n a l s (P a u l l i ) Th e l a mi na p a py r a ce a c o n cu r s i n the f o r m a ti on o f the
.

p t e r o —
yg p a l a ti n e f o ss a .

A
F CE

The m axi ll a is e x te n sive I ts exte r n a l s u r f a ce f o r m s a l o n git ud i n a l g r o o ve

.
,

whi ch i s c on ti n ued up on th e p r e m a xi l l a i n f r on t an d t he f a ci a l p a r ts o f the l a c r i m a l

a nd m a l a r beh i n d The i nf ra or bi t a l f o r am e n— s o meti m es d o ub l e—is l a r ge a n d
.

i s situ a ted a b o ve th e thi r d o r f o u r th chee k t oo th Th e a lve o l us fo r the c an i n e .

t o o th p ro du ces a r idge a t th e an te r i o r e n d wh i ch is ve r y p ro n o u n ced i n th e b e a r .

The f a ci a l c r est exte n ds f o r w a r d f ro m th e roo t o f th e zygo m a ti c p r o cess a n d f a des

o u t behi n d the i n f r a o r bi t a l f or a m e n ; i n s o me spe cime n s it is p r o m i n e n t a n d t hi n

edged i n o the r s i t i s r o u n ded a nd p r oj e cts l ittle The zyg o m a ti c p r o cess i s sh o r t

,
.

but st o u t a n d b utt r ess li ke ; i t i s o ve r l a pped exte r n a lly by th e m a l ar Th e m axi l

-
.

l a r y tube r osi ty f o r m s i n the y o u n g subj ect a l o n g bu ll a w hi ch o c cupi es m o st o f the

—
,

p t er yg p a l a ti n e f oss a a n d c o n t a i n s th e devel o pi n g pe r m a n e n t m o l a r s ; a fte r the

o

e r upti on o f the teeth the tube ro sity fl a tte n s a n d j o i n s t he ve r ti c a l p a r t o f th e p a l a te

b o ne The p a l a ti n e p r o cess i s ve r y l on g a n d is m a r ked i n its a n te r i or p a r t by t r a n s
.

ve rse r idges c o rr esp o n di n g wi th th ose o f th e mu c o us m e m b r an e o f th e p a l a te .

The a n te r i or p a l a ti n e f o ra m e n i s n e a r the j u n cti o n wit h t h e p a l a te b o n e ; f r o m i t the

p a l a ti n e g roo ve c a n b e t r a ced di sti n ctl y a l on g the e n ti r e l e n gt h o f th e p r o cess .

Th e a lve o l a r b o r de r p r ese n ts a l a r ge a lve o lus for th e c a n i n e t oot h a t its a n te r i o r

e n d ; behi n d this a re seve n a lve o li fo r the ch eek teeth whi ch i n c r e a se i n s i z e f r o m ,

fi r st t o l a st Th e m a xi ll ar y f o r a m e n a n d i n f r a o r b it a l c an a l a r e ve r y l a r ge Th e
. .

m a xill a r y si n us is s m a ll .

The b o dy o f the p re m ax i ll a i s n arro w a n d p rism a ti c I t p r ese n ts th r ee a lve o l i .

fo r the i n cis or teeth whi ch a r e sep a r a ted by sh o r t i n te r v a ls a n d d i mi n is h i n si z e

,

f r o m bef o r e b a ckw a r d A s i n th e ox a n a rr o w sp a ce sep a ra tes th e r igh t a n d left

.
,

b on es a nd t a kes the pl a ce o f th e f o r am e n i n cisivu m Th e p a l a ti n e p r o cess is l on g .

a nd n a r ro w Th e n a s a l p ro cess i s ve r y exte n si ve a n d is s o m ewh a t r h om b o id i n

.

o u tli n e I ts uppe r b or de r f o r m s a ve r y l o n g sutu r e with the n a s a l b o n e a n d th e

.
,

l o we r a r ti cul a tes to a b o ut the s a me exte n t with the m a xi ll a Th e p a l a ti n e fi ssu r e .

i s r el a ti vely wide .

Th e h o r i z o nt a l p a r t o f th e p a l a te b o ne f o rms a f o u r t h to a fifth o f t he le n gth o f

th e p al a te ; i ts p a l a ti n e su r f a ce i s t r i a n gul a r the a pex bei n g a n te r i or ; i ts n a s a l
,

s u r f a ce is deeply g roo ved a n d s m oo th A pte r yg o i d p ro cess (p r o cessus py r a m id a lis

.

o f m a n ) p r o j ects b a ckw a r d a n d d o w nw a rd a n d i ts t hi ck ro u n ded e n d is r e ceived

,

betwee n th e pte r yg o id p ro cess o f th e sph e no i d a n d the pte r yg o i d b o n e The .

pe r pe nd i cul ar p a r t is l a r gely o ve r l a pped exte r n a lly by t h e m a xil l a an d c o n cu r s i n

f o r m i ng p a r t o f the p a l a ti n e c a n a l S upe r i or ly th e t w o pl a tes sep a ra te a n d i n cl o se
.
 F A CE 1 43

a n a i r- a c vity whi ch o pe ns i nt o a n eth m o id a l m e a tus Th e i nn e r pl a te c u r ves .

i n w a r d a n d u n ites with the v om e r a nd eth mo id to f or m a h o r iz o nt a l pl a te (L a m i n a

t r a nsve rs a lis ) whi ch divides the p o ste r i o r p a r t o f th e n a s a l c a vi ty i n t o a n uppe r
,

o lf a ct o r y p ar t a n d a l o we r r espi r a t or y p a r t .

The ptery g o id b on e is n e a r l y ve rti c a l i n d i r e cti on an d is n a r ro w i n its m i ddle , ,

wi de a t e a ch e nd Th e exte r n a l su r f a ce i s f r ee bel o w a nd f or ms th e i nn e r w a l l of
.

th e pte r yg o i d f o ss a Th e l o w e r e n d is n ot ched an d f or m s a disti n ct h a m ul us

. .

The na s al b on e i s ve r y l o ng a nd i ts width is a l m o st u n if o r m except a t th e ,

a nte r i o r e nd wh i ch i s p o i n ted a n d r e a ches a lm o st a s fa r f o r w a r d a s th e p r em a xi ll a

, ,

The f a ci a l su rf a ce is fl a tte n ed f ro m side to sid e I n p ro fi le it i s n e a rly st r a ight i n .

s o m e subj e cts v a ri a bly c o n c a ve i n o the r s The exte r n a l b o r de r is f r ee t o a s m a ll

, .

exte nt i n f r o nt o n ly ; o th e r wise i t is fi r ml y c onn e cted with th e p r e m a xill a a n d

m a xil l a I n th e a du lt th e f r o n t a l si n us exte nds i n t o th e p oste r i or p a r t o f the b o ne
. .

Th e l a c ri m a l b on e i s ve r y sh ar ply b e n t I ts f a ci a l su r f a ce p r ese nts a deep

.

dep r essi o n su rm o u n ted by a r idge o r t ube r cle On o r cl ose t o th e o r bit a l m a r gi n

,
.

are t w o l a c r im a l f o ra m i na wh i ch le a d t o the l a c r im a l c a n a ls The o r b it a l su r f a ce .

p ese ts f oss a i n wh i ch th e i n fe r i o r o bl iqu e m us cle o f th e eyeb a ll a r ises an d its

r n a
-
,

l o we r p ar t b e a r s a c rest wh i ch i s c r ossed o b l iq uely by a v a scul ar fu rr o w Th e

, .

u ppe r b or de r ar ti cul a tes with the f r o nt a l o n l y Th e b o n e c o n cu rs i n the f or m ati on

.

o f th e m a xill a r y si n us .

The m a l ar b o n e is st r on gly c o mp r essed f r o m sid e t o si de I ts f a ci a l su r f a ce .

i s s m a l l a nd p r ese n ts a fo ss a w hi ch i s c on ti n u o us wi th the dep r essi on s o f the m axi ll a

a n d l a c r im a l. Th e o r b it a l su r f a ce is sti ll s m a lle r a n d i s s m oo th an d d eeply g r oo ved .

The zyg o m ati c p r o cess is ve r y exte n si ve especi a lly i n th e ve r ti c a l d i r ecti on I ts

,
.

exte r na l su rf a ce i s c on vex a n d f r ee an d b e ar s a r o ugh e m i n e n ce i n i ts middle I ts

,
.

i n te r na l su r f a ce is c on c a ve ; i t is o ve r l a pped i n f r o nt by the m axi ll a an d i n th e ,

r e m a i n de r o f its exte n t is f r ee a nd s m oo th Th e uppe r b o r de r is t h i c k a n d r o u n ded

.

i n f ro nt whe r e i t f or ms the l o we r p a r t o f th e o r b it a l m a r gi n ; behi n d th is it f o rms

,

a n exte n s ive n o t ch wh i ch r e ceive s th e zyg om a ti c p ro cess o f th e te m p o r a l (I t .

m igh t b e r eg a r ded a s d ividi n g i n t o f r on t a l a n d temp o r a l b r a n ches ) Th e l o we r .

b or de r is c o n vex an d b ec om es th i nn e r b ehi n d .

Th e tu r b in a l b on e s r ese m b le th ose o f th e o x The supe r i o r tu r bi n a l is h o weve r .

, ,

r el a tively l o n ge r less f r a gile a n d m o r e fi r mly a tt a ched to the n a s a l b o n e

, ,
Th e r e .

is n o m idd le tu r b i n a l .

Th e v o m er i s ve ry l on g Th e a n te r i or extr e m ity r e a ch es to the b o dy of the p re

.

m a xil l a o r ve r y cl o se t o it The l o we r b o r d e r is r ecei ved i n t o a g r oo ve f o r m ed b y

.

th e n a s a l c r est of th e m a xi ll ae a n d p a l a te b o n es a n d i n f ro n t b y th e p a l a ti n e p r o cesses
o f th e pr e m axil l se Th e p o ste r i or b or de r i s c o n c a ve thi n a n d sh a r p
.
, ,
.

Th e o s r o stri (or p r e n a s a l b on e ) i s situ a ted i n th e s no u t betwee n th e n ost r ils

I t h as th e f o r m o f a sh o r t th r ee —
.

sided p r is m Th e uppe r su r f a ce i s c o n vex a nd i s

.

n o t ch ed a t e a ch en d Th e l a te r a l su r f a ces a re c on c a ve sm oo th a n d c on ve r ge
.
, ,

b el o w fo r m i n g a g r o o ved l o we r b or de r Th e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce is t r i a n gu l a r
,
.
,

n o tched ce n t r a lly a n d r o ugh l a te r a lly

,
Th e a n te r i o r su r f a ce is deeply p i tted a nd
.

i s su rro u n de d b y an i rr egul a r sh a r p b or de r .

Th e m a n d i b l e i s ve r y st r o n g an d d i ff e rs ve ry m u ch fr om th a t o f the h or se or
,

o x The b o d y n a rr o ws d e cid edly i n f r on t ; the li n gu a l su r f a ce i s deeply c o n c a ve ;

.

th e me n t a l su r fa ce i s st r on gly c on vex sl o pes d o w n w a r d an d b a ckw a r d an d fo r ms

, ,

a d isti n ct p r o m i n e n ce a t the p o i n t o f d ive r ge n ce o f the r a m i A b o ve this p romi .

n en c e i s a p a i r o f f o r a m i n a Th e a lve o l a r b o r d e r p r ese n ts six a lve o li fo r th e i h

.

ci s or teeth a n d a li ttle fu r th e r b a ck tw o l a r ge c a vities fo r the c a n i n e teet h

,
The r e .

a r e tw o p a i r s o f m e n t a l f o r a m i n a o f c o n si de ra ble si z e a n d a v a r i able n u m be r o f .

sm a ll e r o n es Th e r a mi d ive r ge m o re th a n i n th e h or se o r ox an d the uppe r p a r t

. ,

i s s o m ewh a t i n cu r ved Th e h o r i z on t a l p a r t is ve r y th i ck an d st r on g I ts o ute r

.
.

s ur f a ce i s st r o n gl y c o n vex f r o m a b o ve d o wn w a r d The i nn e r su r f a ce is p ro mi n e n t
.
1 44 S KE L E T O N OF T HE PI G

o ve r th e r o o ts o f t he m o l a r teeth a n d o ve r h a n gs th e c o n c a ve l o we r p a r t Th e .

a lve o l a r b o r d e r is thi n i n f r o n t a n d wide n s beh i n d ; i t d o es n o t f o ll o w t he a xis o f

the ra m us b ut r u n s n e a r ly st r a igh t a n d p r o d uces the m a r ke d o ve r h a n g n o t ed a b o ve

,
.

The r e a r e seve n a lve o l i fo r th e l o we r ch eek tee th whi ch i n c r e a se i n si z e f r o m befo r e ,

b a c kw ar d Th e fi r st is s m a ll n ot a lw a ys p r ese n t i n the a du lt a n d i s sep a r a t ed b y

.
, ,

s h or t sp a ces f r om th e sec on d a n d the c a n i n e a lve o l us Th e ve r ti c a l p a r t i s r el a .

t i v e l y wide a b o ve Th e c o n d yl e i s c o n vex i n b o t h d i r e cti o n s w id e i n f ron t n a rr o w

Th e ve r y s ma l l a n d t hi n—
.
, ,

a n d declivit o us behi n d edged c o ro n o i d p ro cess i s n o t

.

quite s o high as the c on dyl e f r o m whi ch i t i s sep a r a ted b y a ve r y wid e n ot ch ,

Th e .

m a n d i bul a r f o r a m e n i s l a r ge Th e t w o h a lves o f th e b on e u n ite s oon a fte r b i r th

.

i n the i m p r o ved b r eeds .

Th e b o d y o f the h yo id b on e is b re a d f ro m bef or e b a ckw a r d sh o r t t r a n sve r sely , ,

a n d be a r s o n its ve nt r a l a spect a v er v sh o r t p o i n ted li n gu a l p r o cess Th e t hy ro i d .

c o rn u a ar e wide an d cur ved c on c a ve a n d g r oo ved d o r s a lly ; thei r e n ds a r e a t t a ch ed

,

to th e thy r o i d c a rti l a ge o f t h e l a r y n x b y ra th e r l on g b a r s o f c a r til a ge Th e s m a ll .

c o r n u a ar e sh or t wid e a n d fl a tte n ed d o r s o ve n t r a lly ; th ey a r e a tt a ch ed t o sh o r t

, ,
-

b a r s wh i ch p r o j ect f r o m the j u n cti on o f the b o dy a n d t hy r o i d c o rn u a Th e m iddle .

c or n u i s a litt l e l on ge r th an the
s ma l l c o rn u bu t is r el a tivel y ,

sle n de r ; i t i s l ar gel y c a r til a

gi n o u s i n t h e y o u n g subj e ct
a nd d o es n o t o ssify a t eith e r

e nd The g r e a t c o r n u i s a .

ve r y S le n de r rod sli ghtly en ,

l ar ge d a t ei th e r e n d ; th e u ppe r
ext r emity i s a tt a ch ed t o the
hy o i d p r o cess of t h e temp o ra l
b y a r a the r l o n g a n d wide b a r
o f c ar til a ge .

Fm . I IQ . or P ro .

a, B
i l ; b h i z nt l p t f m ; f v e ti c l
od y of m a nd b e , or o a ar o ra us , r a
THE S KUL L AS A WHOLE
p t f a m ; i t lv l b d ;
ar o r us c, i t v l b tw
n e ra eo a r i or er c
'
n er a e een c a n ne

i nt va l b t w ee n fi t nd
,

d o ne i n c i d p m l
”
an c r ; r sor c er ; e rs a se co n re o a rs
Th e l e n gth an d th e pr o fil e
d m nt l f mi n ; v u l i mp i n ; g oi d p

i g m i d t h ; k m nd i b l f m ; 1 —
e a o ra a e, asc ar
; r es s o c o ro n r o c e ss
c o n t o u r Vary g r e a tly d lf
, ,

I c nd y l ; i
t. o e s o no c 7 h k a u ar o ra en c ee

B m
, , ,

t t h 8 c i toot h ; 9 1 0 1 1 i n i
ee a n ne (E ll e b e g c s o rs n r e r- au fer en t Sl l b j eCtS PI l l l l l t
‘
el y

th e skul l is l on g—espe ci a lly i n

, , , , , .
, .

AW d “ a u s ti e re i

its f a ci a l p a r t—a n d t h e f r o n t a l
p r o file is a l m ost st r a ight The c on di ti o n is ve r y p ron o u n ced i n w i ld o r se m i fe r a l pi gs
.
-
,

a n d exists a ls o i n the i m p ro ved b r eeds du r i n g ext r e m e y o uth M o st o f th e l a tte r a r e .

de ci dedly b r a chyceph a li c w he n fully d evel o ped ; t h e f a ce i s di sh ed i n a p ro

n o u n ce d f a sh i o n The f ro n t a l r egi on sl o pes sh ar pl y u pw a r d a n d th e n a s a l r egi on
.
,

i s sh or te n ed an d i n s om e speci m e n s eve n disti n ctl y c on c a ve i n p r o fil e The s up r a

, .

o r b i t a l f o r a m i n a a r e a b o u t m idw a y betwee n t he o r bi t a l m a r gi n a n d t h e f r o nt a l

sutu re The sup r a o rb it a l gro o ves exte n d f o r w a r d f r o m th e f o r a mi n a t o t h e n a s a l

.

r egi o n a n d tu r n o utw a r d a n d d o w n w a r d t o w ar d t he i n f r ao r bit a l f o r a m i n a o ve r th e

r idges whi ch sep a ra te th e n a s a l a n d l a t e r a l r egi o n s .

Th e l a t eral sur fa c e is t r i a n gul a r w h e n t h e m an dib le i s i n cl uded Th e t em .

p ora l f oss a is e n ti r el y l a te r a l an d its l on g a xis i s a l m o st ve rti c a l I t i s b o u n ded .

a b o ve b y th e o cci pit a l c r est b eh i n d by th e temp o r a l c r est i n f r o n t by t h e p a r i et a l

, ,

c r est a n d is m a r ked o ff f r o m th e o r bit a l c a vity b y t h e sup r a o r bit a l p r o cess a n d a

,

cu r ved c r est wh i ch exte n ds f ro m it t o th e r o o t o f the pte r ygo id p r o cess The .

zyg o m a ti c a r ch i s st r on g high a n d fl at te n ed f r om side t o S ide I ts roo t i s n o tch ed

, , .

a b o ve a n d be a r s a p r o j ecti o n bel o w I t cu r ves sh a r ply upw a r d behi n d a n d f o rm s .

a p o i n ted r ecu r ved p ro j e cti o n a b o ve a n d i n f r on t o f the exte r n a l a udi t o r y me a tus .

1 46 S KE L E T O N OF T HE PI G

th e r o o f an d a l most a l l o f th e sides o f t he c r a n i um a n d exte n ds f o r w ar d i n t o th e ,

r oo f o f th e n a s a l c a vi ty a v a r i a ble dist a n ce — s o m eti m es as far as a t r a n sve r se pl a n e

th ro ugh th e i n f r a o rbi t a l f o r a m i n a Th e septu m betwee n th e r i ght a n d left S i n uses

.

i s usu a lly deflected i n a n i rr egul ar m ann e r i n its m i ddle p a r t b ut is p r a cti c a lly ,

medi a n a t ei the r e nd E a ch si n us i s subdivided by n u m e r o us sept a s o m e of whi ch

.
,

ar e c o m plete Thus the si n us is divided i n t o c o m p a r t m e n ts e a ch o f whi ch c om

.
,

m u n i c a te s with a n ethm o id a l m e a tus .

I n th e y o u n g pi g th e s i n u s i s s m a l l a n d i s co n fi n ed t o t h e a n t e ri or p a r t o f th e f ro n t a l b o ne .

L a t e r i t e x t en d s b a c k w a r d , o u t w a r d , a n d t o a l es s ex t e n t f or w a r d I n t h e o l d su b j e c t i t p en e t r a t es
.

l a t era l l y i n t o t h e s u p rao rb i t a l p ro c ess a n d th e ro o t o f th e z yg oma ti c p r o c ess o f th e t em p or a l b one ,

a nd b ehi n d a l mos t d o w n to th e f o r a m en m a g n u m a nd th e o c c i p i t a l co n d y l es I t t h en co ns i s t s .

of s i x to e i g h t c o m p a r t me n t s u s u a l l y .

The m axill ary si n u s is r el a tively sm a ll I ts an te r i o r e n d i s a l ittle less th an

.

a n i n ch (ca 2 c m ) behi n d the i n f r a o r b it a l f o r a m e n a n d i t exte n ds u pw a r d i n t o

. .
,

the l a c r i m a l an d b a ckw ar d i n t o th e m a l ar b on e Th e i n f r a o r bit a l c an a l p a sses .

a l on g its fl oor a n d the r oo ts o f th e m o l a r teeth d o n o t p r o j e ct u p i n t o i t

, I t d o es .

n ot c o mm u n i c a te with the f r on t a l a n d sphe n o id a l si n uses but wi th th e p o ste r i or ,

p ar t o f the middle m e a tus by me a n s o f a c on side r ab le o r ifi ce .

Th e sph en o id a l s i n u s i s ve r y l a r ge I t i n v o lves th e b o dy pte r yg o i d p r o cesses

.
, ,

a n d te m p o r a l wi n gs o f th e sph e n o id b on e a n d exte n ds i n t o th e squ a m o us temp ora l

, .

I t c o mm u n i c a tes with th e ve n t r a l eth m o i d a l me a tus .

The r e i s a sm a ll si n us i n the p e r pe n di cu l ar p a r t o f the p a l a te b on e whi ch c o m

mu ni ca t e s w i th a n eth m o i d a l m e a tus .

B ONE S OF THE THORA CI C LI lVlB

The s c apul a i s ve r y wid e th e i n dex bei n g a b o ut
, Th e spi n e i s tr i
an gul a r a n d is ve r y wid e i n its m i ddle wh i ch cu r ves b a ckw ar d o ve r the i n f r a
,

spi n o us f o ss a an d be ar s a l ar ge tube r o sity I ts l o we r p a r t b e a r s a sm a ll p r oj ecti on

.

(r udi m e n t a r y a c r om i on ) Th e a n te r i o r b or de r i s st r on gl y c on vex i n p r o fi le si n u o us
.
,

whe n vi ewed f r o m the f ron t an d thi ck an d r o ugh i n its m idd le The p o ste r i o r
,
.

b or de r i s wide slightly c on c a ve an d be ar s a n o ute r ro ugh li p Th e ve r teb r a l

, ,
.

b or de r is c on vex an d the c ar ti l a ge i s n ot so exte n sive as i n the h orse an d o x Th e

, .

ce r vi c a l a n gle is th i n a n d be n t i n w a r d a little The d o r s a l an gle is thi ck a n d i s .

a b o ut a r i ght an gle The n ec k i s wel l defi n ed The ri m o f the gle no id c a vi ty i s

. .

r o u n ded a n d n ot n o tched Th e tube r osity i s j ust a b o ve the an te r o i n te rn a l p a r t

.
-

o f the gle n o id c a vi ty a n d be a r s n o disti n ct c o r a c o i d p r o cess .

The h u m er u s h as a n a ppe a ra n ce i n p r o fi le s om ewh a t li ke an i t a li c f mi n us t he

c ross b a r ; th is i s d ue to th e m a r ked b a ckw a r d an d f o r w ar d i n cl i n a ti on o f th e p r o x
-

i m a l a nd dist a l en ds r espectively Th e sh a ft i s d e ci dedly c o mp ressed f r om sid e t o

.

side The i n te r n a l su r f a ce i s exte n sive an d fl a tte n ed ; i t i s sep a r a ted fr om th e

.

a n te r i o r su r f a ce by a disti n ct b o r de r a n d b e a r s n o te r es tub e r cle

,
Th e m u scu l o .

spi r a l g r oo ve is sh a ll o w Th e d elt o id tube ro sity i s s m a ll an d the r e i s a l a r ge r

.
,

r o u nded emi n e n ce m i dw a y b etwee n i t an d the exte r n a l tub e ro si ty The n ut r ie n t .

fo r a me n is o n the p oste r i o r su r f a ce b el o w i ts m iddle The h e a d i s m o r e st r on gly .

cu r ved an d the n ec k bette r m ar ked th an i n th e h or se or e x Th e exte rn a l tube r .

o s i t y i s ve r y l a r ge a n d exte n ds up on th e f ro n t o f th e ext re m ity I t i s d ivided i n t o .

tw o high p ro m i n e n ces by a wid e deep g roo ve The r e is a th i rd e m i n e n ce bel o w

.

a n d exte r n a lly fo r the a tt a ch m e n t o f the sup ra spi n a tus mus cle The bi ci pi t a l .

g ro o ve is a t the f ron t o f th e i nn e r si de ; it i s u n divi ded a n d is a l mo st c on ve rted i n t o

a c a na l . The o ute r g r oo ve on th e d ist a l a r ti cu l a r su r f a ce i s so sh a l l o w as to gi ve
th e a ppe a ra n ce of tw o c o n dyles of S i m il ar si ze The Olec ra n on f o ss a is ve r y deep .
,

a n d th e pl a te o f b o n e whi ch sep ara tes it f r o m th e c or o n o id f o ss a is th i n an d s o m e

 B ON E S OF T HE T H OR A C I C LI MB 1 47

t i m es pe r f o r ated Th e p r o xim a l en d u n i tes w ith the sh a ft a t th r ee a nd a h a lf

.

ye a r s th e d ist a l a t o n e ye a r
,
.

The ra d iu s i s sh o r t a n d n a rro w but thi ck The sh a ft , .

i n c re a ses i n si z e f ro m a b o ve d o w n w a r d The gr e a te r p a r t .

of th e p o ste r i or sur f a ce is i n a pp o siti o n w ith the ul n a ; t his

p ar t is m a r ked by a v a scu l a r fu r r o w whi ch r u ns d o w n w a r d

f ro m the uppe r i n te rosse o us sp a ce and h as th e n ut r ie n t ,

f o r am e n a t i ts p r o xim a l end The bi cipit a l t ube r o si ty i s

.

r ep r ese n ted by a r o ugh a r e a Th e dist a l end i s r el a tively

.

l ar ge I ts c a r p a l su r f a ce c o n sists of c on c av e c onvex f a cets

.
-

for the r a di a l a n d i n t e r m edi a te c a r p a l b o n es The re is a .

wide sh a l l o w g r oo ve o n t h e m iddl e of t he f ron t The .

p r o xi m a l en d fuses wi t h the sh a ft a t on e ye ar the dist a l ,

a t th r ee a n d a h a lf ye a r s .

The u ln a i s m a ssiv e I t is m u ch l on ge r a n d con .

s id e r a b l y he a vi e r th a n the r a di us The sh a ft is cu r ved . .

Th e a n te r i or su r f a ce is c on vex an d m ost o f i t is r o ugh

a n d a tt a ched t o the r a dius by th e i n te r o sse o us li g a
me n t . The r e is a s moo th a r e a on th e uppe r th i r d ,

whi ch c o n cu rs with the r a di us i n f o rmi n g t he uppe r

i nte r osse o us sp a ce an d i s m ar ked i n its uppe r p a r t
,

b y th e n ut r ie n t f or a m e n F r o m this sp a ce a v ascul ar .

fu rr o w p a sses d o w n w ar d t o th e l o we r p ar t of th e sh a ft ,

whe r e t he r e i s o fte n a dist a l i n te r osse o us S p a ce for

t h e p a ss a ge of vessels Th e i n te r n a l su r f a ce is exte n
.

si ve c o n c a ve an d s m o o t h
, ,
The exte r na l su r f a ce is
.

sl i ghtly c on vex an d i ts uppe r p a r t is m ar ked by an

,

o b l i que r o ugh l i n e or r i dge Th e p ro xi m a l ext r em ity is .

l ar ge a n d is b e n t i n w ar d s o m ewh a t ; i ts le n gt h is m or e
th an on e— thi r d of th a t o f th e e n ti r e b on e The d ist a l ex .

tr em i ty is r el a tively s m a ll ; i t a r ticul a tes wi th th e ul n ar

a n d a ccess or y c a r p a l b o n es a n d is n o tched i n f r o n t t o
,

a cc o mm o d a te th e r idge o n th e r a dius Th e b on e c on t a i n s .

a c o n sid e r a b l e m ed ull a r y c a n a l Th e b o n e i s c ons o li d ated

.

a t th r ee t o th r ee a n d a h a lf ye a r s .

Th e c arpu s c o mp r ises eight b on es f o u r i n e a ch r ow F 1 13 S K E L E T ON IG or

NU
. .
.
,
F A M AND M A S ’

Th e b o n es of th e p r o xi m a l r ow r esemb le t h o se of th e o x O
O

P A EO—X ,
F
RE R

IG NTE E
,

wit h the excepti o n of the a ccess or y wh i ch is m o r e li ke T NAL V w

, ER rE .

th a t o f th e h o r se b ut h as n o exte r n a l g ro o ve The fi r st
,
R di ; l ; . a ,
a us u na c,

c ar p a l is sm a l l el o n g a ted f om bef o e b ckw d

r r a a r r o u ded
n di l p l ; d i t m di t ra a ca r a ,
n er e a e
,
p l; l p l: f , ,
ca r a e , u na r ca r a , ac

a n d ar ti cul a tes i n f r o n t wi th th e se c o n d c a r p a l Th e l a tte r y p l: g fi t p l; .

c ess o r ca r a , rs ca r a

i s h i gh a n d n a rr o w a n d a r ti cul a tes with the sec on d a n d h d p l : 2 th i d s ec o n ca r a 1 r car

—
, ,
,
l I f t h p l : l r
ou r ca r a o,
thi r d m et a c ar p a l b on es bel o w Th e thi r d c ar p a l a rt i cu .
p ;
d t fi f th m t p l
a

seco n
,

o e a ca r a

l a tes with th e r a di a l a n d i n te r m ed i a te a b ove t he th i r d b : p

—S d t fi ft h d i g , o ne s s, ec o n o

met a c a r p a l b on e b el o w Th e f o u rt h is th e l gest b e a r o n i t : 1 Ol : 2 b k f s , e c ra no n ,
ea o

l (p mi
.

): 3 u na roc a n c o ne u s se
o f th e r ow ; i t a r t i cul a tes wit h th e i n te r m ed i a t e a n d ul n ar l
. ,

t h : 4 ty l id p u na r n o c , s o r oc e s s

a b o ve the f o u r th a n d fifth m et a c a r p a ls bel o w a n d be a r s

,
f l ; 5 ty l i d p ,
f o u na , s o r o c es s o

di ; di t l p i p hy l ra us s a e se a
a t ube r o sity o n its v o l a r a spect .

li ; 7 fi t ph l : 8 d ne s , rs a a nx , s ec o n

F o u r m e ta c arpa l b on e s a re p r ese n t Th e fi r st is p h l ; 9 t h i d ph l a a nx r a a nx

B
.
.
,

bse t t he thi d d f o u t h e l a r ge a n d c ar r y th e ch ief ( E ll b g m A I en er e r- au unt (

a n r a n r a r
. .
,

,
H ti )
digits whi le t he se c o n d a n d fifth a r e m u ch s m a lle r a n d
a us e re .

b e a r th e a ccess or y digits Thei r p r oxi m a l e n ds a r ti cul a te

.

wit h each o th er a n d with th e c ar pus a s i n di c a ted a b o ve The b o n es a re co n

.
.

s o l id a ted a t a b o ut tw o ye ar s of ag e .
1 48 S KE L E T O N or T HE PIG

T he t hi rd a nd f o u r t h m e t aca r p a l s a r e fl a tt ened f r o m b e fo re b a c k w a rd t hr ee-s i d ed a n d , ,

p l a ced c l os e t o ge t h er T h e d i s t a l e nd of ea c h b ea rs a t ro c h l ea fo r a r t ic u l a ti o n w i t h t h e firs t
.

p h a l a nx a nd t h e s es a mo i d s T h e t h i rd i s t h e w i d er o f t h e t w o a nd a r t i c u l a t es w i t h a l l o f t h e
.
,

l o w er r o w o f t h e c a r p u s exce p t t h e fi rs t T h e f ou r t h a r ti c u l a t es w i t h t h e f o u r t h c a r p a l c hi efl y
.
,

b u t h as a s m a ll f a c e t fo r t h e t hi r d T h e s ec o n d a nd fif t h m et a c a r p a ls a re p l ac ed f u r t h er b ac k
.

t h a n t h e c hi ef b o nes T h e fif t h i s co ns i d era b l y th e t h i c k er o f t h e t w o T h e p ro xi m a l e nd s a re
. .

s m a ll a n d a r ti c u l a t e w i t h t h e c o rres p o nd i n g ca r p a l a n d m e t a ca r p a l b o n es Th e d i s t a l e nd i s .

r e l a ti v e l y l a rg e ; i ts a r ti c u l a r s u r f ac e i s co n d y l o i d i n f ro n t t r oc h l ea r b e h i nd
, .

E a ch ch ief d igit c o m p r ises th r ee ph al ang e s a n d th r ee s e s am o id s Th e b o n es .

o f th e ch ief digi ts r esemb le th o se o f the o x i n f o r m b ut th e r e is n o f o r a me n o n t he ,

i n te r digit a l side o f th e exte n s o r p r o cess a n d th e p r o xi m a l ses a m o ids a r e n a rr o w and

r idged behi n d Th e ph a l a n ges o f th e a c cess o r y d igits (wh i ch d o n ot r e a ch t he
.
'

g ro u nd o r di na r i ly ) a re si m i l ar i n f o r m b u t m u ch s m a lle r .

B ONE S OF THE P E LVI C LI MB

The o s c o x ae i s l o n g a n d n a rr o w Th e i li u m a n d i s ch i um a re a l m o st i n li n e
.

w i th e a ch o the r an d s a gitt a l i n d i r ecti o n The wi n g o f t h e i l i um be n ds o utw a r d

.
_

m u ch l ess th a n i n the h o r se or ox The glute a l su r f a ce i s di vi ded i n t o tw o fo ss ae

.

b y a r idge wh i ch i s c on ti n u o us wi th th e supe r i o r isch i a ti c spi n e behi n d The

,
.

i nn e r su r f a ce p r ese n ts an exte n sive r o u gh a r e a b ehi n d w hi ch i s i n a pp o si ti on wi th ,

t he wi n g o f th e s a c r um Th e s m o o th i li a c a r e a i s n ar r o w a n d i s b o u n ded a b o ve
.
,

by a r i dge Th e c r est o r a n te r i o r b or d e r is c on vex a n d i s th i ck ro ugh a n d p r om

.
, , ,

i n cu t i n i ts m iddl e whi ch f o r ms t h e h i ghest p o i n t o f t he b o n e Th e i n te rn a l a n gle

‘

,
.

is l o we r th a n the c r est i s d i r e cted b a c kw ar d a n d a r ti cu l a tes i n te rn a lly wi th the

, ,

s a c r u m The exte rn a l an gle is l o we r sti ll a n d i s ve r y l ittle th i cken ed Th e

.

.
.

i s chi a i n th e fem a l e a r e s om ewh a t d i ve r ge n t a n d fl a tte n ed behi n d Th e tube r a .

a re eve r ted a n d be ar th r ee p ro mi n e n ces Th e r e is a c r est or tube r osi ty on th e

.

ve n t r a l su rf a ce The supe r i o r ischi a ti c S pi n e i s li ke th a t o f t he c ow b ut i s sli ghtly

.
,

i n cu r ved an d th e muscul ar r i dges o n i ts o ute r f a ce are m o r e p r o n o u n ced The .

sy m physe a l p a r t of th e pu b i s i s t hi ck a n d t he tw o b on es a r e a l m o st i n a h o r i z o n t a l
pl an e The i li o pe cti n e a l e mi n e n ce i s p ro mi n e n t a n d th e ps oa s t ube r cle i s wel l
.
-

m a rked .

T h e a c e ta b ulu m i s pl a ced a li ttl e fu r th e r b a ck th a n i n th e ox Th e r i m is .

thi c k an d i s cut i n t o p oste r i o r ly b y a n a r ro w fissu r e wh i ch l e a ds i n t o th e d eep f oss a ,

a cet a bul i The th r ee pi e ces of th e os c o x ae a r e fused by th e en d o f the fi rst ye ar

.
,

but th e c rest a nd the i schi a l tub e ra a r e p a r ti a lly sep ar a te ti ll th e sixt h o r seve n th

ye a r Th e sy m physis d o es n ot usu a l ly u n de r g o c om pl ete an chyl o sis I n teri s ch i a l
. .

b o n es a re p r ese n t .

The i n l e t o f th e pe lvi s is elli pti c a l a nd ve r y o b li que I n a s ow o f fu l l si ze th e .

c on j u g a te di a m ete r i s a b o ut five t o s i x i n ch es (1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) a n d the t ran sve rse .

a b o u t th r ee a n d a h a lf to f o u r i n ches (ca to 1 0 I n th e fe m a le the fl o or

.

i s r el a ti vely wid e a n d fl a tte n ed especi a lly a t t he o utlet wh e r e th e tub e r a a r e

, ,

eve r ted ; i t a ls o h as a d eci ded d o w n w ar d i n cli na ti o n beh i n d Th e pe lvi c a xis .

i s the r efor e c or r esp on d i n gly o bliq u e The i schi a l a r ch i s wid e I n th e b o ar the

. .

pubi s i s m u ch thi cke r a n d th e i s chi a a re n o t eve r ted p o ste r i o r ly Th e i n let i s .

s m a lle r Th e fl o o r i s c o n c ave f ro m side to side a n d sl o pes d ecidedly l ess th an i n

.

the sow The supe r i or ischi a ti c spi n es a r e m o re i n cu r ved a n d th e is ch i a l a r ch is

.
,

m u ch n arro we r a n d deepe r .

The f e m u r h a s a r el a tively wide a n d m a ssive sh a ft on wh i ch f o u r su r f a ces m ight ,

be r ec o gn i zed The p r i n cip a l n ut r i e n t fo ra m e n is si tu a ted i n th e p rox im a l th i r d

.

o f the a n te r i o r su r f a ce Th e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce i s wid e a nd is li m ited o utw ardl y

.
,

b y a r idge whi ch e xt e n ds f r om the t r o ch an te r m aj o r t o the l ar ge exte r n a l su p r a

c on dyl o i d c re s t The r e is n o sup r a c on dyl o id (pl an t a r ) f o ss a The h e a d is st r on gly
. .

cu r ved a nd is m a r ked t o w a r d th e i nn e r side by a r a the r l a r ge dep r essi o n for the

,
1 50 SKE L E T O N OF T HE D OG

with adisc o id ses a m o id b on e The sec on d a n d fi ft h a r e pl a ced m o r e on the p os

.

t e r i o r a spect o f th e l a r ge b o n es th a n is th e c a se i n th e f o r e li m b .

Th e fi rst an d se c on d ph a l an g e s a r e a li ttle l o n ge r a n d n a rr o we r th a n th ose o f

the f o r e li mb .

SKE L E TON OF THE DOG

VE R TE B RA L COLUM N

Th e ve r teb ra l f ormu l a is
The c ervic a l v ert eb r a a re r el a ti vely l o n ge r th an i n t he ox a nd the pi g The .

b od ies o f the typi c a l ve r teb r ae d i m i n i sh i n le n gth f ro m fi r st t o l a st an d ar e co m

p r essed d o r s o ve n t r a lly The a n te r i o r ext r e m i t y is m o de r a tely c on vex an d t h e
-
.

p o ste r i o r slightly c o n c a ve ; b o t h a re o bl i q ue The m edi an r idge an d l a te r a l g r o o ves

.

o n the uppe r su r f a ce o f th e b o dy a r e ve r y well m a r ked The se c on d thi r d an d .

, ,

fo u r th h a ve disti n ct ve n t r a l spi n es The spi n o us p r o cess o f the thi rd h as th e

.

f o r m o f a l on g l o w c r est ; i n th e r e m a i n de r i t i s h i gh e r blu n t p o i n ted an d i n cli n ed ,

-
,

f o r w a r d The t r an sve r se p r o cesses o f th e th i r d f o u r th an d fi ft h p r o j e ct d o w n w a r d

.
, ,

an d b a ckw a r d a n d di vide i n t o tw o b r a n ch es ; o f these the a n t e r i o r on e is th i n

, , ,

a n d the p o ste r i o r is th i ck a nd tub e r cu l a te a t i ts f r ee e nd Th e p ro cess o f th e .

sixth h as t w o p a r ts ; o ne o f these is a n exte n si ve qu a d r i l a te ra l pl a te di r ected d ow n

w ar d a n d o utw a r d a n d r idged o n i ts i nn e r su r f a ce ; th e ot he r p art is sh o r t an d b lu n t ,

a n d is d i r ected o u tw a r d a n d a l i ttle b a ckw a r d a n d upw a r d The seve n th is r e a di ly .

d isti n guished by its sh o rt n ess th e le n gth o f its spi n e an d th e si n gle t r a n sve r se

, ,

p ro cess The p o ste r i o r a r ti cul ar p ro cesses b e ar tub e r cles wh i ch a re l ar ge o n th e

.

thi r d f o u r th a n d fifth
, ,
.

The ve n t ra l a r ch o f the a tl a s is n a rr o w fr Om b ef o r e b a ckw ar d an d be a r s a ,

s m a ll tube r cle p oste r i o r ly Th e uppe r su r f a ce of th e d or s a l ar ch is st ro n gly

.

c o n vex a nd r o ugh ce n t ra lly Th e wi n gs a r e wi d e fl a tte n ed a n d a lm o st h or i z o nt a l

.
, ,
.

The uppe r su r f a ce is r o u gh The r e is a n a l a r n o t ch (I n cisu r a a l ar is ) on th e a n te r i or

.

b o r de r i n ste a d of the an te r i o r f or a m e n Th e f o r am e n t ransve rs a r iu m is p r ese n t

. .

The b o dy of the axi s is fl a tte n ed d o r s o ve n t r a lly espe ci a lly i n f r on t Th e -

,
.

o d o n t o i d p r o cess is r o u nd ed a n d r el a tively l o n g r e a chi n g a lm o st t o th e o ccipit a l ,

'
b o n e ; i t is i n cli n ed u pw a r d a li ttle Th e ar ti cul a r su r f a ces whi ch fl a n k i t a r e
.

c o ndyl o id i n f o r m a n d ve r y o b li que The i n fe r i o r su r f a ce is wide a n d is divided

.
,

by a m edi a n c r est i n to tw o fossze Th e t r a nsve r se p r o cesses a r e si n gle p o i n ted

.
, ,

di r ected b a ckw ar d a n d o utw a r d a n d pe r f or a t ed by r el a tively l ar ge f o r a m i na

,

t ra ns v e rsa r i a Th e spi no us p r o cess i s thi n a n d o f m o de r a te h eight b ut ve r y l o n g ;

.
,

i t is p ro l o n ged fo r w a r d so as t o o ve r h a n g the d ors a l a r ch of the a tl a s and i s ter ,

m i n a ted behi n d by a tube r o si ty whi ch is c o nn e cted by tw o c r ests with the p o ste r i o r

a r ti cul a r p ro cesses Th e an te r i or no tches a re l a r ge an d a r e n eve r c o n ve r ted i n t o
.

fo ra m i n a .

The b o d ies of th e th or a ci c v er te b r ae a re wid e a n d c om p r essed d or s o ve n t r a lly -

,

espe ci a ll y a t e a ch e nd of the r egi on Th ei r c on vex a n te r i o r su rf a ces a re d ep ressed

.

i n the m iddle Th e p oste r i o r f a cets for th e he a ds o f the r i bs a r e a bse n t o n th e

.

l a st th r ee o r f o u r The t ransv e r se p r o cesses r esembl e th o se of the h or se They

. .

be ar m a mm ill ar y p r o cesses except a t the a n te r i or en d o f the r egi o n Th e f a cets .

fo r th e tube r cles o f th e r ibs a r e l a r ge a n d c o n c a ve i n th e a n te r i or p a r t o f th e se r ies ,

a n d be c o m e s m a lle r a nd s li ghtly c on vex fu r th e r b a ck Th e l a st th r ee h a ve a cces .

s o r y p r o cesses a ls o T he fi r st th r ee o r f o u r spi no us p r o cesses a re a b o ut equ a l

.

i n le n gth B ehi n d this they bec o m e g ra du a lly sh or te r to t h e te n th a n d the n r em a i n

.
,

equ a l Th e b a ckw ar d sl o pe is m o st m a r ked i n the n i n th an d te nth

.
The eleve nth .

is p r a cti c a lly ve r ti c a l (an ti cli n a l ve r teb r a ) a n d th e l a st t w o i n cli n e sl i gh tly f o r w a rd .

 V E R T E B R A L CO LUM N 1 51

The b o dies of the l u mb ar v erte b ra a r e decided ly fl a tte n ed d o r s o ve n t r a lly -

,

a n d i n c r e a se i n width f r o m fi r st t o l a st The le ngt h i n c r e a ses t o the sixt h T h e .

.

t ra n sve rse p r o cesses a r e pl a te l i ke a n d a re d i rected f o r w a r d a nd d o w nw a rd Thei r -

.

le n gth i n c r e a ses to the fifth a n d sixth Th ey f or m n o j o i nts with e a ch o the r or .

with th e s a c r u m Th ei r ext r e m it ies a re e n l a r ged with the excepti on o f the l a st

.
, .

The a ccess ory p r o cesses p ro j ect b a ck w ard o ve r the p o ste r i o r n o tches o f the fi rst
five The an te r i o r a rti cul a r p r o cesses
. l a r ge c om p r essed l a te r a lly a nd be a r , ,

AT AL V W FI G . 1 15 .
—S K L T N E E O or D OG , L ER IE .

C i m ; b f ; m di b l ; I H—7 H v i l v t b ; 1 3 8 l t t h
a ra n u a ce 0, i v t b ; 1 L—7 L l mb
an e cer ca er e ra as o ra c c er e ra
’
u ar

l v t b ; I R —I 3 R i b ; R k
, , , , ,

v er etb ; K ra m; S yg , sa c ru , t l til g ; b t t
c oc c m; d
ea p l ; d
er e ra , r s . n .
, cos a car a es
‘

s e rnu , sca u a
’
,

su p pi r as f ; d
n o us i f pi f ; I
os sa pi f p l ; 2 mi
n ra s ; 3 t b ity f p l ;
no u s ti l
o s sa , s ne o sc a u a , a c ro on , u e ro s o sca u a ar cu ar

en d f o p l ; h m
s ca ; 4 hu a d fh m e, ; 5 u t l t b it y f h m
eru s ; d lt i d i d g ; 6 6
, ea opi u e ru s , e x e r na u e r os o u e ru s e o r e e c on
" f
,

d yl f h m
es o ; 7 u t l d y l id
eru s t; ,id f ; f d i ; 9 l ; 8 l
e x e rn a con ; 9 b k o c re s c o ro n o os s a , ra us , u na , o e c ra no n , ea o

ul na; h p ; i m t
, car p ; k p i m l p h l g ; l m i d d l p h l g ; m d i t l ph l g ;
us , e aca r us , m id ; p
ro x a a an es , e a an es , s a a an es n , se s a o ,

il i m ; 1 0 w i g f ili m ; 1 1 h ft f ili m ; 1 2
u ,
n o t f ili m ; 1 3 t
u l g l f ili m (t b
, s a ); 1 4 i t
o u , c re s o u , e x e rna an e o u u e r c ox a , n er

na l gl
an f ili m (t b
e o l ) ; 1 5 p i i h i ti p i ; q p b i ; i h i m ; 1 6 t b i h ii ; 1 7
u u er sa cra e ,
t b l m;
su er or sc a c s ne . u s r, sc u , u er sc , a ce a u u

S f m
. e ; 18 h ur d f f m ; 19 t , h t m j ; 2 0 t h t m i ; 2 1 t h t t ti ; 2 2 2 3
ea o e ur ,
roc an er a or ,
roc a n er no r , roc a n er er us , , con

d y l ; 24 25
es p i d y l ; 2 6 t hl ; t p t ll ; e con tib i ; 2 7 t b it y f tib i ; 28 2 9
es d yl
ro c f ti b i ;
ea a e a u a u e r os o a c on es o a

l m ll l ; 3 2 h d f fi b l ; w t
.
, , , , , , , ,

30 i t, l m ll l ;
n e rn a fib l ; 3 1 at eo us v , ; z m t t
u a s y ph l
, e x e r na a eo u s , ea o u a , a rs u s , e a a rs u ,
a

an g ; 33
es i p it l b ; 3 4 p m t id ( ty l id ) p
, oc c a ; 35 p
o ne i t l b ; 3 6 f t l b ; 3 7 l im l
, a ra as o s o r o cess , ar e a o ne ,
ro n a o ne ,
acr a

bo ne ; 38 m l b ; , 39 q m a ar t m p l ; 40 m ill ;
o ne i f b it l f m ; 4 1 p m ill ; 4 2
, s ua ou s e o ra , ax a n ra o r a o ra en ,
re ax a ,

n as a l b ; 43 t one l d it y m t ; 4 4 , i t th ; 4 5 m t i f
e x e rn a au ; g l or p f m ea us , c a n ne oo , as s e e r c os s a an u ar r o c es s o an

d i bl (A ft E ll A tl ) '
e . b g i L i er i g en er er , n e se r n s as .

m amm i ll ar y p r o cesses The spi n o us p ro cesses a re b r o a d bel o w n a rr owe r a b o ve .

, ,

a n d with the ex cepti on o f th e l a st i n cli n e a littl e f o r w ard Thei r h eigh t d i m i n ishes ,

.

behi n d the f o u r th .

The s a c r u m r esu lts f r o m the e a r ly fusi on of th r ee ve r teb ra I t is sh o r t .

,

wide a nd qu a d ra n gul ar The spi n es ar e fused t o f or m a medi a n c r est whi ch is

, .
,

n o tch ed h o weve r betwee n the su m m its o f th e spi n es On eithe r sid e a re t w o

, ,
.

tube r cles vesti ges o f th e fused a r t i cul a r p r o cesses Th e pelvi c su rf a ce is deeply

,
.
 1 52 SKE L E T O N or T HE D OG

c on c a ve a nd p r ese n ts tw o p a i r s o f fo r am i na Th e wi n gs a re p r is m a ti c an d ve r y .

hi gh Thei r l a te r a l su r f a ces a r e exte n sive f a ce a lm o st di r e ctly o utw a r d a n d b e ar

.
, ,

a n a u r i cul a r su r f a ce o n the l o we r p a r t The a nte r i o r su r f a ce of the b o dy of th e .

fi r st ve rteb r a is exte n sive dep r essed i n i ts m iddle an d be a r s a p r om i n e n t lip bel o w , ,

The a n te r i o r a r ti cu l a r p ro cesses a re l a r ge a nd h a ve exte n sive sli ghtly c on c a v e ,

FI G 1 16 —A T LAS
V I E W E D F R OM A B OVE AN D or DOG FI G 1 17 —AX I S or DO G L E FT L A T E R AL VI W E

B H ND
. . , . . , .

E I
a . Od o n to i d p ro c e ss ; b . arti u l u f fo tl as ;
c ar s r ace r a

W i ng : b d l h d t b l ; ve t l
0 , , o rs a a rc an u e rc e c, n ra c, t ra ns v e rs e p ro c es s : d ; f0 ra m e n t r a ns v e rs a ri u m ; d p o s
’
.

t b l ; d i t v t b l f m : f m t
u e rc e n er er e ra o ra en e, o ra en ra ns t e ri o r Op e ni ng o f d; e. s pi n e p t i o ti c u l
; f os er r ar ar p ro
(E ll e n b e rg e r—a u m B
, ,

i m: f
v e rs a r u ti l f e f a i s (E ll e b e g e ar cu ar s u r ac or x n r r~ c ess A t d H u nd es )
na

B m A t d H u nd )
, . .
, . . .

au , na . . es .

f a cets whi ch f a ce upw a r d a n d i n w a rd Th e p o ste r i o r arti cu l ar p r o cesses ar e sm a l l . .

The t ra n sve r se p ro cesses o f the l ast ve r teb r a p r o j ect b a ckw ar d a n d m ay a r ti cul ate
o r fuse wi th th o se o f the fi rst c o ccyge a l Th e s a c r a l c an a l is st r o n gly c om p r esse d .

d o r s o ve nt r a lly -
.

Th e c o ccyg e al v e r t eb ra a r e fu lly devel o ped i n th e an te r i o r p art of the r egi o n .

The a r ch i s c o mpl ete i n th e fi r st six

usu a l ly Th e fi r st th r ee o r f o u r h a ve
.

wel l devel o ped a r t i cul a r p r o cesses at

e a ch en d B eh i n d th is the p oste r i or .

p a i r q ui ckly dis a pp e ar s a n d th e a n ,

t er i or o n es be c o m e n o n ar ti cu l ar a n d -

g r a d u a lly r edu ced i n si ze Th e t r an s .

ve r se p r o cesses o f t h e fi r st five or six

FI G . 1 18 .
—S i xT n C E R V I C A L V E RT E E R A or D OG , L E FT FI G . 119 .
—F U T H T H A C C V T B A O
O R OR I ER E R F D OG L E E I ,
‘

V W I E . V W I E .

0 , \ t l pl t b l t l p t f t
e n ra a e,v , a e ra ar o r a ns e rs e H d ; b g l i d vit y
a . ea , e no ca , c. f ace t fo r h ea d of

p r o c es s ; 0, f m t
o ra v i m; d t i
e n ti
r a ns e rs a r u . an er or ar c rib: d t v p , ; f t ra n s e rs e ro c es s 0, a ce fo r t l
u b e rc e o f ri b ;
u ar l pro c es s : I y p pi p
a c cess o r
; g : ro c e s s s no u s ro c e s s f m m m ill y p a : a p t i ar r o c es s os er or ar ti c ul a r p r o c es s

B m A t B
, . .

(E ll b g —
.

Ii , ar ti l
cu a r h d f b dy
ea o o . en er er au , na . h .pi sp (E ll b g
n o us r o ces s . en er e r- au m , A t na . d .

d . I I u nt l e s )
'

. Il u nd e s . )

a re el a tively l ar ge ; beh i n d th is they qui ckl y dis appe a r H a m al ar ch e s (or

r .

ch ev r on b o n es ) i n th e f o rm o f a V o r Y o ccu r ve nt r a lly a t th e i n te r ce nt r a l
j u n cti o n s o f the thi r d f o u r th a n d fi fth usu a l ly They t r a n s m it the m iddl e , ,
.

c o ccyge a l a r te r y whi ch p a sses betwee n p a i r s o f ve n t ra l tube r cles fu r the r b a ck

,
.
1 54 S KE L E T O N or T HE D OG

CRA N I UM
Th e o ccipita l b o ne is simil ar i n p o siti on t o th a t of th e h o rse .
The c rest is
p ro m i n e n t a ngul a r a nd d i r e cted b a ckw a r d J ust bel o w the c r est
, ,
. a r e tw o r o ugh

S K U LL O D o W T H O U T NI 1 22 .
—B \ ss
. or F c , I AN DI B L E .

I O i p it l ; I I t y mp
, cc i p t f t mp l ; I l q m
a , p t f t mp l ; l l b m t id p t f t m
an c ar o e o ra a , s ua ou s ar o e o ra . as o ar o e

p l ; I I I p h i d ; l V p t y g i d ; V p l t b ; VI v m ;
o ra , s e no o
, m l ; l I I I z y g m ti
er o h; IX i , a a e o ne , o er a ar
'

, o a c a rc , n ne r

w lla f b i t ; X p l ti
o or p f m ill ; X I p m ill ; X I I b it l v ity ; 1 I t b l
. a a ne r o c es s o b v f ax m n a , re ax a , or a ca , ,
u e r c es a o e o ra e

m g m; 2 f
a nu m m g m; 3 , i pit l
o ra d yl ; 4
en t h b tw
a nu i pit l d yl : 6 ,
d y l id f
occ ; a co n e , no c e ee n o cc a co n es , co n o oss a

h yp gl o l f m ; 7 p m t i d ( t y l id j g l ) p
os s a o ra en ; 8 f . l m
a ra d p t i as o p i g f t id s o , u u ar ro cess , or . a ce r u an o s e r or o en n o c a ro

c a na l; 9 p t , i pit l y h d i ; I t) p t ty m p i fi
c r o -o c c a s ; 1 1 t b l ; 1 2 b ll
nc on ; 13 m
ro s s l , e ro - an c s s u re ,
u e rc e , u a o s s ea , u scu a r

p f p t
r o c es s o ; ti d f m ; 1 5
e ro u s E t hi t b ;
c a ro p tg l i d p o ra : 1 7 gl
en id osse o u s us ac an u e os e no r oc es s e no

l Op i g f p i t —
, .

Cfl V ifY: 1 8 f v l ; 19 p t i p i g f l
, or . o a e l ; 20 t , os e r o r o t mp l l; 21
en n o a a r c a na , e x e r na en n o ar e o e o ra ca na ,

sty l m t i d f m ; 2 2
o as o t l d it y m t ; 9 3 t mp l
o ra en t ; 2 4 z y g m ti p
,
e x e r na f t mp
au l or ea us , e o ra c re s , o a c ro c e s s o e o ra

b o ne 25 b dy f p t ph
, i d ; 2 6 b d y f p ph n i d ; 9 7 t i Op i g f l
o o os s e no l ; 28 f l. o m o re s e o , an er o r en n o a a r c a na , o r. a ce ru

or b it l ; 2 9
a e pti f m ; 3 0 h m l , o f pt y g i d ; 3 1 h i z
c o ra t l p t f p l t b ; 82 p p d i l
en , a u us o er o , or on a ar o a a e o ne , er en cu a r

p t f p l t b ; 3 3 m d i p l ti
ar o a a e t ; 3 4 p l t m xill y t ; 8 5 p t i n l pi n ;
o ne , e an a a ne s u u re , a a e- a ar su u re , os er or asa s e

t i p l ti f m ; 3 7 p l ti g v : 3 8 l v l b d
an er or a a ne o ra en f m ill ; 3 9 p l ti p
a a f m
ne ill ; ro o e a eo ar or er o ax a a a ne ro c es s o ax a

p l ti fi
. , .

4 0 pt y g i d p er f m
o ill ; r o c es s o
; 42 b d y f p m ill ; 4 3 p l ti p
ax a f p m ill ; a a ne s s u re o o re ax a a a ne r o c es s o re ax a

B m A td H d )
, , .

44 lv l
. a b d
eo a r fp m ill ; 4 5 p b i t l p
or er o ff
re t lb ax (E ll b g
a , Su ra o r a ro c es s o ro n a o ne . en er e r- au , na . . un es .

i mp r i n ts or tube r cles for m uscul a r a tt a ch m e n t The su r f a ce bel o w t hese is c o n vex .

f r o m side to side a nd c o n c a ve f r o m a b o ve d o w n w a rd On eithe r side a t the j u n cti on .

,
 C R A N I UM 1 55

with th e squ a m o us t he r e is a f oram e n whi ch c o m mu n i c a tes w it h the p a r i et o

,

temp or a l c a n a l The c o n dyles a re s o m ewh a t fl a tte n ed an d a re widely sep a ra ted

.

a b o ve ; a t th e i nn e r sid e o f e a ch

is a sh or t c o n dyl o id c an a l whi ch ,

o pe n s i n t o t h e p a r iet o te m p o ra l -

c an a l Th e p a ra m a st o i d p ro cesses
.

a r e ve r y sh o r t The b a si l a r p a r t
.

is w i de a nd j o i n s t h e bul l a osse a on
eithe r sid e ; its l o we r su r f a ce is
fl atte n ed a nd t h e tu be r cles a r e a t
t he j u n cti on wi t h th e b u ll a Th e .

h yp o gl o ss a l f ora me n is sm a l l a n d
is cl o se to th e fo r am e n l a ce ru m
p o ste r ius ; th e l a t te r i s b o u n ded i n
f r on t by th e b u ll a o sse a b eh i n d an d
,

i n te rn a lly b y th e o ccipit a l b o n e .

Th e i nterpar i e tal b on e fuses

wi th th e o c ci pit a l b ef o r e bi r th .

I t f o r ms the hi gh p o ste r i o r p a r t of
the s a gitt a l c r est a n d i s wedged i n
,

b etwee n th e tw o p a r iet a l b on es .

The te n t or iu m o sseu m i s thi n an d

cu rv ed c on c a ve ve n t ra lly I ts b a se
,
.

c o n cu rs wi th t h e o ccipit a l a n d p ar ie
t al b o n es i n the f o r m a ti o n o f a t ra n s
ve rse c an a l wh i ch is c o n ti n u o us with
th e p ar iet o t emp o ra l c a n a ls
-
.

The pari e tal b on e is r h om b o i d

i n o utli ne a n d i s st r o n gl y cu r ved I t .

is extens ive a n d f o r ms th e gr e a te r
p a r t o f the roo f of th e c ran i a l c a vity .

A t th e j u n cti o n o f th e r i gh t a n d left
b on es the r e is a p r om i n e n t s a gitt a l
c r est w hi ch is c on t i n ued up on th e
f r o n t a l b o n es Th e l o we r b or de r
Fm 1 2 3 —
.

a r ti cul a tes w i th th e te m p o ra l wi n g S K U LL O D . D n“ V W . F oc ,
o s . IE .

o f th e sph e n o i d b y its an te r i or p ar t I O i p it l ; I I p i t l ; I I I f t l ; I l l im l ; '

cc a , ar e a ,
ro n a ,
ac r a
,

a nd wi th th e s qu a m o us temp o r a l i n V m l ; I I ,
q m a ar t mp
'

l ; VI I
, s ua l ; VI I I m
ous e o ra , na s a ,
ax

ill ; I X p m i ll ; 1 a p re i pit l ; 2 i t p i t l ; 3
ax a su ra o c c a n er ar e a ,

t he r e m a i n de r o f i ts ext e n t Th e p i t
, , ,

.
i pit l t ; 4
a r e o- oc c i pit l a t ; 6 g it t l
su u re t; oc c a c re s , sa a c r es

p i t —
,

e xt e rn a l su r f a ce e n te r s i n t o th e fo r f t l t ;7 q mar e o ro n a t ; S p i t l mi
s u u re , s ua o us s u u re , ar e a e

; 9 t t l gl f p i t l b
a n e r o -e x ; 10 f
er na t l e o ar e a o ne ro n a
m a ti on of t h e te m p or a l f o ss a Th e n en c e ,
an ,
.

t ; 1 1 1 4 b it l m g i ; 1 2 p b it l p
c r es , , or a ; 13 ar n , su ra o r a ro c es s ,

i n te r n a l su r f a ce i s m ar ked b y d i gi t a l f t l f ; 1 5 t mp l p t f f t l b ;
ro n a oss a ,
e l
o ra ar o ro n a o ne n as a

i m p r essi o n s an d b y gro o ves fo th e r p f f t l b

r o c ess ;o17 f ron t l t a ; 18 l o ne i m l f ,
ro n a su u re ,
acr a o ra

m ill y p ff t l b ; 20 1 i m m i l
,
m ; en ax ar r o c es s o ro n a o ne ac r o- ax

m i ddl e m e n i n ge a l a r te r y a n d i ts
,

l y t ; 21 f t l p ar su u re f m l ,
b ; 22 l
ro n a im l r o c e$ o a ar o ne , acr a

b r an ches .
p f m l ; 2 3 z y g m ti p
r o c es s o a ar f m l ; £ 4 zy g
,
o a c r o c es s o a ar 2
,
o

Th e exte rn a l su r f a ce o f th e m ti p a f q c m t
ro c es s mp l ;
o p s t
ua i d f ous e o ra os er o r en o

l b ; 95 nasa l t ; 26 t i
o ne ,
d f
n as a sulb u re . a n er o r e n o n as a o ne

f ron tal b on e i s c r ossed by a 9 7 i f b it l f m ; 2 8 , n ra o r i t th ; 2 9 h k t th :

a o ra en , c a n ne oo , c ee oo

f ron t a l c r est wh i ch ext e n ds i n a 3 0 f t l p f m ill ; 3 1 b d y 3 2 o l p ax a o nasa ro c es s .

ill ; 3 4 p l ti fi
,
ro n a ro c es s , , ,

3 3 p l ti p f p m
,
ne ro c es s o ; 36 re ax a a a ne s s u re

cu r ve f r o m th e s ag it t a l c r est t o th e i i t th (E ll b g B m A t d l i d )
,
, a a .

en er e r- au na un es
nc s o r ee . .
.
. ,

sup r aor bi t a l p r o cess an d sep a rates

,

th e f ro nt a l a n d te m p o r a l p ar ts .

d l d o w n w a rd
Th e f ro nt a l p a r ts o f the tw o b on es f or m a ce t l d ep essi n r a r o n a n s o p e
f w d The sup bi t l p cess is ve y sh t s o th a t t h e o r b i t a l m ar g i n
a nd ra o r a r o r o r
or a r .
,

sup bi t l f m e n is a bse n t I n f ro n t the r e

i s i n c om plete a s i n th e pi g Th e .
r a o r a o ra .
 1 56 S KE L E T O N or T HE D OG

is a na rro w p o i n ted n a s a l p a r t whi ch fits i n betwee n th e n a s a l b o n e a n d the m a xi ll a

The o r bi t a l a nd te mp or a l p a r ts a re r el a tivel y exte n sive T w o eth m o id a l f o r a mi n a . .

a re c o mm o n ly p r ese n t The f ron t a l si n us is c on fi n ed to th e f r on t a l b o n e

. .

The p a r ts of th e te mp ora l b o n e fuse e ar ly The zyg o m a ti c p r o cess cu r ves .

widely o u tw a r d and f o r w a r d I ts an te r i or p a r t is beveled bel o w an d a r ti cu l a tes .

exte nsi vely wi th the c o rr esp on di n g p ro cess o f the m a l a r The a r ti cul a r su r f a ce .

fo r the c on dyle o f the m a n dible c o n sists o f a t ra n sve r se gr oo ve whi ch is c on ti n u ed

up o n the f r on t o f th e l a r ge p o stgle n o i d p r o cess B ehi n d th e l a tte r is the l o we r
o pe ni n g o f th e p a r iet o —
.

te m p o r a l c a n a l The r e is n o c on dyle Th e m a st oi d p a r t . .

is s m a l l but be a r s a disti n ct m a st o i d p r o cess Th e exte rn a l a udi t or y m e a tus is

,
.

l a r ge a n d the c a n a l ve r y sh o r t s o th a t on e ca n see i n t o the ty m p a n u m i n the d ry ,

skull The b ul l a o sse a is ve r y l a r ge a n d i s r o u n ded an d s m oo th ; t he i n n e r side

.

i s u n ited to th e b a si o ccipi t a l A b o ve th is j u n cti on a n d r o o fed i n b y th e u n i on .

o f th e pet r o us p ar t a n d th e b a si
o ccipi t a l is the pe tr o b a si l ar -

can a l (C a n a lis p e tro b a s i l a ri s ) ;

this t r a ns m its a vei n f r o m the
fl oor of th e c r a n i u m t o th e
f or am e n l a ce r u m p oste r ius .

The l a tte r i s i n r e a l it y a de
p r essi o n a n d i s si tu a ted b ehi n d
t he b ull a o sse a I n its p o s .

t er i or p a r t is a f o r a m e n whi ch
t ra n s m i ts the n i n th te n th an d , ,

e leve n th c ra n i a l n e r ves The .

c ar oti d c an al br a n ches off f ro m

the p et r ob as i l a r p a sses f or w a r d
1 24 —
,

F IG C AN AL v o D R S SE E
I O S SE C exte r n a l t o i t th r o ugh the i n n e r
rr y r oc A N N ‘
A G I ’I T A L

"S K U LL
. .
,

“ O N 0
p a r t of th e bu ll a osse a an d '

f R f f m 11 b f m 111 p t
I

w l
l ,

l f l o pe n s I n f r o n t a t th e c ar o ti d
oo o c ra n u
i
, , , ase o c ra ni u . , os e r ro r a o

o f m: I V
c ra n i u t w ll f m A
, t
a n e ri o r a o c ra ni u , , a n e r i o r c r a ni a os s a ,

B mi d d l . i lf ; C p t i
e c ra n a i lf o ss a
; b dy f p f or am e n ; I t t r an s m its the i n
, o s e r o r c ra n a o ssa a, o o re
s ph i d : e no b d y f p t ph a
'
id ; p l t b ; 1 v m ;
o o os s
te eno
r na l c a r o ti d a r te r y Th
c. a a e o ne ( o er
e EU
,
, e,

occ i pit l ; i pit l

a dy l ; g occ
g itt l t; h f t l i ;
a con e , sa a c r es ro n a s nus
.

s t a c h i an i mm e d i
,

h ’
i l p l t f f t l b ; i i b i f m p l t f th m i d b
, c ra n a a e o ro n a o ne o pe n i n g
, cr is r or a e o e o o ne
i ’
t h m id l f m ; 1 th m t b i l ; l p i t l b ; l l ”
, e o a o ra en a tely
c, e exte rn a l t o the c aro t i d
o ur na s , ar e a o ne
’
, ,

s q m ua t mp l b ;
o us t mp l w i g f p h i d b ;
e o ra ne
or a m e n
o e o ra n o s e no o ne
m ll t i ; m d
, se a m ll t
u rc c a pti f m ; f m’
,
f
o rs u se
Th e mus cul a r an d
aa n , o c o ra en o, o ra en
l
a c e ru m b it a l ; p f m
or t d m; q f m
e , v l ; ro ra h y oI d p r o cesses a re eXtI em el y
en ro un u , o ra en o a e r ,
’
,
‘

c a ro tid f mi ; t t i m o ra m; t f
na m
s l m;
en o r u
r udi m e n t a r y Th
os s e u
e pet r o us p a r t
o ra en ace ru
’

ifi
, , i t, u ,

f p i t t mp l l: d y l id l: lf
.

or c es o ar e o- e o ra c a na con o c a na to , c a n a

l d it y m t : y y i fi
or

t i g mi l v : i t
r e na ner e 1 7, f
n e r na l p r 0 j Q c ts I n t o th e c r a n i a l c a v I ty
au or ea us .
’
, or c es o c a na
for i f i i pit l i ; z fl
n cr or oc c l f (A ft
a E ll nb g
s nu s a n d f o r m s a sh a r p p r om i n e n t
, occu a r o ss a . er e er er,
in
pet r os a l c r est Th e i n n e r s u r .

f a ce p r ese n ts a deep fl occ u l ar

f o s s a a b o ve the i n te r na l a udi t or y m e a tus Th e a n ter i or su r f a ce i s a ls o fr ee .
.

The a nte r i or a ngle i s pe r f or a ted by a c a na l for th e fifth c r an i a l n er ve (C an a l is

n e r vi t r ige m i n i ) .

The b o d y o f the S ph e no i d b o n e is fl a tte n ed d or s o -ve n t r a l ly Th e sell a tu r ci c a .

i s sh a ll o w b ut the d o r sum s el l ee is wel l devel o ped a n d be ar s p o steri or cli n o i d

,

p r o c e s s e s A p a i r o f a nte r i or c l i n o i d pr o c e s s e s p r o j ect b a ck fr o m th e r oo ts of th e
.

or
bi t a l wi ng s Th e l a tte r ar e r el a ti vely s m a l l a n d ar e c r o ssed extern a ll y by a
.

c r est w h i ch is c o n ti n ued f or w ar d up o n th e p a l a te b o n e Th e te m p or a l wi n gs a r e
,
.

exte nsive a nd ar ti cul a te a b o ve wi th the p ar i et a ls P e r f or a ti n g t h e r oo ts of th e .

wi n gs a re th e f ol l o wi ng fo r a mi na n a m ed f rom bef or e b a ckw a r d : The o pti c p a sses ,

th r o ugh the or bi t a l wi n g The f or a m e n l a ce r u m or bit a l e is a li ttl e l o wer an d is .

a t the j u n cti o n o f the wi n gs The f or a m e n r o t u nd u m o pe n s i n t o the a l ar c a n a l .

,
whi ch p a sses th r o ugh th e r oo t of the sh or t but wide pte r yg o i d p r o cess Th e .
1 58 S K E L E T ON or T HE D OG

c a vity Th e p oste r i or p a l ati n e a n d sph e n o p a l a ti n e f or a m i na a r e situ a ted fu r the r

.
-

b a c k an d a little l o we r ; the f orm e r i s i mm edi a tely b el o w t h e l a tte r A h o r i z o n t a l .

pl a te exte n ds f rom the i n ne r su r f a ce meet s th a t of th e o pp o site b o n e a n d com ,

pl etes the l a m i n a t r an sve r s a lis sp o ke n o f i n the d esc r ipti on o f the eth m o id b on e .

The r e is n o p a l a ti n e si n us .

The pteryg o i d b on e s a r e ve r y wide a n d sh o rt They f o r m a c o n side r a bl e p a r t .

o f the l a te ra l b o u n d a r i es o f the p o ste r i o r n a r es The l o we r a n d p oste r i or b o r de r s .

a r e f r ee a nd at th ei r a n gle o f j u n cti o n the r e is a v a r i a b le h a

m ulus .

The n a s al b one s ar e (i n m ost b r eeds ) l o n g a nd wide r i n fr on t th a n behi nd .

The exte r n a l su r f a ce i s v a r i a bly c on c a ve i n i t s le n gt h an d is i n cli n ed t o w a r d th e

m ed i an sutu r e s o as t o f or m a ce n t ra l gro o ve The i nn e r b o r de r s tu rn d o wn w a r d .

a nd f or m a n i n te r n a l n a s a l c r est whi ch bec o m es ve r y p r o mi n e n t b ehi n d Th e pos .

t er i o r p a r ts fit i n t o a n o t ch f o rm ed by the f ro n t a l b o n es Th e a nte ri o r e n ds fo rm .

a n a lm o st semi ci r cul ar n a s a l n o tch .

The l a c ri m a l b on e is ve r y s m a ll Th e f a ci a l p ar t exte n ds ve r y little or n ot .

a t a l l b ey on d the or bit a l m ar gi n The o r b it a l su r fa ce i s s m a l l and t r i an gul a r . ,

a n d p r ese n ts th e e n t r a n ce t o th e l acri

ma l c a n a l .

The l a rge zygom a ti c p r o cess c on

s ti t u t es the b ul k o f the m al ar b on e .

I t i s ve r y l o n g a n d i s st r o n gl y cu r ved .

The uppe r b o r de r i s c on vex f r ee i n ,

f ro n t whe r e i t f o rm s p a r t o f the or bi t a l ,

m a r gi n beveled behi n d for a r ti cu l a t i on ,

wi th th e si m i l a r p r o cess o f the te m p or a l
b on e B etwee n t hese i t b e a r s an em i .

n e n c e th e p r o cessus f ro n t a l is t o whi ch , ,

th e o r b it a l li g a m e n t i s a tt a ched Th e .

b od y of th e b on e m a y be c o n side r ed to
C o n sist Of a l a c ri m a l p r o c e s s d i r eCte l
F ro 1 25
. . o D R H T AN T R OR V
r W oc , IG E F I IE .

R ig h t
a , m ; I l ft m ; ra b dy ; 1
us lv l
) ,
upw a r d an d fitti n g i n betwee n the l ac “
e ra us c, o ( , a eo a r

b d or ; er p e, g l i ; dyl ; g
r o c es s u s an i d m al a n d m a xi ll a a n d a m axil l ary pr o
u ar s con e , c o ro n o
, ,

p ; h m
ro c e s s t f ,; k t w h h f m th
as s e e r i c os s a
c e s s di r ected d o w n w a r d
1 , , c r es s
The f a ci a l
i c or e

u pp d l
er a n b d f f
ow er : I m d b l
ou n f
a ri es o o ssa , an i u ar o ra
.

r nc n ; m m t l f m i ; m t i li ;
en a o ra i g m i d su r f a ce i s c o n vex
na n ass e er c ne 0 s o

B mA td H d )
.
, , ,

no ct h (E ll b g
. en er e r- au ,
T h e s up e ri or tu rb mal b o n e is i n i ts
na . . un es .

a n te r i o r p a r t a si m pl e pl a te a tt a ched ,

by o n e edge t o th e n a s a l b o n e ; i t cu r ves d o w n w a r d a n d i n w a rd a n d its f r ee b o r de r ,

i s thi cke n ed a nd eve r ted Th e p oste r i o r p ar t is wide r a n d r esembl es the eth m o .

tu rbi n a ls wi t h wh i ch i t i s c o n n e cted
,
.

The inf e r i or tu rb i n al b on e is sh o r t an d ve r y c o mplex I t i s a tt a ched to th e .

na s a l su r f a ce o f the m a xi ll a by a b a s a l l a mi n a wh i ch divides i n t o t w o sec on d a r y ,

l a mell ae Th e l a tte r det a ch n u m e r o us te r ti a r y l a m ell ae whi ch a re c o i led a nd h ave

.
,

thi ck f r ee edges (Fig .

The vo m e r is no t i n c on t a ct w ith the p o ste r i o r p a r t o f t h e fl o or o f the n as a l

c a vity a nd d o es no t divide the p os te r i o r n a r es Th e p o ste r i o r e n d i s n a rr o w a n d
, .

deeply no tched N e a r th e p o ste r i or n a r es t h e t w o pl at es cu r ve o utw a r d a n d j o i n

.

the p a l ate b o nes a n d a s sist i n f o r m i n g the l a m i n a t ra n sve rs a l is .

The t w o h a lves o f t h e m an d ib l e d o n o t fu s e c ompl et el y eve n i n ol d a ge The .

b o dy p r e s e nts six a lve o li fo r the i n ci s or teeth a n d tw o fo r t h e c a n i n es Th e i n cis o r .

a lve o l i i n c r e a se i n si ze f r o m fi r st t o thi r d Th e c an i n e a lve o l i exte n d d eeply d o wn .

w a r d a nd b a ckw a rd The r e a re u s u a ll y t w o o r m o r e fo r a mi n a o n th e me nt a l
.

su r f a ce T h e r a m i d i ve r ge l e s s th a n i n th e pi g Th e i n fe r i or b o r d e r of t h e h o r i
. .

z o nt a l p a r t i s c on vex i n its le ngt h a n d is thi ck a n d ro u n d ed Th e a lve o l a r b o r de r .

is sli ghtly c o n c a ve i n its le n gth a nd i s a little eve r ted especi a l ly i n its m iddle ; ,
 T HE S K U LL as A W HOL E 1 59

i t p rese n ts seve n a lve o l i for th e l o we r c h ee k teeth whi ch r ese m ble th o se o f the ,

uppe r ja w except t h a t th e f o u r th a n d sixth a re much s m a lle r a nd t h e fifth is like

the fo u r th o f the uppe r se r ies Th e i n te r a lve o l a r sp a ce is ve r y s h o r t o r eve n a bse nt
.
.

The r e a r e tw o or th r ee m e nt a l fo r am i n a o n eithe r s ide The ve r ti c a l p a rt is .

r el a tively s m a l l I ts exte r na l su r f a ce p r ese n ts a d eep m a s s e te ri c f o s s a whi ch

.

e n c r oa ches on the c o r o n o i d p r o cess a n d is limited by r id ges i n f ro n t a n d bel o w .

The i n te r na l su r f a ce is c o n vex a n d is m ar ked by th e usu al f or a m e n At a b o ut the .

s a m e level as th e l att e r is t h e r o u gh an gu l ar pr o c e s s (P r o cessus a ng ul ar is ) whi ch ,

p ro j ects b a ckw a r d f r om t he p oste r i o r b o r de r an d is equ iv a le n t t o the an gle of the

Th e c on dy le i s pl a ced ve ry l ow —n ot much hi ghe r th a n the apex
,

o th e r a n i m a ls .

of the c a n i n e t o o th wh e n th e b o n e i s r est i n g o n a fl a t su r f a ce I t i s l on g t r a ns .

v e r se l y a nd the i n n e r p ar t o f th e a r ti cul a r su r f a ce i s m u ch t h e w ide r a n d exte n ds

o ve r the p o ste r i or su r f a ce I ts l on g a xi s is a l itt le o b liq ue t he i nn e r en d bei n g

.
,

i n cli n ed s o mewh a t d o wn w a r d a n d f o r w ar d Th e c or o n o id p ro cess i s ve ry exte n

.

sive an d is be n t slightl y o utw a rd a nd b a ckw a r d .

The b o dy of th e hy o i d b o n e is a sl i ghtly cu r ved t r a n sve r se r o d ; it is c o mp r essed

fr om bef or e b a ckw ar d a n d be ar s n o li n gu a l p ro cess Th e thy ro id c orn u a a r e
, .

pe rm an e ntly a t t a ched to th e b o d y b y c ar ti l a ge ; th ey d ive r ge widely cu r ve i n w a rd , ,

a n d a r e c o mp r essed l a te r a lly The s m a ll c or n u a ar e sh o r t p r is m a ti c an d st r o ng

.
, , .

The mi ddle c orn u a a r e c o mm on ly a little l on ge r th a n th e gr e a t c orn u a ; they a re

c o mp r essed l a te r a lly a n d a r e sli ghtly e nl ar ged a t t h e e n ds wh i ch a r e j o i n ed by
, ,

c a r til a ge t o th e a dj a ce n t c orn u a Th e g r e a t c o rn u a a r e b e n t o utw ar d a n d ar e

.

s om ewh a t t w isted .

WHOLE THE SKULL AS A

The di ffe r e n t b r eeds of d o g d ispl a y g re a t v a r i a ti on s i n th e f o r m a n d si ze of
the s kull Th ose whi ch h a ve a l on g n a rr o w skull (e g g reyh o u n d c o llie ) a re
. . .
, ,

desi gna ted d o l i c h o c eph al i c Oth e r d o gs (6 g bulld o g s m a l l sp ani els pu gs ) h a ve

. . .
, , ,

ve r y b r oa d sh or t sku lls a n d a r e te r med b ra ch y c ep h al i c I nte r medi ate fo rm s

,
.

(6 g fox te rr ie r d a chsh u n d ) a r e m e s ati c eph al i c

. .
, ,
.

Th e leng t h i s u s u a ll y meas ur ed f r om th e oc c i p i t al c res t to th e a n t er i o r end of th e pre ma fi l

l ary s u t ur e a nd th e b rea d t h b e t w een t h e s u mmi t s o f t h e z y go m a ti c ar c h es T h e ce ph a h c i n d ex .

i s t h e r el a ti o n of t h e b r ea d t h t o t h e l eng t h as s u mi n g t h e l a tt er e q
,

,
u a l 1 00 ; th e f o rm ul a i s :
b r ea d th X 1 00
l en g t h
e v en l ess as i n th e g rey h o u nd a nd t h a t o f b ra c h y c e p h a li c s p ec i m en s m ay b e as hi gh a s 90 a s i n
, , ,

t h e b u l l d o g a n d p u gs A m on g th e m es a ti c e p h al i c t y p es a r e t h e fo x t err i er wi t h a n i n d ex o f a b ou t
. ,

7 0 a nd t h e w hi t e P o m er a ni a n w i t h o n e a b o u t 7 2 t o 75
, ,
T h e cra n i o f a c i a l i n d ex 1 8 th e r e l a t i o n
.
-

of t h e di s t a nc e f r o m th e o cc i p it a l c r es t t o t h e f ro n t o n a s a l s u t u r e to t h a t b et w een t h e l a tter a nd
-

th e n as a l n o t c h I t v a ri es f r o m 1 0 3 i n ex t r em e b r a c h y c e p h a il c b r eed s to 1 0 7 i n ex t re me
.

d o li c h o c e p h a li c s u b j e c ts .

Th e su pe ri or s u rfa c e sh o ws t he w i de o utw a r d cu r ve of th e zygom a ti c a r ches ,

a n d the gr e a t e xte n t of the te m p o r a l f o ss ae Th e l att e r a r e sep ar a ted by t h e s a gitt a l

.

c r est wh i ch i n the l a r ge r b r eeds i s v er v st ro n g an d p r o mi n e nt a n d is c o n ti n ued by

, ,

the di ve r gi n g f r on t a l r id ges t o the sup r aor b it a l p ro cesses The f ro nt a l a n d n a s a l .

r egi o n s a r e ce n t ra ll y dep r essed a n d a r e m or e o r l ess c o n c a v e i n p r o file

,
The n as a l .

r e g i on is n a rr o w a n d i s te r m i n a ted i n f ron t by a n a s a l n ot ch I n t h e e xt r e m e .

b r a ch yceph a li c b r eeds the di ffe r e n ces a r e ve r y st ri k i n g Th e c ra n i um is st ron gly .

c on ve x i n b ot h di r e cti on s a nd is c on side r a bly l on ge r th a n the f a ce The s a gi t t al .

c rest is m or e o r less eff a ced a n d i s f orm ed by the i n te rp a r i et a l o n ly T h e p a riet o .

f ro n t a l c r ests a r e sep a ra ted b v a n i n te r v a l beh i n d an d d ive r ge to th e sup raor b i t al

p r o cesses so th a t t he te m p o ra l f oss ae a re wi del y sep a ra ted The f ro n t a l regio n
,
.

w i de st ro n gly c o n vex a n d h a s a sh a ll o w ce n t r a l cl e p ress ro n

, ,
The n a s a l r egi on .

ve r y sh or t r el atively w i de a n d ce nt r a lly dep r essed I n p r o file the r e i s a m a r ked

, ,
.
1 60 SK E L ET O N or T HE D OG

dep r essi o n a t the f ron t o — n a s a l j u n cti o n p ro d uci n g w h a t i s te r m ed by f a n cie r s the

,
”
sto p o f the f a ce .

On the l a ter a l s ur f a c e the g r e a t exte n t o f the te m p o r a l f o ss a i s see n The .

o r bi t c o mm u n i c a tes f r eely with the f o ss a the p o ste r i o r p a r t o f the o r bit a l m a r gi n

,

bei n g a bse n t i n the d ry skul l The ax is o f th e or bi t a l c a vity f o rm s a m u ch s m a lle r

.

a n gle wit h th e m ed i a n pl a n e th a n i n the h o r se a n d o x A disti n ct c r est m a r ks the l i m i t

.

be twee n the o r bit a l c a vity p r o pe r a n d the exte n sive p te ryg o p a l a ti n e f oss a The -
.

p r e o r bit a l r egi on is s o m ewh a t t r i a n gul a r c o n c a ve i n its le n gth a n d c on vex f r om

, ,

a b o ve d o w n w a r d T h e i n f r ao r bit a l f o r a m e n is o n i ts l o we r p a r t a b o ve the thi r d

.

c hee k t oo t h I n ext re m e b r a chyceph a li c b r eeds the o r bit i s r el a tively ve r y l ar ge

a nd the p r e o r bi t a l r e gi o n

ext r emely sh or t b ut h igh .

I n the bul ld o g th e l o we r
jaw p r o t r ud es b eyo n d the
uppe r—a c o n d it i on kn o w n
as p r o g na th i sm The op .

pos i te c o n d i ti o n b r a chy ,

g n ath i sm is see n i n the ,

d a chsh u nd .

S t r i ki n g fe a tu r es on
the b as al s u rfa c e o f the
c r an i um a r e th e width an d
fl a t n ess o f th e b as i o c c i pi
t a l the s m a l l si ze o f the ,

p a r a m a st o i d p r o cesses the ,

l a r ge si ze a n d r o u n ded
sh a pe of th e b ull a o sse a ,

a n d the g r oo ved f o rm o f

the a r ti cul a r su r f a ces for

the m an di bl e Th e p os .

t eri o r n a r es ar e l o n g a n d
n a r ro w a n d a r e n o t divided

by the v o m e r The h ar d .

p a l a te is usu a l ly a b o ut h a lf
th e le ngth of the skull I t .

is co mm o nl y m a r k ed by a
m edi a n c r est o r r o ugh l i n e ,

a n d o n e a ch side a re th e

a n te r i or an d a ccess o r y

p a l a ti n e f o r a m i n a a n d th e
p a l a ti n e g r o o ves The .

F ro .1 26 —S K U LL
.
B AC H Y C P HAL C DO D O AL V W W T H OU T W idth is g re a test betwee n
or R E I G, RS l E I
MAN D B L I E .
the f o u r th p a i r o f chee k
teeth a n d h e r e th e r e is i n ,

mo st s kulls a p ro n o u n c ed d e pressi o n o n eithe r side The le n gt h w idth and .

, ,

c o nt o u r v a r y g re a tly i n d i ffe r e n t b r eeds .

Th e a n gl e o f d ive r ge n ce o f t he ra m i o f the m a n d ibl e v a r i es f r o m 2 5 to 30

d eg r ees ; i t i s s m a lle s t i n th e g r eyh o u n d l ar gest i n ext r e m e b ra c h v cep h a l i c types
, ,
(3 g
. bulld o g pu g
.
, , .

The p o st e ri or or n u ch a l su rf a c e is s om ewh a t t r i an gul a r w i th th e b ase bel o w

.

, .

The su m m i t is f o r m ed by the o ccipit a l c rest w hi ch p r oj ects ve r y st ro n gly b a ckw a rd

,

i n t h e l a r ge b r eeds B el o w i t the r e a re tw o ve r y d isti n ct r ou gh i m p r i n ts fo r

.

m uscul ar a tt a ch m e nt I n s o m e skulls th e r e i s a thi n m edi a n c r est i n o the r s a

.

r o u n ded elev a ti o n L a te r al ly a re the te m p o r a l c r ests a n d the m a st o i d p r o cesses

.
.
1 62 S KE L E T O N or T HE D OG

B ONE S OF THORACI C L I MB

Th e cl a vi cl e is a s m a ll thi n i rr egul a r ly t r i a n gul a r b o n y or c ar ti l a gi n o us pl a te , ,

-
.

I t is e m bedded i n the m a st o id e h u m e ra l i s m uscle i n f r o n t o f the sh o ulde r j o i n t - -

a n d fo r m s n o a r ti cul a ti o n wi th th e r est o f the skelet o n (I t is n e arly an i n ch l o n g .

i n a l a r ge ca t a n d is a sl e n de r cu r ved r o d ) .

Th e s c apu l a is r el a tively l on g a n d n a rr o w The spi n e i n c r e a ses g ra du a lly .

i n height f ro m a b o ve d o w n w a r d a n d d ivides the exte r n a l su r f a ce i n t o t w o n e a r ly

eq u a l f o ss ae I ts f r ee edge is thi ck a n d r o u gh a b o ve an d a t the l o we r p ar t is thi n
.
,

a nd be n t b a ckw a r d Th e a c ro mi o n is sh o r t a n d blu n t a nd is o pp osite the r i m o f

.

the gle no i d c a vity The subsc a pul ar fo ss a i s ve ry sh a ll o w and i s m a r ked by r o ugh

.

li n es Th e r o ugh a r e a a b o ve i t for the a tt a ch m e n t of the se rr atus m a gn us is l ar ge

.

a n d q u a d r il a te r a l i n f r o n t n a r r o w a nd m a r gi n a l b eh i n d The a n te r i o r b o rde r is
,
.

thi n st r o n gly c on vex an d si n u o us Th e p o ste r i or b o r de r is st r a i ght a nd th i ck

, ,
. .

The ve r teb ra l b or de r is c o n vex a n d thi ck a n d be a r s a b a n d o f c a r ti l a ge Th e .

ce r vi c a l an gle i s ro u n ded Th e d o r s a l an gle is thi ck an d squ ar e Th e n e ck is wel l . .

d efi n ed a n d be ar s a ro u gh e m i n e n ce p oste r i or ly The gle n o id c a vity is c on ti n ued .

Fi c . 1 28 .
—R | G HT S CA PU LA or Do c , E X T R NAL V w E i E . FI G . 1 29 .
—L E F T
CA PU LA Do C O TAL S U FA C
S or c , S R E .

a ,pi n u fSu ; p
b ras o s oss a , i f pi n r asf ; n ou s os s a a S b
,
p l f u ;scab b b m u arl li ; o ss a , , , uscu a r n es

c, spi n ; d e pp b d e nd f , u er ro a o spi ; nemi ; 6, a c ro on c. c, li miti g li b tw

n b c p l
ne f e d ee n s u s a u ar o ss a a n s e r ra

f g l e n id v it y ; 0 t b it y ;
o ca u e ro s h v t b l b der e ; ra or er tus a re a; d gl id v it y ; f t b it y ; g t i
e no ca e. u e r os nu r

B m A t l Hu d )
, , , , . ,

i p t ios ng l ;
er or k p l a e sca u ar no c t h (E ll b g en er er e nt f m
o ra (E ll b g
en en er e r- au na ( n es .

B
. , . . , . .

au m A na t d H nd s )
, . . u e .

fo r w ar d up o n the l o we r f a ce o f the sc a pul a r tube r osity wh i ch i s bl u n t a nd b e a r s ,

n o d isti n ct c o r a c o id p r o cess Th e r e is a r o ugh emi n e n ce o n the p oste r i or su r f a ce .

o f the n e ck f r o m wh i ch the l o n g he a d o f the t r i ceps a r ises

,
Th e ce r vi c a l a n gle is .

o pp o si te the fi rst th o r a ci c spi n e th e d o r s a l a n gle lies a b o ve t he ve r teb ra l e n d o f ,

t h e f o u r th r i b a n d the a r ti cul a r a n gle a t a p o i n t j ust i n f r o n t o f th e ste rn a l e n d

,

o f the fi r st r i b i n the o r d i n a r y st a n d i n g p o siti o n Th e sh o ulde r h as a g r e a t ra n ge .

o f m o ve m e n t o n the ch est w a ll .

The h um e r u s is r el a tively ve r y l o n g r a th e r sle n de r a n d h as a slight spi r a l , ,

t wist The sh a ft i s s o mewh a t c o m p r es s ed l a te ra lly espe ci a lly i n i ts u ppe r tw o

.
,

t hi r ds ; this p ar t i s cu r ved i n v ar yi n g deg r ee c on vex i n f r on t Th e delt o id tube r , .

o s i ty h as th e f o r m o f a l o w r idge a n d i t is c o n ti n u ed by a c r est wh i ch r u n s u pw a r d ,

a n d b a ckw a r d a nd be a r s a tube r cle o n i ts uppe r p a r t A n o th e r l i n e r u n s f r o m it .

d o w n the a n te r i o r a spect a n d f orm s the i nn e r b o u n d a r y o f t h e ve r y sh a l l o w mu scu l o

spi r a l g r oo ve Th e n ut r i e n t f o ra m e n i s a b o u t i n t h e m iddl e o f th e p oste r i or
.

s u r f a ce A slight el ev a t i o n o n th e p r o xi m a l th i r d o f the i n n e r su r f a ce r ep r ese nts

.

the te r es tu be r cl e Th e h e a d is l on g a n d st ro n gly cu r ve d f r o m b ef o r e b a ckw a r d

. .
 B ON ES OF T HE T H OR A C I C L I M B 1 63

Th e n e ck i s b ette r m a r ked th an i n th e h or se The u n di vided exte r n a l t ube r o sity .

i s pl a ced well f o rw ar d an d exte n ds littl e a b o ve the leve l of the he ad Th e i n te rn a l

tub e r o si ty is S ma ll
.

The bi cipit a l gr o ove is u n di vided a n d is d ispl a ced t o t h e i nn e r

.

sid e by the ext e n si o n f or w ar d o f the ext e rn a l t ube r osity The d ist a l end be a rs .

a n o bli qu e t r o chl e a r a r ti cul a r su r f a ce fo r a rti cul a t i o n wi th t h e r a dius a n d ul n a ,

th e o ute r p a rt of whi ch is the m or e ext e n sive a n d is f a i ntly gro o ved The epi .

c on dyles a r e p r o m i n e n t Th e c o r on o id an d Olec r an on foss m o fte n c o m mu ni c a te

.

th r o ugh a l a r ge s upr atr o chl ear f oram en .

The tw o b o n es o f the f or e a r m a r e r el a t ively l on g a n d a r ti cul a te with e a ch

o the r a t eith e r e n d i n su ch a m ann e r as to a l l o w o f sli ght m o ve m e n t A n a rro w .

i n te r o sse o us sp a ce sep a r a tes th ei r S h a fts The r adi u s i s fl a tte n ed f r om befor e .

b a ckw ar d an d i n c r e a ses i n S i ze fro m a b o ve d o wn w a r d The sh a ft f or m s tw o .

cu r ves ; o n e o f these an an te r i or c o n ve xity i nv o lves th e W h o l e S h a ft ; t h e o the r

, , ,

FI G . 1 30 .
—L
H UM E R U S O E rT F D OG X T NAL
E ER Fro . l 31 .
—L Err AD U R U I S D xx x
) A Lx x or oc x T E no

H d ; b e k;
a , ea ,
n c c, c re s t; 1 ( t, l t b
e x e rna u er
X T NAL E “ ER 15

osi ty ; ma k f
e, i e ti n r or ns r o of i f pi t t d
n r as na us en on; A. R di
a ; B
us l ; g , v f t d
u na a f , ro o e or en on o

f, ext e n l nd y l ; 0 e t e
r a co e , x r na l d y l id
con t;
o c r es h. ex t e ns o r car p i d i li : b g v f
ra a s mm
, ro o t e or co on ex e n

cor o no i d f ss ; i Ol c a n o a e r on f oss a(E l l b g en er er sor t d n en o ; p i m l ti l

c. ro x af arf di ;
cu ar s u r ace o ra us

B m A t d H nd es )
.
,

au ,
na . . u . d , l n
o ec r a no ; b e,k (p ea ) f
ro c l ; f
. a nc o ne u s o u na ,

se mi l a n u n r o t h; c 9 id p
. ; h
c o ro n o f t f ro c es s , ace or

ra di ; us 1 2 g
,
v f l t l t
ro o e or t
a e ra d : k ex e ns o r en on ,

g ro o v fo ne r t de f t
on o p i b li q
e x e ns o r c a r (E ll o u us en

B
.

b e rg e r - au m A t d H
, na d. ) . un es .

an i nn e r c on vexity a fl ect s the uppe r p ar t The an te r i or su r f a ce i s c on vex i n b o t h

,
.

di r ecti on s an d is m ar ked by a gro o ve fo r th e o bl i que exte n s or of the c a r pus The .

p o ste r i o r su r f a ce p r ese nts th e n ut r ie n t f o r a m en i n its uppe r t h i r d an d be a rs a ,

ro ugh li n e (C r ist a in te r o sse a ) exte r n a lly for t he a tt a ch m e n t of th e i nte ro sse o us

li g a me n t Th e p r ox i m a l en d (C a pitu l um r a di i ) is r el a tively s m a l l a n d is supp o rted

.

by a disti n ct n e ck (C o l lum ra di i ) I t be a r s a c on c a ve su r f a ce (F o ve a c a p i tu l i ) .

a b o ve fo r a r ti cul a ti o n w i th the h um e r us a n d a c o n vex m a r gi n a l a r e a (C i r cu

m fe r ,

e nt i a a rtic ul a r is ) beh i n d for th e u l n a Th e b i ci pit a l tube ro sity is sm a l l The r e .

.

i s a l arge ext e rn a l tub e r o sity an d b el o w this a r o ugh e m i n e n ce The dist a l ex .

t em t y
r i i s m u ch w i de r I t h a s a n exte n sive c o n c a ve c a r p a.l a r ti cu l a r su r f a ce .

I ts i nn e r b o r de r p r o j e cts d o w n w a r d f o r m i n g t he s tyl o i d p ro c e s s o f t he ra dius ,

.

E xt ern a lly th e r e is a c on c a ve f a cet (I n cisu r a ul n a r is r a dii ) fo r the ul n a I n f r on t .

a r e th r ee disti n ct g r oo ves fo r the ext e n s o r t e n d on s The uln a i s well d evel o ped . ,

1 64 S K E LE T O N OF T HE D OG

but d i m i n ishes i n siz e f ro m a b o ve d o w n w a r d I t c ro sses the p o ste r i or su r f a ce of .

the r a di us f ro m withi n o utw a r d Th e sh a ft i s l a r ge a n d th r ee S ided i n its uppe r -

tw o —
.

thi rds sm a lle r a n d m o r e ro u n ded bel o w I ts a n te r i o r su r f a ce is i n ge n e r a l

,
.

r o ugh The n ut r i e n t f o r a m e n is n e ar the p r o xi m a l en d

.
A v a s cul a r gr oo ve .

desce n ds f ro m it a n d i ndi c a tes the c o u rse of the i nte rosse o us a r te r y Th e p r o xi m a l .

e n d i s r el a tively sh ort I t i s c o n c a ve a n d s m oo th i n te r n a lly c o n vex a n d ro ugh ex

.
,

te rn a l l y The Ol ec r an o n i s g r o o ved a n d be a r s th r ee p r om i n e n ces o f whi ch th e p os

.
,

ter i o r o n e is l a r ge a n d r o u n ded The se m i lu n a r n o t ch is wid e bel o w an d c o mpletes .

the su rf a ce fo r a r ti cul a ti o n with the t ro chle a o f the hume r us B el o w i t is a c o n c a ve .

su rf a ce (I n cisu r a ra d i a lis ) whi ch ar t i cul a tes w i th the b a ck o f th e h e a d of the r a d ius ,

a n d bel o w th is i s a f o ss a whi ch r e ceives a tube r o sity o f th e r a dius ,

The dist a l .

e nd (C a pitulu m ul nae ) is s m a l l a n d is p r o du ced t o a b lu n t p o i n t (P r o cessus sty

l o id e u s ul n ae ) I t a r ti cul a tes wi th th e ul n a r c a r p a l .

bel o w an d h a s a c on vex f a cet o n i ts a n te r o i n te r n a l ,

-

a spe ct for th e r a di us .

The c arpu s c o mp r ises seve n b on es th r ee i n ,

th e p r ox i m a l r ow an d f o u r i n th e dist a l The .

n u m e r i c a l r edu cti o n i n th e uppe r r o w is a pp a r

e n tly d ue to t h e fusi o n o f the r a di a l a n d i n te r
m edi a te c on sti tuti n g a l a r ge b o n e whi ch a rt i c u ,

l a tes with a l m o st a l l o f th e d ist a l su r f a ce Of th e

ra di us a n d with the b o n es of the l o we r row It .

p r oj e cts p r om i n e n tly o n th e p oste r i or su r f a ce of

the c a r pus Th e u l n a r c a r p a l is l o n g ; i t a r ti c u .

l a tes with the ra di us an d ul na ab o ve a n d th e a cces

s or y beh i n d ; b el o w i t r ests o n the f o u r th c a r p a l an d
is p r o l o n ged d ow n w a r d t o ar ti cul a te with the fi ft h
m et a c a r p a l a ls o The a c cess or y is cyl i n d r i c a l con .
,

s tr i c te d i n i ts mi dd le a n d e n l a r ged a t e a ch en d ; th e

a n te r i o r e x t r e m ity a r ti cul a tes w ith th e u l n a a nd

ul n a r c ar p a l b on e Th e fi r st c ar p a l is th e sm a llest .

b o n e o f the l o we r row ; i t a rti cul a tes with the sec on d

c ar p a l exte r n a l ly a n d th e fi rst m et a c a rp a l dist a lly
The sec o n d c a r p a l is wedge —
.

F IG pm pm op AL sh a ped th e b a se b ei n g
L I M B O DO
,
.

T HO M
“ 0
p oste r i o r ; its uppe r su r f a ce is c o nvex a nd its l o we r
CIC F G'

E XT NAL V W ,
ER I E
i s c o n c a ve a d r ests o n the ec o n d met a c a r p a l The
.

4 R di l i t m di t
a a n er n e s
a e cap
.

I " ess or y th i r d c a r p a l i s s om ewh a t l i ke th e sec on d ; i ts l owe r

,

p 1 b8 ; 5 o ne p l, 6 , “ n, car a , a cc

"
car p l; 7 a d p l ; 8 th i d
. s ec o n
su r f a ce is c o n c a ve a nd a r ti cu l a tes ch iefl y wi th the
car a . r car

” 9 { mm
a p l: 0 fi “ w ca r a
'

th i r d m et a c a rp a l The fo u r th c ar p a l is th e l a r gest
r

p l ; 1 5 fi t ph l ;
'

f ft h m t
.

i e aca r a s , rs a a nx

16 . d ph l
seco n : 1 7 t h i d ph l a a nx o f the r o w ; i t a r ti cu l a tes with th e f o u r th a nd fifth
,
r a a nx .

“W “ L i fi g A tl l
'
e e se n
m et a c ar p a ls bel o w
s as -
Tw o sm al l b on es o r c ar til a ges .

m ay b e f o u n d a t th e j u n cti o n o f th e tw o ro ws
beh i nd a nd a thi rd sm a ll b one ar ti cul a tes wi th th e i nn e r side of the r ad i o
,

i n te r m ed i a te ‘
.

Five m e ta c arpa l b o n e s a r e p r ese nt The fi rst is mu ch th e sh or test ; the t h i r d .

a n d f o u r th a r e th e l o n gest an d a r e a b o ut o n e fift h l o n ge r th a n th e sec on d a n d fifth -

, .

The fifth i s the widest a t th e p r oxi m a l e n d a n d i s S l i ghtly sh o r te r t h an th e sec ond .

They a re cl o s e t o gethe r ab o ve b ut dive r ge s o m ewh a t bel o w ; th e fi rst is sep ara ted ,

f r o m th e sec o n d by a c on side r a ble i n te r osse o us sp a ce They a r e s o a rra n ged a s t o .

f or m a c o n vex d o rs a l su r f a ce a n d a c o n c a ve v o l a r su rf a ce wh i ch c o rr esp on ds t o , ,

t h e h o ll o w o f the p a l m o f th e h a n d i n m a n E a ch c o n sists o f a sh a ft a n d t w o ext rem i .

ti es Th e sh a f t is c o m p res s ed f rom bef o r e b a ckw ar d I n th e th i r d an d f o u r th i t

.
.

T h i s t h i r d b o n e w as t e r med th e p h aco i d i n th e ca t b y S t ra u ss -D u rc k e i m , a nd is r eg a rd ed by
so me a u t h o rs as t h e v es t i e o f a n a d d i ti o n a l d i i t t h e p re p o l l e x
g g , .
1 66 S KE L E T O N OF T HE D OG

a ls o di ve rge be h i nd a nd tube ra a r e fl a tte n ed and eve r ted Th e supe r i o r

th e .

ischi a ti c spi n e is l o w a nd th ick ; i ts p o ste r i o r p a r t is m a r ked by t r a n sve r se g r oo ves

F ro . 1 34 .
—O A SS Co x A nU M or D OG , LE V W FT P OS T E R I OR I E .

C t; b i t
(1 .
l g l ; d g t i ti t
re s . c, n e rna an e ,
re a sc a c no c h; 1 e. t . l g l ; 9 p t i g l t l li ne ; h g l t l
e x e rn a an e , os e r o r u ea . u ea

f f w i g ; 5 h ft f ili m ; k
os s a o n t i g l t l li
1 , s a o u , a n er or u ea ne ; I , i l f ; m ili p ti l li n ; d p i
au r cu a r su r ace , o- ec ne a e n. e res s o n

f ri g i
or o f t fm i ;
n o r ect b l m; p us t b l e or s o . a ce a u u , a ce a u ar, a n d q y m ph y .lb s h f p bi : p t b cl ;
sea r a nc o u s r, so as u er e

s bt o t f m ;
ur a o r bt to ra t h ; t li f en s
’
o u ra o r no c ne or o ri g i f
n o yg cocc
; p ri i h i ti pi e ;eu s t l u su e or sc a c s n e x erna

B m A t d H d )
, , , ,

b d or f i h i m; w t b
er o i hi i ; i h i l h (E ll
sc u . u er sc z , sc a a rc . en b g
er e r- au , na . . un es .

F ro . 1 35 —a FE MO R or AN T O V w
DOG , E RI R i E . Fm . l 36 .
—L
A N D F I BU LA OF D OG AN r nno
FZFT
‘
T rs rA .
'

H a e ad ; b ne c k; 0 t h t m j ; d t
ro c a n er a or ro X T R NAL V’ E W E E

fi b l ; e t e n l c nd y l f
, , , ,

c h t mi
an er nor ; 6 , rud im en art y t h t t ti ; ro c an er er us A T ib i ; B , a , u a a , x r a o e o

f g h li t r oc h e a l h i d yl ; k p ti b i ; b pi ; t f ti b i ; d m l no t ch
—
ro u ne ; a, ; co n es su ra a s ne 0 c re s o a u sc u a r

B m A t d H d )
, , , , , . ,

p t ll f
a e ar os s a (E ll e n b e rg e r au na un es 0 i n t n l m ll l : I h d f fi b l ; g i nt
er a a eo u s us ea o u a e ro s s e o

p ; I e te l m ll o l (d i s t l e nd o f fi b u l ) ; i
. . . .
, . . ,

s ace t. x rna a e us a a

t e nd o n (E ll e nb e g B m A n t d
,

g v f
ro o e or . r e r- au , a . .

H u nd e ) s .

a nd p r o m i n e n t o ute r lip The r e i s

h as a . no lesse r sci a ti c no tch . The ischi a l ar ch
i s r el a tively s ma l l a nd is se m i elli pti c a l -
.
 B ON E S OF T HE PELVI C LIM B 1 67

The sy m physe a l p a r t o f the pub i s is thi ck a n d fuses l a te with the o pp o site b o n e .

The r e is no subpubi c g roo ve .

The a c e ta bul um is a b o ut twi ce a s fa r fr om the exte r n a l a ngle Of th e i liu m as

f r om the tube r ischii The f o ss a a cet a buli is d eep a n d is b o u n ded i nte r na lly by a
.

fl a t pl a te of b o n e ; its fl oo r is so th i n a s t o be t r a n sl u ce n t The re is a s m a ll n o tch .

b ehi n d .

The obtur a tor f or a m e n r ese m bles i n o utli n e a n eq u il ate ra l t r i a n gle with the
a n gles r o u n ded Off .

The i nl et o f the p e lvi s is ve r y o bli que I t is a l m o st ci r cul a r i n the fe ma le .

b ut i n the m a le i t is ellipti c a l a n d the c o n

j ug a te d i am ete r is the l on ge r The c a vity is .

n a rr o west betwee n the a cet a b ul a an d ve ry ,

w i de behi n d The fl oo r i s c on c a ve a n d r el a
.

ti v e l y n ar ro w i n f r o n t wide a n d fl a t beh i n d
, .

The f em u r is r el a ti vely m u ch l on ge r t h a n
i n the h o r se o r o x The sh a ft is r egu l ar ly
.

cyli n d r i c a l except n e a r th e ext r e m it ies whe r e

, ,

i t is wi de r an d c om p r essed f r om bef or e b a ck
w ar d I t is st r on gly cu r ved i n its l o we r tw o
.

thi r ds c o n vex i n f r on t The p o ste r i or su rf a ce

,
.

is fl a tte n ed t r a n sve r sely n a rr o w i n th e m iddle , ,

a n d wi de n s t o w a r d e a ch e n d I t is b o u n d ed .

b y tw o r o ugh l i n es (L ab iu m l a te r a le m edi a le ) ,

wh i ch dive r ge t o w a r d the ext r e m it ies Th e .

t hi r d t r o ch an t e r a n d the pl a n t a r (s u p ra c o nd y
l o id ) fo ss a ar e a bse n t The r e a r e t w o sup r a
.

c on dyl oi d c r ests the i n n e r o n e b ei n g s m a ll

,
.

The n ut r ie n t f or am e n is i n th e uppe r thi r d Of

th e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce Th e h e a d i s a l ittl e m or e
.

th a n a h e m isph e r e a n d h a s a sh a ll o w dep r essi on

behi n d an d exte r n a l t o its ce n te r The n eck is .

well defi n ed The t r o ch a n te r m aj o r d o es no t

.

13 —
e xte n d a s hi gh as t he he a d ; a th i ck r idge r u n s r S K L T ON D TAL P A T '
IG . 4 . E E or IS R or
f rom i t s a n te r i or su rf a ce t o t h e n eck The l n p m LL “ .
D Em m y “ V W u op oc , . IE .

t e r n a l t r o ch an te r h a s th e f or m o f a b lu n t tube r
"
T ibi l t l b : 7 fib l t l : a a rs a o ne . u ar a rs a

os y i t Th e t r o ch a n te r i c f o ss a is r o u n d a n d 3 t l t l : t m 1 0 thi d
' c e n ra a rs a a ' r

t l ; 1 1 f th t l ; 1 2 m t t l
.

a rs a our a rs a e a a rs a
deep The r1 d g e s o f th e t ro ch le a ar e pr a cti fi t ph l a T h fi t t l
, ,

.
b ; 13 o nes ,
rs a nx e rs a rs a

c a lly s ag itt a l i n d i r e cti on a n d ar e a l m ost S i m il ar b i t vi i b l i th fig (A ft

.
o ne s no s e n e u re er
'
L i ri g Ai l“ ) e se n s
Th e i n te r c on dyl o i d fo ss a is w ide J ust a b o ve .

e a ch c o n dyl e p oste r i o r ly the r e is a f a cet fo r

a r t i cul a ti o n wi th the ses a m o i d (o f V es a l ) whi ch is devel o ped i n the or igi n o f the
,

g a st ro c n e m i us m us cle .

The ti b i a is ab o ut the s a m e le n gth as the femur The sh a ft f or ms a d o uble .

cu r ve ; th e uppe r p a r t is c on vex i n te r n a lly the l o we r p a r t exte rn a lly The p r o xim a l

,
.

thi r d is p r is m a ti c b ut is c o mp r essed l a te ra lly a n d i s l on g f r om bef or e b a ckw a rd

,
.

The r em a i n d er i s a lm o st r egul ar l y cyli n d r i c a l The c r est is sh or t bu t ve ry p ro m i n e n t

. .

The n ut r ie n t f or a m e n is usu a lly i n th e uppe r thi r d of the ext e r n a l b or de r The .

tube r o sity is n ot gr o o ved b ut be ar s a d isti n ct m a r k whe r e the li ga m e n tu m pa te l l ze

,

is a tt a ched Th e r e is a sm a ll f a cet for the fibul a on the p oste r o e xte r n a l p a r t o f

.
-

t he e xte r n a l c on dyle an d a s m a l l ses a m o id b o n e i n the te n d on of o r i g i n o f the

,
.

p o pli teus i s i n c on t a ct wi th th e p o ste r i or a n gle o f the l a tte r The dist a l e n d is .

q u a d ra n gu l a r a n d r el a tively s m a ll The a r ti cu l a r gr oo ves a n d r idge a r e a l mo st

.

s a gitt a l .
The r e is a f a cet exte rn a l ly fo r a r ti cul a ti on w ith the fibul a T he r e is a .

v e r ti c a l gr oo ve i n te r n a l ly a n d a sh a ll o we r on e behi n d — b ot h fo r t e n d o
1 68 S KE L E T O N OF T HE D OG

The fi b u l a exte n ds th e e n ti r e le n gth o f the r e gi on I t is S le n de r s o m ewh a t .

,

twi sted a n d e n l a r ged a t ei the r end

,
The uppe r p a r t Of the sh a ft is sep a r a ted f r o m
.

the tibi a by a c onside r a ble i n te r osse o us S p a ce bu t the l o we r p ar t is fl a tte n ed and ,

cl o sely a ppl ied to the tibi a The p r o xi m a l en d is fl a tte n ed a nd a r ti cul a tes wi th

.

th e exte r n a l c o n dyle Of the tibi a The dist a l en d is s o mewh a t thi cke r an d f or ms

.

the exte r n a l m a lle o l us I t a r ti cul a tes i n te r n a lly wi th the tibi a a n d the tibi a l t a rs a l
.

b on e E xte rn a lly i t be ar s tw o tub e r cles

. .

The p a tel l a is l o n g a n d n a rro w Th e an te r i o r su rf a ce i s c on vex i n b o th d i r e c

.

ti ons The a r ti cu l ar su r f a ce is c on vex fr o m side to S ide an d S lightly c on c a ve fr o m

.

a b o ve d o w n w a r d .

The tar su s c o mp r ises seve n b on es The tibi a l t ar s a l c on sists of a b o dy n e ck

.
, ,

a n d he a d li ke the b on e i n m a n
,
Th e b o dy p r ese n ts a t ro chle a a b o ve fo r ar ti cul a
.

ti o n with the tibi a a n d fib ul a The p o ste r i o r su r f a ce h as th r ee f a cets fo r a r ticul a ti on

.

with the fib u l a r t ar s a l b on e The h e a d is d i r e cted a li ttle i n w a r d an d a r ti cul a tes

.

”
with the ce n t r a l Th e fib u l ar t a r s a l h as a l on g an te r i or p r o cess o r be a k but
.
,

the i nn e r p r o cess (suste n t a culu m ) is sh o r t Th e tube r c a l cis is g roo ved f r om .

bef or e b a ckw a rd The ce n t r a l h a s a c o n c a ve p r o xim a l su rf a ce a d a pted t o the he a d

.

o f the tibi a l t a r s a l I ts dist a l su r f a ce a r ti cu l a tes with the fi r st sec on d a n d thi r d

.
, ,

t ar s a ls I t be a r s tw o tube r cles p o ste r i o r l y Th e fi r st t ar s a l is fl a tte n ed an d i r

. .

r egul a r ly qu a d r a n gul a r ; i t a r ti cul a tes a b o ve w ith th e ce n t ra l a n d bel o w with th e

fi rst m et a t a r s a l Th e sec o n d t a r s a l is the sm a llest a n d is wedge S h a ped ; it ar ti cu

.
-

l a tes bel o w wi th th e sec on d m et a t a rs a l b on e The th i r d t a r s a l is a ls o wedge .

S h a ped the b a se bei n g i n f r o n t ; i t a r ti cu l a tes wi th the th i r d m et a t ar s a l bel o w

,
.

The fo u r th t ar s a l i s r e m ar k a bly h igh a n d r ese m b les a qu a d r an gul a r p r is m ; i t

,

a r ti cul a tes wi th th e fib u l a r t ar s a l a b o ve th e f o u r th an d fi fth met a t a r s a l bel o w an d

, ,

th e ce n t ra l and thi r d t ars a l b on es i n te r n a lly A gr o o ve fo r the te n d on of the pe ro

.

n eus l on gus c r osses its o u te r a n d p o st e r i or su r f a ce a n d a b o ve it a r e on e or t w o ,

tube r cles .

Five m e ta tar s al b on e s a r e p r ese n t The fi r st is c o m m on ly ve r y s m a l l an d h as

.

the f o r m o f a blu n t c on e s o mewh a t c om p r essed l a te r a lly I t a rti cu l a tes wi th the

, .

fi r st t a r s a l an d fu r n ishes i n se r ti o n to the tibi a lis an te r i or m uscle I n s ome c ases .

i t fuses with th e fi rst t a r s a l ; wh e n th e fi r st di git is well d evel o ped i ts met a t a rs a l ,

m a y r ese m ble the o th e r s (except i n S i ze ) o r b e r edu ced i n its p r o xi m a l p a r t to a

fib r o us b a n d The o th e r m et at a rs a ls a r e a li ttle l o n ge r th a n the c orresp on di n g
.

met a c a r p a ls Th ei r p r o xi m a l e n ds ar e el on g a ted f r om b ef or e b a ckw a r d a n d h a ve

.

p oste r i o r p r oj ecti o n s wh i ch i n th e c a se o f the th i r d a n d f o u r th usu a lly b e ar f a cets

,

fo r a r ti cul a ti on wi th t w o s m a ll r o u n ded ses a m o id b on es I n o the r r espe cts they .

r esemble the m et a c a r p a ls .

Th e fi r st digi t is Ofte n a bse n t Whe n p r ese n t its devel o p m e n t v a r ies a n d i t

.
,

c o n t a i n s on e o r t w o ph a l a n ges I n o the r c a ses the digit is d o uble The ph a l an ges

. .

o f the o th e r digits r ese mble t h ose o f the f or e li mb .

 1 70 T HE A R T I CU L A T I ON S on J OI N T S

DI AR THR OSE S

These j o i n ts a re ch a r a cte r i zed by the p r ese n ce o f a j o i n t c a vity a nd by thei r

m o bi lity Th ey a re o fte n c a l led m o v a bl e o r t r ue j o i n ts The st r u ctu r es whi ch
. .

e n te r i n t o thei r f or m a ti o n a re :
1 Th e j oi n t s u rf a c e s (F a cies a r ti cu l a r es ) wh i ch a re usu a lly m or e o r less ex
.
,

p a n d ed They a r e i n m ost c a ses s m o o th a nd v a ry mu ch i n f o r m Th e v a r e

.
,
.

f o r med of S pe ci a lly de n se b on e whi ch di ffe r s hist o l o gi c a lly fr o m o r di na r y c om p a ct ,

subst a n ce I n ce r t a i n c a ses (vi d e Oste ol o gy ) th e su r f a ce is i nte rr upted by n o n

.

a r ti cul a r c a vities k n o w n as syn ovi al f o s s ae .

2 The ar ti cu l ar c ar ti l a g e s (C a r ti l a gi n es a r ti cul a r es ) usu a l ly h y a l i n e i n type

.
, ,

f or m a c o ve r i n g o ve r the a r ti cu l a r su r f a ces o f th e b on es They v a r y i n th i ck n ess .

i n diff e r e n t j o i n ts ; they a r e thi ckest o n the a r e a s o f the g r e a test p r essu r e a n d ,

usu a lly te n d to a cce n tu a te the cu r v a tu r e of the b on e i e on a c o n c a ve su r f a ce ,

. .
,

the pe r iphe ra l p a r t is the thi ckest wh i le on a c on vex su r f a ce t he ce n t ra l p art is th e ,

thi ckest The a r ti cul a r c a r ti l a ges ar e n o n v a scul a r ve r y s m oo th an d h a ve a

.
-
, ,

bluish ti n ge i n the f r esh st ate They d i m i n ish the .

e ff e cts of c on cussi o n and gr e a tly r ed u ce f r i cti on .

3 The j oi n t c apsu l e (C a psul a a r ti cul a r is ) is i n .

,

its S i m plest f o r m a s a c t he m ar g i n s o f w hi ch a re , ,

a tt a ched a r o u n d th e a r ti cul a ti n g su r f a ces I t c on

sists of tw o l a ye r s —
.

a n exte rn a l o n e c om p o sed o f ,

fib r o us tissue (S t r a tu m fib r os u m ) a n d an i nt e r na l ,

o n e the s yn o vi a l l a ye r o r m e m b r an e (S t r a tu m s y n o,

vi a le ) The fib r o u s l a yer s o m eti m es te rm ed th e .

,

c a psul a r li g a m e n t is a tta ch ed eithe r cl o se t o the ,

m a r gi n s o f th e a r ti cul a r su r f a ces o r a t a v a r i a ble

dist a n ce f r om the m I ts th i c kness v ar ies g r e a tly i n .

d i ffe r e n t S itu a ti o n s : i n ce r t a i n pl a ces it is ext r emely

th i ck a nd s o m eti m es c ar ti l a ge or b o n e devel ops i n
B S — S E CT I ON O
,

F IG~ D f “ O u c k
i t ; i n o the r pl a ces i t is p r a cti c a lly a bse n t th e c ap
! F F
,
P'M H O A R S ‘S
n c o n si sti n g o n ly o f the sy n o vi a l me m b r a n e
'

sul e the
fl F b l y .

l
i y ro us
w l a er . s s no a
P a r ts o f the c a psule m a y u n d e r go t h i cke n i n g a n d so
. . .
,

l y f j i t p l Th
a er o o n ti l
ca su e . e ar cu ar

car til g
a w hi t
es a r e b d tt d d fo r m li ga m e n ts whi ch a r e n ot sep a r a ble ex cep t
e o n es o e an

k i ‘h fig re
. .

th j i ‘ “ m y b l
, ,
e o n
a r ti fi ci a lly f r o m the Test of the c a psule
ac n e u
Th e s yn o
‘

, .

vi a l l ay e r l i n es th e j o i n t c a vity except whe r e th is

i s b o u nded by the ar ti cu l a r c ar ti l a ges ; it st o ps n o r m a lly at the m a r gi n of th e l a tte r .

I t is a thi n m e m b r a n e a n d is r i chly suppli ed by cl o se n etw o r ks o f vessels a n d

,

n e r ves I t f r eq ue n tly f o r m s f o l d s (P li c ae syn o vi a les ) a n d vi ll i (Vi lli sy n o vi a les )

.

whi ch p r o j ect i n t o th e c a vi ty o f the j o i n t Th e f o lds c o mm o n ly c on t a i n p a ds o f .

f a t whi ch fi l l up i n te r sti ces a n d v a r y i n f o r m a n d p o siti o n i n v a r i o us ph a ses o f

m o ve m e n t The syn o vi a l m e m b r a n e sec r etes a flu id the syn o vi a , whi ch r ese m bles
—
.

whi te o f egg a d lub r i c a tes the j o i n t

n - 1
I n m a n y pl a ces th e m e m b r a n e f o r ms ext r a .

a r ti cul a r p o u ch es whi ch f a ci l it a te the pl a y o f muscles a n d te n d o n s

, .

Th e j o i n t c avity (C a vu m a r ti cul a r e ) is i n cl o sed by th e sy n o vi a l memb r an e a nd

the a r ti cul a r c a r til a ges N o r m a lly i t is st r i ctly spe a ki n g on l y a p o te nti a l c a vity
.
, , , ,

whi ch c o nt a i n s no thi ng b ut a s m a ll a mo u n t of sy no vi a .

T he m u s t g u a r d ag a i ns t a f a l s e c o n c e p ti o n o f th e j o i n t c a v it y w h i c h ma y res u lt f ro m
s udt en t
d i s s e c ti o ns a nd d i a g r a ms i n w h i c h a n a c t u a l c a v i t y o f c o ns i d e ra b l e e x t e n t a pp ea rs to exi s t
, .

A co r r ec t i d ea o f t h e i n ti m a t e a pp os iti o n o f th e p a r t s i s b es t Ob t a i n ed f ro m t h e s t u d o f
y
f r o z en s ec ti o ns I t i s a l so i ns t r u c ti v e to exa m i n e j o i n t s w h i c h h a v e b een i n j e c t ed s o as to d i s t en d
.

t h e c a p s u l e f u ll y I t i s t h en s ee n t h a t t h e c a v i t y i s o f t e n o f m u c h g rea t e r p o t e n ti a l ex t en t t h a n
.

I t i s d ou b t f u l w h e t h e r th e s y n o v i a i s a t ru e s ec re ti o n o r a t r a n s u d a t e t i i
c o n a n ng p rod u c t s of
f ri c t i o n T h e Vi e w gi v en a bo v e i s t h a t w h i c h i s m o re co m mo n l y a c c e p t ed
.
.
 D I A R T H R OS E S 1 71

o ne mi g h t su pp o s e , a nd tha t th e ca psu le is O f ten v ery i rreg u l ar in form , i . e .

,
f o r ms a v a r i et y of
s a cc ul a i o ns t .

Th e f o r ego i n g a r e c on st a n t a n d n e cess a r y fe a tu r es i n a l l di arth roses Othe r .

st r uctu r es whi ch e n te r i n t o the f or m a ti o n of these j o i n ts a r e lig am e nts ar ti cul ar ,

d iscs or me nisci a n d m ar gi n a l c ar ti l a ges

4 L ig a m en ts —These a r e st r o n g b an ds o r me m b r a n es usu a lly c o m p o sed
.
,

. .
,

o f white fib ro us t issue whi ch bi n d th e b on es t o gethe r They a re pli a ble b ut

, , .
,

p ra cti c a lly i n el a sti c I n a few c a ses h o weve r e g lig a me n t a fl a v a lig a m en tum

.
, ,
. .
, ,

n u c h m they a r e c o mp o sed o f el a st i c tissue

, They m ay be subdivided a cc or di n g .
,

t o p o siti o n i n t o per i ar ti c ul ar a n d i n traar ti cu l ar

,
P e r i a r ti cu l a r lig a m en ts a re fr e .

q ue nt ly ble n ded w ith o r fo r m p a r t o f t he fib ro us c a psule ; i n o t he r c ases they a re

q uite disti n ct S t ri ctl y spe a ki n g i ntr a ar ti cu l a r lig a m e n ts th o ugh withi n th e
.
, ,

fib r o us c a psul e a re n ot i n th e j o i nt c a vi ty ; t h e sy n o vi a l m e m b ra n e is r efl ected
,

o ve r the m Th e t e r m see m s j ustifi a b le h o weve r o n p ra cti c a l gr o u n ds

. L i ga , , .

me nts whi ch c o nn ect di r ectly o pp o sed su r f a ces of b o n es are te r med i n te ro sse o us .

The S peci a l n a mes a re b as ed usu a l ly o n th ei r p ositi o n fo rm a nd a tt a ch m e n ts e g , , ,

. .
,

l a te ra l o r c o ll a te r a l c r u ci a te s a c ro i li a c etc I n m a n y pl a ces m uscles te n d on s

, ,
-
,
.
, ,

a n d thi cke ni n gs o f the f as ci ae fu n cti o n as li g a me n ts a n d i n c r e a se the secu r ity Of the

j o i n t A tm o sph e r i c p r essu r e a n d c o h esi o n pl a y a c o nside r a ble p ar t i n keepi n g the

.

j o i n t su r f a ces i n a pp o siti o n .

5 Arti c ul ar d i s c s o r m e ni s c i a r e pl a tes o f fib r O c ar ti l a ge o r de nse fib ro us tissu e

.
-

pl a ced b etwee n th e a r t i cu l ar c a rt i l a ges a n d d ivi de th e j o i n t c avi ty p ar ti a lly o r ,

c o mpl etely i n t o tw o c o m p ar tme n ts Th ey r e n de r ce r t a i n su r f a ces c on gr ue nt

femor o—
.
,

e g
. .
, t ibi a l j o i n t a ll o w gre a te r r an ge o r v a r i ety of m o veme n t a n d di m i n ish
, ,

c o n cussi o n .

6 A m ar gi n al c ar til a g e (L a b r u m gle n o i d a l e ) is a r i n g o f fib r o c a r ti l a ge wh i ch
.
-

e n ci r cl es t he ri m o f an a r ti cul ar c a vit y I t e n l ar ges the c a vity an d ten ds t o pre .

ve n t f r a ctu r e o f t he m a r gi n
—
.

V s
e s e l s an d N er v e s The ar teri e s f or m an a st om o ses ar o u n d the l ar ge r j o i n ts
.
,

a n d give o fl b r a n ch es t o th e ext r e m iti es o f t h e b on es a n d t o th e j o i n t c a ps ul e Th e .

sy n o vi a l m emb ran e h as a cl ose m eshed n et w o r k o f c a pi ll a r i es ; t he l a tte r f orm l o o ps

-

a ro u n d the m a r gi n s o f th e ar ti cu l a r c a r ti l a ges but d o n ot usu a lly e n ter them ,

.

The v ei n s for m ple xu ses The s yn o vi a l m emb r a n e is a ls o well suppl ied with lym ph
.

a t i cs N e r ve fib ers a r e esp eci a lly n u m e r o u s i n a n d aro u n d th e sy no v i a l me m b r an e

.
-

a n d the r e a r e S peci a l n e r ve e n di n gs e g P a ci n i an b o dies a n d th e a rt i cu l a r e n d

-
,
. .
,

b ulbs desc r ibed by Kr a use

M o v e m en ts —Th e m o ve m e n ts o f a j o i n t a r e dete rm i n ed chiefly by th e f o rm
.

a n d ext e n t o f the j o i n t su r f a ces a n d th e a rr a n ge m e n t o f the l ig a me n ts They a re .

usu a lly cl assifi ed as fo l l o ws :

1 Gl i d i n g —Thi s r efe r s t o the S lid i n g o f o n e p r a cti c a lly pl an e su rf a ce on
.

a n o the r as i n th e j o i n ts b etwee n th e a rt i cul a r p r o cesses o f the ce r vi c a l ve rt eb r ae

2 An gu l ar M o v e m e n ts —I n these c a ses th e r e is m o veme n t a r o u n d on e o r

.
,

m o r e a xes M o ti on wh i ch di m i n ishes th e a n gl e i n cluded by the segme nts form i n g

.

the j o i n t is te r med fi exi on , wh il e th a t whi ch te n ds to b r i n g th e segm e n ts i n t o li ne

wi th e a ch o the r is c a lled ext en s i on .

With r efe r e n ce t o t h e j o i n ts o f th e l o we r p ar ts of th e limbs it see m s a dvis a ble ,

t o empl o y the t e r ms d or sal a nd v o l ar o r pl an tar fi exi on si n ce these j o i n ts c an be ,

”
o ve r exte n ded S i m i l a r ly th e te r ms d or s al a n d v e n tr al fi e xi on S h o ul d b e a pplied
.
,

t o th e c o rr esp on d i n g m o ve m e n ts o f the S pi n a l c o lu m n The me a n i n g of the te r m .

l a t eral fl exi on i s e v i de n t Th ese m o veme n ts a re a l l ro t a t i o n s a r o u n d a xes whi ch

.

a re a pp r o xi m a tely ei the r t r a n sve rse o r ve r ti c a l D ep r essi on elev a ti on a nd l a te r a l .

, ,

m o veme n t Of th e l o we r jaw f a ll i n t h is c a teg or y

3 Ci r cu m d u c ti on —This desi gn a tes m o veme n ts i n whi ch the d ist a l p a r t Of
.

. .

the l imb desc r ibes a ci r cle o r a segm e n t o f o ne I n ma n such m o ve m e n t is e asily .

1 72 THE A R TI C U L A TI ON S OR J OINTS

pe rf o r m ed b ut i n qu a d r upeds it is p ossible t o a li mited degr ee o n ly an d is t o b e

, ,

r eg a r ded usu a ll y a s a n i n d i c a ti o n o f dise a se .

4 R o ta ti o n — A S a m a tte r of c o n ve n i e n ce this t e r m is r ese r ved t o i n d i c a te

.
,

r o t a ti o n o f o n e seg m e n t a r o u n d the l o n gi tudi n a l a xi s Of the o the r se gme n t f or mi n g

the j o i n t I t is see n typi c a lly i n the a tl a n t o a xi a l j oi n t

.
-
.

5 Ad d ucti on a n d ab d u cti on desi gn a te r espectively m o ve m e n t o f a limb t o

.

w a r d an d a w a y f r o m the m edi an pl a n e or of a di git t o w a r d an d a w a y f r o m t h e ,

a xis Of the li m b .

Cl a s s ifi ca ti on — T hi s i s b ased o n th e f o r m o f th e j o i n t su r f a ces a n d th e m o ve
me n ts whi ch o c cu r The f o ll o wi n g ch i ef cl a sses may b e r ec o g n i zed
.

1 Ar th r od i a o r glidi n g j o i n t I n these t he su r f a ces a re p ra cti c a lly fl a t a d

mi tti n g o f gl idi n g mo veme n t E x am ples : c ar p o—
,
.
.
,

met a c a rp a l j o i nts ; j o i n ts b e
.

twee n the a r ti cul ar p r o cesses of the ce r vi c a l an d th or a ci c ve r teb rae .

2 G in glymu s , or hi n ge j o i n t
. I n th is cl a ss th e j o i n t su r f a ces c on sist usu a lly
-
.

o f tw o c on dyles or of a se gme n t o f a cyli n de r o r c o n e wh i ch a r e r e ceived b y c or

, ,

r esp on d i n g c a vities I n typi c a l c a ses the m o ve m e n ts a r e fl exi o n a n d ext e n si on

.
,

i e
. . a r o u n d a S i n gle t r a n sve r se a xi s
, E x a m ples : o cci pit o a tl a n t a l an d elb o w
.
-

j o i n ts .

3 Tr o ch o id , o r p iv o t j o i n t I n these th e m o veme n t is limited t o ro t a ti o n o f

E x a mple : a tl an t o —
. .

o n e seg m e n t a r o u n d th e l on gitudi n a l a xis o f th e o the r a xi a l .

j o i nt
4 E nar th r o s i s , or b a ll a n d —
.

. s o cket j o i n t These are f or m ed by a su r f a ce of

-
.

a pp r o xi m a tely sphe r i c a l cu r v a tu r e r eceived i n t o a c o rr esp o n d i n g c a vity ,

T h ev .

a r e m ulti a xi a l a n d a l l o w o f th e g r e a test v a r i ety o f m o veme n t 3

, g fl ex i o n ex ,
. .
, ,

te n si on r o t a ti on a bdu cti on a dd u cti on ci r cu m du cti on

, , ,
E x a m ples : h ip a n d ,
.

‘
sh o ulde r j o i n ts .

AM P HI AR THR OSE S

These j o i nts a s th e n am e i n di c a tes S h ar e s o m e ch a r a cte r s wit h b o th of th e

, ,

p r ecedi n g g r o ups I n the m the se gm e n ts a r e d i r ectly u n ited by a pl a te o f fib ro

.

c ar ti l a ge a nd usu a lly b y li g a m e n ts a ls o Th e a m o u n t an d ki n d of m o veme n t a r e

, .

dete r m i n ed b y the S h a pe o f the j o i n t su r f a ces and th e am o u n t a n d pli a bi lit y o f the

u n it i n g m ediu m 2
Th ese j o i n ts a r e a l l m ed i a]i n p ositi o n an d ar e best il lust r a ted
.
,

by the j o i n ts betwee n th e b od ies o f the ve r teb r a Th e r e is usu a lly n o j o i n t c a vity .

,

b ut i n ce rt a i n S itu a ti on s a r udi m e n t ary o ne exists .

THE AR TI CULATI ONS OF THE HORSE

JOI N TS AN D LI GAlVlE NTS OF THE VE R TE B R AE
Th e m o v able ve r teb r a fo r m t w o sets of a r ti cul a ti o n s v i z th ose f or med b y th e ,
.
,

b od ies a nd th ose f o rm ed by th e a r ti cul ar p r o cesses o f a dj a ce n t ve r teb r a ;

,

th e f o me r ar e te rm ed in ter c e n tr a l an d th e l a tte r in t e rn e u ra l A ss o ci a ted with

r
, ,
.

these a r e li g am e n ts u n iti n g th e a r ch es an d p r o cesses ; s o me of these are s pe ci a l ,

i e c o n fi n ed t o a S i n gl e j o i n t whi le o th e r s ar e c o mm on , i e exte n d a l o n g the e n ti r e
. .
, ,
. .
,

‘
l i fi ca ti o n m a k es n o c l a i ms to s c i ent i fi c a cc u ra c y b u t i s S i m p l y a s t a t emen t o f th e
Th i s c as s ,

t er ms i n g en era l u s e A g ro u p i ng b a s ed o n mec h a n i c a l p ri n c i p l es s eem s d es i r a b l e b u t a pp ea rs to

.
,

b e a m o s i mp os s i b l e o n a c c ou n t o f t h e g re a t v a r i e t y a n d i rr eg u l a r i t y o f fo r m o f th e a r ti c u l a r
s u rtal c es t .

T h e m o v e m en t s i n s o me o f t h es e j o i n t s a r e m o r e ex t e ns i v e a n d v a r i ed t h a n i n so m e d i a r
th ro s es T o i l l us t ra t e t h i s w e m a y c o m p a r e t h e mo v eme n t s o f th e c er v i c a l o r coc cy g e a l v er t eb ra
.

W i t h t h os e p o ss i b l e i n t h e c a r p o m e t ac a r p a l o r t h e sa c ro i l i a c j o i n t s
- -
.
1 74 T HE A R T I C U L A I I ON S
' ‘
O F T HE H OR S E

fl at , v a l i n the ce r vi c a l r egi o n s m a l l a n d fl at i n the th o r a ci c r egi o n whi le i n

and o , ,

the lumb a r r egi o n th e an te r i o r o n es a re c o n c a ve a n d the p o ste r i or c o nvex Th e .

j o in t c aps ul e i s st r on g a nd a m ple i n the ce r vi c a l r egi o n i n c o n f o r m ity with th e l a rge ,

si ze a nd g r e a te r m o bil ity of these j o i n ts i n the n eck I n the t h ora ci c a n d lumb a r .

r egi o n s th e c a psule is s m a ll a n d cl o se These j o i n ts a r e a r th r o di a . .

A ss o ci a ted with these j o i n ts a r e th e li gam en ta fl ava , wh i ch c o nn e ct the a r ches

o f a dj a ce n t ve r teb r a They a r e m e m b ra n o us a n d c o n sist l a r gely o f el a sti c t issue
. .

The s u pra spi n o u s l igam e nt exte n ds m ed i a l ly f r o m the o ccipit a l b on e t o the

s a c r u m F ro m the wi the r s b a ckw a r d i t c o nsists o f a st r o n g c o r d of fib r o us tissue
.
,

a tt a ched t o the su mm its o f the ve r teb r a l spi n es I n th e n eck a n d wi the rs it i s .

P u ni c u l a r pa r t

E x pa ns i on a t w i thers

La s t cer mca l
ver te ra b

Fi rs t th or a c i c
ver tebra

FI G . I 40 .
—L N U CH -
l G \ M E NT UM
. AZ or HO RS E .

1 S ca pu l a ; car til a g e o f sc a pu l a ; 4 l m ll p t f lig m t m

a e ar ar o a en u n u c h zr ; 1 i
W ng o f a t l as ( A ft er E ll e nb e rg e r

B m A t f K il tl
, , , .

au , na . i ir ns er . )

r e ma r k a bly m od ified t o f orm the lig a m e n tum n u ch a wh i ch r eq ui r es m o r e exte n ded ,

n o ti ce .

The li ga m e n tu m n u ch a is a p o we r ful el a sti c a pp a r a tus th e p r i n ci p a l fu n cti o n ,

o f whi ch i s t o a ssist the exte ns o r m uscl es o f the he a d a n d n e ck I t exte n ds f r om .

the o ccipit a l b o n e to th e wi th e r s whe r e it i s d i r e ctly c o n ti n u o us wi th the sup r a

I t c o n si sts o f t w o p a r ts —fu n i cul a r a n d l a m ell a r
,

S pi n o us li g a m e n t .
Th e f uni c .

u l ar p ar t (P a rs o c cipi t a l is ) ar ises f r om the exte r n a l o ccipit a l p r o tube r a n ce a n d the

fo ss a bel o w it a n d i s i n se r ted i n t o th e su mm i ts o f th e ve r teb ra l spi n es at the
,

wi th e r s T w o b u r s a a re usu a lly f o u n d u n de r i t i n the a d ult Th e s u pra -a tl o id

.
.

b ur s a l ies betwee n th e l ig a m e n t a n d th e d o r s a l a r ch o f the a tl a s The s upr a .

 M OV E M E N T S OF T HE V E R T E B R A L C O LUM N 1 75

s pi n o u s b u r s a o ccu rs usu a lly o ve r the fo u r th th o r a ci c S pi ne but may b e o ve r the ,

thi r d a n d m a y exte nd t o th e fift h 1

I n the n eck the fu n i cul a r p a r t c o n si sts fo r th e
.

g r e a te r p ar t o f tw o b an ds cl osely a ppl ied a n d a tt a ched to e a ch o the r N e a r a n d a t .

the with e r s it b r o a de n s g r e a tly f o r m i n g an exp a nsi on th r ee t o five i n ch es (c a 8 to

, .

c m ) i n widt h th e l a te r a l m a r gi n s o f whi ch a r e th i n an d ove r lie t h e t r a pezius

.
,

a n d r h o m b o ideus muscles B eh i n d the h i ghe r spi n es it be c o mes n a rro we r a nd

.

t hi nn e r a nd is c o nti n ued by th e whi te fib ro us l u m b o d or s a l lig a m e nt

, A m ass -
.

of fa t a nd el a sti c t issue li es up on th e lig a m e nt as far b a c k as th e withe rs It .

v ar ies g re a tly i n a m o u n t i n di ff e r e n t subj ects and is m ost dev el oped i n st a lli ons of ,
”
d r a ft b r eeds i n whi ch it f or ms th e b a sis of the c r est
,
The l am e ll ar por ti on (P ar s “
.

ce r vi c a lis ) c on sists of t w o l am i na sep a r a ted m edi a l ly by a l a ye r of l o o se c onn ective

tissue E a ch l a mi n a is f o r m ed o f d igi t a ti o n s wh i ch ar ise f r o m the sec on d and thi r d
.

th o r a ci c S pi n es a n d f r o m t he fu n i cul a r p or ti on a r e di r e cted d o wn w a r d an d f o rw ar d
, ,

a n d en d o n th e S pi n es o f th e ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a except th e fi r st a n d l a st Th e digit a, .

ti on wh i ch i s att a ched to the S pi n e of the a xis i s ve r y thi ck a n d st r on g B ehi n d .

th is they di m i n ish i n S i z e a nd st r e n gth ; th a t to th e sixth ce r vi c a l is quite thi n and

feeble o r m a y b e a bse n t
,
.

Th e i nterspin o u s l i gam en ts (L i g a m e n t a i nte r spi n al i a )exte n d betwee n th e S pi n es

o f c o n ti gu o us ve r teb r a I n the ce r vi c a l r egi o n th ey a r e n arro w el a sti c b a n ds a n d
.
,

i n th e th o r a ci c a n d lumb a r r egi o n s they c o nsist of wh ite fibe r s di r ected o bl iquely

d o w nw ar d an d f o r w a r d .

The in te r tr an s v er s e li gam e nts (L ig a m e n t a i nte r t r ans v e r sa r i a ) are memb ran es

whi ch c on n ect a dj a ce n t t r an sve r se p ro cesses i n th e lu m b a r r egi on .

I N TE R TRANSVE R SE AR TI C UL ATI ONS

These j o i n ts (pecu li a r t o e q u id a ) a r e di a rth r o ses f or med by th e t r a n sve r se
'

p r o cesses of th e l a st tw o lumb ar ve r teb r a a nd th e al a of the s a c r u m A S imi l a r .

j o i n t betwee n the f o u r th a nd fi fth lumb a r p r o cesses is fr eque n tly p r ese n t The .

ar ti c ul ar s u rface s h a ve a n el o n g a ted o v a l f or m th e a n te r i o r on e bei n g c o n c a ve an d ,

the p o ste r i o r o ne c on vex Th e c a psu le is ti gh t an d is r ei n f or ced ve n t r a lly

.
,
.

SACRAL AN D COCCY GE AL AR TI C ULATI ONS

the f o a l th e b o di es o f th e five s a c r a l ve r teb r a fo r m j o i n t s wh i ch r ese m ble
In
s o mewh a t th o se i n th e p o ste r i o r p ar t of th e lumb a r r egi on These j o i n ts a re i n .

v a ded b y th e p r o cess o f o ssifi c ati on e a r ly so th a t th e c on s ol id a ti on o f the s a c r um

,

is u su a lly c om plete or n e a r ly so at th r ee ye a r s
, ,
.

Th e c o ccyge a l ve r teb r a a re u n ited by r el a t ivel y th i ck i n te r ve rteb r a l fibro

c arti l a ges wh i ch h a ve the fo r m o f bi c o n c a ve dis cs S pe ci a l l ig amen ts are n ot
,
.

p r ese n t b ut th e r e is a c onti n u o us sh e a th of fib ro us tissu e Th e m o vem e n t i n thi s

,
.

r egi o n is e xte n sive a n d v a r ied I n o l d h o r ses th e fi r st c o ccyge a l ve rteb r a is Ofte n

.

fused with th e s a c r u m .

M OVE ME NTS OF THE VE R TE BR AL COL MN U

The m o veme n ts o f th e S pi n e ex clusive Of th o se a t th e a tl an t o axi a l j oi n t ar e
,
-
,

d ors a l ve n t ra l and l a te r a l fl exi on an d r o t a ti on Th e r a n ge o f m o ve m e n t at a

, , ,
.

si n gle j o i n t i s ve r y s m a ll b ut th e su m of th e mo ve m e n ts is c o n side ra ble The

,
.

1
I n d i sse c ti n g- roo m su bj ec t s t h ese b u rsa a n d th e a d j acen t s t r u c t u res a re co" m m o n ly t h e s e a t
"
o f p a t h o l o gi ca l c h a ng es T h ey a pp ea r to b e t h e s t a r ti ng po m t o f p o ll ev i l a nd fis tu l o u s
“
-
.

”
w i t h ers .

2
No l li n e Of d em a r ca ti o n exi s t s b et w een t h e li g a men t u m nu c h a a n d th e l u m b o d orsa l
n a u rat -

c o n ti n u a ti o n o f t h e s u p r as p i n o u s li g a m en t S i n c e t h e c h a ng e f r o m t h e p u re l y e l a s t i c to t h e w h i t e
,

fi b rou s s t ru c t u r e i s gr ad u a l .
1 76 T HE A R T I C U L A T I ON S OF T HE H O R SE

m o ve m e n ts a r e f r eest i n the ce r v i c a l a n d c o ccyge a l r e g i on s . R o t a ti o n is ext r emely

li m ited i n the th o r a ci c an d lu m b a r r egi o ns .

ATLAN TO- A XI AL AR TI C L ATI ON U

This is a t ro ch o id
pi v o t j o i n t o f a r a the r pe cu l i a r ch ara cte r The arti cul a r
or ,
.

su rf a ces a r e : (1 ) On the l a te r a l m asses o f the a tl a s ,

t w o s o m ewh a t s a d dle sh a ped f a cets whi ch a r e usu a lly -

,

c o n flue n t ve nt ra lly ; (2 ) on the axi s r e cip r o c a l s a ddle ,

S h a ped su r f a ces wh i ch exte n d up o n th e o d o n t o i d p r o

cess a n d a re c o n flue nt on its ve n t r a l a spect I t wi ll b e .

o bse r ved th a t the j o i n t su r f a ces a r e n o t a t a l l a ccu r

a tely a d a pted t o e a ch o th e r S O th a t o n ly l imited a r e a s ,

a r e i n c o n t a ct a t an y ti m e .

The j oi n t c apsu l e is a tt a ch ed a ro u n d the m ar gi ns

o f the a r ti cul a r su r f a ces I t is l oo se a n d a m pl e e n o ugh .

l a te ra lly to a ll o w exten sive m o veme n t .

Th e s up e ri or a tl an to -a xi al l iga m ent (L ig a m e n tu m
i n ter a r cu a l e ) is memb r an o us an d r ei n f or ces th e c a psul e
d o r s a lly .

Th e i nte rspi no u s l ig am en t (L ig am en tu m i n te r
spi n a le ) c on sists of tw o el a sti c b an ds wh i ch exten d
f r o m the d or s a l a r ch of th e a tl a s to th e S pi n e of th e
ax i s

The i nfe ri or a tl an to -ax i a l l i ga m e n t (L i g am e n tu m

de n tis exte rn u m ) a r ises f r o m the ve n t r a l tube r cle of th e
a tl a s an d i s a tt a ched b y t w o b r an ch es on th e ve n t ra l

S pi n e o f th e a xis .

Th e o d onto i d li ga m en t (L ig am e n tu m d e ntis i n
t er n u m ) i s sh or t ve r y st r on g an d s o mewh a t fan , ,

sh a ped I t exte n ds f ro m the r o ugh c on c a ve d o rs a l .

su r f a ce of the d e n s or o d on t o id p r o cess wide n s i n ,

f ron t an d i s a tt a ched t o th e t r an sve r se r o ugh a r e a on ,

141 A T LAN T O OCCI P TAL th e i nn e r su r f a ce o f th e v e n t r a l ar ch Of th e a tl a s

I

AN D A T LAN T O— AX AL J O I N T S
.

—
.

O HO F D O AL V w RS E ,
M o v
RS
e m e n t s The a tl a s an d the he a d r o t a te up o n
i E

A FT R M OVAL O D n ER E the a xis ; the a xis o f r o t a ti o n p a sses th r o ugh the ce n te r

F o

A CH O
SAL A T LA R
o f the Od o n t o id p r o cess a n d b o dy o f th e a xis
F S .

J i t p l f l ft p t
a , o n ca su e o e ar

o f tl a t ipit l j i t ; b l t
a n o -o c c a o n , a

e ral li g m t f m :
a en d
o sa e c. c
’
o on

t ; d tl t — ip it l THE ATL AN TO OCCI PI TAL AR TI CU L ATI ON

,

t id li g m
o a en , a a n o occ a
-

j i t p l ;
o n ca j i t p l f
su e 6, o n ca su e o

a rti l tio b tw n i d
cu a n e
Th i s j o i n t m ay be cl a ssed as a g i n glymus The
ee ax s an
.

th i d
r i l v tb ; f i t
ce r v c a ar ti cu l ar s ur fa c e s o f th i s j o i n t a r e : (1 ) On th e a tl a s
er e ra , n er
,
”m “g m “ ; 1 m“ ‘ t w o d eep o v a l c a vities
( 2 ) th e c o rr esp on di n g c o n dyles
us a “ e ' c a

b ; 2
o ne tl ; 3
, a i ; 4 th i d
as , ax s
; r
,

c ervi l ca t b v e re (E ll b g ra Of the OCCl p l t a l b on e

en er er '

B m A t d H ti )
.

au na au s e re
T h e j om t su rf a c es a re o bh q
.
, . .

ue co m i n g v ery c l os e t o t h e ,

m ed i a n li ne v e n t ra l l y b u t s e p a ra t ed by a c on s i d er a b l e i n t er v a l ,

d o rsa l l y P os t er i o r l y a tr i a n g u l a r r o u g h a rea cu t s i n t o t h e m i d d l e o f e ac h a r ti cu l ar s u r f a c e
.
,

o n th e a tl a s .

The r e a re tw o r o om y j o in t c aps u l e s , whi ch s om eti m es c o m m u n i c a te ven t r a lly ,

espe ci a lly i n Ol d subj e cts .

The sup eri or a tl an t o o ccipita l m e mb r an e exte n ds f rom the d o r s a l a r ch o f the -

a tl a s to the uppe r m a r gi n o f th e f o r a m e n m a g n u m I t is ble n ded with the c a psules .

a n d c o n t a i n s m an y el a sti c fibe r s .

The i nf er i or a tl an to -o ccipital m e mb ran e exte n ds f r o m the ve n t r a l a r ch o f the

1 78 T HE A R T I CU L A T I ON S OF T HE H O RSE

The v i t y fo r t h e h ea d o f th e fi rs t r i b i s f o r m ed b y c o n ca v e f a ce ts o n th e b o d i es o f th e l as t
ca
c er v i c a l a n d fi rs t t h o ra c i c v e r te b rzn T h e co n j u g a l li g a me n t i s a b sen t b u t t h e li g a me n t o f t h e
.
,
.

n ec k i s s h o r t a n d s t ro n g T h e r a d i a t e li g a me n t i s v e ry s t ro n g a nd co n s i s t s o f tw o b a n d s
. , In .

t h e c as e o f t h e l a s t t w o o r t h r ee r i b s t h e c o s t o c e n t r a l a n d co s t o t ra n s v e rs e j o i n t s a r e c o n fl u e n t
- -
,

a nd t h e v a r i ou s s t r u c t u res a re c o rr es p o nd i n g l y m o d i fi ed .

M o v e m e n ts —Th e chief m o ve m e n t is
t ti o n a ro u n d a n a xis wh i ch c onn ects
ro a

the ce n te rs o f the h e a d a n d t ube r cl e o f the r i b The m o ve m e n t is ve r y li m it ed i n

.

the a n te r i or p a r t o f the se r i es o f j o i n ts b ut ve r y c o nsi de r a ble i n th e p o ste r i or p a rt

,
.

I n t h e c ase o f t h e fi rs t r i b , t h e m o v e m en t i s e v i d en tl y e x t rem e l y li m i te d T h e f a c e t fo r th e
.

t u b er c l e o f t h e ri b i s d ee p l y co n c a v e a nd t h e a xi s o f ro t a ti o n i s a l mo s t t ra ns v ers e F u r t h e r bac k
,
.

t h e f a c e t s o n t h e t ra n s v e rs e p r o c ess es b ec o m e fl a t , a n d t h e a xi s o f r o t a ti o n g r a d u a l l y a pp ro a c h es a
l o ng i t u d i n a l d i rec ti o n T h i s , i n co nn ec ti o n w it h t h e mo b i li t y o f t h e v en t ra l en d s o f t h e a s t erna l
.

ri b s a nd t h ei r e l as ti c i t y , a ll o w s a g r ea t i n cr ea s e h er e i n t h e r a n g e o f m o v em en t , t h e eff ec t o f w h i c h
.

i s to en l arge (c h i e fl y ) th e t r a ns v e rs e d i a m e t er o f t h e t h o r ax .

COSTO-CHOND R AL AR TI C UL ATI ONS

The c ost o— ch o nd ra l j u n cti on s a r e sy n a r th r o ses Th e rib h a s a c on c a ve su r f a ce .

whi ch r eceives the c on vex en d o f the c a r ti l a ge They a re u n ited by th e c on ti nu ity

.

of the st r o n g pe r i o steu m a n d pe r i ch o n d r i u m .

CHON DR O-STE RN AL AR TI CU L ATI ON S

These j o i n ts (A r ti cu l a ti o n es ste r n o c o st a l es ) a re d i a rth r oses f o r m ed by the
j u n cti o n o f the c a r til a ges of the ste r n a l r i bs with th e ste rnu m Th e ar ti cul a r e n ds .

o f th e c a r til a ges (except th e fi rst ) a r e s o m ewh a t e n l ar ged a n d p r ese n t su r f a ces o f ,

cyli n d r i c a l cu r v a tu r e Th e ar ti cu l ar su r f a ces on the ste r n u m for the fi r st p a i r of

.

c a r til a ges ar e pl a ced cl ose t o geth e r on th e d o r s a l b o rde r of th e c a r i n if o r m c a r ti l a ge

(M an ub r ium ste r n i ) ; the o the r seve n a re pl a ced l a te ra lly at the j u n cti on of th e
se g m e n ts The c a psul es a re st r on g an d tigh t ; the fi r st p a i r o f j o i n ts h as a c o mm o n
.

c a psule an d the c ar til a ges ar ti cul a te with e a ch o the r m edi a l ly Th e l o we r e n ds

,
.

o f the fi r st p a i r o f r i bs a r e fi r m ly a tt a ch ed t o e a ch o the r by d e n se fib r o us tissue ,

whi ch is p r o l on ged f or w a r d a l o n g the uppe r m a rgi n o f th e c a r i n if orm c a rtil a ge a n d

i s c on ti n u o us b eh i n d with the ste r n a l l ig a me n t E a ch of th e o the r c a psules is
—
.

r ei n f o r ced d or s a lly b y the su pe ri o r c o s t o st e rn a l li g a m e n t (L ig a m e n tu m ste r n o

c ost a le r a di a tum ) c o m p o sed of r a di a ti n g fi b e r s wh i ch ble n d with th e ste r n a l lig a

,

me n t The m ove m e n t is r o t a ti o n aro u n d a n e arly ve r ti c a l a xis except i n the c as e

.
,

o f the fi r st p a i r of j o i n ts .

I N TE RCHON DRA L LI GAME NTS

Th e ei ghth a n d n i nth c o st a l c a r ti l a ges a re fi r mly u n ited by fib ro us tissue Th e .

ch o n d r o xiph o id li g am e n t a tt a ches th e n i n th c o st a l c a r ti l a ge to the xi ph o id c a r ti

-

l a ge The r e m a i n i n g c a r ti l a ges are r a the r l oo sely a tt a ched t o e a ch o th e r by el a sti c

.

tissu e .

STE RN AL AR TI C UL ATI ON S
Inthe n ew b or n f oa l th e ste rn um h as seve n b on y seg m e nts (S te r n eb rze )
-
,

u n ited by pe r sisti n g c ar til a ge Th e l ast tw o segm e n ts c o a lesce wi thi n a few weeks

.

a fte r bi r th I n o l d subj e cts the r e is mo r e o r less o ssifi c a ti o n o f th e i nte r segme n t a l

.

c artil a ge wh i ch m a y le a d t o p a r ti a l fusi o n of a dj a ce n t segm e n ts espe ci a lly pos

, ,

ter i o rl y The ste rn a l l i gam e nt (L i g a m e ntum ste rn i p r o p r iu m i n te r n u m ) l ies o n th e

.

th o r a ci c su r f a ce o f th e ste r n u m I t a r ises o n the fi r st segm en t a n d d i vides o pp o

.
,

si te th e sec on d ch on d r o ste r n a l j o i n t i n t o th r ee b a n ds Th e m ed i a n b a n d p asses

- .
.

b a ckw a rd a n d sp r e a ds o u t on the l a st segm e n t a nd the xiph o id c a r ti l a ge Th e .

 T HE S Y N A R T H R OS E S or T HE SK U LL 1 79

l a te r a l b r an ch es—th i cke r an d wide r—l ie a l on g t he l a te r a l b or de rs ab o ve t h e ch on

d r o ste rn a l j o i n ts a n d en d a t the c a r til a ge o f th e eighth r i b they a re c ove r ed by
-
,

the t r an sve r sus th or a ci s m uscle .

THE AR TI CULATI ON S OF THE SKU LL

TE MP OR O MAN D I BUL AR -
AR TI CU L ATI ON

This j o i n t (A r ti cu l a ti o m an dibu l a r is ) is th e on ly d i a r th rosis f o rmed b et wee n

b on es of the s kull .

The ar ti cul ar s u r f a c e s a r e d issi mi l a r i n f o r m a n d si ze Th a t on th e squ a mo us .

temp o ra l b on e is c o n c a v o c on vex a n d the l on g a xis is di r ected o utw a r d and s om e

-
,

wh a t f or w ar d ; i t c on sists of a gle n o id c a vity wh i ch is c on ti n ued up on the p ost ,

glen o id p r o cess behi n d a n d a c on dyle i n f r o n t The m a n dible p r ese n ts a t r a n s

, .

v e rs el y el o n g a ted c o n dyle .

The ar ti cu l ar d i s c is pl a ced b etwee n th e j o i n t su r f a ce s whi ch it r e n de rs c on ,

gru en t . I ts uppe r a n d l o we r su r f a ces a r e m o lded up o n th e t e m p o r a l a n d m a n d ibul a r

su rf a ces r especti vely and its ci r cu m fe r e n ce is a tt a ched t o the j oi n t c a psule ; thus
,

it divides the j o i n t c a vity i n t o uppe r a n d l o we r c o mp a r tme n ts the f o rme r bei n g ,

the m o r e r oom y .

The j oi n t c ap su l e is st r on g an d tight I t is r ei n f o r ced by tw o l iga m e n ts

. The .

e xt ern al l ig am e n t (L i g a m e n tu m l a te r a le ) exte n ds o bl iquely a c ro ss the a nte r i or

p ar t of th e o ute r su r f a ce o f the c a psul e f r om wh i ch it is n ot disti n ctly sep a r a ble

,
.

The po s teri or l igam en t (L ig a me n tum p o ste r i us ) i s an el a sti c b an d whi ch is att a ched

a b o ve t o the p o stgle n o id p r o cess a n d b el o w t o a li n e o n the p o ste r i or f a ce o f th e
,

n eck o f th e m a n dibl e

M o v e m ents —The ch ief m o ve m e n ts t a ke pl a ce a r o u n d a t ra n sve r se a xis p a ss

.

i n g th r o u gh b o th j o i n ts A ss o ci a ted wit h th is h i n ge —
. li ke a ct i on is slight glidi n g
mo vemen t a s i n o pe n i n g a n d shutti n g th e m o uth
,
Wh en the m o u th is shut .
,

the c on dyle l i eS u n d er the gle n o id c a vity

'
Whe n th e m an dib le is dep r essed .
,

the c on dyle m o ves f o r w a r d u n d e r the ar ti cu l ar e m i ne n ce of the te m p o r a l b on e ,

c arryi n g the dis c wi th it I n p r o t r usi o n an d r et ra cti on o f the l owe r jaw t h e glidi n g

.

m o veme n t j ust desc r ib ed o c cu r s wi th o ut th e hi n ge like r o t a ti on of th e c on dyle - .

These m o vemen ts a r e simil ar i n b o t h j o i n ts I n the l a te r a l m o ve m e n ts (as usu a lly

.

pe r for m ed i n m a sti c a t i o n ) th e a cti o n c on sists o f r ot a ti on o f the c on dyles ar o u n d a

ve r ti c a l a xis whi le the dis c gli des f o r w a r d on on e sid e an d b a ckw a rd on the o the r
,
.

THE S YN AR THR OSE S OF THE S KULL

M ost o f th e b o n es o f the skull a re u n ited with the a dj a ce nt b on es by sutur e s ;
a few a r e u n ited by c a r til a ge Th e di ffe r en ce i n the u n iti n g m edi u m depe n ds on
.

the f a ct th a t m ost of these b on es a r e devel o ped i n m emb r an e but s om e a re p re ,

f o rm ed i n c ar til a ge M o st of these j o i n ts a r e tem p o r a r y an d a r e o blite ra ted a t

. ,

v ar i o us pe r i o ds du r i n g devel o pme n t a n d g r ow th Thei r i m p o r t an ce r ests on the .

f a ct th a t so l on g as they pe r sist c on ti n u o us gr owth is p ossible They a re usu a lly

,
.

design a ted a cc or di n g t o the b on es wh i ch e n te r i n t o thei r f o r m a ti on e g sphe no , . .

,

squ a m o us n a s o—
,
f r on t a l i n te r n a s a l etc S peci a l n a m es (b o r ro wed f r om hu m an
, ,
.

a n a t o m y ) a r e s o m eti m es used ; thus the i nt e r p ar iet a l t h e p a r iet o o ccipi t a l an d ,

-
,

the p a r iet o f r on t a l sutu r es a r e ofte n c a lled t he s a gitt a l l a m bd o id a n d c o ron a l re

-
, ,

s p ec t i v el y .

D e t ai l ed d es c r i p ti o n of th e s u t u r es h as n o t s u ffi c i en t c li ni c a l v a l u e to j u s ti f y m u c h a dd iti o n
to t h e s ta t e m en tsl m a d e i n t h e os t eo l o gy i n t h i s c onn e c ti o n T h e o b l i t er a ti o n o r c l o s u r e o f t h e
.

s u t u res i s h o w e v er w o r t h o f b r i e f m e n ti o n T h e c r a ma l s u t u res a re u su a ll y a l l c l o s e d a t s e v en
y
Y ea rs , b u t t h e a p ex on l y of t h e p e tr ou s tem p ora l i s f u s ed w i t h t h e o cc i p it a l a nd s q
.
, ,
u a mo u s t e m p o r a l .

M os t of t h e f a c i a l S u t u r es a r e p r a c ti c a ll y c l os ed a t ten y ea rs , a lt h o u g h c o m p l et e s y n o s t o s i s m a y i n
1 80 T HE A RTI C U LA TI ON S or T HE H OR S E

s om e b e d e l ay ed fo r y ea rs or m a y n o t o c cu r a t a l l ; t h e n as a l t e
s u ur , fo r exa mp le ,
o f t e n p e rs i s t s
e v en i n a d v a n ced ag e , so fa r as i ts a n t er i o r p a r t i s c o n c er n e d .

The p r i n cip a l syn ch on d r o s e s a r e : (1 ) Th a t b etwee n the b a si o cci pi t a l an d the

b o dy o f th e sphe no id (S y n ch o n d r osis s ph en oo cc i p i ta l i s ) ; (2 ) th a t between the
p r esphe no id a n d p ostsphe no i d (S y n ch on d r osi s i n te r s ph en o i d al i s) ; (3 ) th ose
betwee n the p a r ts o f the o c ci pit a l b on e (S y n ch o n d r o ses i n tr a o c ci pi tal es ) The fi rst .

i s usu a lly o ss ifie d a t f o u r ye a r s the sec on d at th r ee ye a r s a n d the o ccipit a l b on e i s

, ,

c o n s o l id a ted at t w o ye ar s .

The s ym phys i s o f the l o we r ja w (S y m physis m a n di bul es ) oss i fies at on e t o six

m o n ths .

THE HYOI DE AN U
AR TI C L ATI ON S

The te mp or o -hyo i d ar ti cu l a ti on is a n am phi a r th r osi s i n wh i ch th e d o r s a l an gle ,

o f the p r o xi m a l e nd o f the g r e a t c o r n u (S tyl o hy a l ) is a tt a ched by a sh o r t b a r o f

-

c ar ti l a ge t o the h y o i d p r o cess o f the pet r o us temp or a l b o n e Th e c ar til a ge (Ar th r o .

hy a l ) i s a b o ut h a lf an i n ch (ca 1 t o c m ) i n le n gt h
. The chi ef m o ve m e n t is hi nge
. .

l i ke th e a xis of m o ti o n p a ssi n g t r an sve r sely th r o ugh b o th j o i n ts

,
.

The i n ter com u al ar ti cul ati on i s a n a mph i a r th ro sis f or med by th e j u n cti o n o f

the dist a l ext r e m i ty o f the g r e a t c o r n u wi th th e p ro xi m a l en d of th e s m a ll c or n u
(ke ra t o hy a l ) They a re u n ited by a ve r y sh o r t pi ece o f c a r t il a ge i n whi ch the r e
-
.
,

i s usu a ll y a s m a l l n o d ul e of b on e i n the y o u n g subj ect Th is n odu le t he epihy a l .

,

o r m iddle c o r n u is usu a lly fused wi th the g r e a t c or n u i n the a dult Th e chi ef

,
.

m o ve m e nt he r e i s a ls o hi n ge li ke th e a n gle bet-wee n the c or n u a b ei n g i n c r e a sed or

-
,

d i m i n ished .

The b a s i - c orn u a l arti cu l a ti on is a di a r th r osis f or m ed by the j u n cti o n o f e a ch

- —
s m a ll c o rnu (ke r a t o hy a l ) with th e b o dy (b a si hy a l ) The s m a ll c o rn u h as a c on .

c a ve f a cet whi ch a r ti cu l a tes wi th the c on vex f a cet on ei the r e n d o f t he d or s a l su r

f a ce o f the b o dy The c a psul e is a m pl e e no ugh to a ll o w c on side ra bl e m o ve m e n t
.
,

whi ch is ch iefly hi n ge l ike The m o ve m e n ts of th e hy o i d b on e a r e c on ce r n ed

-
.

chi efl y i n the a cts o f m a sti c a ti o n a n d sw a ll o wi n g I n the l a tte r th e dist a l p a r ts o f

.

the hy o id b on e a r e m o ved f o r w a r d a n d u pw a r d c ar r yi ng th e r oo t o f the t on gu e a nd

,

the l a r y nx with the m an d the n r etu r n to thei r fo rm e r p ositi on

,
.

THE AR TI CUL ATI ONS OF THE THOR ACI C LI MB

the a bse n ce of th e cl a vi cl e th e th o r a ci c l i m b f or ms n o a r ti cul a ti on with th e
In
t r u n k u n less we r eg ar d as su ch th e u n i o n by m uscles The m o ve m e n t o f the
sh o ulde r on th e chest —
.
,

w a l l is chi efly r o t a ti on a r o u n d a t r a n sve r se axi s p a ssi n g

th r o ugh the sc a pul a beh i n d the uppe r p ar t o f th e spi n e .

THEJOI N T SHOU LDE R

Th e sh o ulde r o r sc a pul o — h ume r a l j o i n t (A r ti cul a t i o s c a pul o h u m er al i s) i s -

f or m ed by th e j u n cti on o f the d ist a l en d of th e sc a pul a with th e p r o xi m a l en d o f

the hu m e r us The ar ti cul ar s ur f a c e s a r e : (1 ) On th e sc a pu l a the gle no id c a vity ;
.
,

(2 ) on th e hu m e r us the he a d B o th su r f a ces a r e a pp r oxim ately sphe r i c a l an d

, .

si m i l ar i n cu r v a tu r e b ut th e h u m e ra l su r f a ce is mu ch m or e exte n sive th a n th a t o f
,

the sc a pul a .

The j oi n t c apsu l e is a m pl e e n o u gh to a l l o w th e b o n es to b e d ra wn a p ar t ab o ut
a n i n ch (c a 2 t o 3 em ) ; but th is r equi r es a ve r y c o n side ra bl e a m o u n t o f f o r ce u n less
.

a i r is a d m i tted i n t o th e j o i n t c a vity Th e fib ro us l a ye r (o r c a psul a r li g am e n t ) i s

.

n ot a tt a ch ed t o th e m a r gi n o f th e j o i n t su r f a ces b ut a t a dist a n ce o f o n e t o tw o
,

ce nti m ete r s fr om i t I t i s st r e n gt he n ed i n f r o n t b y tw o dive r gi n g el a sti c b an ds

.
,
1 82 T HE A R T I C U L A TI ON S OF T HE H OR S E

The e xt ernal l a teral li g am en t (L iga me n tu m c o ll a te ra le ul nar e ) is sh o r t and

st ro n g I t i s a tt a ched a b o ve to a dep ressi on on the e xte r n a l epi c on dyle o f the
.

h u m e r us a n d b el o w t o the exte r na l t ube r o sity of the ra dius j ust bel o w th e m a rgi n

, ,

o f the a r ti cu l ar su r f a ce

M o v e m e nt s —Th is j o i n t is a typi c a l gi n glymus the o n ly m o ve m e n ts bei n g

.

fl exi on a n d exte n si on a ro u n d a n a xis whi ch p a sses th r o ugh the uppe r a tt a ch m e n ts

o f the l a te r a l li g a m e n ts I n the st a n di n g p o si ti o n th e a r ti cul ar a n gle (i n f ro nt ) is
.

a b o ut 1 4 0 to The ra n ge o f m o ve m e n t is a b o ut 55 t o
°
C o m pl ete ex
°

te n si on i s p r eve n ted chi efly by the te n si o n o f the l a te r a l l ig a m e n ts an d the bi ceps

m uscle (Th e a xis of m o ve m e n t i s slightly o bli qu e so th a t i n fl exi on th e f o r e a rm
.
,

is c ar r i ed s o m ewh a t o utw a r d ) .

Zl I eta ca r p a l
'

FI G . 1 44 .
—L FT CA PAL J O N T
E R I S OF HO RS E , E x 'r rzn Fro . 1 45 —a CA PAL
R J o rN '
rs or HORS E . AN T E R I OR

NAL V W IE Vi E w .

p l h b
Th e ca su e as e en re m o ve d g. R ad i us ; 12 The ca ps l e
u h as b e e n re m o ved The s ma ll er li g a~

B B
.
, .

l g e me t a p l b o n
ar car a e .
(Af te r E ll e n b e rg e r - au m , t
m e n s a re s h o w n .
( A ft er E ll b en e rg e r- au m ,
A na t .

A n t f K il ns tl e )
a . . r . f K fins tl e r )
. .

THE R AD I O-U LN AR AR TI C U LATI ON

th e foa l the sh a ft o f th e u l n a i s a tt a ched to the r a d i us a b o ve an d bel o w th e
In
i n te ro sse o us sp a ce by th e i nter o s s e o u s li g am e n t B el o w the sp a ce the tw o b on es .

bec om e fused bef o r e a dult a g e is r e a ched A b o ve th e sp a ce the li g a me n t usu a lly ‘

.

pe r si sts bu t m ay u n de r g o m o r e or less o ssifi c a ti on i n ext r e m e o ld a ge Th e

,
.

tran sv er s e or ar c ifor m li gam ents (L i g a me n tu m t r an sve r su m u l n ar e e t ra di a le

u l nae et r ad i i ) c o n si st o f fibe r s wh i ch p a ss a b o ve the i n te r o sse o us sp a ce f ro m ei the r
b o r de r o f the sh a ft o f th e ul na t o the p o ste r i o r su r f a ce of th e ra dius Th e p r oxi m a l .

ra di o ul n a r a r ti cul a ti o n
-
f or m ed by tw o sm a ll c on vex f a cets on the u l n a an d th e
,

c o rr esp o nd i ng fa cets on the p oste r i or su r f a ce o f the p ro xi m a l ext r emity of th e r a d ius ,

is i n cl osed i n the c a psul e of the elb o w j o i n t a n d d o es n ot r equi r e sep a ra te c on side r -

a ti o n The dist a l ext r emity o f the u l n a fuses e a r ly wi th the r a d ius a n d is the r e

.
, ,

f or e r eg ar ded usu a l ly a s a p a r t of the l a tte r

M ov e m ent —This is i n a pp r e ci a b le t h e fo r ea r m bei n g fixed i n th e p o si ti o n o f
.
,

, j

p r on a ti on .
 T HE C A R P A L J OI N T S 1 83

THE CARP AL J OI N TS
These j o in ts t a ke n t o gethe r c o n s t it ut e th e c o m p osite ar ti cul a ti o c ar pi , o r wh a t
” ‘
is p o pul ar ly te rmed the k n ee j o i nt i n a ni m a ls Thi s c o n sis t s o f th r ee chief
-
.

j o i n ts vi z (1 ) The ra di o- c arpal j o in t f or m ed by th e dist a l e n d o f t he r adius a nd

,
.
, ,

the p r o xi m a l r ow o f the c a r pus ; (2 ) the i n te r c arpal j o in t f o r m ed betwee n t h e tw o ,

r o ws o f the c a r pus ; (3 ) t he c ar po m e ta c ar pal j oi n t , f o r m ed betwee n t he dis t a l r o w

-

o f t he c a r pus a n d the p r o xi m a l e n ds o f th e m et a c a r p a l b o n es The p ro xi m a l a n d .

middle j o i nts m a y b e r eg a r ded as gi n gly m i a lth o ugh they a re n ot typi c a l o r pu r e ,

ex amples o f h i n ge j o i nts The di st a l j o i n t i s ar th r o di a l I n a dd it i o n t he r e a re

-
. .

a rth r o di a l j o i n ts f or m ed betwee n a dj a ce n t b on es o f t he s a me r ow (A r ti cul a ti o n es

Al l these c o n stitut e a ve r y c o m p o site j o i n t w i th n u m e r o us lig am en ts , .

The a rt i cul a r su r f a ces h a ve bee n desc r ibed

i n the Oste o l o gy .

Th e j oi n t c aps u l e m ay b e r ega r ded ,

so fa r as t h e fib r o us p a r t is c o n ce r n ed as ,

bei n g c o mm o n to a l l th r ee j o i nt s I t is .

att a ched cl o se t o the m a r gi n o f t he a r ti cu

l a r su r f a ce o f t he ra d ius a b o ve a n d t he
met a c a rp us bel o w ; i t s deep f a ce is a ls o
a tt a ched t o a c o n side r a ble e xte n t t o the

c ar p a l b on es a n d t o t he s ma l l li g a men t s .

I ts an te r i o r p a r t t he d or s al o r an teri o r
,

c omm on l ig am e n t i s r at he r l oo se a n d
, ,

assists i n f o r mi ng the fib r o us c a n a ls for

the ext ens or t en d on s I ts p ost e r i or p ar t .

,

the v ol ar or po s teri or c om m on li g am ent ,

is ve r y th i ck a n d de n se a nd is cl o sely ,

a tt a ch ed t o th e c a r p a l b o n es I t levels .

up the i rr egul a r iti es of the skelet on he r e ,

and f o r m s the sm oo th a n te r i or w a l l o f th e

c arp a l c an a l I t is c o n ti n ued d o wn w a r d
.

t o f or m the s u b car pal o r i nf e ri or ch e c k

l i g am e nt , whi ch ble n ds wi th the te n d o n o f
F I ON O I G' S F
the flexo r pe r for an s a b o ut the mi dd le o f
the met a c ar pus l E t l I t l l t l li g m t ; . u .
, x e rn a . . r in e rna , a e ra a en

The s yn ovi al m e mb rane fOI II l S t h r ee C d ia l p l ; Ci i t m d i t

' p l; C l r , ra ca r a , n er e a e ca r a u , u na r

p l ; C2 d p l ; C3 t h i d p l ; C4
car a secon car a r car a
s a cs c or resp on d i n g to the t hr ee J o l nt S
, , ,

f th p l ; 11 2 d (i t
'

l) m t p l :
’
ou r car a 4 0 , s ec o n n e r na e aca r a

The ra di o-car pal s ac is the m ost v o lum M 3 t hi d (l g ) m t p l; lI 4 f th ( t

p "
. c ,
r ar e e aca r a .
‘
c , our e x er

“ “ m t
i nou s ; i t i n cludes the j o in ts f o r m ed b y th e a e ac a r a

a ccess o r y c ar p a l b o n e a n d a ls o th o se b e ,

tween the p roxi m a l c a r p a l b o n es as far as the i nte r osse o us li g am e nts The .

i ntercarpal s ac se n ds ext e ns i o n s upw ar d a n d d o w n w a r d b etwee n the b on es o f

the tw o r o ws as fa r a s the i n t e r osse o us l ig a me n ts ; it c omm u n i c at es b etwee n
the thi r d a nd f o u rt h c ar p a l b on es with the c arpo-m e ta c arpal s a c The l a tte r is .

ve ry li mited i n e xt e n t an d is cl o sel y a pplied t o the b on es ; i t i n cl oses the c ar p o

,

m et a c arp a l j o i n t a n d lub r i c a tes a ls o the l o we r p a r ts o f the j o i n ts betwee n th e

,

dist a l c ar p a l b on es an d the i n te r m et a c a rp a l j o i n ts .

The e xt erna l l a teral li gam en t (L i g am e n tum c a r pi c o ll a te ra le ul n a r e ) is att a ched

a b o ve to the ext e rn a l tube r o sity o f the dist a l en d o f the r a di us I ts l on g superfi ci a l .

p ar t i s a tt a ch ed b el o w t o t he p roxim a l en d of t he ext e r n a l s m a l l m et a c ar p a l ch iefly ,

1
The t erm i s a v er y un fo r u n a t t e one s i n ce i t i s a di s t inc t mi sa pp li ca ti o n of th e na m e as i t i s
,
.

used in r eg ar d to man I t is h o w e v er v e r y fir ml y es ta b li s h ed a n d a pp ea rs li k e l y t o p ers i s t i n

,

c o n v eni en t p o p u l a r e q
.
, ,

d e fi nit e l y i n t h e a b s en c e o f a ui v a l en t .
1 84 T HE A R T I CU L A T I ON S or r HE
r
H OR S E

b ut s o me fibe r s en d on th e l ar ge met a c ar p a l b on e A c a n a l for the l a te ra l exte n s or .

te n d on sep a ra tes a sh or t deep b an d whi ch e n ds on th e u l n ar c a r p a l b on e Othe r .

deep fibe r s c onn ect the l a tte r with the fo u r th c a r p a l b on e a n d th e f o u rth c a r p a l ,

with th e m et a c a r pus .

The i nterna l l a ter al li g am en t (L ig a m e n tu m c ar pi c o ll a te r a le r a di a le ) r esembles

the p r e cedi n g i n ge n e r a l but is st ron ge r a n d wide r d ist a lly I t is a tt a ched a b ove
,
.

to the i n te rn a l tube r o sity o f the dist a l e n d o f the r a dius a n d e n ds bel o w o n th e

p ro xi m a l e n ds of th e l a r ge a n d i nn e r s m a ll m et a c ar p a l b on es D eep f a sci culi a r e .

det a ch ed t o the ra di a l a n d sec on d c a r p a l b on es The fi r st c ar p a l b on e whe n p r es .

,

ent is usu a l ly e m bedded i n the p o ste r i o r p a r t o f th e d ist a l en d o f th e lig am e n t

,
.

The p o ste r i o r p a r t o f the lig a m e n t is fused wi th the p o ste r i or a nn u l ar li g a me n t

(L ig am e ntu m c a r pi t r an sve r su m ) a nd c on cu r s i n the f or m ati on o f a c an a l for ,

the te n d on o f the fl exor c ar pi i n

te r n u s .

p ec i a l s h o r t li g amen t s A n u mb er of s
c o nn e c t tw o o r m o r e a d j a c en t b o n es ; o n l y
t h e m os t d i s ti n c t o f t h es e w i ll b e d es c r i b ed
h ere .

T h e ac ces so ry c a r p a l b o n e i s c o n
n e c te d w i t h a d j a ce n t b o n es b y t h ree li g a
m e n t s (Fi g T h e p r o xi m a l o n e i s a .

s h o r t b a n d w h i c h ex t end s f ro m th e ac c es
s o r y c a r p a l i n f ro n t of t h e g roo v e o n i ts
ou t er f a c e a nd i s i n s er t ed i n t o t h e d i s t a l
e n d o f t h e r a d i u s b e h i n d th e g roo v e fo r
t h e l a t e r a l ex t en s o r t en d o n A m i dd le .

b a n d c o n nec t s t h e a c cesso r y wi t h t h e
I nter n a l l a t u l nar ca r pa l T h e d i s t a l li ga m e n t co ns i s t s .

er a l l i ga ment o f t w o s t ro n g b a n d s w h i c h p a s s f r o m t h e

I nf eri or l i ga l ow er m a rg i n o f th e a c c ess o ry to th e fo u r t h
men ts of a cces c a r p a l a n d t h e p ro xi ma l e n d o f t h e ou t er
s or y c a r p a l m e t ac a r p a l b o ne ; t h es e b a n d s t r a ns mi t
t h e a c ti o n o f th e m u s c l es w hi c h a re i n ,

s er te d i n t o th e a cc esso ry c a r p a l b o n e .

T h e o t h e r b o n es o f t h e p r o xi m a l r o w a re
co nn e c t ed b y tw o a n t er i o r o r d o rsa l li g a
men t s w h i c h a re t r a ns v ers e i n d i r ec ti o n , ,

a n d t w o i n t e r os s eo u s li g a me n t s A n Ob .

liq u e li g a me n t p a s s es f ro m a n em i n en c e
o n t h e p o s t er i o r s u r f a c e o f th e r a d i a l c a r

p a l b o n e to a s m a l l d e p r ess i o n o n t h e
r a d i u s i n t er n a l to t h e f a c e t fo r t h e ac c es

so ry c a r p a l b o n e
F G I47 —
.

I . L FT CA PAL J O Ts o r H OR S
. E R I NI NN R V I W E T W O li ga m en t s c o nn ec t t h e p ro x i ma l
. E E .

a R a d i ;us 1 2 l (t hi
ard ) m et ac p l b
r n (A f t e E
ar llan
a n d d 1 § t a l I OW S
o e r e
T h e I nn er ‘

g e

B m A m t fa K il ns tl e ) j oi ns th e r a d i a l to t h e s eco nd a nd
.
, .

one
b g er e r- au r r
t h i rd c a r p a l a n d th e o u t er o ne a tt ac h es
. .
,

t h e ul n a r to th e t h i rd a n d f ou r t h ca r p a l s .

T h e b o n es of th e d i s t a l r o w a re co nnec t ed b y t w o s t r o n g t ra ns v ers e a n t er i or o r d o rs a l li g a
men t s a nd t w o i n t ero ss eou s li g a men t s .

T h e re a re f o u r c a r p o me ta c a r p a l li g a m e n t s
-
T w o o b li q u e a n t er i o r b a n d s c o nn ec t th e t h i rd
.

c a r p a l w i t h t h e l a rg e me t a c a r p a l T w o i n t e ro s s eo u s li g a me n ts p a s s d o w n w a rd f ro m th e i n t e r
.

os s eou s li g a me n t s o f t h e d i s t a l ro w to e n d i n d e p ress i o n s i n t h e i n t e rs ti c es b e t w ee n t h e p ro xi m a l
end s o f t h e me t a ca r p a l b on es .

M ov e m e n t s —T a ki n g the j o i n t
wh o l e th e chi ef m o ve m e n ts a r e fl exi on as a ,

a n d exte n si o n I n th e st a n di n g p o siti o n th e j o i n t is exte n d ed

. Wh e n the j o i n t is .

fl exed sl ight l a te r a l m o ve m e n t a n d r o t a ti o n c a n b e p r o d u ced by m an ipul a ti on

, .

The a n te r i o r p a r t o f the c a psu le is o f c o u r se te n se d u r i n g fl exi on the p oste r i or, , ,

p ar t i n exte n si o n .

T h e mo v e me n t p ra c ti ca ll y a l l o c c u rs a t th e r a d i o-c a r p a l a nd i n t er c a r p a l j o i n t s t h e a r ti c u l a r ,

s ur f ac es o f w hi c h a re w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d i n f ro n t d u r i ng fl e xi o n , b u t r e ma i n i n co n ta c t b e h i n d The .

di s t a l r o w re m a i ns i n co n t ac t w i t h t h e m e t aca r p u s T h e i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d u l na r c a r p a l s m o v e
.

to ge t h e r as o n e p i e c e , b u t t h e ra d i a l d o es n o t m o v e s o fa r a s t h e i n t e r m ed i a t e , so t h a t t h e a n t e r i or
a nd i n t e ro s s eo u s li g a m e n t s c o n n e c ti n g t h es e bo n es b e co me t en s e a nd o b li u e i n d i r ec ti o n q .
1 86 T HE A R TI C U L A T I ON S OF T HE H OR S E

The ps u l e i s f u r t h er s t reng t h ened b y a l a y er o f o b li q

ca u e fi b ers w hi c h p as s o v er t h e l a t eral
li g a men t o n e i t h er s i d e a nd e nd o n t h e ex tens o r t end o n a nd t h e p ro xi m a l ext re mi t y o f t h e fi rs t
p h a l an x I t m a y p ro p e r l y b e r eg a rd ed as f as c i a r a t h er t h a n l i g a m en t
. .

M ov e m e nts — These the na tu r e o f fl exi o n a nd exte nsi on the a xis of

a re o f ,

m o ti on p a ssi n g t h r o ugh the uppe r a tt a ch m e n ts o f the l a te r a l lig a m e n ts I n the .

o r d i n a r y st a n di n g p o siti on the j o i n t is i n a st a te o f p a r ti a l d or s al fi exi on , th e a r t i c u

(I n the h i n d li m b it is a b o ut 5
°
l a r a n gle (i n f ro n t ) bei n g a b o ut 1 4 0 to
°

”
gr e ate r ) D i m i n uti on o f this a gle (s
. n o m m m
eti es te ed o ve r exte n si on ) is n or
r

S u perfic i a l fl er or tend on

Deep fl exor tend o n

E r l ens or tend o n
.

S u s pe n s or y l i ga ment
L a ter a l i nl err o s s eou s tend o n

Up per e nd of d i gi ta l s h e a th ,

"
U77 776? and O f ca ps u l e Of fel l oc/c Ri n g f
o s u p er fici a l fl exor ten d o n
3 0 7m I n l er s cs a moi d ca n
-
.
-

l i ga me nt
B u rs a P os ter i or a n nu l a r l i ga ment (c u t)
La ter a l l i ga m ent o f fe tl ock j oi nt
La ter a l s es a moi dea n l i ga me nt
Fas c i a S u p erfic i a l i nf er i or s es a mo i d ea n
l i ga me nt
111 id d l c i nf eri or s es a m oi d ea n
B r a n ch f
o s u s p e ns o r y l i ga ment l i ga me nt
A tta chmen ts of p r oxi ma l di g i ta l
a n nu l a r l i ga me n t

L a tera l vol a r l i ga me nt of pa s tern

j o i nt
P o u ch o f d i gi ta l s h ea th

Di s ta l d i gi ta l a nn u l a r l i ga ment
L a tera l ca r ti l a ge

S us pens o r y l i ga men t of n a vi c u l a r
bo ne
B a n d f r o m l a tera l ca rti la ge to
ex te ns or ten d o n

L a ter a l l i ga m e n t of co fll n j o i n t

FI G . l 5o .
—L A M N T AN D
IG E S TE N D ON S OF D TAL PA T O L M B OF H O S
IS R F I R E .

M c I I I L a rg e m e t a c a rpa l b o n e ; P h I fi rs t p h a l a nx ; P h I I s e c o n
.
, .
, .
, d ph l ; Fi l l l t h i d p h l
a a nx l .
, r a a nx ; 1 , dee pfl e xo r

te nd o n ; 2 ba nd fro m fi rs t ph a l a nx to p l a n t a r c u s h i o n
, .
(A ft S h m lt z A t l
er c a d A , t d as . na . . P fe rd es .
)

m a lly ve ry li m i ted on acc o u n t o f the r esist an ce offe r ed by the sesa mo i d e a n a pp a r a

tus b ut i t v a r ies c on side r a bly i n a m o u n t i n d i ff e r e n t subj ects Vo l ar fl exi on is
, .

l imited o n ly by c o n t a ct o f the h eels w i th the met a c arpus D u r i n g v o l ar fle xi on .

a s m a ll a m o u n t o f l a te r a l fl e xi on is p o ssib le .

THE
LI GAME N TS SE SAMOI D E AN

U n de r th is h e a d wil l b e desc r ibed a n u m be r o f imp o r t a n t liga m e n ts whi ch a r e

c o nn ected with the ses a m o id b on es a n d f o r m a s o r t o f st a y a pp a r a t us o r b ra ce .
 T HE S E S A M OI D E A N LI G A M E N TS 1 87

Th e in ters e s am oi d e an li gam e n t (L i g a m e n tu m i nte rsesa m o i cl eu m ) no t on ly fi lls

the sp a ce betwee n a n d u n i tes th e ses a m o id b o n es but a ls o e x te n ds a b ove the m , ,

e n te r i n g i n t o the f or m a ti on o f th e a r ti cu l a r su r fa ce Of t he fetl o ck j o i n t Othe r .

f a cts i n r eg a r d to i t h a ve bee n give n a b o ve .

The l a ter a l s e sam oi d e an li gam ent s , o ute r a n d i n n e r (L i g am e n t a ses a m o ide a

ul n a r e et r a di a l e ) ar ise o n the a b a xi a l su r f a ce Of e a ch ses a m o i d b o n e p a ss f or w a r d
, , ,

a n d divide i n t o t w o b ra n ches o n e o f wh i ch e n ds i n t he dep r essi o n o n the dist a l e n d,

o f the l a r ge met a c a r p a l b o n e the o the r o n the e m i n e n ce o n t he p r o xi m a l en d o f th e

,

L a r ge m eta ca r pa l bon e

E x ter na l s ma l l meta ca r p a l bone

B if u r ca ti on of s u s p ens or y
l i ga me nt

B if u r ca ti o n o f co m mon d i gi ta l a r ter y
Ca ps u l e of fetl oc k j oi n t (u pp er
p ou ch )
I nte r na l d i g i ta l a r tery
S es a m oi d groo ve

P os ter i or a n n u l a r l i ga ment of
f etl ock (c u t a nd r efl ected )

L a ter a l s es a moi d l i ga men t

S tu m p of di gi ta l a nn u l a r
Obl i q
ue or mi d dl e i nf eri or s es a moid l i ga men t
l i ga men t E x te n s or bra n ch of s u s pe ns ory
S tr a i ght o r s u per fici al i nf er i or l i ga me n t
moid l i ga me nt l ol a r l i ga men ts of p a s ter n j oi n t
'

s esa

I n s er ti on of s u per fici a l fl exor

ten d on
Fi br ou s p l a te
Deep fl exor tend o n

Di s ta l a n nu l a r l i ga ment of d i gi t (c u t La ter a l l i ga men t of pa s ter n j oi n t

a nd refl ec ted )
Di s ta l end o f d i gi ta l s h ea th

S u s p en s or y l i ga ment of
n a vi c u l a r bon e

Dor sa l bra n ch of d i gi ta l a r ter y

'

l ol a r br a n ch of d i gi ta l a r ter y

FI G 1 5 1
. .
—
D PD EE I SS E C TIO N or D TAL P A T
IS R OF RI G H T FO RE Lm n or HO RS E , S H OW I N G JO N T AN D L AM N T
I S IG E S ,

P OS T OR V W
E RI I E .

1 ,
La t e r a l ca r ti l age ; 2 ,
t e nd o n s u r a ce f of n v i c ul
a arb on e; 3 i f i
, n e r o r na vi l
cu ar or i n t e ro s eo u s li g ame n ; t
4, i n e ti n Of d p fl
s r o ee e xo r t e nd on . S m a ll a rro w s p i n t t o o p e n i ng s m a d i n
o e ca p l
su es of pas t e r n a nd co ffi n J o m ts .

(A ft e S h m lt z A tl as
r c a , (1 . A nat . . f
d P e r d es ) .

fi r st ph a l anx They a re p ar tly c o ve r ed b y the b r an ches o f the suspe n s o r y o r

.

supe r i or ses a moi d ean li g am e n t .

The su spen s ory or s uper i o r s e sam oi d e an l igam en t (M uscu lus i n te ro sseus

medius ) li es fo r the g re a te r p a r t i n th e met a c a r p a l groo ve whe r e it h as th e fo rm o f ,

a Wi de th i c k b a n d , I t is a tt a ched a b o ve t o the uppe r p a r t o f the p o ste r i o r su r f a ce

.

o f th e l ar ge m et a c a r p a l b on e a nd t o th e dist a l ro w of c ar p a l b on es At the l o we r .

f o u r th of th e m et a c a r pus i t d ivides i n t o t w o dive r g i n g b ra n ches E a ch b r an ch .

p as ses t o the a b a xi a l f a ce o f the c o rr esp on di n g ses a m o i d on wh i ch a c on side r a b le ,

1 88 T HE A R T I CU L A T I ON S OF T HE H OR S E

p art i s a tt a ch ed Th e r e m a i n de r p a sses obl i quely d ow n w a r d a n d fo r w a r d to th e

.

a n te r i o r su r f a ce o f th e fi r st ph a l a n x whe r e it j o i n s the exte n s or te nd on This,

.

l ig am e n t p o ssesses c on sid e r a b le el a sti city a n d is th e h ighly m o dified i n te r osse o us ,

m ed ius m uscle I t c o nsists m a i n ly o f te n di n o us tissue but c o n t a i n s a v ar i a b le

.
,

a m o u n t Of st r iped m uscul a r t issue espe ci a lly i n i ts deep p a r t a n d i n y o u n g subj ects

,
.

I ts p r i n cip a l fu n cti o n is t o supp o r t the fetl o ck i e t o p r eve n t e x cessive d o r s a l ,

. .
,

fiex i o n Of the j o i n t whe n th e wei ght is put o n the li m b The b r an ches whi ch j o i n .

th e c om m o n exte n s or te n d o n li m i t v o l ar fiex i o n Of the i n te rph a l a nge a l j o i n ts i n

ce r t a i n ph a ses Of m o veme n t
The i nte ri or s e s am oi d e a n li g a m e n ts ar e th r ee i n n u m be r—su p e r fi ci al m iddle
.

, ,

a n d deep The sup erfi ci al or str ai ght li g a m e n t (L i g a me n tu m ses a m o ideu m r e c

.

t u m ) is a fl a t b a n d a n d is s o m ewh a t wide r a b o ve th a n bel o w

1
I t is a tt a ched a b o ve .

to the b a ses Of the ses a m o i d b o n es a n d th e i n te rses am o id lig a m e n t b el o w t o the ,

c o m pleme n t a r y fib rO c a r ti l a ge of th e p r oxi m a l e n d of th e sec on d ph a l an x Th e

- .

mi d d l e l iga m e n t i s t r i a n gul a r with thi ck r o u n ded m ar gi n s (L i ga me nt a o bli qu a ) a nd

, ,

a thi n ce n t r a l p o r ti o n I ts b a se is a tt a ch ed t o th e ses a m o id b o n es a n d i ntersesa

.

m o i d lig a me n t a n d its deep f a ce t o th e t r i a ngu l a r r o ugh a r e a on the p o ste r i o r

,

su r f a ce o f the fi r st ph a l a nx Th e d e ep or c r u ci a te l i ga m en t (L i gam e n t a ses a m o ide a

.

c r uci a t a ) c on sists Of t w o thi n l a ye r s Of fibe r s wh i ch ar ise o n th e b a se of th e ses a

m o id b on es c r o ss e a ch o the r a n d e n d on th e Opp o si te emi n e n ce on th e p r o xi m a l
, ,

e n d o f th e fi r st ph a l a n x .

The s h or t s e sa moi d ea n li ga m en ts (L iga m e n t a ses am o i de a b r evi a ) are best

see n by Ope n i n g the j o i n t i n f ro n t a n d push i n g the ses a m o i d b on es b a ckw ar d ; they
a r e c o ve r ed by the sy n o vi a l m e m b r a n e E a ch is a sh o r t b a n d wh ich exte n ds f ro m
.

the a n te r i or p a r t of the b a se o f the ses a m o i d b o n e o u tw a r d t o th e p o ste r i o r m ar gi n

o f the a r ti cul a r su r f a ce o f the fi r st ph a l a n x .

The i n fe r i o r sesam o i d ea n lig a me n ts m ay b e r eg ar ded as digit a l c on ti n u a ti on s

o f the suspe n s or y lig a m e n t the ses a m o i d b o n es bei n g i n te r c a l a ted i n this r em a r k
,

a b le st a y a pp a ra tus by wh i ch th e fetl o ck is supp or ted a n d c o n cussi o n d i m i n ished .

JOI N T THE P AS TE R N

Th is the pr o xi m a l i nterph a l an g ea l ar ti cu l a ti on (Arti cul a ti o ph a l angis se

,

cu n d e e ) is a gi n gly m us f o r m ed by the j u n cti o n o f th e d ist a l e nd o f the fi r st ph a l a nx

,

a n d the p r o xi m a l e nd o f the sec o n d ph a l a n x .

The ar ti cu l ar su rfa c e s a re : (1 ) On th e fi rst ph a l a n x tw o sl ightly u n equ a l co n ,

vex ar e a s with a n i n te r m edi a te sh a l l o w g r o o ve ; (2 ) o n th e sec o n d ph a l a nx a cor ,

r esp o n di n g su r f a ce c om pleted behi n d b y a pl a te o f fib rO c ar til a ge

,
-
.

The j o i nt c apsu l e is cl ose fitti n g i n f r o n t a n d l a te ra lly whe r e i t bl e n ds with the

-
,

exte ns or te nd o n a nd the l a te ra l li g a m e n ts r espe ctively B eh i n d i t p o u ches upw ar d .

a little a n d is r ei n fo r ced by th e st r a i gh t s e s a m o i d ea n lig a me n t a n d th e b ra n ches Of

the supe r fi ci a l fiexo r te n d o n .

The r e a r e t w o l a te r a l a n d f o u r v o l ar lig a m e n ts .

The l a te ra l l ig a m e n ts , i n te r n a l a nd exte rn a l (L i g a m e n tu m c o ll a te r a l e ra di a le ,

ul n a r e ) a re ve r y sh o r t a nd st ro n g b an ds wh i ch a re a tt a ched a b ove on th e e m i
n e n c e a n d dep r essi o n o n e a ch sid e o f th e dist a l e n d of th e fi rst ph a l a n x a n d bel o w ,

on the e m i n e n ce o n eithe r sid e o f th e p ro xi m a l e n d Of th e se c o n d ph a l an x Th e .

d i r ecti o n Of the l ig a me n ts is a b o ut ve r ti c a l a nd th e r ef or e d o es n ot c o rr esp o n d to , ,

th e d igit a l a xis .

The v o l ar o r po s t e ri or li g am en ts c o n sist of ce nt r a l a nd l a t-e r a l p a i r s Of b ands

whi ch a r e a tt a ch ed bel o w to th e p oste r i o r m a r gi n Of the p r ox i m a l e n d o f the sec o n d
1 Th i s i s o f t en ca l l ed th e Y -s h a p ed li ga m en t —a ra t h er u nd es i r ab l e na m e ,
i
s nc e it is no t
b i f u rc a t e .

Z
I t is l
a so ca l l ed th e V s h a p ed
-
li ga men t .
1 90 T HE A R T I C U L A T I ON S OF T HE H OR S E

ph a l a nx a n d a r e he r e p a rtly ble n ded w i t h t h e l a te ra l li g a m e nts o f th e p a ste r n j o i n t .

They a re di r e cted o bli quely d ow n w a r d a nd b a ckw a r d a n d en d chiefl y o n t he ,

e nds a nd p r o xi m a l b o r de r of the thi rd ses a m o id but det a ch a b r a n ch t o th e i nn e r ,

su r f a ce o f e a ch l a te r a l c a r til a ge a nd wi n g of the thi r d ph a l an x

The i nf eri o r n avi cul ar li g a m e nt (L i g a m e n tu m p h a l a ng eO—
.

ses a m o i deu m ) r ei n
f o r ces the c a psule i n fe r i o r ly I t is a st ro n g l a ye r o f fibe r s whi ch exte n d f ro m th e
.

d ist a l b o r de r o f the thi r d ses a mo id t o the te n d o n su r f a ce Of the t hi r d ph a l an x ,

n e a r the p o ste r i o r m a r gi n o f th e a r ti cul a r su r f a ce

M o v e m e n t s —The chi ef m o ve m e n ts a re fiexi on a n d exte n si on

.

I n th e st a n d .

i n g p o siti o n the j o i n t is exte n ded D u r i n g v o l a r fi ex i o n a ve r y sm a ll a m o u n t Of

.

l a te r a l m o ve m e n t a n d ro t a ti on ca n b e p r o d u ced b y m a n i pul a t i on D o r s a l fiexi on .

i s ve r y li m ited .

D o rs a l fl e xi o n a pp ea rs to b e c h ec k ed m a i n l y b y th e d ee p fl e xo r t en d o n , s i n c e i n c a s es o f ru p
t u re o f th e l a tt er t h e to e t u r ns u p T h e s li g h t mo bi l i t y of th e p os t er i o r p a r t o f th e so c k e t fo r t h e
.

s e co n d p h a l a n x (f o r med b y t h e t h i rd s esa mo i d ) d i m i n i s h es c o n c u ss i o n w h en t h e w e i g h t c o m es
on th e fo o t .

IE N TS OF THE
LI GAIV L ATE RA L CAR TI L A GE S

In dd iti on t o the b a n ds m e n ti on ed a b o ve whi ch a tt a ch the l a te r a l c ar ti l a ges

a ,

t o the ext r e m ities o f the n a vi cul a r b o n e the r e a re th r ee li g a m e n ts o n eithe r side

,

whi ch att a ch the c a r ti l a ges to th e ph a l a n ges .

A n il l d e fin e d el a sti c b a n d p a sses f r o m the mid dle p a r t Of th e b or de r Of th e

-

fi r st ph a l a n x t o the uppe r p a r t of th e c ar ti l a ge det a chi n g a b r an ch to th e pl a n t ar ,

cushi o n .

A sh o r t st r on g b a n d c o nn ects th e a n te r i or ext r e m i ty of the c ar ti l a ge with th e

ro ugh emi n e n ce o n the se c o n d ph a l a nx i n f r o n t o f t h e a tt a chme n t o f th e l a te ra l lig a

m e n t of the c o ffi n j o i n t .

The l o we r b or de r of the c ar til a ge i s c o ve r ed exte r n a l ly by fibe r s wh i ch a tt a ch

it t o the wi n g o f the th i r d ph a l a n x .

THE AR TI CUL ATI ON S OF THE P E LVI C LI MB

THE SACRO-I L I AC AR TI C ULATI ON
This j o i n t (Ar ti cu l a ti o s a c r o i li a c a ) i s a di ar th r osis f or m ed betwee n the au r i cu
-

l ar su rf a ces o f t he s a c r u m a n d i li u m These su r f a ces a r e n o t s m oo th i n the a dult

.
,

but a r e m ar ked by e m i n en ces a nd dep r essi o n s a n d are c o ve r ed b y a thi n l a ye r o f ,

c ar til a ge The j o i n t c avity is a me r e cleft an d is o fte n c r o ssed b y fib r o us b an ds

.
,
.

The c aps ul e is ve r y cl o se fitti n g an d is a tt a ch ed a r o u n d th e m ar gi ns o f th e

,

a r ti cul a r su r f a ces I t is r ei n f or ced by th e v en tr al sa cro-il i a c l i gam e n t (L i ga me n tum

.

s a c ro ili a cu m ve n t r a le ) wh i ch su rr o u n ds th e j o i n t an d is ex ceedi n gl y st ro n g a b o ve
-
, ,
.

The m ove m e nts a r e i n a pp r eci a b le i n th e a d ult— st a bi lity n o t m o bil ity , ,

bei n g the ch ief deside r a tu m .

The f o ll o wi n g li g a m e n ts m ay b e r eg ar ded as a ccess o r y t o th e j o i n t a lth o ugh ,

n o t di r e ctly c o n n ected wi th it .

The d or s a l s a c ro i l i a c l igam ent (L i g a m e n tu m s a c r o il i a cu m d o r s a le b r eve ) is a

- -

st ron g b an d whi ch i s a tt a ched t o the i n te r n a l a ngle (T ube r s a c ra l e ) o f the ili u m an d

the su mm its o f th e s a c r a l spi n es .

The l at era l s a c ro -i li a c li ga m en t (L i g a m e n tu m s a c r o il i a cu m d o r s a le l on gum ) -

i s a t r i a n gul a r thi ck sheet whi ch is att a ched i n f ro nt t o the i n te r na l a n gl e a n d b or de r

,

o f the il iu m a b o ve th e gr e a t sci a ti c n o tch a n d bel o w t o t he l at e ra l b o r de r o f t h e

,

s a c r um I t ble n ds a b o ve with the d o r s a l s a c ro i li a c li g a m e n t b el o w wi th th e

.
-
,

s a c r o sci a ti c li g a m e n t a nd behi nd with the c o ccyge a l f a sci a

-
,
.

T h e s a c r o - s ci a ti c li g a m e n t (L ig a m e n tum sa c ros p i n o s u m et tube r o su m ) is a

 S YM P H YSI S PE L V I S —OB T U R A T OR M E M B R A N E 1 91

qu a d r i l a t e r a l sheet whi ch c om plet es t he l a t e r a l pelvi c w a ll I ts uppe r b orde r i s .

a tt a ched t o t h e b o r de r o f the s a c r u m a n d the t r a nsve r se p r o cesses o f t h e fi r st a n d

sec o n d c o c cyge a l ve rteb r ae I t s l o we r b or de r is a t t a ched to t h e supe r i o r ischi a t i c

.

spi n e a nd tube r ischii B etwee n t hese it b r idge s ove r the exte r n a l b o r de r of t h e

.

isch i um a nd c o m pletes t he lesse r sci a t i c f or a m e n The a n te r i or b o rd e r is c o n c a ve .

an d c o m pletes t he g r e a t e r s ci a t i c f o r a m e n Th e p o s t e r i o r b or de r is fused with t h e .

ve r teb r a l he a d o f t h e se m ime m b r a n o sus m uscle .

The il i o- l u mb ar li gam ent (L ig a m e nt um il i o lu mb a le ) is a t r i an gul a r sheet whi ch -

a tt a ches t he e n ds o f t he l um b a r t ra n sve r se p r o cesses t o t he ve n t r a l su r f a ce of the

i l i u m bel o w t h e a tt a chme n t of th e l o n gi ssi m u s m us cle (Fi g .

e n l ra l s a c ro-i l i a c l i ga me n t

1 E x ter n a l a n gl e

f zl i um
'

1 o

S a cra-i l i a c a r ti c u l a ti o n

P s oa s tu ber cl e
'

Depr es s i o n f or or i gi n of te nd on f
‘

z n ne r o
bi c ep s f emor i s
r pa rt o f tr oc ha nte r maj or
cl er or i p a rt o f tro ch a nter
maj or

—
I l i o p ecti n ea l
e mi ne n ce

Tr ocha n ter m i nor

Fro . l 53 .
—L E PI’ Os Cox s A D J AC N T P A T
E R S or S A C R U M AN D FE M L R
‘

or Ho ns s . A ft
( er Sch m a lt z A tl as

(1 . A uat . d . P fe d e )
r s .

SY MP HY SI S PELVI S
Th e s ym ph ys i s pel vi s i s f o r m ed by th e j u n ct i on of th e t w o o ss a cox ar u m at
th e ve nt ra l m edi a n li n e I n the y o u n g subj e ct t h e b o n es are u n ited by a l a ye r of
.

c ar ti l a ge ; i n the a dult th e l a tt e r is g r a d u a ll y r epl a ced b y b on e t he p r o cess be g in ni n g ,

i n the pub i c p o r ti o n a n d ext en di n g b a ckw a r d Th e un i on is st r e n gt he n ed b y wh ite .

fib r o us tiss ue ab o ve an d b el o w a n d a t r an sve r se b a n d a ls o c o ve r s t he a n te r i o r b or de r
,

of the pub is (pecte n ) N o a pp r eci a ble m o ve m e n t o ccu r s eve n bef o r e s y n o st o sis

.

t akes pl a ce .

OB TUR ATOR ME MB RANE

Thi s (M e m b r a n a o btu r at o r i a ) is a thi n l a ye r of fib r o us t issu e w h i ch c o ve r s th e
obtu r a t or f o ra m e n le a vi n g h oweve r a p as s a ge (C an a li s o btu r at o r ius ) fo r th e
, , ,

o btu r a t o r vessels a n d n e r ve .
1 92 T HE A R TI CU LA I I ON S OF T HE H OR S E
' ‘

THE HI P JOI N T
This j o i n t (A r ti cul a t i o co xw ) is an en d en a r th r osis f or m ed by the p r o xim a l
o f the fe m u r a n d the a cet a bu lum
Ar ti cul ar S u rf a c e s —Th e he a d o f the fe m u r p r ese n ts a n a l m o st he m isphe r i c a l
.

a r ti cul ar su r f a ce whi ch is c o n ti n ued a sh o r t dist a n ce o n the uppe r su r f a ce of the

,

n e ck .I t is m or e exte n sive th an the s o cket wh i ch r eceives it I n te r n a l ly i t is .

cut i n t o by a d eep n o tch for the a tt a chme n t o f the r o u n d a n d p u b o fem ora l li g a -

me nts Th e a cet a bulu m is a typ i c a l c otyl oi d c a v i ty I ts ar ti cul a r su r f a ce is

. .

s o mewh a t c r esce n ti c bei n g d eeply cut i n t o i n te rn a l ly by th e a cet ab ul ar n o t ch a n d

,

AM N T AN D H FI G . 1 54 .
—P E LV I C LI G E S IP Jo w r '
.

1 D l ili li g m t ; 2 l t l
o rs a s a c ro - ili li g m t ; 3
ac a en , a e ra s a c ro - ac a en , i ti li g a m nt ; 4 g e te i ti c
s a c r o -s c a c e ,
r a r sc a

f m ; 5 l
o ra en i ti f m ; li f tt h m t f i t m
, es s e r s c a c o ra len ne o a ac en o n er u scu ar sep t u m b t w b i ep f m o i
e d mi
ee n c s e r s an se

tendi 7
no s u s
; p l f h ip j i t ; 8
, ca t p v
su e o p l i m o n , rec us ar us or ca su a r s l ; 9 o t te d n f i g i n f b i ps
u sc e . u er n o o or o ce

f m i ; 10 i t
e or s l 11 t l g l f ili m ; 1 2 h ft f ili m ; 1 3
n e r na e x e r na a n e o u s a o u p i i h i ti pi ne ; 1 4 p b i s ; 1 5
su er o r sc a c s u

: 1 8 fi ft h l m b pi n : 1 9 2 0 fi t a d se nd c y g ea l
, , , , , . , ,

t b i h ii ; 1 6 t h t m j ; 1 7 mi m mb
u er sc , ro c an er a or , se e r a no s u s , u ar s e , ,
rs n co co c

v tb
er e rae .

f oss a I t is i n c r e a sed a nd deepe n ed by a r i n g of fib rO c arti l a ge the c o tyl o i d

.
-
,

l ig a m ent (L a b r um gl e n o id a le ) whi ch is a tt a ch ed t o th e b on y m a r gi n ; th a t p a r t o f
,

the lig am e n t whi ch c ro sses the n o t ch is c a lled the tr an sv er s e li g am e nt (Fig .

The j o i nt c apsu l e is ro om y I t i s a tt a ched ar o u n d the m ar gi n of th e a cetab .

ulum an d the n e ck of the fe m u r I t is thi ckest exte r n a l ly . .

T h e a tt a c h me n t o n th e f e m u r i s a b o u t 1 c m f r o m t h e ma r g i n o f t h e a r ti cu l a r s u r f a c e , ex c e p t
.

a b o v e , w h ere 2 to 3 c m o f t h e n ec k i s i n t ra c a p su l a r
. A t h i n o b li u e b a n d c o rr es p o n d i n g i n d i r c e .
q
ti o n w i t h t h e r ec t u s p ar v u s mu s c l e rei n f o rc es th e a n t ero -ext ern a l p a r t o f th e c a p s u l e ; t h i s a pp ea rs
to b e t h e f eeb l e h o m o l o g u e o f t h e v e ry s t ro n g i li o- f em o ra l li g a men t o f m a n T h e c a p s u l e i s v e ry .

t h i n u n d er t h e i li o - p s o as a nd i s ad h eren t to th e mu sc l e I n t er na l l y , i ts fi bro u s p a r t i s p er f or a t ed
. .

b y th e p u h o- f e mo ra l a n d r o u n d li g a me n t s a nd th e a r ti c u l ar v ess e l s .
1 94 T HE A R T I C U L A T I ON S OF T HE H OR S E

JOIN T THE STI F LE

Thi s j o i n t (A r ti cu l a ti o ge n u ) whi ch c o rr esp o nds t o the kn ee j o i n t o f m an

,
-
,

i s the l a r gest an d m ost el a b o r a te of al l the ar ti cul a ti on s T a ke n as a wh o le i t .

,

m a y be cl a ssed as a gi ngly m us a lth o ugh it is no t a typi c a l ex am pl e o f th e g ro up

I n r e a l ity i t c o n sists o f t w o j o i n ts —th e f e m or o-pa te ll ar a n d the f emoro-ti b i a l
, .

The fe mor o pate ll ar ar ti c u l a ti on (Ar ti cu l a ti o fe m or o p a tell ar is ) is f o r m ed

- -

betwee n th e t r o chle a of the fe m u r a n d the ar ti cul ar su r f a ce of th e p a tell a

—
.

A r ti cu l ar S ur f a c e s The t r o chl e a c on sists o f tw o slightly o bl iqu e r idges ,

wit h a wi de an d d eep g r oo ve betwee n the m The i n n e r r id ge is m u ch the l a r ge r .

Of the t w o espe ci a lly a t i ts uppe r p a r t whi ch i s wide a n d r o u n ded

,
The o ute r
, .

P r oxi ma l pa r t of f emoro-pa tel l a r ca p s u l e

P a tel l a z E xter nu l f e mor o- p a tel l a r

l i ga men t

Femoro-ti bi a l ca p s u l e

Ill i d rl l e p a tel l a r l i ga men t

E x ter n a l l a tera l l i ga men t
D i s ta l pa r t of f em oro “
S em i l u n a r ca r ti l a ge
p a tel l a r ca p su l e
Tend on of o ri gi n o f l ong ex
ten s or a nd ter ti u s E xter n a l co nd y l e of ti bi a
p er on eu s

P ou ch of f mor o ti bi a l
e -

ca p s u l e

FI G . 1 56 .
—L FT ST F L J N T
E I E OI or HO RS E , L AT AL V W
ER IE .

Th e ca p l
s u es a r e d i ste nd e d a nd th e e x e r na t l p t ll
a e ar li g m t i m v
a en .
s re o ed .

r idge is m u ch n a rr o we r an d is m o r e r egu l a r ly cu r ved ; i ts u ppe r p ar t li es a b o u t

,

a n i n ch behi n d a f ro n t a l pl an e t a n ge n t t o the i nn e r r id ge The a r ti cul ar su rf a ce .

o f the p a tell a is m u ch sm a lle r th an th a t o f the t r o chle a I t i s c om pl eted i nte r n a lly

by a supple m e n t a r y pl a te o f fib r o —
.

c ar til a ge (F i b r o c ar til a go p a tel l ae ) whi ch cu r ves ,

o ve r the i n te r n a l su r f a ce Of the i nn e r lip o f the t r o chl e a A n a rr o w st r ip o f c a r ti l a ge .

i s f ou n d a l on g the o ute r b o r de r a ls o Th e ar ti cul a r c a r til a ge on th e t ro ch le a

.

c om pletely c ove r s b o th su r f a ces of th e i nn e r r id ge bu t on l y a n ar ro w m a r gi n a l are a ,

o n t h e exte r n a l s u r f a ce o f th e o ute r r idge .

C — This is th i n a n d is ve r y c a p a ci o us On th e p a tell a it i s
J o i n t a psul e .

a tt a ched a r o u n d th e m ar gi n o f the a r ti cu l a r su r f a ce but o n the fe m u r th e li n e o f

,

a tt a ch m e n t is a t a v a r yi n g dist a n ce f r o m th e a r ti cul a r su r f a ce On th e i n n e r sid e .

i t is a n i n ch o r m o r e f ro m th e a r ti cu l a r c arti l a ge ; o n the o ute r sid e a n d a b o ve ,

 T HE STI F L E J OI N T 1 95

a b o ut h al f a n i n ch I t p o u ches upw ar d u nd e r th e q u a d r i ceps fe m o r is fo r a dist an ce

.

o f tw o or th r ee i n ches a p a d of fa t sep a ra ti n g the c a psul e f r o m t h e muscle

, .

B el o w the p a tel l a it i s sep ara ted f r om th e st ra ight lig a me nts by a thi ck pa d of

fa t b ut i nf e r i or ly i t is i n c o n t a ct with t he fem orO p a tell ar c a psu les
,
The j o i nt -
.

c a vity i s the m o st exte nsive i n th e b o dy I t usu a lly c om m u n i c a tes wi th the .

i nn e r fem o r o tibi a l j o i n t c a vi ty by a s l i t li ke o pe ni n g S itu a ted a t th e l owest p a r t

- -

o f th e i nn e r r idge o f the t r o chle a A simi l a r b ut sm a l le r c o m mu n i c a ti o n with the

.
, ,

o ute r fem oro p a t el l a r c a psul e is o fte n f o u n d a t t he l o west p a r t o f th e o ute r r idge

-
.

T h e i nne r co mmu ni ca ti o n
pp ear s to b e c ons t a n t i n a d u l t h or s es b u t i s li a b l e to b e o v er
a ,

l oo k ed ou acc oun t of t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s co v er ed b y a v a l v ul a r f o l d of t h e s yn o v i a l m emb ra n e I t .

i s a b ou t h a l f a n i n c h w i d e a n d li es u nd er t h e na rro w a r ti cu l a r a re a w hi c h c o nn e c t s t h e t r oc h l ea
,

a n d i n t er n a l co n d y l e T h e ou t er co mmu ni c a ti o n o cc u rs i n 1 8 t o 2 5 p er c en t o f c a s es a c co r di n g
. .
,

to B a u m I t i s i ns tr u c ti v e t o d i s t end t h i s c a p s u l e a n d t h u s o b t a i n a n i d ea of i ts p o t en ti a l c a p a
.

ci t y a nd re l a ti o ns (Fi g .

A cc essory ca r ti l a ge o f p a tel l a
E xter n a l f emor a-p a tel l a r l i ga men t
I n ter na l r id ge o f tr och le a f femu r
o

l lI i d dl e patel l a r l i ga ment -
E xter na l p a tel l a r l i ga ment

E xterna l f emor a-ti bi a l l i ga me nt

I n ter na l s emi l u n ar car ti l a ge
E xter n a l semi l u na r ca r ti l a ge
I nter n a l pa tel l a r l i ga me nt
E x ter n a l con d y l e o f ti bi a

Tu ber osi ty of ti bi a

FI G . 1 57 .
—L P E
’
I‘ ST I I ‘
LE J o rN T OF HO RS E FR O NT V W
,
IE , IN E XT NE SIO N .

Th e ca ps l es
u a re r e mov ed . 1 8, Fe m u r; 2 0 , p a tel l a : 2 1 ti b i
, a(Af t E ll
. er e n b e rg e r B a u m A na t
— . . fu r K i m s t l e r )
‘

L i g am e nt s —Th e l at eral f e m or o-pa t el l ar li g am en ts , exte r n a l a nd i nte rna l

(L i g am en tum femor o p a tel l ar e fib u l are tibi a le ) a r e tw o thi n b a nds whi ch r ei n f or ce
-
, ,

the c a psul e on eithe r side Th e exte r na l l ig am e n t is f a i r ly disti n ct ; it ar ises f r o m

.

the ext e r n a l epi c on dyl e of t he femu r j ust a b o ve th e l a te ra l fem o r o tibi a l lig amen t -
,

a n d e n ds on the ext e r n a l b o r de r of the p a t ell a Th e i n te rn a l lig am e n t is th i nn e r .

a n d is n ot disti n ct f r o m t he c a psul e ; it a r ises a b o ve t h e i n t e r n a l epi c on dyle a n d ,

e n ds on the p a tell a r fib ro c a r ti l a ge -
.

The pate ll ar li ga m e nts (L i g a m e n t a p a tell ae) a ls o c a lled t h e st r a ight lig a m e n ts ,

of t h e p a t ell a a r e th r ee ve r y st r on g b an ds wh i ch a tt a ch th e p a tell a t o th e tube r o sity

,

o f the tibi a Th e e xt ernal p a te ll ar l i g am en t is a tt a ch ed a b o ve t o th e o ute r p a r t

.

o f th e an te r i o r su r f a ce o f the p a tell a an d b el o w t o th e o ute r p a r t o f th e tub e ro sity ,

.

I t r ecei ves a st ro n g te n d on f r om t h e bi ceps fe m or i s muscle Th e mi dd l e p a t e ll ar .

l i gam e n t exte n ds f r o m the f ro n t Of t he a pex of t he p a tell a t o th e l o we r p a r t of

1 96 T HE A R T I C U L A T I ON s OF T HE H OR S E

the g roo ve o n th e tube r o sity o f the ti bi a a bu r s a bei n g i n te r p o sed betwee n th e ,

l ig a m e n t and th e uppe r p a r t o f the g ro o ve The i ntern a l p a te ll ar li g am e n t is .

a tt a ched a b o ve t o th e p a tell a r fib ro c a r ti l a ge a n d e n ds o n the tube r o sity Of the -

,

tibi a i n te rn a lly to the g r o o ve I t is j o i n ed by the c omm on a p on eu r osis of th e

,
.

g r a ci lis a n d s a r t or i us Th ese S O c a lled lig a m e n ts a re i n r e a lity th e t e nd on s o f

.
-
, ,

i n se r ti o n o f the q u a d r i ceps fe m o r is m uscle a n d t r a ns m i t th e a ct i on of th e l atte r ,

to th e tibi a ; th ey a ls o fu n c
ti on si m i l ar ly for th e o the r
m uscl es a tt a ched to th e m a s
n o ted a b o ve .

It w i llti c ed t h a t th e
be no
u pp e r a t t a c h m e n t s a re f u r t h e r a p a r t
t h a n t h e l o w er on es s o t h a t t h e li g a ,

men t s co n v er g e b e l o w T h e i n n er .

li g a men t i s es p e c i a ll y o b li q ue T he .

mi d d l e li g a m en t i s m o re d ee p l y
(tr i e r l i ga men ts p l a c ed t h a n t h e o t h ers a n d t h ere .

f s emi l u n a r
O ca r f o re c a nn o t u s u a l l y b e fel t d i s ti n c tl y
Ma y i n t h e li v i ng a n i ma l .

FI G . 1 58 .
—S E M I LE N A R CA T LA
R I GES AN D C U C AL L AM N TS o
R I IG E r

RIGH T ST F L I E O HO
F RS E . Th e f e mor o- ti b i a l ar ti cu
17 , F e m o ra l li g a me n t f t
o l
e x e rna ca r til g a(A ft
e S h m lt z A tl
l a ti on (Ar ti cu l a ti o fem or o
. er c a , as

d A t d Pf d l
na
tibi a lis ) i s f o r m ed betwee n th e
er es -

c o n dyles o f the femu r th e ,

p r o xi m a l en d o f th e tibi a a n d th e i n te r p o sed semi lu na r c a r ti l a ges

, .

Ar ti cu l ar S u r f a c e s — The c o n dyles o f th e fe m u r a re slightly o bl iqu e i n d i r e c

ti on The ar ti cul ar su r f a ce o f the o ute r o ne is m or e st ro n gly cu r ved th an th a t Of
.

the i nn e r on e ; th e l a tte r is c o n flue n t bel o w with th e i n n e r r idge o f th e t r o ch le a ,

whi le the n ar ro w r idge whi ch c o nn ects the exte r n a l c on dyle with the t r o ch le a is
usu a lly n on a r ti cul a r The s a ddle sh a ped su r f a ces o f th e c on dyles o f th e tibi a a re
-
.
-

not a d a pted to the fe m o r a l c o n dyles a n d ,

a re i n c o nt a ct with o n ly a sm a ll p a r t Of A n ter i or cr u ci a l l i ga men t

them P os ter i or cr u ci a l
The s e mi l u n ar c ar til a g e s (M e n i scus l i t/a ment
l ate r a lis m ed i a lis ) a re tw o C-sh a ped or
,

c r esce n ti c dis cs o f fib rO c a r ti l a ge whi ch -

p ro duce c o ng r ue n ce i n th e a r ti cul a r su r
f a ces E a ch h a s an uppe r c on c a ve s u r
.

f a ce a d a pted to th e c o n dyle o f the fe m u r ,

a n d a l o we r su r f a ce wh i ch fits the co r

r esp o n di n g c o n dyle o f th e ti bi a Th e .

e x te r na l c a r ti l a ge d o es n ot c o ve r the
o ute r a n d p o st e r i o r p a r t o f th e c on dyle ,

o ve r whi ch the te n d o n o f o r i gi n o f t he

p o pl iteus m uscl e pl a ys The pe r i phe ra l F 1 59 —P n M E N D R HT T AN D IG ox1 AL S or IG i nt /t

W T H S E M I L UN A “ C “
. . .

b o rd e r is thi ck an d c on vex th e ce n t ra l F B U LA H I 0 1“ O RS E I A

AN D C U C AL L AM N T E
,
T I LA G E S R I IG E S xT ER

(M m S h m l t A tl
o n e v e i y th i n a n d c o n c a ve Th e fib rou s
,

Vm w a A ,
.
M N . c a z ,
as . na “

e nds o r c orn u a a re a ttached to the tibi a d Pf d ) . er es .

i n f ro n t o f a n d beh i n d the spi n e The .

e x te r na l c a rti l a ge h a s a thi rd att a chme n t b y me a n s Of a n Obliqu e b an d (L i g a

m e n tu m fe mo r a le m e n i sci l a te r a lis ) wh i ch p a sses f ro m th e p o ste r i o r c o r n u t o the
p o ste r i o r p a r t o f th e i nte r c on dyl o i d f oss a o f the fe m u r .

T h e c o r n u a o f th e i n t e r n a l c a r ti l a g e (Li g a me n ta tibi ze a n t er i u s e t p os t e r i u s m e n i s c i m ed i a l i s )
a r e a tt a c h e d i n f r o n t o f a n d b e h i n d t h e i nn e r e m i ne n c e o f t h e s p i ne T h e a n t er i o r co r n u o f t h e .

e xt er na l c a r ti l a g e (Li g a me n tu m ti b i ae a n t er i u s men i s c i l a t era li s ) i s a t ta c h ed i n f ro n t o f t h e o uter

e mi ne n c e o f the s p i ne T h e p o s t er i o r c o r n u b i f u r c a t es ; th e l o w er b r a n c h (Li g a men t u m t i bi ae
.
1 98 T HE A R T I C U L A T I ON S OF T HE H OR S E

The c r u ci a l li ga m e nts a r e t w o st r o n g r o u n ded b a n ds si tu a ted m a i n ly i n the

i nte r c o n dyl o id f oss a o f th e fe m u r betwee n the t w o sy n ovi a l s a cs They c r oss
,
.

e a ch o the r s o m ewh a t i n th e f o r m o f a n X a n d a r e n a m ed a cc o r d i n g to t hei r ti bi a l ,

a tt a chme n ts The ante ri or c r u ci a l l ig am en t (L i g a me n t u m cr u ci a t u m a nte r i us )

.

a r ises i n the ce n t ra l f o ss a o n the tibi a l spi n e exte n ds upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d , ,

a n d e n ds o n the uppe r p a r t o f th e i n n e r su r f a ce o f th e exte r n a l c o n dyl e o f the femu r .

The p o s t er i or c ru ci a l li ga m e nt (L ig a m e n tu m c r u c i atu m p o ste r ius ) i s i n te rn a l t o

th e p r ecedi n g a nd is s om ewh a t l a r ge r I t is a tt a ched t o a n e m i n e n ce a t th e
,
.

p o plite a l no tch Of the tibi a i s d i r ected upw a r d a n d f o r w a r d a nd e n ds i n th e an

, ,

t e r i o r p ar t o f the i n te r c on dyl o id f o ss a o f th e fe m u r .

S emi mem br a n os n s
Va s tus i nter medi us

P a l el l a

fiI i ddl e l i ga men t of
te l l a

FI G 1 61 RIG
-
HT ST I F L B J OI N T or HO A TTAL S CT ON P A N T H O U H OUT R PA T O I NN
RS E ; S GI E I SS I G R G E R F ER RI D GE

T O C HL A AN D I N T
. .

or R E C O N D Y L O D FO A ER I SS .

1 , A t in e r o r c ru c a i l li g m nt ; 2a e , p t i
os i l li g m t ; 3 p t i
e r o r c ru c a a enf i t l mi l , os er or c o r nu o n e rn a se u na r c a r ti l ag e

4 , f e l li g m nt of e
mo r a a e x ert n l mi l
a se til g ; 6 ti l
u na r c a r at y; p t f v t i t
e , ar c u a r a r er ar o as us n e rnu s .

I t ma y be ad d ed t h a t t h ese li g a me n t s d o n o t l i e i n a sa g i tt a l p l a ne , b u t a r e so mew h a t t w i s t ed
a c ross ea c h o t h er ; o u t w a rd ro t a ti o n o f t h e l eg u n t w i s t s a nd s l a c k en s t h e m .

M o v e m e n ts —The p r i n ci p a l
th e stifl e j o i n t as a wh o l e a re m o ve m e n ts of

fl exi on a n d exte n si o n I n the ord i n a r y st a n d i n g p o siti o n th e a r ti cul a r a n gle

.

(behi n d ) is a b o ut 1 4 0 t o
°
Flexi on is l i m ited on ly b y c on t a ct o f the leg with
th e th igh i f the h o ck i s a ls o fl exed E xte n si o n i s i n c om plete i e the fe m u r .
,
. .
,

a n d tibi a c a n no t b e b r o u gh t i n t o the s a m e st r a i ght l i n e R o t a ti o n is limited .

,

a n d is f r eest d u r i n g se mi fiex i o n The p a tell a gl ides on th e fe m o r a l t r o chle a u p

.

w ard i n exte n si o n d o w nw a r d i n fl exi on , .

E xt en s i o n i s c h ec k e d m a i n l y b y t en s i o n Of th e c ru c i a l a n d l a t er a l l i g a m en t s I n ex t rem e .

e xtens i o n w h i c h i s a cc o m p a n i ed b y s li g h t o u t w a rd ro t a ti o n o f th e l e g , t h e p a t e l l a ca n b e p u s h ed
,

u p w a rd a n d i n w a r d s o t h a t i ts fi b ro -c a r ti l a e h oo k s o v er t h e u p p er e n d o f t h e i n n er r i d e o f t h e
g g
t ro c h l ea , b u t i t w i l l no t r ema i n t h er e u n l ess h e l d i n p os iti o n W h en p ress u re i s remo v ed , th e b as e .

o f t h e p a t e ll a ti p s f o r w a rd a nd t h e c a r ti l a e li es u p o n t h e m os t p ro m i n en t p a r t o f t h e t ro c h l ear
g
 TI B I O F I B ULA R
-
A R T I C U L A T I ON —T HE H OC K J OI N T 1 99

r i d ge . D u r i ng fle xi o n w h i c h i s a cc o m p a n i ed by S li g h t i n w a r d r o t a t i o n o f t h e l e g , t h e co nd y l es
,

of t h e f e m u r a nd t h e s em i l u n a r c a r ti l a g es g li d e b ac k w a r d o n t h e ti b i a ; t h e m o v e me n t o f t h e e x
t er na l co n d y l e a nd ca rti l a ge i s g rea t er t h a n t h a t of th e i nn e r one I n e xt reme fl e xi o n t h e p a t e l l a r .

and p os t e r i o r cr u c i a l li g a m en t s a r e t en s e ; t h e o t h er li g a m en t s a re r e l a xe d T h e m o v e me n t o f t h e .

p a t e ll a i s g li d i ng w i t h c oa p t a ti o n , i e , d i ff eren t p a r t s o f t h e Opp os i ng a r ti c u l a r s u r f a c es co me i nt o
. .

co n t a c t s u c ces s i v e l y On l y a n a rro w t r a ns v e rse s t r i p (ca

. to 2 c m w i d e ) o f t h e p a t e ll a i s i n . .

co nt a c t w i th t h e t r o c h l e a a t a ti m e .

TI B I O F I B — U LAR AR TI C UL ATI ON
Th e he a d of th e fib ul a a r t i cul a tes with a c r esce n ti c f a cet j ust bel o w th e o ute r
m a r gi n of th e exte r n a l c o n dyle o f t he tibi a The j oi n t c aps u l e is st ro n g a nd cl ose . .

The S h a ft o f th e fib ul a is att a ch ed to the exte r n a l b or de r of th e tibi a by th e i n ter

o s s e o u s m e mb ran e o f the leg (M emb ran a i n te r osse a c r u r is ) ; th is is pe r fo r a ted ‘

a b o ut an i n ch f r om i ts p r o xi m a l e nd by a n o pe n i n g whi ch t r a n s m its the a n te r i o r

tibi a l vessels t o the f ron t o f th e tibi a A fib ro us c o r d usu a lly ext e n ds f r om t h e .

dist a l end o f th e sh a ft of t he fib ul a t o th e exte rn a l m a lle o lus Th e l a tte r is the .

dist a l en d of th e fibul a wh i ch h a s fused with the ti bi a N O a pp r eci a ble m o ve m e n t .

o ccu r s i n th is j o i n t .

- Q

FI G . 1 62 .
—L FT
E Ho c x J OI N T o r H O S E E X T NAL FI 1 63 —L I H OC K J O N T o H OR
R ,
ER G . . EF
’ ‘
I r SE , I N T NAL
ER

VI E W .
V W I E .

21 Ti b i ; 24 , t u be r c a lc i ; 2 5 l g m t ta l b n ; 4 7 l ng e t n l l t l li g m t ; 5 1 l ng i nt
ar e e a rs a o e o x er a a e ra a en o erna ll t
a e ra l
li g a me nt (A fte E ll nb g e B m A n t fi K i l s t l )
, a s , ,
,

. r e er r- au , a . r n er .

THE HOCK J OI NT
Th is is a c o mp o site j o i n t m a de up of a n u m be r of a r ti cul a ti on s (Ar ti cul a t i on es
t ar si ) These a re : (1 ) The tib i o t ar s a l art i cul at i on ; (2 ) t he i n te r t a rs a l a rt i cu l a-

ti o n s ; (3 ) the t ar s o—
.

m et a t ar s a l a r ti cul at i o n .

The ti b i o -tar s al ar ti cu l a ti o n (A r ti cul a ti o t a l o c r u r a lis ) is a typi c a l gi n gly m us -

f o r m ed by th e t r o chl e a of t he tibi a l t a r s a l b on e (ast r a g a lus o r t a lus ) a n d t he cor

r esp o n di n g su r f a ce of the di st a l e n d o f t h e tibi a The r idges and g r oo ves o f these .

°
su r f a ces a r e d i r ected o bl i quely f o r w a r d a n d o utw a r d a t a n a ngl e of a b o ut 1 2 t o
with a s a gitt a l pl an e The t r o chle a r su r f a ce is a b o ut twi ce as e xten s w e a s th a t
.

o n the t ibi a a n d its r idges h a ve a S pi r a l cu r v a tu r e

,
The othe r a r t i cul at i o n s a re .
2 00 T HE A RTI C U L A TI ON S OF T HE H OR S E

ar th ro di a whi ch h a ve j o i n t su rf a ces a n d li g am e n ts o f su ch a n a tu r e as to a ll o w
,

o n ly a m i n i m a l a m o u n t o f glidi n g m o ti o n .

A S i n the e a se o f the c a rp a l j o i n ts i t is c o n ve n ie n t t o desc r ibe fi r st th e c o mm o n

,

c apsul e a n d li g am e nts whi ch a r e the m or e i m p or t a n t p ra cti c a l ly a n d the n t o

, ,

c on side r ve r y b r iefly the S pe ci a l lig a m e n ts .

The fib r o us p a r t of the j o in t c apsu l e is a tt a ched a r o u n d the m a r gi n o f the

tibi a l a r ti cul ar su r f a ce a b o ve a n d the m et a t a rs a l su r f a ces bel o w ; i t is a ls o a tt a ched
i n p a r t t o the f r ee su r f a ce o f the b o n es wh i ch i t c o ve r s a nd b le n ds wit h the l a te r a l ,

l ig a m e n ts I ts a n te r i or p ar t (an te r i or li g am e n t ) is r a th er thi n ; i n d iste n ti on o f th e

.

,
— ” “
c a psu le as i n b og sp av i n its a n te r o i n te rn a l p a r t whi ch i s n ot b o u n d d ow n b y
,
-
,

the te n d on s p a ssi n g o ve r the j oi n t f o rm s a fl uct u a ti n g swelli n g ove r the i nn e r r idge

,

of the t r o chle a The p oste r i or p ar t (p o ste r i o r and t a r s o m et a t a rs a l l ig a me n ts ) i s

.
-

ve ry thi ck a nd is i n ti m a tely a tt a ched to the t a r s a l b on es I ts supe r fi ci a l f a ce is

,
.

i n p ar t c a r ti l a gi n o us a n d f o r m s a s m oo th su r f a ce for the pe r f o r a n s te n d o n
,
Su .

p er i or l y i t p o u ches upw a r d behi n d th e d ist a l en d o f the tib i a for a d ist a n ce o f a b o u t

,

S hor t i n ter n a l l a ter a l l i ga m e n t

L ong i nter n a l l a ter a l l tga m en t

.

I
a
E xter n a l l a ter a l l i ga men t

I n ter n a l s ma l l meta ta r s a l bone

E x ter na l s ma l l meta ta r s a l bone

FI G .
—L FT H O C K J O N T O H O S AN T O V W
1 64 . E I F R E ,
E RI R IE .

91 i i
T b a ; 22 , t ro c h l ea of ti b i l t l b ; 2 5 l g m t t
a a rs a o ne l b : 50 d l
ar e e a a rs a o ne o rs a or Ob li q u e li g a me n t (A ft e r
B m A t fi K u t l )
.
, .

E ll b g en er e r- au , na . r ns er .

tw o i n ches (ca 5 I n fe r i or ly it is c on ti n ued d o wn w a r d f or mi ng th e s u b

.
, ,

tar s a l o r ch e ck l i ga m e nt , whi ch u n ites with th e pe r f o r a n s te n d on a b o ut th e middl e

o f the m et a t a r sus .

The r e a r e f o u r syn ovi al s a c s : 1 Th e ti b i o -ta r s a l s a c l ub r i c a tes th e p r o xim a l

.

j o i n t and is m u ch the l a r gest a n d m ost i m p or t a n t I t is ch i efly i n v o lved i n th e

, .

swel li n g p r o duced b y excess of fl uid i n the j o i n t c a vi ty wh e n the c a psu le b ul ges

a n te r o— i n te r n a lly an d p o ste r o —
,

supe r i o r l y 2 Th e fir st i n tertar s a l s a c li n es th e j o i n ts
. .

f or med by the tibi a l an d fib u l a r t a r s a l b o n es ab o ve an d the ce nt ra l a nd f o u r t h ,

t ar s als b el o w ; i t c o mm u n i c a tes i n f r on t wi th th e p r o xi m a l sy n o vi a l c apsu le 3 . .

The s e c o n d i nt ertar s a l s a c lub r i c ates the j o i n ts f o r m ed betwee n th e cent ra l t ars a l

a n d th e b o n es bel o w an d o n ei the r side 4 The ta r s o-m e ta tar s al s ac lub r i c a tes . .

the j o i n ts f or m ed betwee n the t ar s a l an d met at a rs a l b on es th ose betwee n th e

p roxi m a l e n ds o f th e m et a t a r s a l b o n es an d th o se f o r m ed b y th e thi r d t ar s a l with ,

the b on es on ei the r side .

Co mm on L igam e n ts — Th e e xte rn a l l a tera l l ig am e n t (L ig am e n tu m c o ll a te ra l e

2 02 T HE A R T I C U L A T I ON S OF T HE H OR S E

(l ) T h e ti b i al a nd fib u l ar t ars al b o n es a re u n i t ed b y f o u r b a n d s (a s t ra g a l o-ca l c a nea l li g a

m en t s ) T h e in t e rn al l i g a m e nt e x ten d s f ro m t h e su s t e n t a c u l u m t a li to th e a d j a cen t p a r t o f t h e
‘

ti b i a t a rs a l b l end i ng w i t h t h e S h o r t l a t er a l li g a men t T h e e xt ern al li g am en t ext end s f ro m t h e

, .

an t eri o r p r oc es s o f t h e fib u l a r t a rs a l to t h e a d j a c en t p a r t o f t h e ex t er n a l ri d g e o f t h e t roc h l ea .

T h e s u pe ri or l i g a m e n t e x t e n d s f ro m t h e p os t e r i o r m a rg i n o f t h e t r o c h l e a to t h e fi b u l a r t a rs a l .

T h e i n t er o s s e o u s li g a m e n t i s d ee p l y p l a ce d i n t h e s i n u s t a rs i be t w een t h e tw o b o nes a nd i s a tt a c h ed ,

i n t h e ro u g h a r eas o f t h e o pp os ed su r f a ces .

(2 ) T h e s m a ll er bo n es a re a tt a c h ed to ea c h o t h er as f o l l o w s : T h e c en t r a l a nd t hi rd t a rs a l a re
u n i t e d b y a n i n t e ross eo u s a nd a n o b li q ue a n t er i o r li g a men t (s c a ph o i d o—cu n e a n li g a men t s ) .

T h e c en t r a l a nd f o u r t h t a rsa l a r e u n i t ed b y a n i n t er o s s eo u s a n d a t ra n s v er s e e xt er n a l li g a me n t
(cu b o id o s c a p h o i d li g a m en t ) T h e t h i rd a n d f ou r t h t a rs a l s a re s i m i l ar l y co nnec t ed (c u b oi d o
- .

c u nea n li g a me n t s ) T h e t h i r d t a rs a l i s j o i n ed b y a n i n t er os s eou s (i n t erc u n e a n ) li g a m en t to t h e

.

S u perfici a l fl cxor tend on

Ga s troc n emi us ten d o n

Ta r sa l ten d on of
bi ceps f emor i s
Ti bi a l i s a n ter i or
Ca l ca nea n bu rs a

Ga s tr ocnei ni u s
bu r s a .
P er on e u s ter ti us

Ti bi a l ta r s a l bo ne

Ti bi a-ta rs a l j oi n t ca vi ty
I n ter os s eou s l i ga
J Oi n t ca ps u l e
P l a nta r l i ga ment
Centra l ta rsa l bone
F ou r th ta r s a l bon e
Thi r d ta rs a l bon e

Int erosseou s l i ga men t

L a r ge meta tars a l bone Di sta l an nu l ar l i ga ment

S u s pen sor y l i ga men t

Ch eck l i ga ment

FI G . 1 66 .
—S A G I TT A I . SE CT ON
I OF H OC K OE HO RS E .

(f u sed ) fi rs t e
a nd s c o nd t ars a l s ; th e l a tt er a re co nnec t ed w i t h th e f ou r t h t a rs a l b y a t ra ns v ers e
p os t eri o r l i g a men t .

(3 ) T h e s ma ll er b o nes a r e co nne c t ed w i t h t h e u pp er r ow as f o l l o w s : Th e c en t ra l i s a tt ach ed

to th e t i b i a l t a rs a l b y p o s t er i o r a n d i n t ero s s eou s (a s t r a g a l o s ca p h o i d ) li g a m en t s a n d to th e fi b u l a r
-

t a rs a l b y a s h o r t o b li q u e (ca l c a n eo—
,

s c a p h o i d ) b a nd T h e f ou r t h i s a tt ac h ed to t h e fibu l ar t a rsa l
.

b y i n t er oss eo u s a nd p os t e r i o r (ca l c a n eo c u b o i d ) li g a men t s

-
Th e (f u s e d ) fi rs t a nd s ec ond t arsa l s
.

a r e co n nec t ed W i t h th e fib u l ar t a rs a l b
y a p os t e r i o r (c a l c a n eo cu n e a n ) li g a m en t - .

(4 ) Th e l o w er t a rs a l b o nes a re co n nec t ed w it h th e m e t a t a r su s by t a rso m e t a t a rs a l li g a men t s -

,
w h i c h a re no t d i s ti n c t f ro m t h e c o m mo n li a m e n t s exc e p t i n t h e c as e o f t h e i n t e ross eou s li a men t
g , g
b e t w ee n th e t h i r d t a rs a l a n d m e t a t a r s a l b o nes .

M o v e m ents .
—These fl exi on a nd
exte n si o n wh i ch t a ke pl a ce a t th e tibi o
a re ,

t ars a l j o i n t Th e m o veme n ts b etwee n th e t ars a l b o n es a n d betwee n th e l a tte r

.
,

a n d the m et a t a r sus a r e so l imi ted a s t o b e n egl igible so fa r as t he a cti o n of the j o i n t

,

a s a wh o l e is c o n ce r n ed I n th e st an di n g p o siti on th e a r ti cul ar a n gle (i n f r o n t )

.

C o m plete exte n si o n is p r eve n ted by te n si o n o f th e l a te r a l

°
is a b o ut 1 50 to
l ig am e n ts Fl ex i o n is checked o n l y by c on t a ct o f th e m et a t a r sus with th e l eg
.
,
 J OI N T S AN D LI G A M E NTS OF T HE V E R T E B R JE 2 03

p ro v id ed th e sti fle j o i n t is a ls o fl exed Owi n g to th e f a ct th a t th e axis of m o ti o n .

i s slightly o b l ique th e l o we r p a r t o f the li m b devi a tes s o m ewh a t o utw ard d u r i n g

,

fl e xi o n .

T h e m o v e men t s of th e h oc k j o i n t m u s t co r res p o n d w i t h th o s e o f th e s ti fl e o n a cco u n t o f tl i e

t end i no u s ba n d s i n f r o n t a nd b ehi nd (p er o neu s t er ti us a nd fl exo r p er f ora t u s ), w h i c h ext end f ro m
th e l o w er p a r t o f t h e f emu r t o t h e t a rs u s a n d me t a t a rs u s .

The r em a i n i n g j o i nts d i ffe r i n no m a te r i a l r espect f r o m th o se o f the th ora ci c

COMP AR ATI VE AR THR OLOGY 1

JOI NTS AN D LI GAM E N TS OF THE VE R TE B R AE

Ox —The li g am en tu m n u ch ae is b ette r devel o ped th a n i n th e h o r se
.
The .

fu n i cul ar p ar t is cle a r ly di vided i n t o tw o l a te r a l h a lves whi ch a r e r o u n d at thei r ,

o ccipi t a l a tt a ch m e n t but f r o m the a xis b a ckw ar d be c o m e r a pidly W ide r a n d fl a t

, .

This wide p o r ti on is a l m ost s a gitt a l li es on eithe r si de of th e ve r teb r a l spi n es a n d ,

,

i s c o ve r ed by the t r a pez ius a n d r h om b o i deus m uscles F r o m t he high est p a r t o f .

FI G . 1 67 —L AM N T U M N
. IG E U C HE or Ox .

a Fu ni c u l ar pa t ;r b, w id po ti on ;
e r 0, d l a me ll ar p t ; i te rs pi n u s lig
ar c, n o a me n t s: 1 s p i no us p ro ce ss o f fi rs t t h o rac i c
B m A t
, .

v tb er e ra ;
‘
9
a xi s .
(E ll n b g
e er e r- au , na . d . H a us ti e re .
)

t he withe rs (th i r d th ora ci c spi n e ) i t g ra du a lly d i m i n ishes i n si z e a nd fa des o ut i n

the l u m b ar r e g i o n The l am ell a r p a r t is thi ck a n d c on sists o f a n te r i o r an d p os
.
,

t er i or p a r ts Th e a n te r i o r p a r t is d o uble ; its fibe r s p ro ceed f r om t he fu n i cul a r

.

p art to the sec o n d thi r d an d f o u rth ce r vi c a l spi n es

, ,
The p o ste r i o r p ar t is si n gle ; .

its fibe r s exte n d fr o m th e fi rst th o ra ci c spi n e t o the fifth sixth a nd seven th ce rvi c a l , ,

spi nes .

The i n fe r i or c o mm on lig a me n t is ve r y st r on g i n the lu m b a r r e g i on .

Th e i nt e r ve r teb ra l fib r o— c a r til a ges a re thi cke r th a n i n the h o r se .

The i n te rspi n o us l ig a me n ts o f th e b a ck a n d l o i n s c on sist l a r gely o f el asti c

tissue .

Th i s ec ti o n i t e e i ly ly b ri e f t t emen t mos t i m po r t a n t d i ffe re nc es

1
s c o ns s s n c s s a r on of a s a of th e
i n th e j o i nt s of th e o t h er ani m a l s .
 2 04 C OM P A R A T I V E A RT H R OL OG Y

Th e r e i nt e rt ra n sve r se jo i n ts i n t he lu m b a r r e gi on
ar e no

P i g —Th e li g a m e n tu m n u ch ae is r ep r ese n ted by a fib r o us r a ph e an d th i n

.

l a ye r s o f el asti c tissue wh ich exte n d betwee n the ce r vic a l spi n es

The a tl an t o o cci pit a l a n d a tl an t o—
.

-
a xi a l j o i n ts r ese m ble th o se o f the d o g .

The i n te r spi n o us liga m e n ts o f the n eck a r e e l a sti c

D og —Th e lig a m e n tu m n uch ae c o n sists o f a s m a ll fib r o us b a n d whi ch exte n ds
.

fr om the spi n e o f th e a xis t o th e an te r i or th or a ci c spi n es ; it m ay b e r eg ar ded a s a

me r e fib r o us ra ph e b etwee n the r ight a n d left m us cles .

The r e a r e i n te r spi n o us mus cl es i n ste a d o f li g am e n ts i n th e n eck .

The r e ar e th r ee lig a m e n ts i n c onn ect i on with the o d on t o i d p r o cess Th e tw o .

a l a r l ig a m e n ts (L i g a m e n t a a l a r i a ) a r ise o n eithe r sid e o f the o d on t o i d p r o cess ,

d i ve r ge an d e n d on eith e r sid e o f the f or a m e n m a gn u m The t ran sve r se lig am e n t

,
.

o f th e a tl a s (L ig am e ntum t r a n sve r su m a tl a n tis ) st r et ches a c r oss t h e d or s a l su r f a ce

of th e o d o n t o i d p r o cess a n d bi n ds it d o w n o n th e ve n t r a l a r ch o f the a tl a s a bu r s a ,

b ei n g i n te r p o sed I t is a tt a ched on ei the r si de t o th e l a te r a l m a sses o f the a tl a s

Th e t w o c a psules o f th e a tl a n t o —
. .

o c ci pi t a l j o i n t c om mu n i c a te with e a ch o the r ,

a n d usu a lly w ith the c a psul e o f th e a tl a n t o a x i a l j o i n t a ls o -

.

AR TI CUL ATI ON S OF THE THOR AX

Ox —The sec o n d to the eleve n th c o st o ch o n d r a l j o i n ts i n clusive
.
-
di ar th r oses are

wi th cl ose c a psules r ei nf o r ced exte r n a l ly

, (They a re sy n ch on d r oses i n th e sheep )
. .

The uppe r p ar ts of th e c ar til a ges a r e a tt a ched t o e a ch o the r by disti n ct el a sti c

lig am e n ts (L i g am e n t a i n ter cos t al i a )
The fi r st p a i r o f ch on d r o—
.

ste r n a l j o i n ts a re sep a r a te f r o m e a ch o the r ; i n te r

c r o ssi n g fibe r s u n ite the c o st o— ch o n d r a l j u n cti on s a b o ve th e j o i n ts .

Th e fi r st se gme n t of th e ste rn u m fo r m s a di ar th r osis w ith th e b o dy The .

a n te r i o r j o i n t su r f a ce is c o n c a ve th e p oste r i or c on vex The j o i n t (Ar ti cul a ti o

,
.

i n ters tern a l i s ) is su rr o u n ded by a cl o se c a psule a n d the j o i n t su r f a ces a r e a tt a ch ed

—
to e a ch by a s m a l l i n t r a a r ti cul a r li g a m e n t
,

L i mited l a te r a l m o ve m e n t i s p ossi ble

. .

(I n th e sh eep the j o i n t i s a sy n ch o n d ro sis ) .

B o th su r f a ces of the ste rn u m a r e c o ve r ed by a l a ye r o f fib r o us tissue

P i g —The sec o n d t o the fifth o r si xth c o st o ch o n d r a l j o i n ts a r e d i a r th r o ses
.

-
.

The i n te r ste r n a l ar ti cul a ti on a n d th e ste r na l li g am e n ts r esemble th o se o f the o x

D og —The fi r st ch o n d r o ste rn a l j o i n ts d o n o t c o a lesce
.

-
.

Th e i n te r n a l ste r n a l l ig a me n t d i vi des i n t o th r ee b a n ds .

TE lVlP OR O MAN DI B
-
ULAR AR TI CU L ATI ON

Ox .
—
The a r ti cul ar su rf a ces a r e of su ch
~
a ch a r a cte r as t o pe r mit m o r e exte nsive
l a te ra l m o ve m e n t th an i n th e h o r se .

T he c ond y l e o f th e m a n di b l e i s r e l a ti v el y s ma l l a nd i s co nca v e tr a n s v ers e l y T h e t em p o ra l

.

a r ti c u l a r s u r f ac e i s ex t e n s i v e a nd i s c o n v ex i n b o t h di r ec ti o ns T h e p os t g l e n o i d p roc es s i s s m a l l
. .

Pig —The c o n side ra ble l o n gitudi n a l di a m ete r o f t e m p o r a l a r ti cul a r s u r

th e
f a ces a n d the ve r y sm a ll si z e of th e p o stgle n o id p ro cess a ll o w g r e a t fr eed o m o f
p r o t r a cti o n an d r et r a cti on o f th e l o we r ja w La t e r a l m o ve m e n t is limited
.
- Th e .

p o ste r i or li ga m e n t is a bse n t
D o g —The a r ti cul a r su r f a ces a l l o w ext r emel y l i ttle l a te r a l o r gl idi n g m o ve m e n t
.

They a r e cyl i n d r i c a l i n cu r v a tu re a nd th e i nt e ra r ti cul a r d i sc i s ve ry th i n The

, .

p oste r i or l i g am e n t is a bse n t .

The o the r a r ti cul a ti o n s o f th e skul l a re suffi cie n tly des c r ibed i n the Ost e o l o gy .
2 06 C OM P A RA TI V E A R T H R OL OG Y

the a c cess o r y c ar p a l wi th the dist a l en d of the u l n a and st r on g b an ds c onn ect

,

the dist a l b ones w ith t h e

m et a c a r pus .

The i nter o sse o u s an d i n

t er or d i n a l li g a me n ts v a r y w ith
th e n u m be r o f c ar p a l b on es
p r ese n t i n th e di ffe r e n t spe ci es .

I N TE RME TACARP AL JOIN TS

th e ox th e s m a l l (fifth )
In
m et a c ar p a l b on e a r ti cul a tes
with th e l a r ge m et a c ar p a l but ,

n o t with th e c a r pus The j o i n t .

c a vity is c onn ect ed w ith th a t

o f th e c ar p o m et a c a r p a l s a c-
.

Th e p r o xi m a l en d of the s m a l l
m et a c a r p a l b on e is a tt a ch ed
b y a li g am e n t t o th e f o u r th
c ar p a l a n d an o th e r b an d ex
,

t e n ds f r o m its dist a l p ar t t o
th e si de o f th e l ar ge m eta car
p al . The r e i s a ls o a n i n te r
o sse o us li g a me n t wh i ch is p e r ,

m a n e n t a n d a ll ows a s m a l l
a m o u n t o f m o ve m e n t .

Th e ch i ef m et a c ar p a l
b o n es o f t h e p i g a n d the se c on d ,

t o the fi fth o f th e d o g a r ti cu ,

l a te w ith e a ch o the r at thei r

p ro xi m a l e n ds a n d ar e c onn ect ,

ed by i n te r o sse o us lig a ments ,

whi ch d o n ot h o weve r u n ite , ,

the m cl osely as i n the h o r se , .

ME TACAR P O P HAL AN GE AL -

J OI N TS
Ox —T h e r e a re tw o
—D TAL PA T
.

FI G . 1 68 . IS H OW N L AM N T R OF LI
e a ch di gi t The MB OF Ox , S I G IG E S
j o i n ts o ne fo r
AN D T O AN D C O P ON D N A n
.
,
O D END Ns NE i GiT RR ES I G '
r i cu

B ON tw o c apsul es c omm u n i c a te
.

P A T O NI LAR R R M OV D F E T A CA R P A L E AR E E E .

S p a y li g m t; us b h f
e ns o r t p fi i lfl
p o ste r i or ly
a Th e tw o i n te r
en a
'
r a nc o a o su er c a ex o r
.

t d ; "
, ,

en on l t l d a t l b h f ; b d p fi
di git a l l a te r a l li g a me nts (L i g a
a e ra an c e n ra ra n c es o a ee exor

p fi i l fl
, ,

t d ; b b f b t d i g it m v d;
’
h
m e n t a co l l a t era l i a i n t er di gi
en on , ra n c o o re o e c, c, su er c a e x or

ten d ; d d on i t m i d li g m t ( t ) ;
,
’
. i t d i g it l l t l
n e rs e s a o a en cu e. n er a a e ra

li g m t f f tl k j i t ; f t d
a en o ef mm n oc t t a li a ) r esu lt f r om th e b i fu r c a
o n
; g p i , en on o co o e x e ns o r , ro x

m l i t d i g it l li g m t ; h d i g it l
a n er a l li g m t ; i p t i
a
ti on Of a b a n d wh i ch a r ises i n
en , a a nnu ar a en , os er or

l li g m t f f tl k ; k l t l li g m t f p t
a n nu a r a en o j i t;
e oc a era a en o as e rn o n

1 d i t l i t d i g it l li g m
, s a t; m
n er a
the fu rr o w b etwee n th e d ivi
i l i t d i g it l li g m t a en
,

, c ru c a n er a a en

tt h m t f m t d ph l si on s o f th e d ist a l en d o f the
d di t l
”
( t): m m
’
cu , , a ac en s o o se c o n a a nx an s a

s es am id b ; o p y li g m
o ne t f di t ln , m id ;
l a r ge met a c ar p a l b o n e ; th ey
sus e ns o r a en o s a s es a o 0 , an

t i
e r or l ti li g m t ; p l t l v l li g m t f p t
e as c a en j i t , a e ra o ar a en o as e rn o n

1 m t p e w aca r3 t I ; 2 fi t ph l
us , sa ; 3
sp r e a d ou t a n d en d o n th e
n 0d ph l a
’
rs a a nx s ec o n a a nx

B m A t d H ti )
, . . ,

4 th i d ph l
,
r (E ll b g a a nx .
p r oxi m a l e n ds o f the fi r st
en er e r- au , na . . aus e re .

ph a l a n ges A st ron g s up er i or .

i nt e r d igital l ig am ent (L i g am e n tum i n te r digit a le ) c on sisti n g o f sh o r t i n te r c r ossi n g ,

fibe r s u n ites the m iddles of th e i n te r digit a l su r f a ces o f the fi r st ph a l an ges

, .
 M E T A C A R P O P H A LA N G E A L J OI N T S
-
2 07

C r u ci a l lig a m e n ts (L i g a m e n t a p h al a n go —
sesa m o id eae) c o nn e ct the ses a m o ids

with th e p ro xi m a l en d o f the o pp o site fi r st ph a l an x .

Th e in te r ses a mo id lig a me n t c o nn ects al l f o u r ses a mo ids a n d exte nd s upw ar d ,

mu ch less t h an i n th e h orse .

The l a te r a l ses a moid e a n l i g a m e n ts en d a lm o st e n t i r ely on th e fi r st ph a l anges .

The supe r fi ci a l i n fe r i o r sesamoid ean li g a me n t is a bse n t Th e mi ddle i n fe r i o r .

sesa mo i d e a n lig a me n ts o f e a ch d i gi t ar e t w o S h o r t st r on g b an ds wh i ch exte n d f ro m

the dist a l m ar gi n s of th e ses a m o ids to t he p ro xi m a l e nds o f the fi r st ph a l an ges .

Th e deep i nfe r i or ses a m oi d ean l i g a m e n ts a r e st r on g a n d disti n ctly c r u ci a l .

FI G . 1 69 . AN D T x D T P E x Do - s or IGI S or IG , FI G . AM N T AN D T N D ON o P W
1 70 .
-
LI G E S E S r A or

V O LA V W R IE . DO H L MB V O L V W
G, IxD I , AR IE .

S p fi i l fl t d ; b d pfl t d ; b S p fi i l fl t d ; b t d
' ’
0 , u er c a axo r en on , ee ex or en on ,
a , a , u er c a ex o r en on , en on

b h f b t y d i g it ; l li g m t ; l g p d ; l mb i l m l : 1 i t i
’
ra nc es o o a c c es s o r s c. c , a n nu a r a en s t o ar e a c, u r c a es us c e s ( , n e r os s e

d li g m t f a y d i g it ;
en s o i t i t d i g it l
a ccessor s e, e ru e a e n er a m l :
u s c es f ul li g m t t m t t
e. . a nn ar a en s a e a a rs o

li g m t ; f f p i l b d
a en s ,
’
. sd th fl ra t d an f a ro u n e ex o r en o ns o ph l g l j i t ; g
a an p
ea y li g m t fl g
o n s , s us e ns o r a en o ar e

th y d i g it ; g
e a c c es s o r bd t f s y d i g it a (E ll
uc or o a c c es s o r en p d ; h d i g it l
a l li g m t ; i d p fl a a n nu a r a en s ee e xo r

B m A t (l H ti )
, .
, ,

b g
er e r- au , na . . a us e re . t d ; k di t l
en on m id ; I . p y l ig m
s t
a sesa o . s us e ns o r a en

o f k; m p y li g m
, t f d i g it l p d ;
s us e ns o r a en o a a n,

d i g it l p d
a (E ll b g a B m A
s t d H
. en er e r- au , na . . a us

ti )e re .

Th e suspe n s or y or supe r i o r sesa moi d ean l ig a me n t i s m o r e dist i n ctly m uscul ar

th an i n th e h o r s e—i nd eed i n the y o u n g a n i m a l it c on sists a lm ost e nt i r ely o f
muscul ar tissu e A t th e dist a l thi r d o f the m et a c a rpus it divides i n t o th r ee
.

b r an ch es These give r ise t o five subdivisi o n s eithe r by b ifu r c a t i o n of t he l a te r a l

.
,

b ra n ches or t r i fu r c a t i o n o f th e m idd le b r a n ch The fo u r l a te r a l b a n ds e n d o n the .

ses a m o i d b on es a n d th e dist a l end o f th e l a r ge m et a c a r p a l b o n e an d det a ch S lips ,

to the exte n s o r t e n d o n s The m iddle b a n d p a sses th r o ugh th e groo ve betwee n th e

.

tw o divisi o n s o f th e dist a l e n d o f th e m et a c a r pus a n d divides i n t o t w o b r a n che s ,

2 08 C OM P A R A T I V E A RT H R OL OG Y

wh i ch j o i n th e te n d on s o f the p ro pe r e xt e ns o rs o f the digits ; i t se n ds fibe rs a ls o t o

th e i n te r digit a l l a te r a l lig a m e n ts a n d t o th e ce nt ra l ses a m o ids A b o ut th e m iddle .

o f the m et a c a r pus the suspe n s o r y lig a m e nt det a ches a b a n d wh i ch u n ites l o we r

.

d ow n with the supe r fici a l fl ex or te nd o n thus i n cl o si n g th e te n d o n o f t he deep fiexor

,

o f the di git ; i t a ls o ble n ds with t he thi ck f a sci a o f the r egi o n Th e l a tte r gives off .

a b an d o n eithe r side t o th e a ccess o r y d i gits a n d a te n d i no us b a n d d esce n ds f r o m

,

e a ch a c cess or y digit t o the th i r d ph a l a nx a n d ses a m o id b o n e ble n d i n g w ith th e ,

te n d on o f the c orr esp o n d i n g p r o pe r exte ns o r

P i g —The r e are f o u r m et a c a r p o ph a l a n ge a l j o i nts e a ch of whi ch h as a c a psule
.

-
, ,

l a te r a l i n terse sam o i d ea n an d c r u ci a l ses a m o i d ea n lig am e n ts S i n ce di sti n ct i n te r

, ,
.

o sse o us m uscles a r e p r ese n t th e r e a r e o f c o u r se n o suspe n s o r y lig a m e n ts

D og —The r e a r e five m et a c a r p o ph a l a n ge a l j o i nts e a ch h a vi n g its o w n c a psul e

, , , .

-
,

a n d i n disti n ct l a te r a l l ig am e n ts A s m a ll ses a m o id b o n e o ccu r s i n the a n te r i o r

.

p ar t of e a ch c apsu le o ve r wh i ch th e c o r r esp o n d i n g exte n s or te n d o n pl a ys The

,
.

i n terses a m o id e a n li g a me n ts d o n ot exte n d a b o ve th e ses a m o ids Th e c r u ci a te .

li g am e n ts a r e p r ese n t as well a s a fib r o us l a ye r wh i ch a tt a ch es t he dist a l m argi n s

,

o f the ses a m o ids t o th e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce of th e p r o x i m al e n d o f th e fi r st ph a l an x .

I NTE RP HAL AN GE AL JOI NTS

Cx .
—The p r oxi m a l j o i nts h a ve sep a r a te c a psul es and b r oa d b ut r athe r
tw o , ,

i n disti n ct l a te ra l lig a m e n ts E a ch j o i n t h a s a ls o tw o ce n t r a l a n d tw o l a te ra l v o l ar
,
.

li g am e n ts The ce n t r a l li g a me n ts a re l a r gely fused t o f o r m a st ro n g b an d Th e

. .

l a te r a l o n es exte n d f r o m the b or de r s of th e fi r st ph a l a nx to the p ro xi m a l en d of the

sec on d ph a l a n x .

The dist a l i n te r ph a l a n ge a l j o i nts h a v e i n a ddi ti o n t o th e c apsul es and l ate r a l

,

li g a me n ts b an ds wh i ch r ei n f or ce the m o n eith e r side The ce n t r a l o r i n te r digit a l

, .

p a i r a r ise i n the dep r essi o n s on th e d ist a l e n ds o f th e fi r st ph a l an ges r eceive fibe r s ,

f ro m the se c on d ph a l an ges an d en d o n th e i n te r di git a l su r f a ces of the th i r d ph a l

,

a n ges a t th e m a r gi n o f the a r t i cul a r su r f a ce Th e l a te ra l p a i r h ave a sim il ar c o u r se

.
,

but a r e th i n n e r a n d e nd o n the c orr esp o n d i n g th i r d ses a m o id An el a sti c b an d

,
.

c r osses th e f r on t o f the sec o n d ph a l a n x o b l i quely f r o m th e d ist a l e n d o f the fi rst

,

ph a l a nx t o the exte ns or p r o cess of th e thi r d ph a l a n x .

Th e c ru ci a l or i nf e ri or i n ter d igi ta l li g am ents (L i g a m e n t a c r u ci a t a i nte r d i gi tal i a )

a re tw o st r on g b a n ds whi ch l i m it the sep a r a ti o n o f th e d i gits They a r e a tt a ched .

a b o ve to the l a te r a l (o r a b a xi a l ) e m i n e n ces o n th e p ro xi m a l e n ds o f th e se c o n d

ph a l a n ges (ble n d i ng with the l a te r a l l i g a m e n ts ) c r o ss the deep flex e r te n d on ,

o bliq uely a n d r e a ch the i n te r di gi t a l sp a ce wh e r e th ey i n te r c r o ss a n d ble n d

, ,
M o st .

o f the fi be r s e nd on the thi r d ses a m o id of th e o pp o site side b ut s ome a re a tt a ch ed ,

.

t o th e i n te r digit a l a spect o f the se c o n d ph a l a n x a n d t he thi r d ses a m o i d o f the s a m e

s id e I n th e sheep the r e is i n ste a d o f the f o r eg o i n g a t ra n sve r se lig a m e n t wh ich
.
, ,

is a tt a ched o n ei the r sid e to the i n te rd i git a l su r f a ces o f th e sec o nd and thi r d ph a l a nges
a n d the thi rd ses a m o id b o n e I t is r el a ted b el o w t o th e ski n a b o ve t o a p a d o f fa t
P i g —The i n te r ph a l a n ge a l j o i n ts o f th e ch ief d igi ts r ese m ble i n ge n e ra l th o se
. .
,

o f th e o x The i n fe r i o r i n te r di git a l l ig am e n t r esembles h o weve r th a t o f t h e sheep

.
, , ,

a n d is i n ti m a tely a dhe r e n t t o th e ski n The r e is besid es a r em ar k a b le a rr an ge

.
, ,

me n t of li g a me n ts wh i ch c on n ect th e sm a l l digits with e a ch o th e r a nd with t h e

ch ief d igits .

Thi s pp a ra t u s i s s o me w h a t co m p l ex b u t i ts c h i e f f ea t u res a re as fo ll o w s : A su p er i o r i nt er
a ,

d i g i t a l li g a me n t i s a t t a c h ed o n e i t h e r s i d e to th e t h i r d p h a l a n ges o f t h e s ma l l d i g it s w h i l e c e n t ra l l y ,

i t b l end s w i t h t h e a nnu l a r li g a me n t s o f th e fie xo r t en d o ns b e h i n d th e m e t a c a r p o p h a l a n g ea l -

j o i n ts o f t h e ch i ef d i g i t s T w o b a n d s (cen t r a l l on g i t u d i na l i n t erd i g i t a l li g a men t s ) a r i s e o n t h e

.

b a s es o f t h e s m a ll d i g it s c ro ss t h e fl e xo r t en d o ns o b li q
, u e l y d o w n w a rd a n d i n w a r d p a s s t h ro u g h ,

t h e s u p e r i o r i n t e rd i g it a l l i g a me n t a n d b l e n d b e l o w w i t h t h e i n fe r i o r i n t e rd i g i t a l li g a men t
, Tw o .

l a te ra l ba nd s (l a t era l l o ng i t u d i n a l i n t erd i g i t a l li g a men ts ) a re a tt ac h ed i n co mmo n w i t h t h e

21 0 C OM P A R A T I V E ART H R OL OG Y

Of the tibi a ; the m o ve m en t he r e is i m pe r cept ible a s th e t w o b on es a re cl osely

,

u n ited by st r on g pe r i ph e r a l fibe r s
P i g —The supe r i o r j o i n t is p r o vid ed with a c a psule wh i ch is r ei n f o r ced i n
.

f r o n t a nd behi n d by fi b r o us tissue .

The i n te r o sse o us l ig a m e nt a tt a ches the sh a ft o f the fibul a t o th e o ute r b or de r

o f the t ibi a .

The i n fe r i or j oi n t is i n cluded i n the c a psu le of the h o ck j o i n t a n d is st re n gt h

,

e n ed by Obl i que a n te r i o r a n d p oste r i or lig a m e nts The r e is a ls o a n i n te rosseus

.

li g am e n t
D og —The a rr an ge m e n t i s esse n ti a lly the s a m e a s i n the pi g b ut the r e is n o
.

i n te r osse o us lig a me n t i n th e i nfe r i or j o i n t .

HOCK JOI N T
Ox — The r e i s ve r y c on side ra bl e m o b il ity a t th e fi r st i n te r t a r s a l j o i n t th e
.
,

c a psule Of whi ch is c o rr esp on di n gly r oom y Th e sh or t exte r n a l l a te ra l li g a me n t

.

i s a tt a ch ed bel o w on the tibi a l t ar s a l o n ly A st r o n g t ra n sve r se li g ame n t a tt a ches

.

the exte r na l m a lle o lus (dist a l end of th e fibu l a ) t o the b a ck Of th e t ibi a l t ar s a l b o n e .

The d o r s a l or Obl ique li g am e n t is n a rr o w a nd th i n

P i g —The a rr a n ge m e n t i n ge n e r a l r ese m bles th a t Of the ox
.

D og —The l o n g l a te r a l l i g a me n ts a r e ve r y s m a ll a n d th e sh o r t o n es d o ubl e
.

.
,

The pl a n t ar l i g a m e n t i s we a k a n d e n ds on th e f o u rth m et a c a r p a l b on e N O
,
.

disti n ct d o r s a l (o r Obli que ) li gam e n t is p r ese n t M o ve m e nt o c cu r s a l m ost ex

.

elusi vely at the tib i o t a rs a l j o i n t

-
.

Th e rem a i n i n g j o i n ts r ese m ble th o se Of the th or a ci c l i m b .

 THE MUS C ULAR S Y S T E M
MY OLOGY
Th e mu s cl e s (M usculi ) a r e the a ctive o r g a n s of m ot i o n They a r e ch a ra c .

ter i z ed by thei r p r o pe rt y Of c on t r a ct i n g whe n stimu l a ted M uscul a r t issue is Of .

th r ee ki n ds : S tri ate d o r st r i ped ; (b) n on- str i a t e d , u n st r iped o r s m o o th ; a n d ,

(0 ) c ar di a c Onl y the fi r st Of t hese v ar ieties w i ll b e c o n side r ed i n th is secti o n The

. .

st r iped m uscles b ei n g for t he m o st p art di r ectly or i n di r e ctly c onn ected w i th th e

,

skelet on are Ofte n t e r m ed s k e l e tal o r s om a t i c wh i l e u n st r iped muscle may be sp o ke n

, ,

o f as vi s c eral o r spl a n ch ni c The f or m e r c o ve r th e gr e a te r p art o f th e skelet on

.
,

an d t hus i n a l a r ge m e a su r e d et e r m in e t he f or m Of th e a ni m a l They are re d i n .

c o l or th e sh a de v aryi n g i n d i ffe r e n t muscles a n d u n d e r v ar i o us c on dit i o n s

M uscles v ar y gr e a tly i n f or m , a nd m a y be cl a ssified as— (a ) Lo n g ; (b) s h o rt ;
, .

()0 fl a t ; ( )
d ri n g -l ik e o r o rb i cul a r L on g m uscles ar e fo u n d ch iefl y i n the l i mbs
.
,

wh i le th e fl at o r b r oa d muscles o ccu r p r i n cip a ll y i n th e t r u n k wh e r e they a ssist i n

fo rm i n g th e w a lls of th e b o dy c a vi ties The r i n g—
,

l i ke o r orb i cu l ar m uscles ci r cum

.

sc r ib e o r ifi ces w h i c h t h ey cl o se an d a re h e n ce t e rm ed s ph i n cter s
Atta chm en ts —The m uscles a re a tt a ch ed t o b on es , c arti l a g e s l i g am ent s ,
.
‘ ,

.
,

f a s ci a , or th e s k in I n al l c as es th e a tt a ch me n t is b y me an s of fib r o us tissue the
.
,

m uscle fib e r s n o t c o m i n g i n t o di r ect r el a ti o n w it h the b on e o r c ar ti l a ge

-
Th e .

pe r imysiu m Of the muscle m ay fuse d i r ectl y wi th th e pe ri o st eum o r pe r i ch o n d r iu m

(fl eshy a tt a chm e n t ) or th e u n i o n m ay b e by me ans Of i n te rm ed i a r y fib r o us st r ue
,

tu r es c a lled t end o ns or apone ur o s e s (te n di n o u s a tt a ch m e n t ) Te nd ons may b e .

funi cul ar r ibb on li ke or i n th e f o rm Of memb ra no us sheets ; to the l atte r th e te rm

,
-
,

a p o n eu ro sis is c o mm o n ly a ppli ed .

I n ce rt a i n p o siti o ns especi a lly whe r e t e n d o n s pl a y o ve r j o i n ts or a r e subj ected

,

t o gr e a t p r essu r e s e sam o i d b o ne s devel o p i n t he or i gi n a l te n d on tissue

,
S om e .

Of th ese a r e l a r ge a n d c o n st a n t as th e p a tel l a a n d th e gr e a t ses a m o ids of th e fet

'

l o ck.

Th e a ccess o r y st r u ct u r es c onn ected with th e muscles a r e the syn o vi a l mem

b ran e s a nd th e fa s ci ae .

FI G . l Tl . or C R OS S -S E CT ON I S OF TE N D ON S H AT H (A ) AN D
E Br as x B
( ): T TE
. ND ON .

The y o vi al m e mb ran e s a r e ar r an ged i n tw o p r i n cip a l f orm s : (a ) B ur s al ;

s n

() g
b v i l A b (B u s m u c s ) is simp le c i n te r p o sed b et wee n th e t e n d o n
—
a n a u rs.a r a o a a sa

or muscl e an d s o me deepe r se a ted st r u ctu r e m o st c omm on ly a b o n y p r om i n e n ce .

A v agi na te n dini s or t en d on sh e ath d i ffe r s f ro m a bu r s a i n the f a ct th a t t h e sy n o vi a l

sac is f o l ded a r o u n d th e t e n d o n m o r e o r less c o m pl etely so th a t t w o l a ye r s can b e ,

dist i n gu ished ; Of th ese th e i nn e r on e a dh e r es cl osely t o th e t e n d on wh i le t h e

,
,

o ute r li n es th e gr oo ve o r c a n a l i n wh i ch th e te n d on lies The tw o l a ye rs a re con .

21 1
21 2 T HE M US C UL A R S Y S TE M
t i nu o u s g a f o ld t e r m ed the m e s o ten d o n The a rran geme n t i s sh ow n i n
a onl .

Fig . The a r ti cul a r sy no vi a l m e m b r an es i n s om e pl a ces f or m ext r a a r ti cu l a r -

p o uches wh i ch f a cilit a te the pl a y Of te n d on s

,
.

The f a s c i ae a r e sheets Of c onn e ctive tissu e m a i n ly o f th e wh ite fib ro us v ariety , ,

w ith a g r e a te r o r less a d m i x tu r e Of el a sti c fi be rs i n ce r t a i n c a ses T w o l a ye r s m ay .

usu a lly be r e c o gn i zed Of t hese th e sup e r fi ci a l f a s ci a (F a sci a sub cut a n e a ) is co m

.
,

p o sed Of l oose c o nn ective tissue wh i ch m ay c o n t a i n m o r e o r l ess fat a nd is sub

cut a n e o us The d e ep f a s ci a i s c om p o sed Oi on e o r m or e l a ye r s o f de n se fib r o us
.

tissue sp r e a d o ve r the su r f a ce Of th e muscles ch i efly I ts deep f a ce m ay be ve r y .

l o o sely a tt a ch ed t o the u n de r lyi n g st r u ctu r es or m a y fuse with the epi m ysi u m ,

te n d on s b on es o r l ig a me n ts I n s om e p ar ts especi a lly the li m bs sept a l pl a tes

, ,
.
, ,

p a ss betwee n th e mus cles a n d a r e a tt a ch ed t o th e b on es or lig a m e nts ; these a re

te r m ed in t ermu s cu l ar s epta I n this w a y m an y m uscl es a r e i n cl o sed i n fib r ous
.

she a ths whi ch h o ld the m i n p o siti o n N o t u n c omm o n ly spe ci a l b an ds st r etch .

a c r o ss the g r o o ves i n whi ch te n d o n s pl a y c onve r ti n g these i n t o c a n a ls S u ch , .

b a n ds are te r m ed v a gi n al o r ann u l ar li gam en ts Th e deep f a sci a is Ofte n SO di s .

t i n c t l y te n d i n o us i n st r u ctu r e fu r n i sh i n g a tt a ch m e n t t o speci a l te n s o r muscles

, ,

as to r e n de r th e disti n cti on betwee n f a sc i a an d a p o n eu r o sis q uite ar bit r ar y B u r s ae .

o ccu r i n ce r t a i n si tu a ti o n s betwee n the f a sci a a n d u n de r lyi n g st r u ct u r es (subf a sci a l

b u r s ae ) o r b etwee n the f a sci a a nd the ski n (sub cut a n e o us b u rsre )

,
.

I t is c o n ve n ie n t to d ivide the desc r ipt i o n Of a m uscl e i n t o seve n he a ds vi z ,

(1 ) N a m e f o l l o wed by i m p or t a n t sy n o n ym s ; (2 ) p o siti o n a n d f or m ; (3 ) a tt a ch
,

me n ts ; (4 ) a cti o n ; (5 ) st r u ctu r e ; (6) r e l a ti o n s ; (7 ) bl oo d an d n e r ve supply .

1 The n am e is dete r mi n ed by v a r i o us f a ct o r s vi z : (a ) The a cti o n e g

.
,
.
,
. .
,

e xte n s o r a ddu ct or etc ; (b) th e sh a pe e g

, ,
qu ad r a tus t r i a n gu l a r is ; (c) th e d i r ce
.
,
. .
, ,

t i on 6 g r ectus o bl iquus ; (d ) th e p o siti o n 6 g the subsc apul a r is i li a cus ; (e)

,
. .
, , ,
. .
, ,

th e d ivisi on (i n t o he a ds 6 g b i ceps t r i ceps etc ; (f ) the S i ze e g m a j o r

,
. .
, , ,
.
,
. .
, ,

m i n or et c ; (9) th e a tt a chme n ts e g ste rn o ceph a l i cus m a sto id O h u m er a l i s ;

,
.
,
. .
,
-
,
-

(h ) th e st r u ctu r e 6 g se m ite n di nosus I n m o st c a ses t w o or m o r e Of these f a ct ors

,
. .
, .

h a ve c om bi n ed to p r o du ce th e n a m e 3 g a ddu ct o r m a gn us l on gus c o ll i o bli qu us ,

. .
, , ,

exte r n us a bd o mi n is .

2 The sh ape i s i n m a n y c a ses suffi cie n tly defi n i te t o a l l o w th e use o f su ch

.

t e rm s as t r i a n gu l a r qu a d r i l a te r a l fan sh a ped l o n g fl a t fusifo rm r i n g—

, ,

,
li ke et c ,
-
, , , , ,
.

3 The a tta chm e n ts a re i n m o st c a ses t o b o n e bu t m a n y m uscles a re a tt a ch ed

.
,

t o c ar ti l a ge li g a m e n ts f a sci a th e ski n etc

, I t is usu a l t o a pply th e te rm o r igi n
, , ,
.

t o the a tt a ch m e n t whi ch a lw a ys o r m o r e c omm o n ly r e m a i n s fixed whe n the m uscle

c on t r a cts The te r m i n s e rti on d esig n a tes th e m o v ab le a tt a chme n t S u ch a
. .

d isti n cti on c a nn o t a lw a ys b e m ad e as the a cti on m ay be r eve r sible o r b o th a t , ,

t a c h me n t s m a y be f r eely m o v a ble .

4 The a cti on bel on gs r a th e r t o physi o l o gi c a l study bu t i s b r iefly i n di c a ted

.
,

i n a n a t o m i c a l d esc r ipti o n s .

5 The str u ctu re i n cludes the di r e cti o n o f the mus cle fib e r s th e a r ran geme n t
.
-
,

Of the te n d o n s the sy n o vi a l m e m b r a n es a n d a n y o th e r a ccess o r y st r u ctu r es e g

, , ,
. .
,

a nn ul a r l ig a me n ts a n d r ei n f o r ci n g sh e a ths a n d b a n ds Th e r el a ti o n of th e muscle .

fi b e rs t o th e te n d o n v ar ies a n d thi s f a ct h a s give n r ise t o spe ci a l te rm s

,
Thus a .

m uscl e i n whi ch the fibe rs c o n ve r ge to eithe r S ide o f th e te n d o n is te rmed b ip enn a te ;

wh il e on e i n whi ch th is a rr a n ge m e n t exists o n ly on on e S id e Of the te n d on is c a lled
un ipe nn a te Th e te rm s fl eshy an d te nd i n o us a r e u sed to i n d i c a te th e r el a tive
.

a m o u n ts Of m uscul a r a n d te n d i n o us tissue Th e m uscul a r tissu e i s Ofte n sp o ke n Of .

a s the b e lly (Ve n te r ) o f the m uscle I n the c a se o f the l on g m us cles th e o r igi n is .

,

‘
T he s u tte i n d i s se c ti o n t h a t t ra ns i ti o n f o r ms o c c u r ; a l s o t h a t th e s a me s h ea t h
d en t w i ll no
m ay b e l o n g to t w o o r m o re t e nd o ns i n c o mmo n 0 g t h e s h e a t h o f t h e tw o fl e xo rs o n th e b a c k o f ,
. .
,

th e c arp u s I n s u c h c as es t h e s y n o v i a l me m bra ne i s r e fl e c t ed f r om o n e t end o n to th e o t h e r a nd

.
,

m a y f o r m a s e co n d ary m es o t e no n .
214 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E

f o r m e r M o st of th e fibe r s ru n p a ra l lel to the f r ee edges Of the l ips a nd h ave n o

.

d i r ect a tt a ch m e n t t o the skelet on

A c ti on —
.

I t cl o ses t he l ips . .

B l ood s u ppl y — P a l a t o l a bi a l f a ci a l an d me n t a l a r te r i es
- - .

N er ve s u pp l y —F a ci a l n e r ve
.
.
, ,

u e n a si ) —T h is
. .

2 L e va tor n a s o l a b i al i s (L ev a t or l a bi i sup er i o r is a l w q
. th i n .

FI G . 1 72 —M
H AD o H O S LAT AL V W T H P ANN CU L U useu m or R M OV D E r R E ER IE . E I S Is E E .

L v t a l bii p i i p p i ; b l v t
. e a or l b i li ; m t i d O—
a su h m li ; d
er or s t — ph li ;ro r us , e a o r na s o a a s c, as o u e ra s , s e r no c e a c us

d' t d , f d;
en on m h y id o ; j d il t t i l t li ; g z y g m ti ; h b i t ; f d p
e, o o- o e us l b ii
, a a or na r s a e ra s , o a cus , u cc na o r , e re s s o r a

i f i i ; k bi l i i ; 1 l il t t
n er or s or i p i ; m m
cu ar s t ; p t id
or s i l i : z y g m ti
( a a or na r s su er or as s e e r n a ro o -a u r c u a r s o o a co

f t — t l i p
, , , , ,

i l i ; p i t
aur c u ar s t l i ; p , n e rs e u t mp li ; q vi
u ar s i l i p f d m j ’
, ro n o s c u u ar s, a rs e o ra s , ce r c o -a u r c u a r s ro un us a or,

r . vice r i l i p fi i li ;
c o -a u r c u a r s s u b li q piti t i ; t pl i ; t y l m ill i ; y m t id t d
er c a s s , o u us ca s a n e r or , s e n us s o- ax ar s , as o en on

of m t id O h m
as o li ; 2 p t i
- 3u t i b de ra f t l
s ; 8 ,ti f m til g ; 9 z y g m ti
os er o r, , a n e r or, or er o ex e rna ea r , scu or ca r a e , o a c

a rch; 10 d p i b h i d p b it l p
,
e re s s o n ; I S t mp m d ib l
e ti l ti ;
n su f i l
ra o r t; a r o c es s , e o ro - an u ar ar cu a on ac a c re s

an gl Of j w ; 3 7
e t a l m ill y v i : 5 8 j g l v i ; 3 9 f i l v i ; 40 p t id d t ; 4 1 t v
, e x e r na ax ar e n , u u ar e n , ac a e n , a ro -
uc . ra ns e rs e

f i l v i ; 42
ac a e n t i v i ; H 3 f i l v ; 4 4 p tid g l d ; 4 5 h i ;
I n a ss c er c w i g
e n f tl (A ft E ll ac a ne r e a ro an c n 7 n o a as er en

B m A t f K ti tl )
, , , , , .

b g er e r- au , na . ur ns er .

muscle l ies d i r ectly u nde r th e ski n a nd ch i efl y on th e l ate r a l su rf a ce Of the na s a l ,

r egi o n

Or i gi n —The f ro n t a l a nd n a s a l b o n es
.

I n s er ti o n Th e uppe r l ip an d th e o ute r w i ng Of the no st r i l ; (2 ) the com

.
.

mi ss u re o f th e l ips .

A cti o n T O elev a te the uppe r lip a n d the c o mm issu re ; (2 ) to d i l a te the

.

n o st r i l .
 M US C LE S OF T HE LI P S A ND C H E E K S 21 5

S tr u ctu r e —The m uscle . ises by a thi n a p on eu r osis Th e bel ly is a ls o thi n

ar .
.
,

a n d d ivides i n t o t w o b r a n ches betwee n whi ch th e l a te r a l di l a t o r Of the n ost r i l

,

p as ses The d o r s a l b ra n ch r e a ches th e n ost r i l a n d uppe r l ip b le ndi n g with th e

.
,

l a te r a l d il a t or ; the ve n t r a l on e is m u ch
sm a lle r a nd b le n ds a t th e l a b i a l com
,

mi ssu re w i th the o rb i cu l ar is an d bu c
c i n a t or
—
.

R el a ti ona S u p e r fi ei a l l y , th e s ki n ,
f a sci a , a n d l a te r a l d i l at or (i n p a r t ) ;
deeply the lev a t or l a b ii supe r i or is p ro
,

p r i us l ate r a l di l a t or (in p art ) b u cci n

, ,

a t or b r a n ches Of th e f a ci a l vessels a n d
,

n e r ve a n d the i n f r a o r b it a l a r te r y a n d
,

n e r ve

B l ood s u pp l y —
.

-
F a ci a l and p a l a t o
.

l a b i a l a r te r ies
N er ve—
.

s u pp l y F a ci a l n e r ve -
. .

3 L e va tor l a b ii s u peri or i s pro

—
.

p ri u s . Th is li es on th e d or s o l a te ra l -

a spe ct Of the f a ce p a r tly c o ve r ed by ,

the p r ec edi n g mus c l e

Ori gi n —Th e l a c r im a l m a l a r an d
.

, ,

m axill ar y b o n es a t t h ei r j u n cti o n
I ns er ti on —
.

Th e uppe r lip by a
.
,

c o mm o n te n d o n w i t h its fel l o w
A cti on —
.
,

A ct i n g w ith its fell o w t o

.
,

e l e v a t e the uppe r l i p Th is a ct i o n if .
,

c a rr ie d t o th e fu l l es t exten t r esu lts i n ,

eve r si on I n u n i l a t e r a l a cti o n th e l ip
.

is dr a wn upw ar d a n d t o the side Of th e

muscl e a ct i n g
S tr u ctu r e —T h e
.

muscle h as a
.

S h or t ,
th i n t en d o n of o r i gi n The .

belly i s a t fi r st fl a tten ed b ut b e ,

c o mes narr o we r a n d thi cke r th e n ,

t ape r s o ve r th e f a l s e n o st r i l t o t er mi n ,

at e i n a te n d on The te n d ons o f the

.

1 73 — M U C L O H AD OP H O
tw o muscl es u ni t e o v e r th e a l a r car F D O AL V W IG S ES P E RS E RS IE

P ANN C U L U
.
. . ,

ti l a ges o f th e n o st r i ls f o r m i n g a n ex TH R M OV D E I S Is E E .

a n s i on wh i ch sp r e a ds ou t i n th e sub L v t l b ii p i i p p i ; mm a e a or a su er or s ro r us a
’
co on
p
,
,

t d f w it h pp it m l : b l v t l b i li ;
en on o a o os e usc e e a o r n as o a a s
st an c e Of the uppe r li p
,

f d il t t i l t li ; g z y g m ti ; l d i l t t
—
.
a a or n ar s a e ra s o a c us a a or

t l — i
"
,

—
.
,

l l
R ela ti ona fl S u p er fi c i a y th e s i k n n i p i ; p t i d O
,
i l i ; , ar s su e r or n, a ro au r cu a r s u , sc u u o au r cu

the lev a t o r n as o l a b i a l is a n d the an gu l i p fi i li p i ; p i t t l ri ; p f t

ar s s u er c a s su e r or , n e rs c u u a s
’
,
ro n o

i p t m p li ; i i l i p fii
,
t l scu u ar s, a rs e o ra s r , c e rv c o -a u r c u a r s s u er c

l ar v essels Of th e eye ; d eeply th e li ; g t p il i i ; t v , i; 2 p t a s u , c o rru a or su e rc z , ra n s e rs us n as . os e

supe r i o r and t r a nsve r se d i l a t or s Of i 3 t i b d Of t l :8 ti f m ti r o r, , an er or, or er ex e r na ea r , sc u or ca r

l g ; 9 z y g m ti h; 10 p b it l d p i ; 35
a e o a c a rc su ra o r a e re s s o n
the n ost r i l a nd th e i nf ra o r b it a l a r te r y i
, ,
,

wi g f t il t i i g l mi f l til g :
n n er n o n os r con a n n a na o a a r ca r a e

B m A n t f il
,

and n er ve f i l v i (A ft E ll
—
39 b g ac a e n er en er e r- au a r

B l ood s u pp l y —F a ci a l a rt e r y
.
. . ,
,

K ii tl ) ns e r.

N er ve s u p p l y —F a ci a l n e r ve
. .

- .

4 Z ygoma ti c u s —This ve ry thi n muscl e lies imm edi a tel y u n de r the ski n Of
.

. .

th e ch ee k
Ori gi n —The f a sci a c o ve r i n g th e m a ssete r m uscl e b el ow the f a ci a l c r est
.

I ns er ti on —T he c o m m issu r e Of th e lips bl e n di n g with th e bu cci na t or ,

.

A c ti on —T o r et r a ct a n d ra ise the a n gle Of th e m o uth

.

.
.
21 6 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C LE S OF T H E H OR S E

S tr u ctur e —fl es h y , w ith a thi n a p o n eu r o ti c or i gi n .

R el a ti ons — S u p er fic i a l l y , the ski n ; deeply , th e b u c c m a t or

Bl ood- su pp l y —F a ci a l a r te r y
. .

N er ve-s u pp l y —F a ci a l n e r ve
. .

up e ri or (D ep r ess or l a b i i supe r i or is ) —T h is lies u n de r th e

. .

5 . I n c i s i vu s s .

mu c o us m e m b r a n e o f the uppe r lip

Ori gi n —The a lve o l a r b o r de r of the p r em a xi ll a fr o m the sec on d i n ci s or t o th e
.

~
.

fi r st cheek t oo th
I ns er ti o n —Th e uppe r l ip
.

A cti on —T o dep r ess the uppe r lip

. .

6 I n ci sivu s in f eri or —
.

. Th is i s arr an ged i n th e l o we r lip l ike th e p r ecedi n g

.

muscl e i n th e uppe r o n e
0 r i gi n —
.

Th e a lve o l a r b o r de r o f the m an d ible fr o m the sec on d i n cis or to a

.

p o i n t n e a r the fi rst cheek t oo th

I m ar ti an —The S ki n o f th e l o we r l ip a n d th e p r o mi n en ce o f th e ch i n
.

A cti on —T o r a ise th e l o we r lip

.

7 M e n ta li s (L ev a t or m e n ti ) —Th is is S itu a ted i n th e p r o m i n e n ce o f th e chi n

. .

. . .

I ts fibe r s a r ise f r o m e a ch si de o f th e b o dy o f the m an dib le a n d ar e i n se r ted i n t o th e

S ki n o f the chi n I t i s mi n gl ed with fa t a n d st r a n ds o f c o n n ective tissue i n wh i ch
.
,

the r oo ts o f the t a cti le h a i r s ar e e m bedded I t ra ises an d c o r r ug a tes th e ski n t o .

whi ch it is a tt a ch ed
8 D e pr e s s or l a b i i i n f eri o ri s —Th is m uscl e l ies o n th e o ute r su r f a ce o f th e
.

. .

r a mus o f t he m a n dib le a l o n g th e ve n t r a l b o r de r o f th e bu cci n a t o r

0 r i gi n —
.
,

The a l ve o l ar b or de r of the m an dib l e n e ar th e c o r on o id p r o cess an d

.

the m a xill a r y tub e r o sity i n c o mm o n wi th th e bu cci n a t o r

I n ser ti on —
.
,

Th e l o we r lip
A cti on —T o dep r ess a n d r et r a ct th e l o we r li p
. .

S tr u ctu r e —The te n d o n o f o r igi n a n d th e b ell y a r e fused with th e bu cci n a t o r

. .

as far f o r w a r d a s the fi r st ch eek t oo th F r om this p o i n t fo r w ar d the belly is dis .

ti n ct a n d r o u n ded te rm i n a ti n g i n a te n d on wh i ch sp r e a ds ou t i n the l o w e r li p
, ,

ble ndi n g with th e o r b i cu l ar is a n d th e muscl e o f the o pp o site S ide

Rel a ti on s —S u p er fi c i a l l y th e ski n m a ssete r f a ci a l vessels a nd p a r o tid du ct ;
.

,
.
, , ,

deeply th e m an dib l e a n d i n fe r i o r l a b i a l a r te r y
B l ood—
.
,

s u p p l y — F a ci a l a r te r y

N erve s u p pl y —F a ci a l n e r ve
. .

9 B ucc i na tor —This m uscle l i es i n th e l a tera l w a l l o f th e m o uth exte n di n g

. .

. .
,

f ro m the a n gle o f th e m o uth to the m axi ll ar y tube r o si ty

0 r i gi n —The exte r n a l su r f a ce o f th e m a xi ll a a b o ve th e i n t e r de n t a l S p a ce a nd
.

the m o l a r teeth ; the a lve o l a r b or de r o f th e m an d ib le a t t h e i n te r de n t a l sp a ce a n d

a ls o p o ste r i o r l y whe r e it tu r n s u pw a r d t o th e c o r o n o i d p r o cess ; th e p te r y g o m a ndib -

ul ar li g a m e n t
I ns er l i o n —Th c a n gl e o f th e m o uth ble n d i n g wit h th e o r bi cul a r is o r is
.

A c ti on —T o fl a tte n th e cheeks thus p r essi n g th e f o o d b etwee n th e teeth ;

. .
,

.
,

a ls o to r et r a ct the a n gle o f th e m o uth .

S tr u c tu r e — T w o l a ye r s m ay b e r e c o gn i z ed The su per fi ci a l l ayer (P ar s bu c .

c a l is ) exte n ds f ro m th e an gl e o f the m o uth t o the m a ssete r I t is i n c o mpletel y

pe nn a te h a vi n g a l on gitud i n a l ra ph e on whi ch m ost o f th e m uscl e —
. .

, fib er s c o n ve r ge .

The uppe r fibe r s are di re cted ch iefly d o w n w ar d a n d b a ckw a r d th e l o we r on es u p ,

w a r d an d b a ckw a r d Th e d ee p l ay e r (P a r s m o l a r is ) c on sists m a i n ly o f l o n gitudi n a l

.

fibe r s I t ble n ds i n p a r t with the supe r fi ci a l l a ye r of th e or b i cul a r is ; i t h a s a

.

s m a ll te n di no us a tt a ch m e n t to th e c o r ono i d p ro cess beh i n d an d is u n ited b el o w ,

wi th the d ep r ess o r l a bi i i n fe r i or is
R e l a ti o ns —S u p e r fic i a l l y the ski n a n d f a sci a th e zygo m a t i cus l ev a t o r n a s o
.

.
, , ,

l a bi a lis l a te ra l d i l a t o r of the n ost r i l the supe r i or bu cc a l gl an ds th e p a ro ti d du ct ,

, , ,
218 FA S C UE AND M US C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

S tr u ctu r e — I t is c o m p o sed of t r a n sve r se fl eshy fibe r s wh i ch b le n d b el o w , w ith

the or b i cul a r is
—Su p e r fic i a l l y th e ski n f a sci a
.

R el a ti o n s .
, , ,
and te n di n o us exp an si o n o f th e
lev a t o r l a bi i supe r i o r is p ro p r ius ; deeply the a l a r ,
c a r ti l a ges the ext r em ity o f the
,

septu m n a si a n d the p a l a t o l a bi a l a r te r y -

B l ood su pp l y —P a l a t o l a b i a l a r te ry
.
,

- -

—F a ci a l n e r ve
. .

N er ve— s u p pl y

4 D i l a ta tor n ari s su pe r i or (P a r s d or s a lis m l a te r a lis n asi ) —

. .

. Th is v er y thi n . .

muscle o ccupi es the an gle betwee n the n a s a l p ro cess o f the p r em ax i ll a an d th e

n a s a l b on e .

Ori gi n — Th e l a te ra l b o r de r of the n a s a l b o n e .

I ns erti on —The i nn e r w a ll o f the f a lse n o st r i l a n d th e p ar i et a l l ami n a o f th e

.

sept a l c ar til a ge
A c ti on —T o dil a te the vestib u le o f the n a s a l c a vity
.

. .

S tr u ctu r e — Fleshy
Rel a ti o ns —S u p er fi ci a l l y the S k i n f a s ci a an d l ev a t o r l a bi i supe r i o r is p r o p r ius ;
. .

.
, , ,

deeply the p a r iet a l c a r til a ge a nd f a lse n o st r i l .

B l ood —
,

su p p l y
— F a ci a l a r te r y
N erve s u p pl y —F a ci a l ne r ve
. .

5 D il a t a tor nar i s i nf e r i or (P a r s v e n t r a lis m l a t e ra lis n a si ) —

. .

. Th is is a S imi l ar . .

but thi cke r m us cle whi ch l ies on th e n a s a l p r o c ess o f th e p r em a xill a

Ori gi n —T h e m a xi ll a a nd th e n a s a l p r o c ess of t he p r em axill a
.
,

. .

I nserti on — The c a r ti l a gi n o us p r o l o n g a ti o n s o f th e tu r bi n a l bo n es a n d th e
.

i nn e r w a ll o f the f a lse n o st r i l
A cti o n —T o r o t a te the tu r b i n a l o u tw a r d a n d d i l a te th e n o st r il an d the vestibu l e
.

o f the n a s a l c a vity

S tru ctu r e —Fleshy

.

A d ivisi o n i n t o t w o or m or e p a r ts m a y b e r ec o gn i zed
. . .

A sm a ll p a r t p o ste r i o r ly is i n se r ted i n t o th e c a r ti l a ge o f the d o r s a l tu r bi n a l b o n e ,

whi le the b ul k of the muscle is i n se r t ed i n t o the c ar ti l a ge o f the ve n t ra l tu r b i n a l

b o n e A few fibe rs a ls o p a ss betwee n t h e c orn u of th e a l a r c artil a ge and th e o ute r
.

wi ng o f the n ost r il
R el a ti ons —S u p er fic i a l l y th e lev a t o r l a b i i supe r i o r is p ro p r ius th e lev a t or
.

,
.
,

n a s o l a b i a lis a n d the l a te r a l n a s a l a r te r y ; d eeply the m a xi ll a the p r em a xill a a n d

, , , ,

the a n te r i o r n a s a l b r a n ch o f the i n f r ao r b i t a l n e r ve
B l ood su ppl y —
.

-
F a ci a l ar te r y ~ ~

Nerve— —F a ci a l n e r ve
. .

su ppl y . .

U
M SCLE S OF THE E YE LI D S
1 . cu l i —
Or b i cu l ari s Th is is a fl a t ell ipti c a l sph i n cte r mus cle S itu a ted i n and
o .
, , ,

a r o u n d the eyel ids the p o r ti o n i n the uppe r li d b ei n g mu ch b r oa de r th a n th a t i n

,

the l o we r The chief a tt a ch m e n t is t o th e ski n o f th e lids but s o m e bu n d les a re

.
,

a tt a ched to the p a lpeb ra l li g a me n t a t th e i n n e r c a n thus a n d t o the l a c r i m a l b o n e .

I ts a cti on is to c l o se the l ids

2 C orr uga tor su pe r ci l i i —Th is i s a ve r y th i n sm a l l mu scle wh i ch a r ises o ve r
.

. .
, ,

the r oo t o f the sup r ao r bi t a l p r o cess an d S p r e ads o u t i n th e uppe r eyel id ble ndi n g ,

with the o r bi cul a r is I ts a cti o n is to a ssist i n ra i si ng the u ppe r l id o r especi a lly

.
,

i n p a th o l o gi c a l c o n di ti o n s to w r i n kle th e S ki n
3 M a l ar i s —Th is i s a ve r y th i n muscl e wh i ch v ar ies m u ch i n di ffe r e n t sub
.
,

. .
,

je c ts I t exten ds f r o m th e f a sci a i n f r on t o f the orb it t o the l o we r l id I ts a cti on

. .

is t o dep r ess th e l o we r l id .

The f o r ego i n g m uscles r ecei ve thei r bl oo d supply f ro m th e f a ci a l t ra n sve rse -

,

f a ci a l su p r a o r bi t a l a n d i nf r a o r bi t a l ar te r ies ; the n e r ve supply is d e r ived f r o m the

, ,
-

f a ci a l n e rve .
 MU S C LE S or M A S T I CA I I ON
’ ‘

21 9

4 L eva tor pal pe b r ae supe r i or i s —This sle n de r fl a t m uscl e is a l mo st e nti r el y

.
,

w i th i n t h e o r b i t a l c a vity I t a r ises o n th e pte r ygo id c r est p a sses f o r w a r d a b o ve the

.
,

re ctus o cul i supe r i o r a nd b el o w t he l a c r i m a l gl a n d a n d t e r m i n a te s i n a th i n te n d o n ,

in the uppe r l id
A cti o n —T o elev a te t he uppe r lid
.

B l oo d —s u pp l y —Ophth a lmi c a r te r y
.

—
. .

N ew e s u pp ] -
y Ocu l o m o t o r n e r ve
. .

MUSCLE S OF MASTI CATI ON

The m uscles o f this gro up a r e six i n n u m be r i n th e h or se They a r ise ch iefl y .

f r o m th e uppe r ja w a n d the b a se o f th e c r an iu m an d are a l l i n se r ted i nt o the m a n ,

dible
1 M a s s e ter —Th is mu scle exte n ds f r o m th e zyg om a t i c a r ch a n d f a ci a l c r est
.

. .

o ve r the b r oa d p a r t of the m a n dibul a r r a mus I t is se m i el lipt i c a l i n o utli n e -

Ori gi n —B y a st r o n g te n d o n f r o m th e zyg o m a ti c a r ch a n d the f a ci a l c r est

. .

I nser ti o n —The o ute r su r f a ce o f the b r oa d p ar t o f th e r a m u s o f the m a n dible

.

A cti on —I ts a ct i on i s t o b r i n g the j a ws t o get he r

. .

. A cti n g si n gly it a ls o c a rr ies .

,

the l o we r jaw t o w a r d th e si de of th e c on t r a ct i n g muscl e

S tr u ctu r e —Th e supe r fi ci a l f a ce o f t h e m uscle i n its uppe r p ar t is c o ve r ed b y a
.

st r o n g gliste ni n g a p on eu r o sis a n d seve ra l te n di n o us i n te r sect i o ns p a rti a lly divide

, ,

th e muscle i n t o l a ye r s Th e fibe r s o f th e supe r fi ci a l l a ye r t a ke or igi n f r om the

.

'

m a l a r a n d m a xi ll a o n l y a n d di v e r g e s o m ewh a t to th ei r i n se r ti on c l o se t o t h e thi ck
,

ve n t ra l b o r de r o f th e l o we r jaw Th e fib e r s of th e deep l a ye r a r ise f r om t h e e nti r e

.

ar e a o f o r i gi n a n d p ass st r a i ght t o th e b o r de r o f th e m a n d ib le ; it w il l b e n o t ed th a t
,

a sm a ll p a r t n e ar t he t emp o ro m a xi l l a r y j o i n t i s n ot c o ve r ed b y th e supe r fi ci a l l a ye r
,
-
, .

The tw o l a ye r s a r e sep a r ab l e onl y a b o ve a n d beh i n d ; elsewh e r e t hey a r e fused

—
.

R el a ti ona S u p er fi ci a l l y th e s ki n a n d p a n ni cu lus th e p a r o ti d gl a n d the

, , ,
.

t ran sve r se f a ci a l a n d m a ssete r i c vessels an d th e f a ci a l n e r ve ; deeply the r a m us o f

, ,

the m a ndi b le the b u cci n a t o r dep r ess o r l a b i i i n fe r i or is a n d m yl o hy o ideus m uscles

, , ,
-
,

the supe r i or bu cc a l gl a n ds th e bu cci n a t or n e r ve an d tw o l ar ge v ar ic o se vei ns whi ch

, ,

j o i n the f a ci a l vein a t t he an te r i or edge o f the muscle The f a ci a l vessels an d p a r otid .

du ct r u n a l on g th e a n te r i or edge of the muscle ; the du ct h o weve r be n ds for w a r d , ,

a b o ut the middl e o f th e b or de r an d le a ves th e m uscle

B l ood s u pp l y —T r a n sve r se f a ci a l an d m assete r i c a r te r ies

.

N erve— su pp l y —1Vi a n d i b u l a r n e r ve
. .

2 T e mp or ali s —This m uscl e o ccupies the te m p o r a l f o ss a

. .

Or i gi n —Th e r o ugh p a r t of the t e m p or a l f oss a a n d the c r ests wh i ch su rr o un d i t

. . .

I nser ti o n —T h e c o r o n o i d p r o cess o f t h e m a n dib le wh i ch it e n vel o ps

.

A cti o n —C h i efl y t o ra ise t he l o we r jaw a cti n g w i th th e m a ssete r a n d i n te r n a l

.
.
,

,
.

pte r ygo id m uscl es

S tr u ctu r a —Th e su r f a ce o f th e m uscl e is c o ve r ed w ith a gliste n i n g a p o n eu ro sis
.

a n d st r o n g t e n di n o us i n te r secti o n s a r e f o un d i n i t s subst a n ce Th e i nn e r edge o f .

the muscle is q uite t h i n but as th e fib e r s c on ve r ge t o w a r d t h e m u ch s m a lle r a r e a

,

o f i n se rt i on th e m uscl e bec om es n e ar ly a n i n ch th i ck I t fuses s om ewh a t wi th the

,
.

m as sete r
Rel a ti ons —
.

S u p e r fic i al l y th e scut i f or m c ar ti l a ge a nd a nt e r i o r m uscles o f the

.
,

e xt e r n a l e ar an d th e o r bit a l fa t ; deeply t h e te m p o r a l f o ss a a n d t h e deep t e m p o ra l

,

—
vessels a n d n e r ves
B l ood—
.

s upp l y S u p erfi c i a l a n d deep te m p o ra l a n d m a st o id a r t e r ies ,

.

N er ve s u pp l y —M a n dibu l a r n e r ve
.

3 P te rygo i d e u s i n tern u s (s m edi a lis ) —This m uscl e o c cupies a p osi t i o n o n

. .

. . .

th e i nn e r sur f a ce o f the r a m us o f the m a n dib le simi l a r t o th a t o f the m a ssete r o n t h e

o utsi de .
220 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E

Or i gi n —Th e c r est f o r m ed by th e pte rygo id p r o cess of the sphe no id an d th e

p a l a te b o n e
—Th e c on c a ve i nn e r su rf a ce
.

I nser ti on . the b r oa d p o r ti o n o f th e ram us o f th e of

m andible an d th e i nn e r li p o f the l o we r b o rde r

A cti on —A cti n g t o gethe r t o r a ise the l o we r ja w ; a cti ng si n gly to p r o duce a ls o
.
,

, ,

l a te ra l m o ve m e n t of the jaw
S tru cture —The m uscle is c a p a b le o f d ivisi o n i n t o tw o p ar ts
.

The p r i n cip a l .

p art is supe r fi ci a l (i n te rna l ) a n d i ts fibe r s a re for the m o st p ar t ve rti c a l i n d i re c , , ,

ti o n I t c on t a i n s m uch te n d i no us tissue (sept a ) Th e sm a lle r p or ti o n is exte rna l

. .

t o the f o reg o i ng a n d its fibe r s ar e di r ected d ow n w ar d a n d b a ckw ar d

Rel a ti ona —E xte rn a lly th e r a mus o f the m an d ib le the exte rn a l pte r ygo id
.
,

m uscle the i n fe r i o r a lve o l ar vessels a n d n e r ve a n d th e l i n gu a l a n d myl o—

, ,

,
hy o i d ,

n e r ves ; i n te r n a l ly the g r e a t c or n u o f the h y o id b o n e the te n s or p a l a ti pt ery go

, , ,

E th mo S eptu m of
tu r bi n a ls fr onta l s i nus es
S u peri or
S u p er i or tu r bi na l
M i ddl e mea t
I nf eri or tu r bi n a l
I nf error mea tu s

D i ga s tr i c u s ,
I n ter med z a te tend o n
a n ter i or bel l y

Fm . l 75 .
—
S ’
A G I T I‘ A L SE CT ONI OF H AD
HO E S HOW N D P P OFO MAX LLA Y R
RS E O N AN D NA AL
, I G E E T E RY G - I R E GI , S

AN D C AN AL CAV T R I I I ES .

I , C e r e b ra l co m pa r me n t t f . oi l vity ; 2
c ra n a b ll mp t m t fca m ; 3 t t i m , m; c e re e ar co ar en o sa e , en o r u oss e u

4 , te n t i
or u m c e re b e lli ; 5 , s ph e no id l i ; h m l
a f pt y g id b
s nus t d ft a p l ti t 5 h t t
u us o er o o ne - e n on o e ns o r a a cu 0 s or a

an er ort i b o rd e r of hamu l us ; 7 , my l g l Tho- lf t y m

os s u s m mb i. h d d e o ac o r u cou s e r a ne s s a e .

ph a r y ngeus p a l a t o ph ar y n geus m l, hy o id eus dig a st r i cus a n d styl o hy o ideu s

-
,
-
, ,
-

m uscles th e guttu ra l p o u ch the exte r n a l m a xi ll a r y vessels the n i n th a n d twelfth

, , ,

n e rves th e sub m a x i ll ar y s a li v a r y gl a n d the su b m a xi ll ar y a n d p a r o tid du cts a nd

, , ,

the sub m a xill a r y a n d ph a r y n ge a l ly m ph gl a n ds -

B l ood s u pp l y —I nte r n a l m a xill a r y m a ssete r i c an d i n fe r i o r a lv e o l ar ar te r ies

.

N er ue s u pp l y —\ I an d ib u l a r n e r ve
.
.
, ,

-
. .

4 P te ryg o i d e u s e xt ern u s (s l a ter al i s ) — This m uscle is c on side r a bl y s m a lle r

.
. .

th a n the p r ecedi n g o n e a n d is S i tu a ted exte r n a l to i ts uppe r p a r t

Or i gi n —The exte r n a l su r f a ce o f th e pte r yg o i d p r o cess o f th e sphe no i d
, .

I nscrl i o n —Tli e i nn er su rf a ce
the n e ck an d th e i nn e r p a rt o f the an te r i or
.
of

b or de r o f th e c on dyle o f th e m a nd ibl e
A c ti on —A cti ng t o geth e r t o d r a w th e l o we r ja w f o r w a r d ; a cti n g si ngly t o
.

, ,

m o ve the ja w l a te r a lly i e t o w a r d th e sid e o pp o site t o th e m uscl e a cti n g Th e

,
. .
, .
222 FA S CUE A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

m axil l ary ar te r y c r o sses the l o we r f a ce of th e m uscle an d d ips i n betwee n i t an d th e

te ns o r p a l a ti The m a n d ibul a r n e r ve li es o n the ve n t r a l su r f a ce a nd th e bu cci n at or
.
,

n e r ve pe r f o r a tes the o r i g i n o f th e m uscle

B l ood s u p p l y —
.

-
I nte r n a l m a xill a r y a n d i nfe r i o r a lve o l ar a r te r i es
~

Nerve su pp l y —M a n d ibu l a r n e r ve
. .

5 S tyl o -m axi ll ar i s (s m an di bul ar is ) (M ju g u l o m a n d i b u l ar i s ) —Thi s is a sh or t

. .

-
. . .

m uscle exte n di n g f r o m th e p ar am a st o id or styl o id p r o cess of th e o ccipit a l b on e t o

the p o ste r i o r b o r de r of the l o we r jaw ; it is c o ve r ed by the p aro t id gl an d
Or i gi n —The p a ra m a st o id o r styl o id p r o cess o f t he o c cipi t a l b o n e i n c o mm o n
.

wi th the p o ste r i o r belly o f the di g a st r i cus

I nser ti on —The p o ste r i o r b o r de r o f the ra m us o f th e m a n dibl e
.

A c ti on —T o dep r ess th e l o we r ja w a nd o pe n th e m o uth

. .

S tr u ctu r e —The mus cl e c o n t a i n s a goo d de a l o f te n di n o us tissue

.

I t ble nds .

with th e p o ste r i o r bel ly o f the di g a st r i cus

R el a ti ons —S u p er fi c i a l l y the p a r o ti d gl a n d th e te n d o n o f th e ste rno ceph al i cus
.

-
.
, , ,

a nd the fib r o us e xp a n si o n whi ch c o nn ects i t wi th t h e te n d o n o f th e m as t oi d o

h u m er al i s ; deeply the guttu ra l p o u ch th e ext e r n a l c ar o ti d a r te r y th e n i n th a n d

, , ,

twelfth n e r ves the ph ar yn x an d the subm a xi l l ar y gl an d

B l ood s u pp l y —
.
, ,

-
E xte r n a l c ar o tid a r te r y
N erve s u pp l y —F a ci a l n e r ve
. .

6 D i ga s tr i c u s —
. .

. This muscl e is c o mp o sed of tw o fusi f o r m , fl a tte n ed b ell ies

.
,

u n i ted by a r o u n d te n d o n
0 r i gi n —The p a r a m a st o i d o r styl o i d p r o cess o f th e o ccipit a l b on e i n c om m on
.

,
.

wi th the p r e ced i n g muscle

I n ser ti on —The i nn e r su r f a c e o f th e l o w er b or de r o f the m a n di bl e beh i n d th e
.

sym physis
A cti on —I t a ssists i n dep r essi n g th e l o we r jaw a n d o pe ni n g th e m o uth
.

I f th e .

m an d ible b e fixed and b o th belli es c o n t r a ct the h y o i d b o n e an d th e b a se of th e ,

t on gue a r e r a ised as i n the fi r st p h a se of d egl utiti on

S tru ctu r e —The p o ste r i or b ell y h a s th e a pp e ar an ce o f a b r an ch det a ched f r o m
.
,

th e i nn e r su r f a ce o f the styl o m a xi l l a r is I t p a sses d o wn w ar d an d f o rw a r d an d is

-
.
,

su c ceed ed b y a s m a ll r o u n ded t e n d o n Th e l a tte r p e r f ora tes the te n d on of i n

se r ti on of the styl o—
.

h y o i deus a n d is p ro v id ed wi th a s yn o vi al sh ea th
, Th e an te r i or .

b elly is l ar ge r a nd te rmi n a tes b y th i n te n d i n o us bu n d les

Rel a ti ona —Th e p o ste r i o r b el ly h a s p r a ct i c a lly th e s a m e r el a ti on s a s th e styl o
.

m axi ll ar is The i n te r m ed i a te te n d o n is i n c ont a ct ext e r n a lly with th e i n te rn a l

.

pte r ygo id m uscle t he sub m a xi ll ar y gl an d a n d du ct an d the exte r na l m a xill ar y

, ,

a r te r y . The an te r i or b el ly l i es i n th e subm ax ill a r y sp a ce b etwee n the r a m us o f th e

jaw an d the m yl o h y o ideus m uscle ; the subl i n gu a l vessels ru n a l on g i ts uppe r b o r de r
-
.

B l ood s u pp l y E xte r n a l c ar o ti d an d sub li n gu a l a r te r i es

- -

N er ve s u pp l y —F a ci a l a nd m a n d ibu l ar n e r ves
. .

-
. .

THE HYOI D M USCL E S

This g ro up c on sists o f ei ght m uscl es o n e o f wh i ch th e hy o i deus t r a n sve r sus
, , ,

i s u n p a i r ed
1 M yl o - hy o id e u s —Th is m uscl e t o geth e r w ith i ts fel l o w f o r m s a s o r t o f
.

. .
, ,

sli n g betwee n th e tw o r a m i o f th e l o we r jaw i n whi ch th e t o n gu e is supp o rted

Or i gi n —T h e i nn e r su r f a ce o f th e a lve o l a r b o r de r o f th e m a ndibl e
.
,

—(l ) A m edi a n fib ro u s r a ph e exte ndi n g f rom th e sy m physis t o th e

.

I
hy o id b o n e ; (2 ) the li n gu a l p r o cess a n d b o dy o f the hy o i d b on e
A cti o n —I t r a ises the fl o o r o f th e m o uth th e t o n gue a n d th e hy o id b o n e
.

S tru ctu re —E a ch m uscle c o n sists o f a th i n cu r ved sheet th e fibe r s p a ssi n g

.
, ,

d o w n w a r d f r o m thei r or igi n a n d th e n cu r vi n g t o w a r d th e medi an ra ph e I t i s .

 T HE H Y OI D M U S C LE S 2 23

chiefly fl esh y a nd i s th i ckest b eh i n d Th e a n t e r i or supe rfi ci a l p art o f t h e m uscl e

,
.

is t e rm ed t h e myl o gl ossu s -

R e l a ti o ns —Ou t h e supe r fi ci a l su r f a ce o f th e muscles a r e t h e ra m u s th e i n

.

.
,

te r na l pte r yg o id an d di g ast r i cus muscles a n d th e sub m axi ll a ry ly m ph gl a n ds The ,

-
.

deep su rf a ce is i n c o n t a ct wit h th e m u c o us me m b r a n e o f t h e m o uth the styl o ,

g l os su s h y o g l ossu s an d ge n i o h y o id eu s m uscl es t h e subl i n gu a l gl a n d a n d vessels

- -
, , , ,

the s ub m a xi l l a r y du ct a n d t h e l i n g u a l an d h yp o gl oss a l n e rves -

B l ood s u ppl y —
, .

-
S ubli n gu a l ar te r y
N er ve s u pp l y — M yl o —
. .

-
hy o id b ran ch o f th e m a n dibul a r n e rve
2 S tyl o-h y o id e u s —This i s a S l e n de r fu si f o rm m uscle h a vi n g a di r ecti o n
. .

. .
, ,

n e ar ly p ar a l lel t o th a t o f t h e gr e a t c orn u o f t h e hy o id b o n e (Fig

Ori gi n —The heel -l ike p r o mi n e n ce o n th e p r oxi m a l e xt r emit y o f th e gr e a t

.

c o rn u o f th e hy o id b o n e
I ns er ti on —Th e a n te r i or p a r t of t h e th y ro i d c orn u o f t h e hy o i d b o n e
.

A c ti on —I t d r a ws the b a se o f th e t on g u e a n d th e l a r y n x upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d

. .

S tr uc tu re —I t ar ises b y a th i n sh o r t te n d on a n d h a s a fusif o rm b el ly
.

s
,
The ,
.

te n d on of i ns e rt i on i s pe r f o r a ted for th e p a ss a ge o f t he i nt e r medi a te t en d on o f the

di g a st r i cus an d a t thi s p o i n t th e r e i s a s m a ll syn o vi a l she a th
R ela ti ons —
.
,

S u p er fic i a l l y th e i n te r n a l pte r ygo id muscle a n d th e p a r o ti d gl an d ;

.
,

deepl y the gutt ur a l p o u ch th e ph ar ynx the ext e r n al c ar o tid an d m a xi l l a r y a rte r i es

, , , ,

an d th e h yp o gl o ss a l n e r ve

B l ood— —E xt e rn a l c ar o t id ar te r y
.

su pp l y

N er ve s u pp l y —F a ci a l n e r ve (styl o hy o id b r an ch )
. .

- -

o ccipit o styl o ideus ) —This is a

. .

3 Occ ip ito -h y oi d e u s (M j u gul o hy o ideus

. .
- -
.

s m a l l t r i an gul ar m uscl e wh i ch l i es i n th e sp a ce b etwee n th e p a r am a st o i d p ro cess

,

a n d th e gr e a t c o r n u o f th e h y o id b o n e .

Or i gi n — Th e p ar a m a st o i d (styl o i d ) p r o cess o f th e o ccipit a l b o n e

I ns er ti on —Th e p r o xi m a l ext r emity a n d ven t r a l edge o f th e g r e a t c o rn u o f
.

th e h y o i d b on e
A cti on —I t c a rr i es th e dist a l ext r em ity of t h e gr e a t c orn u b a ckw ar d a n d u p
.

w ar d A cti n g w it h t he ge ni o hy o ideus a n d di ga st r i cus i t r a ises the hy o id b on e

.
-
,

an d th e l a r ynx

S tr u ctu re —Th e muscle is s o m ewh a t t r i an gul a r its fib e r s b ei n g l o n ge r as th e

.

ve nt ra l b or de r i s a pp r o a ch ed I t b le n ds w i t h t he p o ste r i or belly o f th e dig a st r i cus

. .

R ela ti on s — S u p er fi c i a l l y th e p a r o tid gl an d ; deeply t he guttu r a l p o u ch ,

.

B l ood — —Oc cipit a l a r te r y

.
,

s u pp l y

N er ve s u pp l y —F a ci a l n e r ve
. .

4 G e ni o -hy oi d e u s —Th is is a l o n g spi n dle sh a ped muscl e wh i ch l ies un de r

. .

-
. .
, ,

th e t on gu e i n c on t a ct w i th its fell o w o f th e o pp osit e side (Fig 2 4 3 ) .

Or i gi n — Th e a n gl e o f u n i on of t h e ram i o f th e m an dible .

I ns erti on —Th e ext r e m ity o f th e l i n gu a l p r o cess o f th e hy o i d b on e .

A c ti on —I t d r a ws t h e hy o i d b o n e a n d t o n gue f o r w ar d
~ .

S tr uc tu re —Th e m uscl e a r ises b y a sh o r t te n d on whi ch i s succeeded b y th e

.

b ell y c om p osed of l on g b un dles o f p a r a l lel fibe r s

—
.
,

R el a ti n s
o — B el o w th e m yl o hy o ideus ; a b o ve t h e h y o g-l o ssu s styl o g l oss u s , ,
-
,
,

ge ni o g l o s s u s t he sub l i n gu a l gl an d subm a xi ll a r y du ct a n d t h e li n gu a l n e r ve
-
,
.

B l ood s u p p l y —S ub li n gu a l a r te r y
, ,

cu pp l y —Hyp o gl o ss a l n e r ve
.

N erve—
.

5 K era t o hy o id e u s —This sm a l l t r i an gu l ar m uscle l ies i n th e sp a ce betw ee n

. .

—
-
. .

h
t e th r
y o i d a n d s m a ll c o r n u u n de r c o ve r o f t he
,
h y o g l oss u s (Fi g .

Or i g in — Th e p o st e r i o r edge o f the s m a l l c o r n u a n d t he a dj a ce n t p a r t o f th e
ve nt r a l b or de r o f th e gr e a t c or n u
I ns er ti o n —The d or s a l edge o f th e th y r o i d c o r n u
.

-
.
.

A c ti on — I t r a ises th e thy r o i d c o rn u a n d t he l a ryn x .

2 24 FA S C UE A N D MU S C LE S OF T HE H ORS E

R el a ti on s —The mus cle is c r o ssed o utw a r dly by the l i n gu a l ar te r y

—
.

B l ood s u pp l y — L i n gu a l a r te r y
N er ve s u pp l y — —
G l o ss o —
. .

ph ar y n ge a l n e r ve
Tr an sv e r su s —
.
.

6 . Hyo id e u s This is a th i n u n p a i r ed muscle wh i ch exte nds

.
, ,

t ransve r sely bet wee n the tw o s m a ll c o r n u a of the hy o id b on e .

A l l a cl mz ents —The s m a l l c o r n u a cl o se t o the j u n cti o n with the gr e a t c o r n u a .

A cti o n —\Vh e n r el a xed its uppe r su r f a ce is c on c a ve ; whe n it c o n t r a ct s it

.
_
-
.
, ,

elev a tes th e r o o t of th e t on gue

S tru ctu r e —Fl esh y c o m p o sed o f p a ra llel t ra n sve r se b u n dles
.

B l ood s u pp l y —L i n gu a l a r te r y
.
,

- ~

s u pp l y —G l o ss o —
.

N ew e—
.

ph a r y n ge a l n e r ve
. .

7 S te rn o thyr o hyo id e u s a n d
.
- -
,

8 Om o- hyo id e u s — These are d esc r ib ed wi th the muscles o n the ve nt r a l

. .

s u r f a ce of the n eck .

THE FASCI ZE AN D MUSCLE S OF THE NE CK

is c on ven ie n t t o d ivide th e m uscl es o f th e n eck i n t o ve n t r a l an d l a te r a l
It
g ro ups th e t w o l a te r a l g r o ups b ei n g sep a ra ted f r om e a ch o th e r by the lig a me n tum
,

n u ch ae .

THE FASCI ZE OF THE N E CK

The s u per fic i a l f a sci a is i n p ar t t w o l a ye r ed an d c on t a i ns th e ce r vi c a l p o r ti on -
,

o f the p a n n i cu lus The f a sci ae of th e r i gh t an d left sides a r e a tt a ch ed a l on g th e

.

d or s a l li n e o f the n eck to th e li g a m e ntu m nu ch m wh il e a l on g th e ve n t r a l l i n e th ey ,

m eet i n a fib r o us r a ph e A deep l a ye r i s det a ch ed wh i ch p a sses u n de rn e a th th e

.

p ann i cul us b r id ges o ve r th e j ugul ar fu rr o w an d c r osses o ve r th e deep f a ce o f the

m as to i d o h u m er a l i s a n d o m o —
, ,

-
hy o i deus t o j o i n th e sup e r fi ci a l l a ye r I t a g a i n sep a .

r a tes t o p ass u n de r th e ce r vi c a l t r a pez i us a n d b ec o m e a tt a ch ed t o th e li g a me n tu m ,

n u ch ae A l o n g the ve n t r a l li n e a septu m is det a ch ed wh i ch sep a r a tes the ste rn o

.

c ep h al i c i T w o o th e r l a ye r s i n f r o n t o f th e sh o u l de r i n cl o se th e p r es c a pu l ar lym ph
.

gl ands .

The d e ep f a s c i a a ls o f or ms tw o l a ye rs Th e s u pe r fi c i al l ay er i s a tt a ched t o
the wi n g of the a tl a s a n d the l o we r edge o f th e t r a ch el o—
.

m a st o ideus an d sc a lenu s .

P a ssi n g d o w n w a r d i t i n cl o ses th e t r a che a an d t o geth e r w ith th e deep l a ye r

, , , ,

fu rn ishes she a ths fo r th e v a gus an d sym p a theti c n e r ves an d th e c ar o tid ar te r y .

P a ssi n g upw a r d i t det a ch es sept a betwee n th e exte n s or m uscles o f th e S pi n e An .

t er i o rl y i t c o ve r s th e th y r o i d gl an d th e guttu r a l p o u ch th e a dj a ce n t vessels a nd , ,

n e r ves a n d the l ar y n x a n d is a tt a ch ed t o th e m a st o i d p r o cess of th e temp ora l b on e

,

a n d the thy r o id c o r n u o f th e hy o id b o n e P o ste r i o r ly i t is a tt a ch ed t o the fi r st .

,

r ib a n d the c a r i n if o r m c a r ti l a ge o f th e ste r n um Th e d e e p l a ye r (p r eve r teb ral .

f asci a ) c o ve r s th e ve n t r a l su r f a ce of the l on gus c o ll i a n d i n cl o ses th e t ra ch e a a nd ,

oes oph a gus A n te r i o r ly i t f o r m s with the c o rr esp on di n g l a ye r of th e o pp o site

.
, ,

side a septum betwee n th e guttu ra l p o u ch es ; p o ste r i or ly it b e c om es c on ti n u o us

, ,

w ith the e n d o th o r a ci c f a sci a A f a s ci a pr opri a fo r ms a tub u l ar sh ea th ar o u n d the

.

t r a che a i n cl o si n g a ls o the r e cu rr e n t n e r ves

, .

VE NTR AL MUS CLE S

Th is g r o up c o n sists o f el ev e n p a i r s o f m u scles whi ch l ie a lm o st e n t i r el y

ve n t r a l t o the ve r teb rae
1 P ann icu lu s c a rn o s u s —The c e rvi c a l pann i cu lu s (pl a tysm a m y o i d e s o f
.

. .

m a n ) h a s a fleshy o r igi n o n the c a r i n if o r m c ar ti l a ge (m a n ub r i u m ) o f th e ste rn u m .

 22 6 FA S C UE A N D M U S C LE S or T HE H OR S E

r ow m uscl e exte n di n g
l g the ve n t r a l a n d l a te r a l a spects o f the t r a che a f ro m the
, a on

ste r n um t o th e a n gle o f the ja w I t f o r m s t h e ve n t r a l b o u n d a ry o f th e j ugul a r fu rr o w

Ori gi n —Th e c a r i n if o r m c a r ti l a ge o f th e s t e r n u m
. .

I n ser ti o n —
. .

The p o ste r i or b o r de r o f the l o we r ja w

A cti o n —A cti n g t o gethe r t o flex the he a d a n d n eck ; a cti n g si n gly t o i n cli ne
. .

,
.
,

the he a d a nd n e ck to the side o f the muscle c o n t ra cti n g

S tr u ctu r e —The t w o m uscles a r e fused a t thei r o r i gi n wh i ch is fleshy
.

N ear , .

the m iddle of th e n eck they sep a ra te a n d bec om i ng thi n n e r e a ch m u scle p a sses , , ,

u nde r the p aro t id gl a n d a n d te r m i na tes i n a fl at te n d on .

Rel a ti ons — S u p er fic i a l l y the ce r vi c a l p a nn i cu lus ; d eeply th e ste rn o thy r o -

hy o ideus a nd o m o—
,
.
,

hyo ideus m uscles Th e uppe r ed ge o f th e mu scl e is rel a ted to .

the j ugul a r vei n whi ch lies i n th e j ugul ar fu rr o w

,
Th e c ar o tid a r te r y th e v a gu s .
, ,

symp a theti c a nd r ecu rr e n t n e r ves a ls o li e a l on g th e uppe r edge a t th e r o o t o f th e

,

n eck The te n d on p a sses u n de r the sub m a xil l a r y vei n an d th e p aro ti d gl and h av

.
,

i ng the subm a xi ll a r y gl a n d a n d styl o m a xi l l ar is mu scle on its i n n e r side -

B l ood su p p l y —
.

C a ro tid a r te r y
-

Nerve— s upp l y —Ve n t r a l b r a n ch es o f th e spi n a l a ccess o r y a n d fi r st ce r vic a l

. .

n e r ves
—
4 S te m o thyr o -hyo i d e u s (S te r n o th y r o i d e u s et ste r n o hy o i d eus ) —
.

. Th is is a - -
.

l on g sl e n de r dig a st r i c muscle a ppli ed t o th e v e n t ra l su rf a ce o f th e t r a che a an d

, , ,

its fell o w o f the o pp osite S ide

Or i gi n —The c a r i n if o rm c a r ti l a ge o f th e ste rn u m
.

I nserti o n The exte r n a l su r f a ce o f th e thy ro i d c a r til a ge o f th e l a r y n x ;

.

(2 ) the b o dy o f the hy o i d b o n e
A c ti on —
.

T o dep r ess a n d r et r a ct th e h y o id b o n e th e b a se o f th e t on gu e a n d
.
, ,

the l ar y n x as i n degl uti ti o n I t m a y a ls o fi x th e hy o i d b o n e whe n the dep r ess ors

,
.

o f the t o n gue a r e a cti n g a s i n su cti o n

S tr u ctu r e —The o r igi n o f th e mus cle is fl esh y a n d as far a s th e middle o f the

.
,

n eck i t b le n ds wi th its fell o w Th e c o mm o n bell y i s th e n i n te rru pted by a te n d on

.
,

o r s o meti mes tw o te n d o n s f r o m wh i ch a r ise th r ee or f o u r flesh y b a n ds

,
Th e l a te ra l .

b a n ds di ve r ge t o r e a ch the i r i n se r ti o n i n t o th e t hy r o id c ar ti l a ge ; wh i le th e i nn e r
b a n ds cl o sely a ppl ied to e a ch o th e r a n d b l e n d i n g w ith th e o m o hy o id eus p a ss
,
-
,

st ra igh t f or wa rd t o r e a ch the ve n t r a l su r f a ce of th e hy o i d b on e
Rel a ti on a —At the r oo t o f th e n e c k th e c o m m o n b el ly h as th e ste rno ceph a li cus
.

b el o w a nd the c ar o tid a r te r ies a nd r ec u r r e n t n e r ves a b o ve Fu rth e r fo r w a r d th e

,
.

t ra che a bec o m es the uppe r r el a ti o n a n d n e a r th e h e a d th e ski n an d f a sci a th e l owe r , ,

o ne

B l ood s u ppl y —C a r o ti d a r te r y
.

N erve — —
. .

s u pp l y Ve n t ra l b ra n ch o f th e fi r st ce r v i c a l n e r ve
5 Omo -hyo i d e u s (S u b s c a p u l o h y o i d eus ) — Th i s is a th i n r ibb o n—
. .

. like mus cle -

.
, ,

a lm o st e nti r ely fleshy whi ch c r o sses the t r a ch e a ve r y o bl i qu ely u n de r c o ve r of the

,

mas to i d o h u me ra l i s
-

Or i g i n —Th e subsc a p ul a r f a sci a cl o se to th e sh o u l de r j o i n t

.

I n ser ti on —
. .

The b o dy o f th e h y o id b on e i n c omm on wit h th e hy o id b r an ch o f

.
,

th e p recedi n g m uscle
—T o d ep r ess th e h v o id b o n e
.

A cti o n
S tr u c tu re —The m uscl e i s c o mp o sed o f p ar a llel fl esh y fibe rs except a t its or i gi n
. .

, ,

whe r e i t h as a th i n
te nd on
Rel a ti o ns —I n
.

the fi rs t p a r t o f i ts c o u r se th e m us cle p a sses f o r w ar d b etwee n

th e sup r a spi n a tus a n t e r i o r deep pect o r a l m as t o i d o h u m e r a l i s (o u tw a rd ly ) a n d
, ,
-
,

the sc a le n u s (i n w a r dly ) I t is i n ti m a tely a dhe r e n t to th e m a s t o i d o h u m e ra l i s

.
- .

I n the m iddl e o f th e n eck i t is r el a ted supe r fi ci a lly t o th e m a s t o i d o h u mer a l i s -

,

ste r no ceph a l i cus a n d the j u gu l a r vei n ; d eeply to th e r e ctus c a pit is a n te r i or m aj or

-
, , ,

the c a r o tid a r t e r y the v a gus sy m p a thetic a n d r e cu rr e n t n e r ves the t ra che a a nd

, , ,
.

, , ,
 V E N T R A L M U S C LE S or N E CK 22 7

on the l eft S ide the oes o ph a gus I n its an te r i o r p ar t th e m uscle b le n ds with th e

,
.

hy o id p a r t o f the ste rno thy ro hy o ideus th e tw o c o ve r i n g the thy r o id p or ti on o f th e

- -
,

l a tte r m uscle the thy r o id gl a n d a n d the ve n t r a l f a ce of th e l ar y nx

B l ood s a pp l y —C a r o tid a n d i n fe r i or ce r vi c a l a r te r ies
, , .

-
-

N er ve s u pp l y —Ve n t r a l b r a n ches o f th e ce r vi c a l n er ves

. .

6 S c a l en u s (M sc a le n us p r i mae c o st ae ) —This m uscle is deeply S i tu a ted o n

. .

. . .

the side o f the p o ste r i or h a lf o f the n e ck I t is c o m p o sed of tw o p ar ts betwee n .

,

whi ch the r oo ts o f the b r a chi a l p lexus o f n e r ves eme r ge

Ori gin —The an te r i or b o r de r a n d o ute r su r f a ce o f th e fi r st rib
.

I nser ti on The d o r s a l (sm a l le r) p o r ti o n is a tt a ched t o th e t r an sve rse

.

p ro cess o f the seve n th ce r vi c a l ve r teb ra ; (2 ) th e ve n t r a l p o r ti on i s a tt a ch ed to th e

t ransve rse p ro cesses o f th e sixth fifth a nd f o u rth ce r vi c a l ve rteb r ae
‘

A cti on —
.
, ,

The n e c k is flexed o r i n cl i n ed l a te ra l ly a c c or d i n g a s th e muscles ac t

.
,

t o gethe r or si n gly I f the n ec k b e th e fixed p o i n t th e muscle ma y h a ve a r espi r a

.
,

t or y a cti o n by pulli n g f or w ar d o r fi x i n g th e fi r st r i b
S tru ctu re —Th e d o r s a l p o r ti o n i s c o m p o sed o f th r ee o r f o u r fl esh y bu nd les ‘
.

The ve n t ra l p or ti o n wh i ch is m u c h l ar ge r i s a lm o st e n ti r ely fleshy an d n ot so

, , ,

d ivi ded
R el a ti ons —
.

Su p er fic i a l l y th e a n te r i or deep pect or a l m as to i d o h u m e r a l i s a n d -

o m o—
.
, , ,

hy o i deus m uscles th e ph r e n i c n e r ve an d th e o th e r b r a n ches o f the b r a chi a l

, ,

plexus ; deeply th e ve r teb r a th e l o n gus c o ll i a n d i nt er t r an s v er sal es muscles the

, , ,

(e s o ph a gus (on the l eft si de ) the t r a ch e a (o n t h e r ight si de ) th e ve r teb r a l vessels

, , ,

the v a gus sym p a th eti c a nd r e cu rr e n t n e r ves

,
The r oo ts of th e b r a chi a l plexus
,
.

f o r m a fl a t a n a st o m o sis wh i ch lies b etwee n th e tw o p o r ti o n s of the m uscle Th e

, .

b ra chi al vessels c r o ss the ve n t r a l edge cl o se t o th e fi r st rib

B l ood su ppl y —C a r o t id ve r teb r a l a n d i n fe r i o r ce r vi c a l ar te r i es
.

N erve-s u pp l y —Ve n t r a l b ra n ch es o f th e ce r vi c a l n e r ves

.
, ,
.

7 R e c tu s capi ti s an t e ri o r m a j or (M l on gus c a p i tis ) —

. .

. Th is i s th e l ar gest . .

o f th e th r ee speci a l fl ex o r s o f th e h e a d a n d l ies a l o n g th e ven t r o l a te r a l su r f a ce ,

-

o f the an te r i o r ce rv i c a l ve r teb r ae a n d th e b a se of the c r ani um

Or i gi n —The t ran sve r s e p r o cesses of th e fifth f o u r th a n d th i r d ce r vi c a l v er
.

, ,

teb r ae
—The tub e r cles
.

I ns er ti on . th e j u n cti on o f th e b a si l ar p r o cess o f the o ccipit a l

at

b o ne w ith the b o dy o f the sph e n o i d

-

A cti on —A cti n g t o geth e r t o flex th e he a d ; a cti n g si n gly t o i n c li n e it to the

.

, ,

s a me S i de a ls o
S tr u ctu r e —Th e o r i g i n of th e muscl e is by fleshy d igit a ti on s
.

Th e belly i n .

c re a ses i n si z e by th e u ni on o f th ese d i gi t a ti on s r e a ch i n g its m a xi m u m at th e axis ,

.

I t the n di mi n ish es p a sses t o w a r d the m edi a n pl a n e a n d te r mi n a tes on a r o u n ded

, ,

te n d on .

Rel a ti on s .
—
S u pe r fic i a l l y th e m as t oi d o h u mer a l i s o m o — ,
h y o ideus an d r e ctus -
. ,

c a pitis an ti cus mi nor th e sub m a xill a r y gl and th e c ar otid a r te r y (wh i ch lies a l on g

, ,

the l o we r b or de r ) the o c cip i t a l an d i n te r n a l c ar o t id ar te r ies an d t he te n th e leve n th

, , , ,

a nd s y mp a theti c n e r ves ; d eep ly th e ve r teb r ae the l o n g us c o l li i n ter tran s v e rs a l es

, , , ,

a n d th e sm a ll st ra i ght muscle Th e te rm i n a l p ar t of th e m uscl e l ies i n c ont a ct

.

with its fell o w a b o ve th e ph ar y n x a n d b etwee n the gu t tu ra l p o u ches

B l ood —
.

s u pp l y —C a r o tid ve r teb r a l a n d o ccipit a l a rt e r i es .

N er ve s u pp l y —
.
, ,

-
Ve n t r a l b r a n ches o f the ce r vi c a l n e r ves
—
.
.

8 Re .ctu s c a piti t
s an e ri or m i n o r (M r ectus c a pit is ve n t r a lis ) Th is is a s m a l l . .

muscle wh i ch l ies u n de r c o ve r of th e p r ecedi n g one .

Ori gi n —Th e ve n t ra l a r ch o f th e a t l a s .

1
The pp er p art o f t h i s may b e s e p a ra t ed f ro m th e s cal enu s p r o p er a n d i s th en t er med th e
u ,

c er v i c a li s as c en d e ns o r i li o cos t a l i s c er v i c i s
— a c o n t i nu a t i o n I n t h e n ec k of t h e t ra ns v ers a li s cos
-

t a ru m .
2 28 FA s c ri E A N D M U S CLE S or T HE H OR S E

I n ser ti on —
Th e b a si l a r p r o cess , cl o se t o t h e p r e ced i n g m uscl e
A cti on —T o fl ex the o ccipit o -a tl a n t a l a r ti cul a t i o n
. .

S tr u ctu r e — eshy
.

m
R el a ti ona —B el o w , t o the p r eced i n g m us cle ; a b o ve , t o the a tl a s , o ccipit o
.

a tl a n t a l a r ti cul a ti o n , a n d the b a sil a r p ro cess ; exte r n a lly , t o the r e ctus c a pi tis

l a te r a lis and t he guttu ra l p o u ch
B l ood s u pp l y —Oc cipi t a l a r te r y
.

Nerve s u pp l y —Ve n t r a l b r a n ch o f th e fi r st ce r vi c a l n e r ve
. .

9 R e ctu s c a pi ti s l a t era l i s —Th is is a st i l l s m a lle r e n ti r ely fl esh y muscle

. .

.
, ,

wh i ch l ies fo r th e m o st p a r t u n de r th e s m a ll o bl iq ue m uscle
Or i gi n —The a tl a s exte r n a l to th e p r eced i n g m uscle
.

.
.
,

I nser ti on — The p a r a m a st o id o r styl o i d p r o cess o f the o c cipit a l b on e

A cti on —The s a m e a s th e p r e ced i n g m uscle
. .

S tr u ctu r e — Fl esh y .

Rel a ti on s — S u p e r fi c i a l l y th e sm a l l o b liq ue muscle th e o ccipi t a l vessels a nd

.
, , ,

th e ve n t ra l b r an ch of th e fi r st ce r vi c a l n e r ve
B l ood s u pp l y —
.

-
Occi pi t a l a r te r y
N erve s u p p l y —Ve n t r a l b r an ch o f th e fi r st ce r vi c a l n e r ve
. .

-
. .

1 0 L on g u s c o l l i — Thi s muscle c o ve r s the ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f th e ve r teb r ae

. .
,

f ro m the S ixth t h o r a ci c t o th e a tl a s an d i s u n i ted with its fell ow I t c on sists o f , .

t w o p o r ti o n s th o r a ci c a n d ce r vi c a l
,
.

Or i gi n Th or a ci c p or ti on th e b o di es of th e fi r st six th or a c ic ve rteb rae ;

,

(2 ) ce r vic a l p or ti o n the t r a n sve r se p r o cesses o f th e ce r vi c a l ve r teb r ae

, .

I ns er ti on Th o r a ci c p or ti o n the b o d i es an d t r an sve r se p ro cesses o f th e

.
,

l a st tw o ce r vi c a l ve r teb r ae ; (2 ) ce r vi c a l p or ti o n the b o di es of th e ce r vi c a l ve r teb ra ,

a n d the tube r cle on th e ve n t r a l su r f a ce of th e a tl a s

A cti on —T o fl ex th e n eck
.

S tr u ctu r e —Th e m uscl e is c o mp o sed o f a su c cessi on o f bu n dles

.

Th e l ar gest .

o f these c o n sti tute th e t h o r a ci c p a r t o f the m uscle wh i ch h as a st r on g te n d o n i n ,

s e r te d i n t o the l a st tw o ce r vi c a l ve r teb ra A bu r s a is i n te r p o sed b etwee n the te n d on .

a n d th e spi n e a t the fi r st c o st o ve r teb r a l a r ti cu l a ti o n Th e ce r vi c a l p or ti on con

-
.

sists o f a n umbe r o f sm a lle r b u n dles e a ch o f wh i ch p a sses fr o m its or i gi n on th e ,

t r an sve r se p r o cess of o n e ve r teb ra f or w ar d an d i n w ar d t o its i n se r ti on i n t o a ve r teb r a

fu r the r f or w a r d Th e m ost an te r i o r bu n dle is i n se r ted b y a st ron g te n d o n i n t o
.

th e ve n t r a l tube r cle o f th e a tl a s
Rel a ti ons —The p r i n ci p a l r el a ti o n s o f th e tw o m uscles i n th e th ora x are :
.

ve n t ra lly th e p l eu ra a n d fu r the r f or w a r d th e t r a ch e a and oes o ph a gu s ; d ors a lly

, , , , ,

the ve r teb ra a nd th e c o st o ve r teb r a l j o i n ts ; l a te r a lly th e d o r s a l supe r i or ce rvi c a l

-
, , ,

a n d ve r teb r a l vessels th e symp a th eti c n e r ve a n d th e th o r a ci c r oo ts o f the b r a chi a l

, ,

plexus I n the n e ck i m p o r t a n t r el a ti on s a re : ve n t ra lly th e t r a ch e a an d oes o ph a gus

.
, , ,

the c ar o tid a rte r y th e v a gus sy m p a theti c a n d r e cu rr e n t n e r ves ; d o r s a lly the

, , ,

ve r teb r a a nd i n th e m idd le thi r d o f th e n e ck th e i nte rtr ansv e rsal e s muscles ;

, ,

l a te r a lly the sc a l e n us th e r ectus c a pitis an ti cus m a j or an d th e i nte r tr an sv e r sal e s

, , ,

(i n the a nte r i o r th i r d ) Th e te rm i n a l p a r t o f th e muscl e is sep ar a ted f r om th e

.

—
t ra ch e a by th e oes o ph a gus wh i ch is h e r e m ed i an i n p o si ti on
B l ood —
, .

s u pp l y S ub c o st a l a n d ve r teb r a l a r te r i es
N er ve— s u pp l y —Ve n t r a l b r a n ch es o f th e spi n a l n e r ves
. .

I n te r tr a n s v e r s al e s c o l l i (M m i n te r t ra n sve r s a r i i c er v i ci s ) —Th ese a re six

. .

l l . . .
~

f a sci cul i wh i ch o ccu py the sp a ces betwee n th e l a te r a l a spects of the ve r teb r a a nd

the t ra n sve r se a n d a r ti cul a r p r o cesses Th e r e is th us a bu n dle fo r e a ch i n te r .

ve r teb r a l a r ti cul a ti o n except th e fi r st E a ch b u n dle c o n sists o f a d o rs a l a n d .

ve n t r a l p or ti o n
A tta c h me n ta —Th e d o r s a l bu n dl es p a ss f r o m t ra n sve r se p r o cess to a rt i cu l a r
.

p ro cess ; the ve n t ra l bu n dles exte n d b etwee n a dj a ce n t t r a n sve r se p r o cesses .

2 30 F A S C DE A ND M U S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E
 LA T E R A L MU S C L E S OF N ECK 23 1

A c ti on .
—
A cti n g t o gethe r exte n d th e he ad a nd
, to eck ;
n
a cti n g si n gly to , fl ex the he a d a nd n eck l a te r a l ly o r t o r o t a te

the a tl a s
S tru ctu re —The o r i gi n f r o m th e th ora ci c ve rt eb r a is by
.

a p o n eu ro ti c sli ps wh ich ble n d with t he c om plexus Th e su c .

c e edi n g fl eshy p or ti o n i n p assi ng a l o n g th e n eck r e ceives , ,

f a s ci cul i fro m e a ch o f t he ce r vi c a l ve rteb r a except th e fi rst

tw o . Th e d o r s a l di visi o n o f t h e m uscle is i n se rt ed i nt o the
m a st o i d p r o cess b y a fl at te n d o n wh i ch fuses wi th th a t of the
sple ni us ; th e ve n t ra l d ivis i o n i s i n se r t ed i nt o the wi n g o f the
a tl a s by a r ibb o n li ke te n d o n i n c om m on w it h th e sple n ius a nd
-

mas to i d o h um e ral i s
—
-
.

R el a ti on s S p erfi c i a l l y ,
th e sple n i us mu scl e a n d d or s a l
. u

b r an ches o f th e ce r v i c a l n e r ves ; d eep ly th e c omplexus the , ,

S pi na lis c o l li a n d th e Ob l i q u e m us cles o f th e h e a d
,
Th e sup e r i o r .

ce r vi c a l vessels c r o ss th e d eep f a ce of th e muscl e o b li quely a t

t h e level of th e si xth a n d se v e n t h ce r v i c a l ve r teb r a
B l ood -s u p p l y —V e rt eb r a l a n d sup e r i or ce r vi c a l arte r ies
.

N erve-s u ppl y —
. .

D o r s a l b r a n ch es o f the l a st s ix ce r vi c a l
.

n er ves .

6 C ompl exu s
.
(M se mi spi n a li s c a pitis ) This is a . .

l a r ge t r i an gu l ar mus cl e whi ch li es chi efly on th e lig a me n tum

n u ch a ,
u n de r c o ve r of the spleni us an d t r a chel o-m ast o ideus
m u s cles .

0 ri gi n Th e se c on d th i r d a n d f our th th ora ci c S pi n es
.
, , ,

i n c o mm on wi th the sple n i us a n d serr atus a n ti cus ; (2 ) the

t rans v er s e p r o cesses o f the fi r st si x or seve n th ora ci c ve rteb r a ;
(3 ) th e a r ti cul a r p r o cesses o f th e ce rvi c a l ve r t eb ra
I ns er ti on —The p o ste r i o r su r f a ce of the o ccipit a l b o ne
.

.
,

e xte rn a l t o the fu ni cu l ar p o r ti on o f th e l ig a me n tum n u ch a

A cti on —I t i s th e chi ef exte n s or o f th e h e a d an d n eck

.

. A ct .

i ng si n gly th e m uscl e i n cl i n es th e h e a d t o th e s am e side

,
.

S tr u ctu r e The o r i gi n of the m u scle at the withe rs is a po

.
-
_

n eu r o ti c I n th e n eck th e bu n dles a r isi n g f r o m the a r ti cu l ar

.

p r o cesses r u n o bl iqu el y upw ar d a nd f or w ar d givi n g the l o we r ,

p a r t o f th e m uscl e a disti n ct penn a te ch a r a cte r The uppe r .

p ar t of t h e b elly is c r ossed o bli qu ely b y f o u r or five te n d in o us

i n te rse cti o n s The i n se r ti o n is b y a st r on g ten d on
.
.

Rela ti ona S u p er fi c i al l y th e r h o mb o ideus se rra tus m a gn u s

fi
, , ,

sple ni us an d t r a che l o-m a st o ideus muscles ; deeply the lig a

, ,

me n tum n u ch a th e mu l ti fid u s ce r vi cis l on gissimus a n d th e

, , ,

Ob l i qu e a nd p o ste r i or st r a ight muscles o f t h e he a d t h e deep ,

o r supe r i o r ce r vi c a l vessels a nd the d or s a l cut a n e o us b r an ches ,

o f th e ce r vi c a l n e r ves
B l ood s u pp l y —D eep ce r vi c a l
.

- ve r teb ra l an d
.
o ccipit a l , ,

a r te r ies

N erve su pp l y —
.

D o r s a l b r a n ches o f th e l a st six ce r vi c a l
-
.
~

n e r ves .

7 M u l tifi d u s c e rvi ci s (M se m ispi n a lis c o l li ; t ra n sve r se

spi n o us muscl e of n eck ) —Th is muscle l ies on th e a r ches of th e
. .

l ast five ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a I t c on sists o f five o r six se gm e nts .

0 ri gi n —
.

The ar ti cul a r p r o cesses o f t he l a st five (or fo u r )

.

ce r vi c a l a n d t he fi r st th or a ci c ve r teb r a
I n s er ti on —
.

The spi no us p r o cesses of the ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a

.
.
2 32 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E
234 FA S C I ZE A ND M U S C LE S OF T HE H ORS E

B l ood —Occipit a l a rte r y

-
s u pp l y

N erve s u p p l y —
. .

D or s a l b ra n ch o f the fi r st ce r vi c a l n e r ve
-
. .

11 c api ti s p o ste ri o r m a j o r (s d or s a l is m aj or ) (g r e a t p o ste r i o r st ra igh t

R e ctu s
m uscle of the h e a d ) —
. .

T his m uscle e x ten ds f r o m the a xis to the o c cipi t a l b o n e

.
,

i n c o n t a ct w i th the l iga m e n tu m n uch a

0 r i gi n —
.

The edge o f th e spi no us p ro cess o f th e a xis

I m ar ti an —The o ccipit a l b o n e bel o w a n d exte r n a l to the c o m plexus a nd
. .

lig am e n t u m n u ch a -
.

A c ti on — T o exte n d the he a d .

S tru ctu r e — The m uscle is fleshy a n d ma y be divided i n t o tw o p a ra lle l p o r ti o n s

.
,

AY O M U C L O N E C K F ro HO . 1 80 .
—D E E p E sr
'
L ER F S ES F or RS E .

Ob li q
a piti t i ; b Ob li q piti p t i ;
uus ca t p iti l t li ; d
s a n er o r t , piti t i uus ca s os e r o r c , r ec us ca s a e ra s , re c u s c a s a n e r or

mi :
no r t e, piti t i m j ; f l g
re c u s ca lli ; g g l ; h t
s a n er or v li t m; i l g i im
a or . on us co ,
’
. s c a enu s , r a ns ers a s c os a r u , on ss us

do rsi ; k pi li t m i pi li ; 1 m l ti fid d i ; m m l ti fid
, s na s e se vi i ;
s i t t
na s l ;
. u t us o rs , u us ce r c s n. n e r ra n s v e rs a es o, o
’
, r ec us

capiti p t i m j ; p
s t
os e r o r piti p t i m i ; q t d
a or f i ,ti fr ecmp lus ; 1ca l m ll p t s os e r o r no r . en on o ns e r on o co e xu s , a e ar ar ,

f i l p t f li g m t m
u n cu ar h :ar i pit l
o t ; 3 p m t id p
a en u : 4 dg f w i g f tl ; 5
nu c a 9
“
occ a c r es . a ra as o r o c es s . e e o n o a as ,

t v
ra ns d 6
e rs e , ti l p an f vi l v t b ; 7
ar cu a r.v f b h i l pl ( t) ; 8 fi t i b
r o c es s e s o ce r ca er e ra ne r es o ra c a e xus cu rs r

B m A t d H ti )
. , , .

(E ll b g
en er e r- au , na . . aus e re .

supe r fi ci a l an d
deep Th e f orme r bl e n ds s o mewh a t w ith th e te rmi n a l p a r t o f th e
.

c o mplexus Th e deep p o r ti o n m ay be te r med th e r ectus c a pitis p oste r i or medius

. .

R el a ti on s ~ S u p e r fic i a l l y the a n te r i or o b li que sple n ius an d c om plexus ;

.
, , ,

i n te rn a lly the l ig a m e n tu m n u ch a ; deeply the a tl a s the o ccipit o a tl a n t a l a r ti cu l a

, , ,
-

ti o n a nd the r ectus c a pitis p o ste r i or mi nor The d ors a l b ran ch o f th e fi rst ce rvi c a l
, .

n e r ve a ppe ar s betwee n this m uscle an d t h e s m a ll o bl ique

B l ood su ppl y —Occipi t a l a r te ry

.

N er ve-s u p p l y —D o r s a l b ra n ch o f th e fi r st ce r vi c a l n e r ve
. .

. .

1 2 R e ctu s c a piti s p o st e r i or mi n or (5 d o r s a lis m i nor ) (s m a ll p o ste r i or st r a ight

muscle of th e h e ad ) —Th is s m a ll m uscle l ies u n de r c o ve r o f the p r eced i n g
. .

. .
 T HE FA S CUE A N D MU S C L E S OF T HE B A CK AND L OI NS 235

0 rt gi n
'

—
The d ors a l su r f a ce o f th e a tl a s
I nser ti on —The o ccipit a l b on e be n e a th the p r ecedi n g m uscle
. .

A c ti on —T o a ssist the p r ecedi n g m uscle

. .

S tru c tu re —I t is fl eshy a n d v ar i es a go o d de a l i n v o lume , b ei n g s o m eti m es

. .

sm a ll a nd d i ffi cu lt t o r ec o gn i ze 1
On the o the r h a n d , i t is s om eti mes d o ub le
Rela ti on s —S u p erfic i a l l y , th e p r ecedi n g muscle a n d the s m a l l o b li que ; deeply ,
. .

the a tl a s a n d th e o c cipi t o-a tl a n t a l a r ti cu l a ti o n

B l ood -su pp l y —Occi pi t a l a r te r y
.

N er ve-su pp l y —D o r s a l b ra n ch o f the fi rst ce r vi c a l n e r ve

. .

. .

THE FASCI ZE AND MUSCLE S OF THE BACK AND LOI NS

Th e s u pe rfi ci al fas c i a
p r ese n ts n o spe ci a l fe a tu r es The l umb o- d or s al fas ci a .

( F a sci a lumb o -d o r s a l is
) cl o sely i n vests t he mus cles b ut is e a si ly st ri pped o ff the ,

l ongis simus I t i s a tt a ch e d medi a lly t o the sup r a spi n o us lig a me n t and the S pi n o us
.

p r o cesses o f the ve r teb r a ; l a te r a lly i t d iv ides i n t o t w o l a y er s The supe rfi ci a l

, .

l aye r is p r a cti c a lly t he a p o n eu ro sis o f th e l a tissimus d o r si Th e deep l a ye r gives .

o r i gi n t o the se rra tus an ti cus an d p o sti cus th e l umb ar p ar t o f th e o b liquus ex ,

tern u s a b d o mi n is th e t ra n sve r sus a bd om i n is an d the r et ra ct o r c o st a

, I ts l a te r a l
, .

edge cu r ves u n de r the l on gi ssimus an d is a tt a ched t o th e r ib s a n d lu m b ar t ran sve r se

p ro cesses P o st er i or ly it i s c o n ti n u o us with th e glute a l f a sci a At the wi the rs it
.
, .

f o r ms a n i mp o r t a n t st r u ctu r e th e d o r s o -s capu l ar li g am en t This is a st r o n g

,
.

te ndi n o us sheet a tt a ch e d t o the th i r d fo u r th a nd fifth th o r a ci c spi n es I ts uppe r

, , ,
.

p ar t i s ve r y t h i ck a nd gi ves o r i g i n b y i ts supe r fi ci a l su r f a ce to th e r h o mb o ideus d o rsi ,

by its a n te r i o r p ar t t o th e sp l e n i us Th e l o we r p a r t is thi n a n d el a sti c a n d fu r n ishes

.
,

n ume r o us l a mel l a whi ch i n te r sect th e sc a pu l a r p a r t o f th e se rr a tus an d are a t

t ach ed w ith it t o the sc a pu l a Th r ee l a m ell a a re d et a ched fr om th e deep f a ce of

.

the l ig a me n t Th e d eepest of th ese p a sses b etwee n th e l on gissi m us and spi n a lis

.

a nd is a tt a ch ed t o t h e t ra n sve r se p r o cesses Of th e fi r st seve n th o ra ci c ve r teb r a ;

it gives a tt a c h men t to t he c o mpl exus The m iddle on e dips i n b etwee n the l o n gis .

s i m u s a n d t r a n sve r s a l is c o st a r u m Th e supe r fi ci a l o n e g i ves or igi n t o the se rra tus

.

an ti cus A st r o n g f a sci a l l a ye r the i li o lumb ar li g a me n t exte n ds f r om the l a st

. .

,
-
,

r i b t o th e exte r n a l a n gl e o f th e i li u m .

The r e a r e n i n e p a i r s o f m uscles i n th is r e g i o n a rra n ged i n f o u r l a ye r s ,

.

F I R S T L A YE R
1 . Tr ape z i u s th ora cal i s .

2 . L a ti s simu s d or s i .

S E C ON D L A YE R
3 . Rh o m b o i d eu s th ora cal i s .

The fo r eg o i n g a r e desc r ibed with th e o the r muscles whi ch a tt a ch th e th o r a ci c

l i mb t o the t r u n k (p
4 S erra tu s a n ti c u s (M se r r a tus d or s a l is i n s p i ra t o r i u s ) —Th is is a thi n q
.

. . u acl r i .

l a te r al muscl e n a m ed f r o m its t o o thed ve n t ra l b o r de r I t lies be n e a th the r h om

,
.

h o ide ns se rr a tus m a gn us a n d l a tissi m us d or si

Or i gi n —T h e l umb o d ors a l f a sci a a nd d o r s o sc a pu l a r l ig a m e n t
.
, ,

- - .

I nser ti on —Th e exte r n a l su r f a ces o f the fifth to th e eleve n th o r twelft h r ibs

.

i n clusive
A c ti on —T o d r a w th e r ibs on wh i ch i t is i n se r ted f o r w a r d a n d o utw a r d thus
.

. ,

a ssisti n g i n i n spi r a ti o n .

1
Thi s s eems d u e to p ress u re p r od u ced by p a t h olo g i ca l c h a ng s e i n th e su p ra a tl o i d
- b u rsa ,
i
w h c h are f r eq u en tl y e x t e ns i v e i n d i s s ec ti n g - roo m s u b j e c t s .
23 6 FA S CUE AND M U S CL E S OE T HE Z H OR S E

S tr u ctu r e —The m uscle a r ises by m e a n s o f a th i n a p o n eu r o sis whi ch ble n d s

.

wi th the lu m b o -d o r s a l f a sci a a n d the ap o n eu r o sis o f th e l a tissi m us d or si Th e .

m uscl e -fib ers p a ss d o w n w a r d a n d b a ckw a r d to be a tt a ch ed t o the r ibs b y seve n o r

ei ght d i gi t a ti on s bel o w the o ute r edge of the t r an sve r s a lis c o st ar u m .

Rel a ti on s — S u p e r fic i a l l y , the r h o m b o ideus , se r r a tus m a g nus , l a tissimus d o r si ,

.

a n d se r r a tus p o sti cus ; deeply , th e l on gissi m us d or si , t r a n sve rs a lis c o st a r u m , ex

te r na l i nte r c o st a l muscles , a n d the r ibs
B l ood-s u pp l y —I n te r c ost a l a r te r ies
.

N er ve-s u pp l y —Th ora ci c n e r ves

. .

—
. .

5 S e rr a tu s po s ti c u s (M se rr a tus d or s a li s exs pi r a tori u s )

. . T h is mu scl e r e .

semb les the p r eced i n g o ne wh i ch i t p a r tly c o ve r s

Or i gi n —
.
,

Th e l um b o d o r s a l f a sci a -

I n ser ti on —Th e o ute r su r f a ces o f the l a st seve n or eigh t r ibs

. .

A cti on —T o d r a w th e r i bs b a ckw a r d thus a ssisti n g i n expi r a ti o n

. .

S tru ctu ra —S i m il a r to th e p r ecedi n g m uscle

,
. .

The fibe r s a r e di r ected d o wn w a r d .

a n d f o r w a r d a n d te r m i n a te i n seve n o r eight d igit a ti o n s o n e or tw o Of wh i ch c o ve r ,

the p o ste r i o r teeth of the an ti cus The a p on eu r o sis b le n ds w ith th a t of the l a t i ss i

.

m u s d o r si
Rel a ti on a
.

—
S u p e r fic i a l l y th e l a tissi m us d o r si a n d exte rn a l o b l ique ; deeply
, ,

the l on gissi m us d or si t r an sve r s a l is c o st ar um exte r n a l i n te r c ost a ls se r r a tus a n ti

, , ,

cus a n d the r ibs

,
.

B l ood s u pp l y — I n te r c o st a l a nd l u m b a r a r te r ies
-

Nerve s u pp l y —Th o r a ci c n e r ves

. .

-
. .

T H I R D L A YE R
6 Tr an sv er s a l i s c o staru m (M i l i o c o st a li s ) —This l on g se g m e n t a l mu scl e
. .
-
.
,

exte n ds as i ts n a m e i n d i c a tes a c ro ss th e se r ies o f r ibs i n c on t a ct with th e o ute r

, , ,

edge o f the l o n gissi m us d o r si .

Or i gi n . The t ra n sve r se p r o cesses o f the sec on d and th i r d l umb ar ve r te

b ra a n d the deep l a ye r o f th e l u m b o d o r s a l f a sci a (2 ) The a n te r i o r b orde r s a n d
-
.

1
exte a l su r f a ce o f the l a st fift een r ibs
r n

I n ser ti on —The p o ste r i o r b o r de r s o f the r ibs a n d th e t r an sve r se p r o cesses o f

.

the l ast t w o o r th r ee ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a

A c ti on —C h i e fl y t o d ep r ess a n d r et r a ct th e r i bs a n d s o h elp i n expi r a ti on
.

. .

A cti ng t o gethe r they m a y a ssist i n ext e n di n g th is spi n e a ct i n g si ngl y i n i n cli n i n g

, ,

it l a te r a lly .

S tr u ctu r a — This muscl e p r ese n ts a d isti n ct se g me n t a l a r r a n ge m e n t I t is .

c o m p osed o f a se r ies of b u n dles th e fi be r s o f wh i ch a r e d i r e cted fo r w a r d a n d a l ittl e

,

d o w n w a rd a n d o utw a r d F r o m th ese a r e det a ch ed tw o sets o f te n d on s Th e

. .

supe rfi ci a l te n d o n s sp r i n g f r o m th e o ute r edge of th e m us cl e They are fl a t a n d a re .

a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch i n width E a ch c r o sses tw o o r th r ee i n te r c o st a l sp a ces

.
,

t o be i n se r ted o n the p o ste r i o r b o r d e r Of a r i b Th e d eep te n d on s a r e det a ched .

f ro m the d o r s a l p a r t of th e deep f a ce o f the mus cle E a ch p a sses b a ckw a r d a c ro ss .

o ne o r tw o i n te r c o st a l sp a ces t o its o r igi n o n th e a n te r i o r b o r de r o r o u te r su r f a ce

of a rib . S m a l l bu r s a m a y b e f o u n d b etwee n th e r i bs a n d te n d o n s .

Rel a ti o ns — Su p e r fi c i a l l y the d o r s a l se rra ti a nd th e c o mpl exus ; deeply th e ex

.

, ,

te r na l i nte r c o st a ls a n d th e r ibs The l umb a r o r igi n is c o ve r ed by th e l o n gissi m us

. .

The supe r i o r (d eep ) ce r vi c a l a n d d or s a l vessels c r o ss the su r f a ce o f th e m uscle at

the fi rst and s e c o n d i n te r c o st a l sp a ces r espectively a nd b r a n ch es o f t h e i n te r c o st a l ,

vessels a n d n e r ves e m e r ge betwee n th e t ra n sve r s a li s a n d l on gissi m us ; he r e a f a sci a l

l aye r d ip s i n betwee n the tw o .

1
T he l u mb a r p a r t o f t h i s mu sc l e i s su b j ec t to v a r i a ti o n . I t ma y , i n q
u i te e e p ti o n a l c as es
xc ,
exte nd as fa r a s t h e i li u m .
238 F A S C I ZE A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

8 M u l tifi d u s
. d or s i (se m ispi n a li s of th e b a ck an d l o i n s ) —This is a l on g .

segme n t a l m uscle wh i ch c o ve r s the sides o f t he S pi n o us p r o cesses o f t h e ve rteb ra

f rom the s a c r u m t o the n eck .

Gr i mm The l a te r a l p o r ti on o f the s a c r u m ; (2 ) the ar ti cul a r p ro cesses of

the l u m b a r ve r teb r a ; (3 ) th e t r a n sve rse p r o cesses o f the th o r a ci c ve r teb r a
I n ser ti on —
.

The S pi no us p r o cesses o f th e fi r st tw o s a c r a l the lu m b a r th o r a ci c

.
, , ,

a n d l a st ce r vi c a l ve rteb ra

A c ti on —A cti n g with i ts fell o w it is a n exte ns o r o f th e spi n e ; a cti n g si n gly ,

.

.
,

i t fl e x es i t l ate ra lly
S tr u ctu r a —I t is c o mp o sed o f a se r ies o f bu n dles wh i ch are di r ected o b li quely
.

f o r w a rd a nd upw a r d E a ch f as ci culus p asses o ve r seve r a l ve r teb ra t o its i n se r ti o n

. .

I n the p o ste r i o r p a r t o f the se r ies the b u n d les c r o ss tw o o r th r ee ve r teb r a a n d are

i n se rted i nt o the sum m its o f the spi n es An te r i o r ly th e bu n dles h a ve a m o r e .
,

h o r i z o n t a l d i r ecti o n c r o ss th r ee to fi ve ve r teb r a an d a r e i n se r ted i n t o th e sides

, ,

o f th e spi nes c o n side r a bly bel o w th ei r summ its A fu r th e r c o m pl ic a ti o n c onsists

.

i n the fusi o n o f seve r a l bu n dles i n t o a c o mm o n i n se r ti o n

Rel a ti ons —S u p erfic i a l l y th e l o n gissi mus ; d eeply th e ve r teb ra l spi n es
.

B l ood—
.
, , .

s u pp l y I n te r c o st a l a n d l u m b a r a r te r i es
-

Ner ve s u pp l y —D o r s a l b r a n ches o f the th o r a ci c a nd lumb a r n e r ves

. .

9 I nte rtrans v ers al e s l umb o rum —These a r e ve r y th i n muscu l ar a n d te n di n

. .

. .

ou s st ra t a wh ich o ccupy the sp a ces b etwee n the t r a n sve r se p r o cesses o f the lumb a r
,

ve r teb ra except the fifth a n d sixth

A c ti on —T o a ssist i n fl exi n g th e l o i n s l a te r a lly
.

Rel a ti ona —S u pe r fici a l l y t he l o n gissi m us ; deeply th e qu a d r a tus lumb o r u m

.

B l ood s u pp l y —L umb a r a r te r ies

, , .

Ner ve s u pp l y —L u m b a r n e r ves
. .

-
. .

THE FASCI A AND MUSCLE S OF THE TAI L

The muscles o f the t a i l a r e i n cl osed i n th e st r on g c o ccyg ea l f a s ci a , wh i ch i s
c on ti n u o us i n f r on t with the glute a l f a sci a an d ble nds with the l a te r a l s a c r o
i li a c lig am e n t A t th e r oo t o f th e t a i l it is l o o sely a tt a ch ed t o th e subj a ce n t muscles
.
,

but fu r the r b a ck i t i s i n ti m a tel y a dhe r e n t to the m F r o m its deep f a ce ar e de .

t ach ed sept a whi ch p a ss betwee n the m uscles t o be c o me a tt a ched t o the v e r teb ra

1 Co c cyg e u s (C o mp r ess or c o ccygi s ; isc h i o c o ccyge us ) —Th is is a :
.

. flat -
.
,

t r i an gul ar m uscle wh i ch l ies ch i efly betwee n th e s a c r o sci a ti c li g a m e n t an d the -

r ectu m

Or i gi n —The pelvi c su r f a ce of the s a c ro sci a ti c li g a m e n t n e a r th e isch i a ti c

.

.
-

sp i ne
I nserl i o n —
.

The fi r st f o u r c o ccyge a l ve r teb r a and th e c o ccyge a l f a sci a

A cti o n —A cti n g t o geth e r t o dep r ess (flex ) th e t a i l c om p r essi n g it o ve r th e
. .

.
, ,

pe ri n eu m ; a cti n g si n gl y t o dep r ess a nd i n cl i n e it to th e s am e side

S tr u ctu r e —The o r igi n Of th e m u scle is a p o n eu r o ti c
.
,

B ec o mi n g fl eshy its .
,

fi be r s p a ss U pw ard and b a ckw a r d a nd d iv ide i n t o tw o l a ye r s Th e o ut e r l aye r is .

a tt a ched t o the ve r teb r a th e i nn e r t o th e f a sci a ; i n cl ud ed b etwee n the tw o lie

,

th e i nter tra ns v e r s al es Wh e n th e t a il is ra ised th e ve n t ra l edges of th e muscles

.
,

p r od uce a d isti n ct r idge a t ei the r side of th e an us

R e l a ti ona —Outw a rd ly th e s a c r o sci a ti c li g a me n t a n d the semi m e m b r an o sus ;
.

"
,

i nw a r dly the r ec tu m a n d th e s a c r o c o ccyge u s ve n t r a li s mus cl e

, The i nte r n a l
- .

pud i c ar te r y c ro s ses the o ute r f a ce o f the o r igi n o f the muscle .

2 S a c r o - c o ccyg e u s sup er i o r (M s a c r o c o ccygeus d or s a li s med i a l is ; e r ect or

s e x te n s or c o ccygi s ) —Th is m uscle li es a l on g the d o r s o—
.
.

. . m edi a n a spe ct o f th e
t a il i n c o n t a ct wi t h i ts fell o w
Or i gi n —The l a st th r ee s a c ra l spi n es a nd s o m e o f th e c o ccyge a l spi n es
, .

. .
 =
T HE FA S C LE A N D M US C LE S OF T HE T AIL 2 39

I ns er ti on —T h e d o r s a l su r f a ce o f th e c o ccyge a l ve r teb r a
. .

A cti on — A cti n g t o gethe r , to elev a te (ex te n d ) the t a il ; a cti n g si n gly , to elev a te

and i n cl i n e i t l a te r a lly
S tr u c tu r e —The m uscl e h as a st r o n g r o u n ded b elly
.

I t is i n se r ted by me a n s o f .

sh o r t te n d on s wh i ch fuse with th ose o f th e n ext m uscle

Rel a ti o ns —S u p e rfic i a l l y the c o ccyge a l f a sci a ; i n te r n a lly its fell o w ; l a te r
.

a lly the s a c r o—
.
, ,

,
c o c cygeus l a te r a lis ; d eeply the ve r teb r a , .

3 S a c r o- c o ccyg e u s l a t era l i s (M s a c r o c o ccygeus d or s a li s l a te ra lis ; c u rv a tor -

c o ccygi s ) —Th is muscl e l i es i m

. .

med i a tely l a te r a l t o the p r eced

i ng
—Th e sides
.

0 r i gi n . of th e
s a c r a l spi n es w i th th e m u l ti fi ,

dus an d the t ra n sve r se p r o cesses

,

o f the s ac r a l a n d c o ccyge a l v er

teb ra
I n ser ti on —The l a te ra l su r
.

f a ce of th e c o c cyge a l ve r teb ra ,

except th e fi r st f o u r .

A c ti on — A cti n g with i ts fel

l ow t o a ssist th e p r ecedi n g mus
,

cle i n el ev a ti n g the t a i l ; a cti n g

si n gly to i n cli n e i t t o th e s am e
,

side
S tru c tu re —Th is m uscl e a p
.

pe ar s t o be a d i r e ct c o n ti n u a ti on
of the m u l ti fid u s d o r si The b elly .

FI G . 1 82 .
— CT ON O
C R o s s -S E I F TAI L or HO RS E FI G . 1 83 .
—M U C L S ES OF P E RI N UM E HO or RS E .

CLO O AN U SE T S
a .
C occ yg eus ; b , re t ra c t or an i; c,ph i t
c
’
i t, s nc er a n ex er

34 .
C yg l v t b
o cc ea er e ra ; 35 , s a c ro -c o c n us ; t d, : r ec o -c o c c y g e u s s a c ro -C O
CCBg i f i o l t li
'
eu s n er r a e ra s ;

c y g eu s su p i ; 36 i t t
er o r . n e r ra n s v er s a li s; 37, f,
t t p ni ; g b l b
re r a c or e s , u o -c a v e r no s u s ; h i hi v , sc o -c a e r n os u s

s a c r o - coc c yg i f i ; 38
eu s n er or c occy g eu s : 89 , i i t l pud i t y ; k
n er na c ar er a nu s ; l p i (A ft E ll b g
en s er en er er

B m T p A n t d P f d es
.
, ,
, ,

r ec t o -c o c c y g e u s ; 40 coc cy g ea lf as c a i (A ft e r au o a er )
B
. . .
,
.
, .

E ll e n b e rg e r- au m , An t a .
'
i ri r K u ns t l e r .
)

is fusif o r m a nd r e ceives r ei n f o r ci n g f a sci cu li f r om the t r a nsve rse p r o cesses o f the

s a c r um Th is is su cceeded by bu n d les of te nd on s as m a n y as f ou r lyi ng a l on gsid e
.
,

o f e a ch o the r .

Rel a ti o ns — S u p er fic i a l l y th e l a te r a l s a c r o ili a c lig a m e n t a n d the c o cc y ge a l

.
,
-

f asci a ; d o r s a lly the s a c r o c o c cygeus supe r i or ; ve nt r a lly th e i n te r t r an sv e r s a l es ;

,
-
,

deeply the ve r teb r a an d a b r a n ch o f the l a te r a l c o c cyge a l a r te r y a nd a cc om p a n yi n g

,

vei n an d n er ve
—
.

4 I nte rtran sv e r s al es c a ud a (M m
.
i n te r t ra n sve r s ar ii c a ud a ) These c o n .
.

sist o f m uscul ar b u n d les wh i ch li e on th e l a te r a l a spect Of th e t a i l be twee n t h e ,

p r e cedi n g m uscle a n d th e s a c r o c o ccygeus i nfe r i o r Th ey begi n o n the l a te ra l ed ge - .

240 FA S C I zE A N D M US C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

of the s a c r u m a n d o ccupy t h e sp a ces betwee n th e t r an sve r se p r o cesses t o whi ch ,

they a r e a tt a ched Th ey a re h o weve r n ot a rr an ged i n a st r i ct se gm e n t a l m a nne r

A c ti o n —A c t i n g t o gethe r t o fix t he c o ccyge a l ve r teb r a ; a cti n g si n gly t o
.
, , .

.
, ,

as sist i n l a te r a l fl exi o n
—
.

5 S a c r o -c o ccyg e u s i nf e ri or (M m s a c r o c o c cygei v e nt r a les ; d ep r e s s or .

c o ccygis ) —This m uscl e l i es on the ve n t r a l a spect o f th e s a c r u m an d c o ccyx

.

. .

I t is c o m p o sed o f t w o p o r ti o ns desc r ibed by B ou r g el a t a n d th e G e rm a n an at o m ists

,

as sep a r a te m uscles .

The o ute r p or ti o n (M c o c cygeus ve n t r a lis l a t e r a lis ) is mu ch the l a r ge r

.

o f the t w o I t a r ises f r o m the o ute r p a r t o f the ve n t r a l su r fa ce o f t he s a c r um a b o ut

.
,

as fa r f o r w ar d a s th e th i r d f o r a m e n a n d is i n se r ted i n t o the t r an sve r se p r o cesses

,

a nd ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f th e c o c cyge a l ve r teb r a
—
.

()
b The i nn e r p o r ti o n (M s a c r o c o ccygeus ve n t r a l is medi a lis ) a r ises fr o m
.

the ve n t r a l su r f a ce of t he s a c r u m i n te r n a l t o th e p r eced in g m uscle a n d t h e fi r st

eight c o c cyge a l ve r teb ra a n d i s i n se r ted i n t o th e ve n t ra l su r f a ces of th e c o ccyge a l
,

ve r teb ra
A cti on —A ctin g t o get he r t o dep r ess (fl ex ) th e t a i l ; a cti n g si n gly t o i n cli n e
.

.
, ,

i t l a te ra lly a ls o
S tr u ctu ra —The o ute r p o r t i o n h as a s o m ewh a t c o mp r essed bel ly a n d r eceive s
.

b u ndles fr o m the t r a n sve r se p r o cesses of th e c o c cyge a l ve r teb r a Th e i nn e r por .

ti on is mu ch sm al le r an d sh o r te r r e a ch i n g onl y a b o u t t o th e m iddle of t h e t a il
Rela ti ons —
, .

Ve n t ra ll y the p el vi c a n d c o ccyge a l f a sci a ; d o r s a lly th e s a c r um

.
, , ,

c o ccyge a l ve r teb ra an d th e i n t er t r an sv ersal es ; l a t e r a l ly the s a c r o sci a ti c li g a

, ,
-

me n t the c o ccygeus a n d th e c o c cyge a l f a sci a ; m ed i a l ly its fell o w the r e ct o

, , , ,

c o ccygeus an d t he m iddl e c o c cyge a l vessels

, B r a n ch es o f th e l a te ra l c o ccyge a l .

vessels a nd n er ves l ie betwee n t h e o ute r divisi on of t h e m uscle a n d th e in ter tr an s

ve rs a les
B l ood su ppl y —
.

-
M iddle a n d l a t e r a l c o c cyge a l a r te ri es
N er ve su pp l y —C o ccyge a l n e r ves
. .

-
. .

THE MU SCLE S OF THE THORAX

These c on sist o f seve n muscles or sets of m uscles wh i ch a re a tt a ch ed t o the ,

th or a ci c ve r teb ra t o the r ibs an d th ei r c ar ti l a ges a n d t o the ste r n um

, Fu n c , .

t i o n al l y they a r e m uscl es o f r espi r a t i o n

1 L e v ato r e s c o star u m —Th ese c o n stitut e a se r i es o f sm a ll mus cl es wh i ch o ccupy
, .

'

. .

a n d o ve r li e the uppe r e n ds o f the i n te r c o st a l sp a ces

Gr i mm—The t r a n sve r se p r o cesses o f the t h o r a ci c ve r teb r a

.

I ns er ti on —
.

The e xte r n a l su r f a ces o f t h e u ppe r e n ds of t he r ibs p o ste r i o r t o the

.

ve rt eb r a l or i g i n
[i d i om—T O d ra w th e r ibs f o r w a r d i n i n spi r a ti o n
.

S tr u ctu re —Ar isi n g b y te n di n o us fib e r s e a ch muscle p a sses b a ckw a r d a n d o ut

.

w a r d a n d exp an ds a t its i nse r ti on S o m e fib e r s p a ss o ve r o n e r i b an d a r e i nse r ted

.

o n a su cceedi n g o n e At the fi r st a nd l a st sp a ces th e muscle c a nn o t be disti n

.

g u i s h e d f ro m the exte r n a l i n te r c o st a l o f wh i ch it i s i n r e a l it y o nl y a speci a l ly de

,

v e l op ed p art .

Rel a ti o ns — S u p erfi c i al l y th e l o n gissi m us d o r si ; deepl y t he r ibs i n te rn a l

.
, , ,

i n te r c o st a l mu scles an d t he i n te r c o st a l vessels a n d n e r ves

B l ood s u pp l y —I n te r c ost a l a r t e r i es
.
,

-
. .

N er ve s u pp l y — I n te r c o st a l n e r ves
-

2 E xte rn a l i n te r c o sta l s (M m i n te r c o st a l es exte r ni ) —

. .

. E a ch o f these oc
. .

cu p i es a n i n te r c o st a l sp a ce f r o m t h e lev a t o r es to the ste rn a l ext r emity o f the ri b

,
.

They d o no t o c cupy t h e i n te r c a rt i l a gi no us sp a ces

Gr i mm—Th e p o ste r i o r b o rde r s o f the r ibs
.

.
24 2 F A S C UE A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

3 I n te rn a l in ter c o sta l s (M m i n te r c o st a les i n te r n i ) —

. These o ccupy t h e
. .

e n ti r e le ngth o f th e i n te r c o st a l sp a ces , i n cludi n g t hei r i n te r ch on d ra l p o r ti on

Gr i mm —Th e a n te r i o r b o r de r s o f t h e r ibs a n d thei r c a r til a ges
.

I n scr l i o n — The p o ste r i o r b or de r s o f t he p r eced i n g r ibs a n d c a r ti l a ges

. .

A cti on — T O d ra w th e r ibs b a ckw a r d i n expi r a ti o n I t see m s p r o b a b le , h o w .

l
eve r , th a t the i n te r c ar ti l a gi n o us p o r ti on is i ns p i r a tor y
—The d i r ecti o n
.

S tr u ctu r a the fi be rs is o bl i que d o wn w ar d an d f or w ar d

of .

The r e is a sm a lle r a m o u n t o f te n di no us tissue th a n i n the exte r n a l set an d th e ,

thi ck ness d i m i n ishes f r om bel o w upw a r d I n the uppe r p a r t o f th e sp a ces fibe r s .

s o m eti m es c ro ss a r ib i n a f a shi o n simil a r t o the sub c o st a ls o f m an A thi n .

a p o n eu r o sis sep a r a tes th e i n te r n a l f r om the exte r n a l i n te r c o st a l muscle i n e a ch

sp a ce
Rel a ti on s —
.

S u per fi c i a l l y th e lev a t o r es c o st ar um a n d the exte r n a l i n te r c o st a ls ;

.
,

d eeply the e nd o th o ra ci c f a sci a a n d pleu r a th e t r a n sve r sus th or a cis d i a ph r a gm

, , , ,

t r a n sve r sus a bd o m i n is a nd the i n te r n a l th o ra ci c a n d a st e rn a l vessel s I n the

,
.

uppe r p ar t of the i n te r c ost a l sp a ces the i n te r c o st a l vessels a n d n e r ves li e betwee n

the i n te r na l a n d exte r n a l i n te r c o st a l m uscle b ut b el o w th ey l ie ch i efly on the deep ,

f a ce o f the i nn e r m uscle
B l ood s u ppl y —I n te r c o st a l a n d i n te r n a l th o r a ci c a r te r ies
.

-
. .

N er ve s u pp l y — I nte r c o st a l n e r ves
-

4 R e tra cto r c o sta —Th is is a s m a ll t r i an gul a r muscl e wh i ch l ies beh i n d the

. .

. .

l a st r ib chiefly u n d e r c o ve r o f the se r r a tus p o sti cus

0 r i gi n —
.
,

The t r a n sve r se p ro cesses of the fi rst th r ee or f o u r lu m b ar ve rteb r a

.

by m e a n s o f the l u m b a r f a sci a .

I m ar ti an — The p o ste r i o r b o r de r o f th e l a st r i b
A cti on —T o r et r a ct the l a st r i b
.

S tru ctu ra — The m u s cle a r i ses b y a th i n a p on eu r o sis I ts fibe r s a r e p a r a llel .

t o th o se of th e a dj a ce n t i n te r n a l o bl i qu e
Rel a ti on a —S u p er fic i a l l y the se rr a tus p o sti cus a n d exte rn a l o bl ique ; deeply
.

, ,

the t r a n sve r sus a bd o mi n is

B l ood su pp l y —L u m b ar a r te r i es
.

N er ve— s u pp l y —L u m b a r n e r ves
. .

5 R e ctu s th o r a ci s (M t ra n sve r sus c o st a r u m ; l a ter a l is ste r n i ) —Thi s i s a

. .

. . .

thi n m uscl e wh i ch li es u n de r c o ve r o f th e deep pect ora l m uscles I t is di r ected .

o bliq uely b a ckw a r d a n d d o w n w a r d a nd c r o sses th e l o we r p a r t o f the fi rst ,

th r ee i n te r c o st a l sp a ces
0 r i gi n —The o u te r su r f a ce o f th e fi r st r i b bel o w th e sc a le nus
.

. .
,

I m a l l ow — Th e c a r ti l a ge o f th e th i r d o r f o u r th r i b The a p on eu ro sis usu a lly .

j o i n s th e r ectus a bd om i n is I t m a y r e a ch the ste rn u m . .

A c ti on — I t m a y a ssist i n i n sp i r a ti o n or c o n cu r wi th th e r ectus a b d om i n is .

R el a ti o na — S u p e r fic i a l l y the d eep pect o r a l m uscl es ; deeply the i n te r c o st a l

, ,

muscles a nd the r ibs

(5 Tran sv e r su s th ora ci s (T r i a n gul ar is ste r ni ) —Thi s i s a fl a t m uscle situ a ted
.

. .

o n th e th o r a ci c su r f a ce o f th e ste r n u m a n d th e c a r ti l a ges o f th e ste rn a l r ibs .

Gr i mm— The ste r n a l li g a m e n t .

I m ar ti an — The c a r ti l a ges o f th e r ibs f r o m th e se c o n d t o th e ei ghth i n clusive ,

.

A cti on — I t d r a ws th e c o st a l c a r til a ges i n w a r d a n d b a ckw a r d thus a ssisti n g

.
,

i n expi r a ti o n
S tr u c tu r e —E a ch m u scl e h a s th e f o r m o f a sc a le n e t r i a n gl e o f wh i ch the b as e
.

is th e st ro ngly se r r a ted exte r n a l b o r de r The m uscle c o n t a i n s a goo d d e a l o f t e nd .

i no u s tissue Th e a n te r i o r bu n dl es a re d i r ected fo r w a r d a n d o utw a r d ; th e p o ste

.

r i o r b a ckw a r d a n d o u tw a r d .

1
T h e f u n c ti o n o f th e i n t er c os ta l m u s c l es i s s ti l l a s u b j e c t o f m u c h d i s cu s s i o n Th e s t a t eme n t s
. .

m ad e a b o v e s ee m to r e p r es e n t t h e V i e w m o s t c o mmo n l y h e l d i n reg a rd to t h ei r a c t i o n .
 T HE M US CLE S OF T HE T HOR A x 24 3

Rel a ti o na — S upe r i o r ly , the e n d o th o r a ci c f a sci a a n d pl eu r a ; i n fe r i o rly th e ,

c o st a l c a r til a ges the i nte r n a l i n te r c o st a l m us cles a n d the i n te r na l t h or a c i c vessels

'

B l ood s u ppl y —I n te rn a l th o ra ci c a rte r y

, , .

N er ve s u pp l y —Th e i n te r c o st a l n e r ves
. .

7 D i a ph r a g m —This is a b roa d u n p a i r ed m uscle wh i ch f o r ms a p ar titi on b e

. .

.
.
,

n m
twee n the th ora ci c a d a bd o i a l c a v it ies n
l
I n o utli n e it h as s o m e r ese m b l an ce t o
.

a p a lm le a f fa n
-
I n f o r m i t is d o m e sh a ped c o m p r essed l a te r a lly
.
-
On a m edi a n
, .

secti o n it i s see n to h a ve a ge n e ra l d i r e cti o n d o w n w a r d a n d f or w ar d f r om th e lu m b ar

ve rteb ra to t he xi p h o id c ar ti l a ge Th e th ora ci c su r f a ce is st ro n gly c on vex an d
.

i s c o ve r ed by the pleu ra Th e a b d o m i n a l su r f a ce is deepl y c on c a ve a n d is c ove r ed

.
,

fo r the m o st p a r t by the pe r i t o n e u m The m uscle c on sists o f a pe r iphe ra l fl eshy

.

p o r ti on tw o muscul a r c r ur a and a te n di n o us cen te r

A tta ch me nts — (1 ) C o s tal part : Th e c a r t i l a ges of th e ni n th t o th e fiftee n th
, , .

r ibs a n d th e l a st th r ee r ibs a t a n i n c r e a si n g d ist a n ce f r o m th ei r ste r na l e n ds

, .

(2 ) S te rn al par t : The uppe r su r f a ce Of th e xiph o i d c ar ti l a ge .

(3 ) Lu m b ar part : (a ) Th e ri gh t c r u s is a tt a ch ed to th e i n fe r i or c omm o n
lig ame n t a nd by this me ans to th e fi r st f o u r or five lumb ar ve r teb r a
, (b) Th e l eft .

c ru s is a tt a ch e d i n a si mi l a r f a shi o n t o th e fi r st an d sec o n d lumb a r ve r teb ra

A cti on —I t is th e p r i n cip a l muscl e o f i n spi ra ti o n a n d i n c r e a ses th e l o ng i
.

t u d i n a l di a mete r o f t h e ch est The c o n t ra cti o n p ro du ces a ge n e r a l lessen i n g

.

o f the cu rv a tu r e o f the di a ph ra gm I n th e ex p i r a t o r y ph a se th e c o st a l p ar t .

a nd c r u r a l i e d i r e ctl y on the b o dy w a l ls s o th a t th e b a ses o f the lu n gs are i n

,

c ont a ct wi th the te nd i n o us ce nte r an d st e r n a l p or ti on on ly I n ord in ar y in spi r a .

ti on the fleshy rim r ecedes fr o m th e chest -w a ll s o th a t th e b a ses of th e lu n gs m o ve ,

b a c kw a r d t o a li n e a b out p ar a llel w ith th e cu r ve fo rm ed b y th e c arti l a ges o f th e

aste rn a l r ib s an d a b o ut f o u r or fi ve i n ches
, (ca 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) the r efr om I t is . . .

st a ted th a t the i nsp i r a t o r y m o veme n t a ffe cts the te n di no us ce n te r mu ch less th an

the fl eshy p ar t si n ce the p o ste r i o r ve n a c a v a is fi rm ly a tt a ched to th e f o rme r I t
, .

sh o uld be no t e d h o w e ve r th a t th e d i r e cti o n Of t h e t h o r a ci c p ar t o f th e ve n a c av a
, ,

i n the expi r a t o r y p h a se is o b l i qu e up w a r d a n d b a ckw a r d Thu s i t w o uld see m .

th a t the re is no a na t o mi c a l r e a s on wh y the d i a ph r a gm sh o uld n ot m o ve a s a wh o le

i n o r di n a r y i nsp i r a ti o n a t le a st
S tr u c tu re —The c o s tal par t (P a r s c o st a l is ) c on sists o f a se r ies of di gi t ati o ns
.

whi ch meet or a re sep ara ted b y a ve r y n a rr o w i n te r v a l fro m th e t ran sve rsus ab

, ,

d omi n is ; b e tw e e n the t w o are the a ste r n a l vess e ls F rom the te n th ri b b a ckw a rd .

the a tt a ch me n ts are to t he r ibs a t a n i n c r e a si n g dist an ce a b o ve the c o st o ch on d r a l -

j u n cti o ns Thus a t the l ast ri b the a tt a ch me n t is f o u r t o five i n ches (1 0 t o 1 2 cm )

. .

f ro m th e l o wer end An te r i o r l y the o r i gi n exte n ds a l on g the ni n th c o st a l c ar ti l a ge

.
,

t o th e xiph o i d c ar til a ge F r o m thes e p o i n ts of or i g i n th e fib e rs cu r ve i nw ar d an d

.

f o r w ar d t o j o i n the te n di n o us ce n te r Th e r i ght cr u s (C rus dext r u m ) is ab o ut twi ce

.

as thi ck as the left one a n d i s a ls o l o n ge r I t a r ises by a st r on g ten d on f r om th e

.

lumb ar ve r teb r a (by me a n s o f th e i n fe r i or c om m on li g ame n t ) Th e ten d on i s .

succeeded b y a r o u n d e d b elly whi ch l e a ves the ve r teb r a l c o l u m n at the l a st th or a ci c ,

ve r teb r a P assi n g d o w n w ar d a n d f or w a r d i ts fib e rs sp r e a d ou t an d j o i n th e te n d
.
,

i nou s ce n te r Th e l e ft c r u s (C r us S i n ist r u m ) a r ises b y a th i n ten d on fr om the

.

i nf e r i or c o mm o n li ga m e n t a t th e fi r st a n d sec on d lu m b a r ve r t eb r a Th is is su c .

ceed ed b y a t r i a n gul a r b elly whi ch j o i n s th e ce n t r a l te n d o n B etwee n the .

c r ur a and the a tt a ch m en t t o t he l a st r i b th e edge of th e m us cl e c r osses th e ve nt ra l

su rf a ce o f th e ps o as m uscles wi th o ut a tt a ch m e n t f o r m i n g th e S O c a l led l um b o ,
-

c ost a l a r ch ; h e r e th e th o ra ci c an d abd om i n a l c a vit ies a re sep ar a ted on ly b y t h e

se ro us me m b ran es an d s om e a r e o l ar tissue Th e t e n d in o u s c e nt er (C entr u m .

ten di n eu m ) r esem b les th e pe r iphe r y in o utli n e b ut is m o r e el o n ga ted I t is p a r ,

.

1
I t sh o u l d b e n o t ed h o w e v er t h a t i n t h e e m b ry o t h e d i a p h ra g m a pp ea rs as a p a i r ed s t ru e
, ,

t ur e ext en di ng f ro m t h e l a t er a l w a l l s of th e coel o m to f u s e w i t h t h e s e p t u m t ra ns v ersu m

,
.
24 4 F A S C UE A N D MU S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

d iv ided i n t o r ight a n d left h a lves by the desce n t o f th e c r u r a i n t o i t I t is

ti a l l y .

c om p o sed l a r gely o f r a d i a ti ng fibe r s but m a n y i n te r l a ce i n v a r i o us d i r ect i on s ; ,

this is speci a l ly evi de n t a ro u n d t he f oram e n ve n a c a v a wh i ch is e n ci r cled b y fibe rs , .

A st ron g te n di n o us l a ye r exte nds a c r o ss bel o w the h i a tus oesop h a g eu s .

1 85 .
—D I A I> HR A G M OF I I O RS E , A B DO M NAL S I
’
C R FA C

I In f i
e r o r c omt nd n f c ; 3 mo n li g k ; 4 t n l p m ti
a me n t ; 3 e o s o ru ra l m b y m p t h ti t
u ar s a e c ru n s ex e r a s er a c

f "
. , ,

n ve ;
er g t pl n
a , a , v : rea i t n l y l i ( p n d ) : 7 7 m s p h g l O l i ti
s a c h i
n c ner es
0 15 n v c s er a c i o e e , , o a ea C fl la O T‘S O 11 3 er es

3 l y m ph g l
» d; 9 -
n y li g m
an t f li v ( t ) ; 1 0 i g h t l t l li g m t f li v ( t ) ; 1 1 l ft l t l li g
. c o ro ar a en o er cu , r a e ra a en o er cu , e a e ra a

m t o f li v
en ( t); I f l i f m li m e t f li v ( t ) :
er ou l m b o t l h : N i n te c t l n e ve :
7
a c or g a n o er cu u -
co s a a rc J r os a r

ri g h t m ; C l ft s ; A
e s t :
. s .
,li te y ; 0
e . ph g :
c ru p t i v , aor a v ; l p ph n i exe ac a r r c , oes o a us os er or ena ca a
'
. .
, re c

v ei ns (A ft e S h m l t z A tl s l A n t d P f d )
. r c a , a ( . a . . er es .

The d i a ph ra g m i s pi e r ced b y th r ee f ora mi n a (1 ) The hi a tu s a orti cu s i s a n .

i n te rv a l b etwee n t h e t w o c r u r a a n d bel o w th e l a st t h or a ci c ve r teb r a I t c o n t a i n s .

“

the p os te r i oi ao r t a ve n a a zygo s a nd ciste r n a ch y li

’ ‘

(2 ) The h i a tu s a s oph ag eu s
, ,
.

(or f o r a m e n S i n ist r u m ) pe r fo ra tes t he r igh t c r us n e a r its j u n cti on with the te ndi n o us

24 6 FA S CUE A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H ORS E

Tr a ced f or w ar d i t p a sses as a thi n l a ye r be n e a t h the p oste r i o r deep pect or a l

,

muscl e P o ste r i o r ly i t i s a tt a ched to the exte r n a l a ngle o f the i li u m I n th e i n

. .

gui na l r egi o n i t f o r ms the deep f a sci a o f the p r epu ce or of th e m a mm ar y gl an ds .

The li n ea a lb a i s a medi a n fi b r o us r a ph e whi ch exte n ds f r o m the xi ph o i d

c ar til a ge t o th e sy m physi s pubis I t is f or m ed chi efl y by th e j u n cti on of th e ap o
.

n eu r o ses o f t he o bli que a n d t r a n sve r se m uscles but p a r tly by l o n gitudi n a l fibe r s A , .

little behi n d its mi ddle i s a ci c a t r i x whi ch i ndi c a tes the p o siti on of the u m bi li c a l
Ope n i n g o f the f oetus .

1 Ob l i q uu s a b d o mi ni s e xte rn u s (g r e a t ob li qu e ; exte r n a l o b li qu e o f the

a bd o m e n ) —Thi s i s th e m o st ext e n sive o f the a bd o m i n a l m uscles
.

. I t is a b r o a d .

sheet i rr egul a r ly t r i a n gul a r i n sh a pe wi dest behi n d I ts fib e r s ar e di r ected chi efl y

, ,
.

d o w n w ar d an d b a ckw a r d .

0 ri gi n The o ute r su r f a ces of the l a st f o u r tee n r ibs a n d th e f a sci a

.
,

o ve r th e exte rna l i n te r c o st a l m uscl es ; (2 ) the lu m b o d o r s a l f a sci a -

.

I nser ti on Th e li n e a a lb a a n d the p r epubi c te n d o n ; (2 ) the exte r na l

a n gle a n d sh a ft o f t h e i li u m ; (3 ) the i n te r n a l fe m o r a l f a sci a .

A cti o n T o c o m p r ess th e a bd o m i n a l vi sce ra as i n defec a ti o n m i ctu r iti o n

.
, , ,

p a r tu r i ti on an d expi r a ti o n ; (2 ) to flex the t r u n k (a r ch th e b a ck ) ; (3 ) a cti n g

,

si n gly t o flex th e t ru n k l a te r a lly

,
.

S tru ctu r e — The m uscle i s c o m p o sed o f a fl eshy p o r ti o n a n d a n a p on eu r o sis .

The mu s cul ar p orti o n l i es on th e l a te r a l w a l l of the t h or a x a n d ab d o m e n I t .

a r ises by a se r i es of digi t a ti o n s th e a n te r i or f o u r o f whi ch a lte r n at e w i th t h o se o f t h e

,

se rr a tus m a g n us The or i gi n m ay b e i n di c a ted b y a slightly cu r ved li n e (c o n c a ve

.

a b o ve ) d r a w n f r o m the l o we r p ar t o f th e fifth r ib t o th e exte r n a l a n gle o f th e i l i u m .

The fib e rs ar e d i r ected d o w n w ar d a n d b a ckw a r d a n d te r mi n a te on t h e a p on eu ro sis ,

ex cept i n th e fl a n k wh e r e they a r e a l m ost h o r i z o n t a l i n di r ecti on Th e li n e of

,
.

j u n cti o n i s a cu r ve (c o n c a ve a b o ve ) exte n di n g f r o m th e uppe r edge of th e p o ste r i o r

deep pect or a l m uscle t o w ar d th e exte r na l a n gl e o f th e i li u m Th e apon e ur o s i s .

is i nti m a tely a tt a ched t o the a bd om i n a l tu ni c an d its fibe r s a re l a rgely i n te r w o ve n ,

ve nt ra lly wi th th ose of the a p on eu r o si s of th e i n te rna l Ob li qu e B y this fusi on i s .

f or m ed the o ute r sh e a th o f th e r ectus a bd o mi n is whi ch bl e n ds at th e li n e a a lb a ,

wi th th a t o f the o pp o site si de I n th e i n gu i n a l r egi on th e a p on eu r o sis divides i n t o

.

t w o chi ef l a y e r s ; o n e o f these cu r ves upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d a n d is i n se r ted i n t o

th e exte r n a l a n gl e of the i li um a n d the p r epub i c te n d on B etwee n these p o i n ts .

th e a p on eu r o si s i s m u ch st r e n gthe n ed a nd is c a lled th e i ngu i na l (P o up ar t s ) li g a

’

m ent (L i g a m e n tu m i n gui n a l e ) Th is cu r ves upw a r d an d s o m ew h a t f or w a r d b e

.
,

c o m es thi n an d b le n ds wi th the i li a c f a sci a I t f o r m s the p o ste r i or w a ll o f th e

,
.

i n gui na l c an a l A b o ut a n i n ch (ca 2 to 3 c m ) i n f r o n t of th e pubis a n d a b o ut tw o

. . .

i n ches (ca 4 to 5 c m ) f r om t he m edi a n pl a n e th e a p on eu ro si s is pi e r ced b y a sli t li ke

. .
-

o pe n i ng
1
th e e xte rn al in gu i nal ri n g (An n ul us i n gui na li s sub cut an eus ) Thi s is th e
,
.

exte r n a l o r ifi ce of th e i n gui n a l c a na l I ts l ong a xis i s di r ected o ut w a r d a n d f or w a r d

.
,

a n d i s a b o ut f o u r i n ches (c a 1 0 c m ) i n le n gth Th e i nn e r a n gl e i s ro u n ded a n d i s

. . .

wel l defi n ed by th e j u n cti on o f the i n gui n a l lig a m e n t wi th t h e p r epubi c te n d on b ut ,

the o ute r a ngle i s n o t s o sh a r ply defi n ed Th e b or de r s o r pi ll a r s a r e c o n stit uted by .

a r cif o r m fibe r s o f the a p o n eu r o sis o f the exte r n a l o bli que (C r us medi a le l a te ra le ) , .

Th e f e m o ra l l a ye r of th e a p on eu r o sis (L am i n a fe m or a li s ) p a sses o n t o the i nn e r su r

f a ce Of the thigh wh e r e i t ble n ds with the fe m ora l f a sci a A thi n i l i a c l a y er (L a mi na
,
.

i li a c a ) p a sses o ve r the o ute r m a r gi n o f the i li a cus t o the exte r n a l b o r de r of the i li u m

Rel a l l o ns —S upe r fi ci a lly th e ski n th e p a n ni cul us c a r no sus th e a bd o m i n a l
.

f
.
, , ,

tu n i c an d the p oste r i o r deep pect or a l m uscle ; deeply the r ibs an d thei r c a r ti l a ges
, , ,

the i n te r c ost a l m uscles th e i n te r na l o bli que th e c o nte nts o f the i n gui n a l c a n a l

, , ,

a n d the s a r t o r i us a n d g r a ci lis .

1
I t is n a rro w and s li t li k e i n th e n a t u ra l c o nd i ti o n b u t m a y a pp ea r
-
, ov al i n t h e di ss ec ti n g
roo m, es p ec i a l l y i f th e hi nd li m b i s d r a w n b a c k a n d a bd u c t ed .
 T HE A B D OM I N A L M U S C L E S 24 7

B l ood -s —I nte
upp l y c st a l
r o d lu m b a r
an te r ies
—
. ar .

N er ve-su l
pp y I n te
. r c o st a l an d lum b a r n e r ves .

2 .

—
q
Ob l i uu s b d o mi ni s in te rn u s (s m a ll o bliq ue ; i n te r na l o bl ique of th e
a

a bd o me n ) Th is m uscle i s situ a ted u n de r t h e p r ece d i n g o n e I t s fibe r s a re

. .

d i r ected d o wn w a r d f o r w a r d a n d i n w a r d
, ,
I t f or m s a t r i a n gu l a r cu r ved sheet with
.

the b a s e behi n d .
 24 8 FA S CLE A N D M US C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

0 r i gi n .
—
Th e exte r n a l an gle of th e i liu m an d t he a dj a ce n t p a r t of the i n gui n a l
(P o up a r t s ) li ga m e n t
’
.

I nser l i o n — (l ) Th e c a r ti l a ges
. of the l a st fo u r or five r ibs ; (2 ) the l i n e a a lb a
a nd the p r epubi c te n d on
A cti on —
.

S i m il a r t o th a t o f the p r eced i n g m uscle .

S l r u cl u r e — L i ke th e exte r n a l o b lique i t is c om p o sed o f a flesh y p o r t i o n

.
,

a n d a n a p o n eu r o sis The fl e shy p or ti on is fa n sh a ped a n d is situ a ted ch iefly i n

.
-
,

the fl a n k A t i ts i li a c o r igi n i t is c o ve r ed by a gl iste n i n g a p on eu r osis T ra ced

. .

i nw a r d a n d d o w n w a r d a l o n g th e a bd om i n a l su r f a ce of th e i n gu i n a l l ig am e n t ,

the m uscul a r or i gi n is fo u n d to bec om e m u ch thi nn e r an d a ls o b ec o m es l oo sely ,

a tt a ched t o th e li g a m e n t A b o ut f o u r o r five i n ches (c a 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) f r o m th e

. . .

li ne a a lb a the muscl e sep a ra tes f r o m th e l ig a m e n t a n d f orm s th e a n te r i o r w a l l

o f th e i ng ui na l c a n a l The a b d o m i n a l o r ifi ce o f th e c an a l the i ntern al in g ui n al
.
,

ri n g l (Ann ulus i n gui n a l is a bd o m i n a l is ) i s f o u n d he r e I t i s n or m a lly a n a rr o w

, .

sl it b o u n ded i n f r on t by the edge of th e i n te r n a l o bl i que a n d beh i n d by th e i n

, ,

g u i n a l lig a me n t The apon e ur o s i s is to a gr e a t exte n t bl e n ded wi th th a t of

.

the exte r na l o b li que bei n g i n deed c on si de r a bl y i n te r w o ve n wit h i t ve n t ra lly

, , , .

Whe r e i t c o ve r s the r e ctus ab d o mi n is it is a tt a ch ed t o th e te n d i n o us i nsc r ipti ons

o f th a t m uscle
Rel a ti ona —S u p e r fic i a l l y the exte rn a l Ob li qu e ; deeply th e r ectus a bd o m i n is
.

, , ,

t ra n sve r sus a bd om i n is a n d the pe r it on eu m

B l ood — s u pp l y —C i r c u mfl e x i l i a c l u m b a r a n d i n te r c o st a l a r te r ies
, .

Nerve— s u p pl y —Ve n t r a l b r a n ch es o f th e l u m b a r n e r ves

. .
, ,

3 R e c tu s Ab d o mi ni s —Thi s m u scle is c on fi n ed to th e v e n t r a l p a r t Of th e
. .

. .

a bd o m i n a l w a ll ; i t exte n ds f r o m the l o we r p a r t o f th e ch est w a l l t o th e pubis -

0 r i gi n —The c ar ti l a ges o f th e fi ft h t o th e n i n th r ib s i n clusive a n d th e a dj a

.

.
,

ce nt su r f a ce Of the ste rn u m
I ns erl i on —
.

The pubis by m e a n s Of th e p r ep ubi c te n d on

.
,
.

A cti o n — S i mi l ar t o th a t o f the o bl i que muscles

. I t is spe ci a l ly a d apted t o .

flex the lu m b o s a c ra l j o i n ts a n d th e l u m b a r an d th o ra ci c p ar ts o f th e spi n e

-

S l r u cl u re —The fibe r s o f the muscl e a r e d i r e cted l o n g itudi n a lly

.

. N i n e to .

el eve n t r a n sve r se b an ds o f fib r o us tissu e exte n d i n a n i rr egu l a r m an n e r a c ross

the m us cle These a r e te r me d i n s c ri pti o n es te n d in e a
. Th ey st r e n g the n th e .

muscle a n d se r ve t o p r eve n t sep a r a ti o n of its fib e r s Th e wi dth o f th e muscle is .

g r e a test a b o ut its mi ddle

Rel a ti on a —Su p er fic i a l l y th e a p o n eu r o ses o f the o bl i que muscles (wh i ch
.

c o n stitute th e exte r n a l r e ctus she a th ) a nd th e p o ste r i or deep pect o r a l ; d eeply , ,

th e t r ansve r sus i nte r c o st a ls th e c ar ti l a ges o f th e r ibs a n d th e ste rn um The

, , ,
.

p oste r i or a bd o m i na l a r te r y r u n s a l on g the o u te r edge o f th e m uscle p o ste r i o r ly ,

a n d th e a n te r i o r a bd o mi n a l a r te r y on o r i n its a n te r i or p a r t

B l ood s u pp l y —Ante r i or a n d p o ste r i o r a bd om i n a l a rte ri es

.

N er ve— s u pp l y —I n te r c o st a l a n d l u m b a r n e r ves
. .

. .

4 Tran sv er su s a b d o mi ni s — Th is m uscle n a med f ro m th e ge n e r a l di r ecti o n

. .
,

Of i ts fibe r s i s a t r i a n gul a r cu r ved sheet

, I ts l a te r a l p a r t is muscul a r i ts ve n t r a l
.
,

a p o n eu r o ti c .

Or i gi n The i nn e r su r f a ces of th e dist a l e n ds o r the c a r til a ges of th e

a ste r n a l r ibs meeti n g the c o st a l a tt a ch m e n t o f the d i a ph r a g m ; (2 ) th e t ra n sve r se

p r o cesses of the lu m b a r ve r teb ra by m e a n s o f the deep l a ye r o f the lu m b o —

,

,
d or s a l
f a sci a
I ns er l i o n —Th e x iph o id c a r til a ge a n d the li n e a a lb a
.

. .

I t m u s t b e a d mi tt ed t h a t th e t e r m r i ng i s ra t h er mi s l ea d i ng a s a pp li ed to t h e a b d o m i
1

n a l o p e n i n g o f t h e c a na l s i n c e n o r ma ll y i t i s a m e re d i l a t a b l e s li t
,
T h e r i ng lik e c o ns t r i c t i o n .
-

w h i c h exi s t s h er e i n t h e ma l e i s co n s ti t u t e d b y t h e p er i t o n eu m w h i c h d es c en d s i n t o t h e c a n a l ,

t o f o r m t h e t u n i ca v a g i n a li s T h i s p er i t o n ea l r i ng i s t e r med th e v a g in a l ri n g (A nn u l u s v a gi na l i s )
. ,

a nd m u s t n o t b e co n f u s e d w i t h t h e s u b p er i t onea l r i n g 1 e t h e i n t er n a l i n g u i n a l r i n g ,
. .
,
.
2 50 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C L E S o n T HE H OR S E

su r f a ce o f the lig a m e n t h e r e by d el i c a te c o n n e c ti ve t issue ex cept whe r e st ru ctu r es ,

i n te r ve n e betwee n th e w a lls o f the c a na l C o nsequ e n tly th e l i m its o f the r i n g .

a r e n ot ve r y cle a r ly defi n ed The e xte rn a l in gu in al r in g (A nn ulus i n gu i n a l is .

sub cut an eus ) i s a wel l defi n ed sli t i n the a p on eu r o sis o f the exte r n a l o bl ique
m uscl e si tu a ted l a te ra l to the p r ep ub i c te n d o n
,
I ts l o n g a xis is d i r ected f ro m th e .

edge o f the p r epub i c te n d o n o utw a r d a n d fo r w a r d an d i ts a ve r a ge le n g th is a b o ut ,

f o u r i n ches (c a 1 0 The c a n a l c o n t a i ns i n the m a le the spe r m a ti c c or d

.
,

the t u n i c a v a gi n a l is th e exte r n a l c r e m a ste r muscle th e exte rn a l pud i c a r te ry

, ,

an d a s m a ll s a tell ite vei n a n d the i n gui n a l ly m ph vessels a n d n e r ves I n th e -

, .

fe m a le i t c on t a i n s the m a m m a r y vessels a n d n e r ves ; i n the bit ch it a ls o l o dges

th e ro u n d lig a m e n t o f the ute r us i n cl o sed i n a tubul a r p r o cess of pe r i t o n eu m , .

T h e tw o d o n o t co rres p o n d i n d i r ec ti o n , so th a t th e len g t h of th e c a n a l v a r i es g rea tl y

i
r ng s
w h e n m eas u r ed a t d i ff e r en t p o i n ts T h e i nn er a n g le o f t h e i n t er n a l r i n g l i es a l m os t i mm ed i a t e l y
.

a b o v e t h a t o f t h e ex t er n a l r i ng , b u t t h e o u t er a ng l e i s s i t u a t ed fi v e t o s i x i n c h es (c a 1 2 to 1 5 c m ) . .

f ro m t h a t o f th e ex t ern a l r i ng T h e i nn er a n g l es of th e ex t er na l r i n g s a re w e ll d efi ned a nd d i s
.

t i nc tl y p a l p a b l e i n t h e li v i ng s u b j e c t ; t h ey a re a b o u t t h r ee t o f ou r i n c h es (c a 8 to 1 0 c m ) a p a r t . . .

Th e P repub i c Te n d on —Th e pr epub i c t e n d on i s esse n t i a lly th e te n d on of

.

i n se r ti o n o f the t w o r ecti a bd o mi ni s , b ut a ls o fu r n ish es a tt a ch m e n t t o th e o bl iq ui ,

th e g ra ci les , a n d th e pecti n ei I t is a tt a ch ed t o the a n te r i or b or de r s o f t h e pub i c
'

b o n es i n cludi n g the i li o pe cti n e a l emi n e n ces

,
I t h a s th e f o rm o f a ve r y st r o n g
-
.

th i ck b a nd with c o n c a ve l a te r a l b o r de r s wh i ch f orm th e i nn e r b o u n d a r i es of t h e
,

exte r n a l i n gui n a l r i n gs I ts d i r ecti o n is o b l i q u e upw a r d an d b a ck w a r d 1 I ts

. .

st r uctu r e is s om ewh a t c o m plex M o st o f the fi be r s of th e p o ste r i or p a r t ext e n d .

f r om on e i li o pe cti n e a l emi n e n ce t o th e o the r

-
Th e fib e r s wh i ch b el on g t o th e .

r ecti cu r ve i n to the m edi a n l i n e Th e a p on eu r o ses o f th e i n te rna l o b li qu e m u scles

.

a r e i n se r ted i n t o i ts a bd o m i n a l su r f a c e an d th e i n gu i n a l lig a me n ts a r e a tt a ched ,

t o a n d c on ti n ue a c r o ss i t i n a r ci f o r m f a sh i o n Th e an te r i o r p a r t of th e te n d on of .

o r igi n of the g ra ci li s i s fused with i t ve n t r a lly an d m a n y o f the fi b e rs o f th e pecti n eus ,

a r ise f r o m i t I t gives o ff on e ith e r sid e a st r o n g r o u n d b a n d the so c a l led p u h o

.
,
-

f e m o ra l o r a cc e s s ory li ga m en t , wh i ch i s i n se r ted i n t o th e f o ss a o f th e h e a d o f th e
fe m u r with the r o u n d lig a m e n t (vi d e h i p j o i n t ) .

MUSCLE S OF THE THOR ACI C L I MB

I . THE MUSCLE S OF THE S HOU LD E R GI R DLE (F i g s 1 77 , 1 78 1 79 1 86) . . .

Th is g r o up c on sists o f th o se m uscles wh i ch c o nn ect th e th o r a ci c li m b wi th

the he a d n eck an d t r u n k The gr o u p n a tu r a l ly f a l ls i n t o tw o d ivisi on s—d ors a l
, , .

a n d ve n t r a l
2
.

A DOR S AL DI V I S I ON
.

This d ivisi o n c on sists of tw o l a ye r s wh i ch o ve r li e th e p ro pe r muscl es of th e

n e ck a n d b a ck .

F I RS T L A Y E R
1Trap ezi u s —This i s a
. . fl a t t r i a n gul a r m uscle th e b a se o f th e t r i a n gl e
, ,

c o r resp o nd i ng with the spi n e . I t is d ivided by a n a p o n eu r o ti c p ort i o n i n t o tw o

d i visi on s :
(a ) Trap e z iu s c e rvic a li s —Ori gi n —The fu n i cul a r p o r ti on o f the l i g ame n tum
. .

n u ch ae f r o m the sec o n d ce r vi c a l t o the th i r d th o r a ci c ve r teb r a

, .

I naer ti o n — Th e S pi n e o f t h e sc a pu l a a n d the f a sci a o f t he S h o uld e r a n d a r m

.
. .

The bli q u it y o f t h e t e nd o n a nd t h e a n l e w h i c h i t f o r ms w i t h t h e p el v i c fl o o r a re o f c li n i c a l
1
o
g
I m p o r t a n c e I n reg a rd to m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e f oe t u s i n o bs t e t r i c a l c a s es T h e s l o p e v a r i es i n .

d i ff e re n t s u b j ec t s I n s o m e c a s es t h e t en d o n f o r ms a b o u t a r i g h t a n g l e w i t h t h e p u b i c b o n es
.
.

Th e t er m s d o rsa l a n d v e n t ra l a re h er e u s e d i n th e t o p o g r a p h i c a n d n o t i n t h e m or p h o
l og i c a l s ens e A l l t h e mu s c l es o f t h e g rou p a re v en t ra l i n t h e l a t t er s ens e
. .
 T HE M U S C LE S OF T HE S H OU L D E R GI R DLE 251

( b ) T r a p e z i u s th o r a c a li s s d o rs a li s —
O r i gi n —The sup r aspi no us lig a m e n t
. . .

fr o m th e th i r d t o the te n th th o r a c ic ve r teb ra
I ns er ti on —The tube r cl e o f th e S pi n e Of the sc a pul a
.

A c ti on —A cti n g as a wh o le t o elev a te the sh o u lde r ; the ce rvi c a l p o r ti o n

. .

dr a ws th e sc a pul a f o r w a r d a n d upw a r d a n d the th o r a ci c p o r t i o n d ra ws it b a ckw a r d

and upw a r d

S tr u ctu r e —Th e m us cle a r ises by a sh o r t th i n a p o n eu r o sis f rom wh i c h th e

.

.
, ,

fibe r s o f th e fl at fleshy p o rti o n c o n ve r ge to the S pi n e o f the sc a pu l a a nd th e ap o

n eu r o si s wh i ch sep ar a tes th e tw o p o r ti o n s The ce r vi c a l f a sci a j o i n s th e ve nt r a l .

edge of the ce r vi c a l p or ti o n t o the m as to i d o h u m er a l i s o r the tw o muscles m ay -

,

u n i te he r e
Rel a ti o ns
.

—
S u per fi c i a l l y th e ski n a n d f a sci a ; d eeply the r h o m b o ideu s
.
, , ,

l a tissi mus d o r si sup r a spi n a t us i n f r a spi n a tus delt o id sple n i us se rr a tus m a gnus
, , , , , ,a

a n d a n te r i o r deep pect o r a l m uscles an d th e c a r til a ge Of the sc a pu l a

B l ood — s u pp l y —D eep ce r vi c a l an d i n te r c o st a l a r te r ies

, .

. .

N er ve s u pp l y — S pi na l a c cess o r y n e r ve
-
. .

S E C ON D L A Y E R
This c on sists Of t w o muscl es —th e rh o m b o ideus and th e l a tissimus d or si
.

2 R h o mb o i d eu s —Th is c o n sists o f tw o p o r ti o n s :
.

— —
.

()3 Rh o m b o i d e u s c e rv i c al i s s c e r vi ci s 0 r i gi n Th e fu n i cul a r p o r ti on of
. . .

the lig am e n tu m n u ch ae fr o m the se c o n d ce r v i c a l t o th e sec on d th or a ci c ve r teb ra

I m ed i an —Th e i n te r n a l su r f a ce o f th e c a r ti l a ge of th e sc a pul a
.
,

— —
.

( )
b Rh o m b o i d e u s th o ra c a li s s d or s a li s O r i gi n Th e spi no us p ro cesses
.

Of the sec o n d to the seve n th th o r a ci c ve r teb ra b y me an s o f th e d o r s o sc a pu l a r -

li gam e n t
I m a ti on —The i nn e r su r f a ce o f th e c a r ti l a ge o f th e sc a pul a
.

A cti on —T O d r a w th e sc a pu l a up w a r d a n d f o r w ar d
.

. Wh e n the lim b is .

fixed the ce r vi c a l p o r ti o n wi ll elev a te th e n e ck

"

S tru c tu r e —Th e ce rv i c a l p o r ti o n is n a r r o w p o i n ted a t its an te r i or ext r emity

.

, ,

a n d l ies a l o n g the fu n i cul a r p a r t o f th e l i g a m e n tu m n u ch ae t o w h i ch i t is a tt a ched ,

by sh o r t te n d o n bu n dles Th e fibe r s a r e d i r ected for th e m o st p ar t l on gitudi n a l ly

.

The th o r a ci c p or ti on is q u a d r il a te ra l i n sh a p e an d its fibe r s ar e n e ar ly ve rti c a l ,

.

I t s deep f a ce is i n tim a tely a tt a ched t o th e d o r s o sc a pul ar lig a m e n t -

Rela ti on s —S u p e r fic i al l y the ski n a n d f a sci a (o ve r a s m a ll a r e a ) the t ra pe

.

.
, ,

zi ns an d the c ar ti l a ge Of the sc a pul a ; d ee ply the d or s o sc a pul ar lig am e n t th e

, ,
-
,

sple n ius c om plexus l o ngissi m us d or si an d se rra tus a nt i cus

B l ood s u pp l y —D o r s a l a nd supe r i o r ce r vi c a l a r te r ies
.
, , ,

—
-
.

N erve—
.

s u ppl y S ixth ce r vi c a l n e r ve
3 L a ti s s imu s D or s i —This i s a wi de muscl e wh i ch h as the f or m of a r i ght
. .

. .

an gled t r i a n gle I t l ies for the m o st p a r t u n d e r th e ski n an d p ann i culus o n t h e

. ,

l ate r a l w a l l Of the th or a x fr o m th e spi n e t o th e a r m

Or i gi n —The lu m b o— d or s a l f a sci a—a n d by th is m e a n s f r om the lumb ar a n d
.
,

th ora ci c spi n es as far for w ar d as the hi ghest p o i n t Of th e w ith e r s .

I nser ti on —Th e i n te r n a l tube r cle o f the hu m e r us i n c o m m o n with th e te r es

.
,

m aj o r
A cti on —T O d r a w th e hu m e r u s upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d a n d fl ex th e sh o ulde r
.

j o i n t I f the l i m b is a dv a n ced a n d fixed i t d ra ws t h e t r u n k f o r w a r d

.
,
.

S tru c tu r e — Th e muscl e a r ises by a w ide a p o n eu ro si s whi ch fuses with th a t

o f the se rr a tus p o sti cus a n d with the l u m b O—
,

d o r s a l f a sci a The m uscul a r p o rt i on .

is a t fi r st r a the r thi n but by the c on ve r ge n ce of i t s fibe r s bec o m es th i cke r a s i t

,

a pp r o a ches the a r m Th e a n te r i or fibe r s p a ss a l m o st ve r ti c al ly d ow n w a r d o ve r

.

the d or s a l an gle of the sc a pul a an d i ts c a r ti l a ge The p o ste r i o r fibe r s a re di r ecte d .

2 52 F A S C I A?) AND M US CLE S OF T HE H OR S E

d ow n w ar d a n d f or w a rd The thi ck belly f orm ed by the c on ve r ge n ce Of thes e

.

p a sses u n de r the t r i ceps t o e n d on th e fl at te n d o n o f i n se rt i o n wh i ch is c om m o n ,

t o th is m uscl e a n d th e te r es m a j o r
B l ood s u ppl y —S ubsc a pu l a r i n te r c o st a l an d lu m b ar ar te r i es
.

N er ve s u pp l y —B r a ch i a l ple x u s (ei ghth ce r vi c a l a n d d o r s a l r o o ts )

. .
, ,

-
. .

B VE N T RA L DIV I S I ON
.

1 . M a s toi d o-h um er ali s b r a ch i o ceph a l icus ; l ev a t or h u m er i ) — Th is

(M . .

m uscle e x te n ds a l o n g th e side o f th e n eck f r o m th e h e a d t o th e a r m I t is .

i n c o m pletely divisible i n t o tw o p o r ti on s .

Or i gi n Th e m a st o id p ro cess o f th e pet r o us temp or a l b on e an d th e

o ccipi t a l c r est ; (2 ) th e wi n g Of th e a tl a s an d th e t r a n sve r s e p r o cesses o f the sec on d ,

th i r d a nd fo u r th ce r vi c a l ve r teb rae
I n ser ti on —Th e delt o id tube r o sity an d th e cu r ved r o ugh l i n e wh i ch ext en ds
.
,

fr o m this to the dist a l ext r e m i ty o f th e hu m e r us

A cti on —Whe n th e h e a d a n d n eck a r e fix ed t o d r a w th e li m b f o r w ar d ex
.

, ,

te nd i ng the sh ou lde r j o i n t Whe n th e li m b is fixed to exte n d the h e a d an d n eck

.
, ,

if the muscles a c t t o geth e r ; a cti n g sep ar a tely to i n cli n e the h e a d an d n e ck t o ,

th e s a m e side
S tr u ctu re —As a l r e a dy me n ti o n ed the muscl e is c a p a b le o f i n c o mplete
.

.
,

d i vi si o n i nt o tw o p a r ts the li n e of divisi o n bei n g i n di c a ted by the eme r gen ce o f

,

supe r fi ci a l b ra n ches of t h e ve n t r a l d ivisi ons o f the ce r vi c a l n e rves The .

m ast o id p or ti o n (M cleid o m as t o ideus ) p a r tly o ve r l aps th e o the r p or ti o n (M

.
-
.

cleid o t ra ns v ersari u s ) wh i ch l ies d or s a l t o i t

-
,
Th e f or me r i s a tt a ched to th e .

m ast o i d p r o cess a nd the o ccipi t a l b on e by a b r o a d ten d on whi ch fuses wi th th a t

o f the S ple n ius a n d t ra chel o m a st o i deus ; it is a ls o a tt a ch ed to th e ten d on o f i n
-

se r ti o n o f the ste r no-ceph a li cus b y a p on eu r o sis T h e d o rs a l p o rti o n is a tt a ch ed .

t o the t ran sve r se p r o cesses b y f o ur flesh y d i g i t a ti on s Th e belly o f the mus cle .

is a dhe r e n t supe r fi ci a l ly t o th e ce r vi c a l f a sci a an d the p a nn i culus an d deepl y ,

t o the s u b s cap u l O hy o ideus I n f r on t Of the sh o uld e r i ts d eep f a ce is m ar ked

-
.

n r n f
b y a ten di no us i te secti o o v a i a b le devel o p e t
r m n
‘
H er e the m uscl e bec o mes .

W ide r c o ve r s the sh o ulde r j o i n t p a sses b etwee n the b r a chi a l is a n d bi ceps a n d is

, , ,

i n se r ted by me an s o f a wi de te n d o n wh i ch i t sh a r es w ith the supe r fi ci a l pect o ra l

m uscle
R el a ti on s
.

.
—
S u p er fic i a l l y the ski n ce r vi c a l f as ci a th e p aro tid gl an d th e p a n
, , , ,

n i cu l u s b r a ch i a lis a nd b ra n ch es of the ce r vi c al n e r ves ; d eeply th e sple n i us

, , , ,

t r a chel o -m ast o ideus r e ct u s c a pi tis a n te r i o r m a j or o m o h y o ideus se rra tus m a g

, ,
-
,

n u s a nte r i or deep pect or a l an d bi ceps muscl es t h e i nf e r i o r ce rvi c al a r te r y th e

p r esc apul ar ly m ph —
, , ,

gl a nds a nd b r an ch es Of th e ce rv i c a l n e r ves
,
Th e v e n t r a l .

edge o f the m uscle f or ms th e d or s al b o u n d ar y o f th e j ugul ar furr o w Th e d or s a l .

b orde r m ay b e i n c on t a ct w i th th e ce r vi c a l t ra p e z ius or sep ar a t ed f r o m i t by a ,

v ar i a ble i n te r v a l
B l ood s u pp l y —
.

—
I n fe r i o r ce r vi c a l c ar o tid a n d ve r teb r a l a rte r ies
-
. .
, ,

N er ve s u pp l y -
S pi n a l a ccess o r y a n d ce r vi c a l n e r ves
. .

The p e cto ra l f a s c i a is a thi n m e m b r a n e c o ve r i n g the su r f a ce o f th e pect o r a l

muscles t o wh i ch i t is for th e m o st p ar t p r etty i n ti m a tely a tt a ched I t de
, , ,
.

t a ches a l a ye r wh i ch p a sses betwee n th e supe rfi ci a l a n d deep pect o ra ls A t th e .

p o ste r i o r edge Of the t r i ceps a no th e r l a ye r is give n o ff wh i ch p a sses o n the o ute r ,

su rf a ce of this m uscle t o ble n d wi th th e s c a pul a r f a sci a ; the deepe r l a ye r bec o m es

c o n ti n u o us with the subsc a pu l a r a n d ce r vi c a l f a sci ae .

The p e cto r a l mu s cl e s f or m a l a r ge fleshy m a ss whi ch o ccupies the sp a ce

1
Th i s i s r eg a rd ed v es ti g e o f th e c l a v i c l e On t h i s b a s i s t h e p o r ti o n o f
as a . th e mu s c l e f ro m
th e v es t i g e t o t h e a r m re p res e n t s t h e c l a v i c u l a r p a r t o f t h e d e lt o i d o f m a n .
 2 54 F A S CU E A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

b o r de r of th e sup r a spi n a tus I t is l oo sely att a ch ed t o the l a tte r muscl e an d

.
,

te rm i n a tes i n a p o i n ted e n d wh i ch bec om es m o r e fi r m ly a tt a ched n e a r th e c er

vi c a l a n gle o f th e sc a pul a
Rel a ti on a —Su pe rfi c i a l l y the ski n a n d f a sci a th e p a nn i culus supe r fi ci a l pec
.

, , ,

t ora l t ra pezi us a n d m a s t o i d o h u m er al i s m u scles th e ceph a li c vei n a n d th e

, ,
-
, ,

i nfe r i or ce r vi c a l a r te r y ; deeply th e p oste r i or deep pect or a l bi ceps s u p ras pi , , ,

n a tus om o hy o ideus a nd se rr a tus m a g n us m us cles the b r a ch i a l vessels a n d the

,
-
, , ,

b r a n ch es of the b ra chi a l pl exus Of n e r ves .

(b ) P o st eri o r d e e p p e ctor a l (p or ti o h u mer a l i s s a sce n d e n s ; pect o r a l is

m a g nus ) —This i s m u ch th e l a r gest o f the pect or a l g ro up i n the h or se
.

. I t is .

s om ewh a t t r i an gul a r o r fa n S h aped -

.

0 ri gi n The a bd om i n a l tu n i c ; (2 ) the xiph o id c ar ti l a ge an d ve n t ra l

.

a spect o f the ste r n u m ; (3 ) th e c a r ti l a ges o f the f o u r th t o the n in th r ibs .

I n ser ti on The i n te r n a l tube r o si ty of th e h u m e r us ; (2 ) t h e exte r n a l lip

.

o f the b i cipit a l g roo ve ; (3 ) th e te n d o n o f or igi n Of th e c o ra c o b r a ch i a l is -

A cti on —T o a ddu ct a n d r et r a ct the li m b ; if th e l i m b is a dv a n ced and fix ed

.

t o d r aw the t r u n k f o r w a r d
S tru ctu r a —Thi s muscle is a ls o a l m o st e n ti r ely fleshy
.

I ts p o ste r i or p ar t is .

wi de an d thi n but as the m uscle is t r a ced f or w a r d i t bec o m es n a rro we r a n d m u ch

, ,

th i cke r I t p a sses for w a rd a n d sl ightly u pw ar d i n a ge ntle cu rve to its i nse r ti on

. .

The hu m e r a l i n se r ti on is j ust bel o w th a t of th e i nn e r d ivisi on Of t he su p r asp i

n a tus . P a r t o f the fib e r s a r e i n se r ted by m e a n s o f a te n di n o u s b a n d wh i ch bi n ds
d o w n the te n d on o f the b i ceps a n d is a tt a ch ed to the exte r n a l l ip o f th e b i ci pit a l
g roo ve an d a s m a l l p ar t i s a tt a ched t o the te n d o n Of o r i gi n Of the c or a c o b ra ch i a lis -

R el a ti on a —S u p erfi c i al l y
, .

the ski n p ann i cu l us a n d supe rfi ci a l pect or a l ;

, , ,

deeply the a bd o m i n a l tu n i c th e exte rn a l Ob li qu e the r ectus a bd o mi n is et th ora cis

, , , ,

the b r a chi a l vessels a n d b r an ches o f the b r a chi a l plexus o f n e r ves Th e exte rn a l

, .

th o ra ci c vei n l i es a l on g th e o ute r or uppe r b o r de r

B l ood —
.

s u p pl y
— I n te r n a l an d exte rn a l th o r a ci c i n fe r i or ce r vi c a l a n te r i o r
.
, ,

ci r cumflex a n d i n te r c o st a l a r te r i es
N er ve— su pp l y —P ect or a l (o r th o ra ci c ) n e r ves f r o m the b ra chi a l pl exus
,
.

4 S e rr a tu s m a gn u s (M se rr a tus ve n t r a l is ) —Th is is a l a r ge fa n s h a ped

.
, .

.
-
. .
,

m uscle S itu a ted o n the l a te r a l su r f a ce o f th e n e ck a n d th o r a x

, I t de r ives its .

n a me f r om the se rr a ted ve n t r a l edge o f its th o r a ci c p o r ti o n I t c on sists o f a .

c e r vi c a l a n d a th or a ci c p o r ti on .

(a ) C ervic a l pa r t (M se rr a tus c e r vi cis ; l ev a t o r sc a pul ae h om i ni s )

Ori gi n —The t ra n sve r se p r o cesses Of th e l a st f o u r or five ce r vi c a l ve r teb ra
. .

I nser ti on —
.

The a n te r i or t r i a n gul a r a r e a on the c ost a l su r f a ce of th e s c a pul a

.

a nd the a dj a ce n t p a r t o f th e c a r ti l a ge .

(b ) Th or a ci c pa r t (M se rr a tus th or a cis ; se rr a tu s a n te r i or h omi n is )

Ori gi n —The exte rn a l su r f a ces of the fi r st eigh t o r n i n e r ibs
. .

I m a ti on — The p o ste r i o r t r i a n gul a r a r e a on th e c o st a l su rf a ce o f th e sc a pul a

a nd the a dj a ce n t p a r t o f th e c a r ti l a ge

A c ti on —Th e tw o m uscl es f or m a s o r t Of sli n g i n wh i ch th e t r u n k is sus

.

pe n ded C on t r a cti n g t o gethe r th ey r a ise the th o ra x ; c ont r a cti n g si n gl y the

.
, ,

weight is sh ifted t o th e l i m b on the side of the muscle a cti n g Th e tw o p a r ts .

c a n c o n t r a ct sep a r a tely a n d a r e a n t a g on isti c i n th ei r a cti o n o n th e sc a pu l a .

The cer vi c a l p a r t d r a ws the b a se o f the sc a pul a t o w ard th e n e ck wh i le the th o r a ci c ,

p a r t h a s the Opp o si te a cti on ; these effects c on cu r i n th e b a ckw ar d a n d for

w a rd swi n g o f the li mb r espe cti vely Wi th th e limb fixed th e ce r vi c a l p a r t .
,

exte nds (r a ises ) th e n eck o r i n cli n es it l a te r a lly Th e th o r a ci c p a r t may a ct as a .

m us cle Of f o r ced i n spi ra ti o n

S tr u ctu r e — I n the d om est i c a ted a n im a ls th e r e is n o su ch cle ar d ivisi o n o f
.

the m uscle a s is f o u n d i n m an an d the a pes On a cc o u n t o f the di ffe r e n ce i n .

 T HE M US C LE S OF T HE S H OU L D E R —E XT E R N A L G ROUP 2 55

a cti o n h o weve r it see m s desi ra b le t o disti n gu ish t h e t w o p o rt i o ns The ce r

, , .

vi c a l p ar t is th i ck an d a lm o st e n t i r ely fl esh y Th e th o r a ci c p a r t h a s o n its .

supe r fici a l f a ce a t h i ck te n d i n o us l a ye r whi ch m ay sust a i n t he w eig h t o f t he

,

t r u n k whe n t h e m uscle subst an ce r el a xes The ve nt ra l edge p rese n ts d is t i n ct .

digit a ti o ns the l a st f o u r of wh i ch a lte r n ate wit h t h ose o f th e o bl iq uus exte r nus

,

a bd o mi n i s a n d a r e c o ve r ed by the a bd om i n a l tu n i c
, The f o u r th fift h an d s ixth .
, ,

di git a ti o n s exte n d n e ar ly to the dist a l e nds o f th e r ibs The l a st d igit at i o n is .

sm a l l a n d m ay be a bse n t E xcepti on a l ly a dditi on a l d igit a ti o n s m ay b e a tt a ched

.

t o th e te n th or eleve n t h r i b o r t o th e f a sci a o ve r the i n te r c o st a l m uscles The .

fibe r s c o n ve r ge t o th e i n se rti on wh i ch is th i c k a n d is i n te r sect ed by el a sti c l a m ,

el l ae de r ived f r o m t he d o r s o s c a pul ar l ig a m e n t
—
-
.

R el a ti on s S u p e rfic i a l l y th e m as t oi d o h u m e ra l i s t r a pez ius deep pect o r a l

.
,
-
, , ,

subsc ap ul a r is te r es m aj or l a tissimus d o r si p an n i culus c ar n osus the a bd o m i n a l

, , , ,

t un i c the b r a ch i a l vessels a n d the l o n g th or a ci c n e r ve ; deeply th e sple n ius

, , .
, ,

c om plexu s l o n gi ssimus t r a n sve r s a li s c o st a r u m the r ibs an d exte rna l i n te r c ost a l

, , ,

su ppl y —
muscles an d b r an ches o f t he supe r i o r ce r vi c a l an d d o r s a l a r te r ies
B l ood— S upe r i or ce r vi c a l d o rs a l ve r teb r a l a nd i nte r c o st a l a r te r ies
.

N erve s u pp l y —B ra ch i a l plexus
.
, , , .

-
. .

II . THE MU SCL E S OF THE S HO L DE R U

Un de r t his he a d wi l l b e desc r ib ed th o se m uscles wh i ch ar ise on the sc a pul a
a n d en d o n th e arm ; th ey m ay b e divi ded i n t o tw o gro ups —one c o ve r i n g the
d orsum th e o the r the ve n te r o f the s c a pu l a
,
.

Th e s u perficial fa s ci a Of the sh o u l de r a n d a r m c on t a i n s the p ann i culus c ar no

sus o f th is r egi o n an d m ay be c o ns i de r ed t o b e c o n ti n ued on t he i nn e r side o f t he
,

l i mb b y th e subsc a pul ar f as ci a .

The th oraci c or s c apu l o -h um e ral po r ti on Of the panni c u l u s (M cut an eus .

sc a pul ae et h u me r i ) a r ises b y a thi n a p on eu r o sis f r o m the lig am e n tum n uch ae a t

the wi the r s The fleshy p o r t i o n b egi n s o ve r the uppe r p ar t o f the sc a pul a and
.

exte n ds to th e elb o w I ts fib e rs h a ve i n ge n e r a l a d or s o ve n t ra l di r ect i on I t is

.
- .

c o nt i n u o us b eh i n d wi th th e a bd o mi n a l p o r ti o n .

Th e d e ep f a s ci a of t he sh o ul de r a n d a r m (F a sci a o m ob r ach i a l i s ) is mu ch m or e
devel o ped an d i m p o r t an t I t is st r on g an d ten di n o us an d is i nt i m ately a dh e r e nt
.
,

t o the muscles on th e o ute r su r f a ce o f the sc a pul a betwee n wh i ch it det a ches ,

i n termu s c u l ar s epta , wh i ch a r e a tt a ched to the spi n e a n d b o r de r s o f the sc a pu l a .

The b r a chi a l p or ti on is fo r th e m o st p a r t onl y l o o sely a tt a ched t o th e u n de r ly

, ,

in g m uscles for whi ch i t f o r m s sh e a t h s ; i t is a tt a ch ed t o the hum

,
e r us especi a l ly ,

t o the lips o f th e b i cip it a l groo ve a n d t h e delt o id tube ro sity I t b le nds dist a lly .

with th e te n d on of i n se rt i o n o f th e b i ceps a n d is c on t i n ued by the antib r a chi a l ,

f as ci a .

A E XT E RN AL GR OU P (F i gs
. . 1 7 8, 1 7 9)

1 D el to i d (M d e lt o id eus ; l on g abd uct o r o f th e a r m ; sc a pu l ar p ort i on of

the delt o id o f m a n ) —Th is l ies p artly on the t r i ceps i n the an gle betwee n the
. .

sc a pu l a an d h u m e r us p a rtl y on the i n fr a spi n at us a nd t e r es m i no r .

0 r i gi n — (l ) The uppe r p a r t Of th e p o ste r i o r b o r de r Of t h e s c a pul a ; (2 ) the

,

spi n e o f th e sc a pul a b y m e an s o f t he st r on g a p o n eu r o sis whi ch c o ve r s the i n fr a

,

s pi n atu s

I nser ti on —The delt o id t ub e r o sity o f th e hu m e r us

.

A cti o n —
.

T O fl ex the S h o u lde r j o i n t an d a bdu ct th e a rm .

S tr u ctu r e —The o r igi n Of th e m uscle is p a r tl y a p oneu r o ti c p a r tly flesh y

.

.
. ,

The a p on eu r osis fuses w ith t h a t o f t he i n f ra spi n atus ; t he p o ste r i or p a r t 1 5 .

a tt a ch ed t o the sc a pul a i mm ed i a tely i n f r o n t o f t h e o r igi n Of t he l o n g h e a d o f the

 2 56 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E

t r i ceps The b elly o f t h e m uscl e l ies fo r th e m ost p a r t i n a c a vity f o rm ed i n

.

th e t r i ceps I t is wid est a b o ut its m iddle

Re l a ti o ns —
. .

S u pe r fi c i a l l y the ski n f a sci a p a n n i cu lus a n d m as to i d o h u m era l i s ;

.
, , , ,
-

deeply the i n f ra spi n a tus te r es m i n or t r i ceps a n d b r a chi a lis m uscles a nd

, , , , ,

b ra n ches o f th e p oste r i o r ci r cu m flex a r te r y a n d a xi ll a r y n e r ve

B l ood su pp l y —S ubsc a pu l ar a r te r y (chi efl y th r o u gh th e p o ste r i or ci r cu m fl ex )
.

N er ve su pp l y —S up r a sc a pul a r a n d a x ill a r y n e r ves

. .

2 S upra sp i na tu s —This m uscl e o ccupi es th e sup r aspi n o us f o ss a wh i ch i t

. .

. .
,

fills a nd b ey o n d wh i ch i t e x te n ds t hus c o mi ng i n c on t a ct w i th th e subsc a pu l ar is

Or i gi n —The sup ra spi n o u s f oss a the spi n e a n d the l o we r p ar t o f th e ca r
, , .

, ,

t i l age o f th e sc a pu l a
I nserti o n —Th e i nn e r a n d o ute r l ips o f the b i cipit a l g r o o ve
.

A cti on —To exte nd the sh o ulde r j o i n t

. .

I t a ls o a ssists i n p r eve nti n g dis .

l o c a ti o n
S tr u ctu r e —Th e su r f a ce o f th e muscl e is c o ve r ed by a st ro n g a p on eu r o sis
.

.
,

f r om the deep f a ce o f whi ch m an y fib e r s a r ise Th e muscle is th i n a t its o r i gi n .

f r o m the c a r til a ge but bec o mes c ons ide ra bly thi cke r bel o w At th e n eck o f th e
, .

sc a pul a i t divides i n t o t w o b r an ches b etwee n wh i ch th e te n d o n o f o r i gi n Of th e ,

bi ceps e m e r ges Th ese b r an ches fleshy supe r fi ci a l ly te n di n o us deeply a r e

.
, , ,

i n se r ted i n t o the lips o f the b i cipit a l gr oo ve They a r e u n ited by a fib r o us m em

. .

b ra n e a l r e a dy m e n ti o n ed i n c o nn ecti o n with th e d eep pect o ra l muscle ; s ome

fibe rs a re a tt a ched t o this m emb r an e a n d the c a psule o f th e sh o ulde r j o i n t .

R el a ti on a — S u p erfici a l l y th e ski n f a s ci a p ann i cu lus t r a pezi us a nd m as

, , , , ,

to id o h u mera l i s ; deepl y the sc a pu l a a n d i ts c a r til a ge th e sub sc a pul ar is muscle

-
, , ,

a nd the sup r as c a pu l a r vessels a n d n e r ve ; i n f r o n t th e a n te r i o r deep pect o r a l ,

m uscle ; beh i n d th e S pi n e o f th e sc a pul a a n d i n f r a spi n a tus muscle

B l ood s u pp l y —S up ra sc ap ul ar a n d p o ste r i o r ci r cumflex a r te r i es
, .

N ew e s u pp l y —S up r a sc a pul ar n e r ve
. .

3 I nf r a s pi n a tu s —Th is muscl e o ccupi es th e g r e a te r p ar t o f th e i n f ra spi no us

. .

. .

f oss a
Or i gi n —Th e i n f r a spi no us f o ss a a nd th e sc a pul a r c a r til a ge
.

I n ser ti o n The o ute r tube ro sity o f th e hume rus d ist a l t o th e o u te r

.
,

i n se r ti o n o f the sup ra spi na tus ; (2 ) th e p o ste r i o r e m i n e n ce o f th e o ute r tube ro sity

—
.

T o a bdu ct the a rm a n d r o t a te i t o utw a r d

‘
A c ti on I t a ls o pl a ys the p a r t .

o f a l a te ra l lig am e n t
S tru ctu r a —This muscl e is a ls o c o ve r ed b y a st r on g ap o n eu r o sis f r o m wh i ch
.

m an y fib e r s a r ise a n d by me a n s Of wh i ch th e del t o id i s a tt a ched t o th e spi n e of

,

the sc a pul a A th i ck te n d i no us l a ye r p a r ti a lly divides th e m u scl e i nt o tw o st r a t a

.
,

and , c o m i n g t o th e su r f a ce a t the sh o ulde r j o i n t c o n stitutes th e ch ief m e an s of ,

i n se r ti on This te n d o n a n i n ch or m o r e (3 c m ) i n width p a sses o ve r the p o ste r i or

.
, .
,

e m i n e n ce of the exte r n a l tube ro si ty of the h ume r us ; i t is b o u n d d ow n by a fib ro us

sheet a n d a syn ovi a l b ur s a i s i n te r p o sed b etwee n th e te n d on a n d th e b on e Whe n
,
.

the l on g i nse r ti o n is cut a n d r eflected the sh o r t i nse r ti o n p a r tly te ndi n o us p a r tly , , ,

fl eshy is exp o sed

Rel a ti o ns —Su p er fic i a l l y the ski n f a s ci a p a nn i culus t r a pezi us a n d delt o id ;
, .

,
.
, , , ,

deeply the sc a pu l a and its c a r ti l a ge the sh o ulde r j o i n t a nd c a psul e th e l on g

, , ,

he a d Of th e t r i ceps th e te r es mi n o r a n d the n u t ri e nt a r te r y of the sc apul a .

B l ood s u pp l y —S ubsc a pu l a r a r te r y
, ,

N er ve s u ppl y —S up r a sc a pul a r a n d a xi ll a r y n e r ves

. .

4 T e r e s mi n o r —Th is is a m u ch s m a lle r muscl e t h an the f o r ego i n g

. .

. . It .

lies chiefly o n th e t r i ceps u nde r c o ve r o f the delt o id a n d i n f ra spi n a tus

0 r i g i n — (l ) The r o ugh l i n es o n the d ist a l a n d p o ste r i o r p a r t o f the i nf ra
.
,

G i i n t h e r s t a t e s t h a t t h i s m u s c l e a s s i s t s i n e x t e ns i o n i to t h e p os i ti on
'

fl exi o n a c co r d n g
l
or
o f t h e h ea d o f t h e h u me r us re l a ti v e t o t h e g l e n o i d c a v i t y .
258 F A S C HE A N D M U S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E

m a y b e r eg a rded as r epl a ci n g the i nte r n a l l ig a m e n t of the l a tte r . A s ma l l bu r s a

may o ccu r he r e
R el a ti on s —S u pe r fic i a l l y , the s c a pu l a
.

. and
sh ou lde r j o i n t th e sup r a spi n a tus , ,

t r i ceps , an d te r es m aj or m us cl es ; deeply , the se r r a tus m a g nus m uscle th e b r a ,

ch i a l vessels , a n d the chief b r a n ches o f the b ra chi a l plexus Th e subsc apu l a r .

vessels r u n a l o n g or n e a r the p oste r i or edge of the muscle

B l ood s u pp l y —S ubsc apu l ar a r te r y
.

- .
.

N er ve s u pp l y — S ubs c a pul a r n e r ves (f r o m th e b r a chi a l pl exus )

-

2 T e re s m a j or (Te r es i n te r n us ; a dd uct or Of th e a r m ) —Th is m uscle i s fl a t

. .

.
,

widest a b o ut i ts m idd le a nd l ies chiefly on th e deep f a ce Of th e t r i ceps

Or i gi n —The d o r s a l a n gl e a n d th e a dj a ce n t p ar t Of th e p o ste r i o r b o r de r o f
.
,

th e sc apul a .

I nser ti o n — The tub e r cl e on th e i nn e r su r f a ce Of the sh a ft o f th e hu me r us i n

.
,

c omm on with th e l a tissimus d o r si .

A cti on — T O flex the sh o u lde r j o i n t an d a ddu ct t he ar m

S tr u c tu r e —I t is fo r t h e m o st p a r t fl esh y b ut th e o r i gi n c o n sists Of a n a po
.

n eu r o sis wh i ch ble n ds with th a t Of th e te n s o r f a sci a a n t i b r ac h ii Th e i n se r ti on .

is by a fl at te n d o n wh i ch fuses with th a t of th e l a tissi m us d o r si .

Rel a ti on s — S u p er fi c i a l l y the t r i ceps i n f r a spi n a tus an d delt o i d muscles ;

.
, , ,

deeply the se rra tus m a g n us m uscle Th e subsc a pu l ar vessels li e i n a g r oo ve

,
.

betwee n th e a nte r i or edge o f th is m uscle a n d th e p o ste r i or b o r de r o f the s u b scapu

l a r is ; n e a r the sh o ulde r j o i n t the p o ste r i o r ci r cu m fl ex a r te r y a nd the axi l l ar y
n e r ve e m e r ge betwee n th e t w o m uscles Th e d eep f a ce o f the m uscl e i s c r ossed
.

by the th ora ci c b r a n ch es Of the b ra ch i a l plexus a n d by t he b r a n ch Of t h e s u b s c a p ,

ul a r a r te r y wh i ch suppl ies the l a tissi mus d o r si .

B l ood s u ppl y — S u bsc apul a r ar te r y

-

N erve su p p l y —A xil l a r y n e r ve
. .

3 Cora c o b r a chi a li s (C o r a c o h u m e r a l i s ) —Th is muscl e l ies o n the i nn e r su r

. .

- -
. .

f a ce of the S h o ulde r j o i n t a nd the a rm .

Or i gi n — Th e c o r a c o id p r o cess o f the s c a pul a

I ns er ti 0 7i —(l ) A s m a l l a r e a a b o ve th e i n te r n a l tub e r cl e Of the hu m e r us ;
.

(2 ) the middle thi r d Of the a n te r i o r su r f a ce Of th e hu m e r us

A cti on —T O a dd uct th e ar m a n d t o fl ex th e sh o ulde r j o i n t
.

S tru c tu r e —The l o n g te n d o n o f o r igi n e m e r ges b etwee n the subsc a pul a r is

. .

a n d the i nn e r b r an ch of th e sup ra spi n a tus I t p a sses o ve r the te rm i n a l p ar t o f

.

the subs c a pul ar is a nd is p r ov ided wi th a syn o vi a l sh e a th Th e m uscul ar p a r t .

sp r e a ds ou t a n d d ivides i n t o t w o p o r ti o n s The s m a ll e r an d sh o r te r p orti o n is

.

i n se r ted i n t o the p r oxi m a l th i r d o f th e sh a ft o f th e hu m e r us cl o se t o the o r igi n ,

o f the l a te ra l h e a d o f the t r i ceps ; the l a r ge r a n d l o n ge r p o r ti on is i n se r ted i n t o th e

m i ddle thi r d o f the hu m e r us i n f r o n t Of th e i n te rn a l tube r cl e a n d the i nn e r h e a d

,

Of the t r i ceps .

R e l a ti o ns E x te rn a lly the subsc a pul a r is mu scl e a n d t h e hu m e r us ; i n te r

.
,

n a lly the deep pect o r a l a n d b ra ch i a l is m uscles

, Th e a nt e r i o r ci r cu m fl ex a rte r y .

an d t h e n e r ve t o th e bi cep s usu a lly e m e r ge betwee n th e t w o i n se r ti on s a n d th e ,

b r a ch i a l vessels li e a l o n g the p o ste r i o r b or d e r Of t h e m uscl e

B l ood s u p pl y —A n te r i o r ci r cu m flex a r te r y
.

-
.

N ew e s u p p l y — M uscu l o cut a n e o us n e r ve
- -

4 Capsu l ar i s (S c a pu l o h u m e r a l i s p o sti cus s g r a ci li s ) —

. .

.
-
Th is is a ve r y s m a ll . .

m uscle wh i ch l ies o n the b a ck of the c a psule Of the sh o ulde r j o i n t

0 r i gi n —Th e sc a pul a cl o s e t o the r i m o f th e gle n o i d c a vity
, .

I n ser ti o n —Th e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce o f th e sh a ft o f th e hu m e r us a sh o r t di st a n ce

.
,

.
,

bel o w th e h e a d .

A cti on — I t m a y pe r h a ps te n se the c a psule Of the sh o ulde r j o i nt a n d p r eve n t

i ts bei n g pi n ched du r i n g fl ex i on .
 T HE M US CLE S OF T HE ARM 2 50

S tr u ctu r e —I t is fleshy a n d usu a lly a b o u t the b r e a dth o f a fi nge r I t may , .

h o weve r , c o nsist Of o n ly a few bu n dles o f fibe r s ; s o meti m es i t i s d o uble I ts .

a tt a ch me n t t o the j o i n t c a psule is slight I t p a sses th ro ugh the b r a chi a li s m u s cle .

to e a ch its i ns e r ti on
—S
r .

R el a ti on s . th e te r es mi n o r a n d t r i ceps m uscles ; deeply

u pe r fi c i a l l y ,
,
th e
te r es m aj or a nd subsc a pul a r is m uscles a n d th e c a psule o f the j o i n t
B l ood su p p l y —P o ste r i or ci r cu m flex a r te r y
, .

N er ve s u pp l y —Axi ll a r y n e r ve
. .

- .
.

III . U
THE M SCL E S OF THE AR M

Th is g r o up c on sists of five muscl es wh i ch ar e gr o uped ar o u n d th e h ume r us .

They a r ise f r om th e s c a pul a a n d th e h u m e r us an d are i nse r ted i n t o t h e f or e a rm , .

They ac t on th e elb o w j o i n t a n d th e f a sci a o f the f or e a rm .

S pi ne f s ca p u l a
‘

o x

I f
n ra s pi nous foss a

E xterna l tu berosi ty of h u mer us

B r a ch i a l i s

D el l oi d tu ber os i ty M u scu l o s pi ra l groove

-

B i ce
p s br a ch i i

Gl ecra non
7

E xter na l l a ter a l l i ga men t o f el bo w j oi nt

S h af t f
o ra d i us

FI G . 1 88 .
—B C P AN D
I E S B R A C HI A u s M U CL
S ES OF HO RS E .
(A fte r E ll e n b e rg e r- B au m , A t
na . fu r K u ns t l e r ) .

1 B
. i c eps b c
ra h ii (C o a
r c o —r a di a lis ; fl ex o r b r a chi i —
) T h is is a st ron g s om e .
,

wh a t r o u n ded muscle wh i ch l ies o n t h e a n te r i or su r f a ce o f the h ume r us .

Or i gi n —The t ube r o sity o f t he sc a pu l a

,

I n s er ti on The bi cip it a l tube r osity Of the r a d ius ; (2 ) th e i n te r n a l l a t

e r a l l ig a me n t of th e elb o w j o i n t ; (3 ) the f a sci a of the fo r e ar m a n d th e te n d o n o f th e
ext e n s or c a r pi r a di a lis
A cti on —T O fl ex th e elb o w j o i n t t o fix th e sh o u lde r elb o w a n d c a r pus I n
.

, , ,

st an di n g a nd to te n se the f a sci a o f the f or e a r m

,
.

S tr u ctu r e — The muscle i s i n cl o sed i n a d o ubl e she a th o f f a sci a whi ch is

. ,

a tt a ched to the lips Of th e bi cipit a l g r o o ve a n d t he delt o id r idge o f the h u m e r us .

The te n d o n of or i gi n is m o ulded on t he bi cipit a l g ro o ve ; i t is ve r y st r on g a n d de nse

a nd is p a r tly c a r til a gi n o us I ts pl a y o ve r th e g r o o ve i s f a cilit a ted b y the l a r ge
.

b ic ipital b u r s a (B u r s a i n te r tube r cul ar is ) Th e sy n o vi a l m e m b r a n e c o ve r s no t .

o n ly th e deep f a ce o f th e te n d o n but ext e n ds s om ewh a t o ve r the ed ges t o the

,

supe r fi ci a l f a ce A wel l m ar ked t e n di n ous i n te r se c t i o n r u n s t h r ough t h e b elly

.
-

o f the mu scl e an d d ivides dist a lly i n t o t w o p o r t i o n s Of these t he sh o r t t hi ck .

, ,

on e is i n se r ted i n t o th e b i cipit a l tube r o sity a n d det a c hes fibe r s t o the i te

n rna l
 2 60 F A S C I /E A N D MU S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E

l ate ra l lig am e nt Th e l on g te n d o n (L a ce r tus fib r os u s ) is th i nn e r bl e n ds w i th th e

.
,

f a sci a of th e f or e arm a n d e n ds by fusi n g with th e te n d o n Of the exte n s o r c a r pi

,

r a di a l is

Re l a ti on s —E xte r na lly th e mas t o i d O—

.

. h u m er al i s a n d b r a ch i a li s mu scles ; I h
,

t er n a l l y t he p o ste r i or deep pe ct o ra l a n d the supe r fi ci a l pect o r a l m uscles ; i n f r o n t

, ,

th e a n te r i o r d eep pect o r a l muscle ; behi n d the h u m e r us th e c o r a c o b r a chi a l is m u s , ,

-

cle th e an te r i or ci r cu m flex a n d a n te r i o r r a di a l vessels an d th e m u s cu l O cut an e o us

, ,
-

n e r ve
B l ood s u p p l y —B r a n ches Of the b r a ch i a l a n d an te r i o r r a di a l a r te r ies
.

N ew e s u pp l y —M u s cu l O cu t a n e o us n e r ve
. .

- -

2 B r a ch i a l i s (Hu m e r a l i s o bliq uus S exte r n us ; b r a ch i a lis a n ti cu s ) —

. .

Th i s
muscle o ccupi es t he m u s cu l o—
. . .

S pi r a l g r oo ve Of the h u m e r us .

Or i gi n — Th e p ro xim a l th i r d o f the p o ste r i or su r f a ce Of th e hume r us

I n ser ti on —Th e i nn e r su r f a ce Of th e n eck of th e r a d ius (u n de r c o ve r o f the
.

l a te r a l l ig a m e n t ) a n d the a r cif or m lig a m e n t

A cti on —T o fl ex th e elb o w j o i n t
.

S tr u c tu re —Th e peculi a r sp i ra l c o u r se o f th is m u scle g a ve r ise t o the n am e

.

Ofte n a ppl i ed t o i t— h u m e r al i s o b li qu us B egi nn i n g on th e p o ste r i or su r f a ce of th e .

sh a ft cl o se to the he a d o f the hu m e r us i t wi n ds o ve r th e l ate ra l su r f a ce c r o sses the

, , ,

bi ceps ve r y o bli quely a n d fi n a lly r e a ches the i nn e r side Of the f or e arm by p a ssi n g
,

betwee n the bi ceps an d the exte n s or c ar pi I t is e n ti r ely fl esh y with th e excepti o n .

,

o f its r el a tively sle n de r te n d o n Of i n se r ti on

Rel a ti ons —E xte r n a l ly the S ki n a n d f a s ci a the te r es m i n o r delt o id t r i ceps

.

.
, , ,

(l a te ra l h e a d ) bi ceps a n d m as toi d O h u m er a l i s m uscles Th e an te r i o r r a di a l ar te r y

, ,
-
.

c r osses the deep f a ce Of the m uscle i n i ts dist a l thi r d an d the ra d i a l n e r ve a ec o m

p an i cs th e m us cle i n the d ist a l h a lf Of the m u scu l o —
,

S pi r a l g r oo ve .

B l ood s u p p l y — B r a chi a l a r te r y
-

N erve— —R a di a l n e r ve
. .

s u ppl y . .

3 T e n s o r f a s c i a a nti b r a c hi i (Fi g (S c a pu l o u l n a r is ; l ong exte ns or -

l a tissi m us d o r si ) —T h is is a thi n
. .

o f th e f o r e a r m ; a ccess o r y a n c on eus of th e .

muscle wh ich l ies on th e i nn e r su r fa ce of th e t r i ceps .

Or i gi n — Th e te n d on of i n se r ti on Of th e l a ti ssi mus d o rsi an d th e p o ste r i or

b or de r o f the sc apu l a .

I n s er ti on — (l ) Th e f a sci a Of the f or e a r m ; (2 ) a sm a l l e m i n e n ce o n th e p o ste r i o r

.

b o r de r Of the Olec r a n on .

A c ti on T o te n se the f a s ci a o f th e f o r e a r m a nd t o exte n d th e elb o w

j o int .

S tru c tu r e — The o r igi n c o n sists o f a ve r y thi n a p o n eu r o sis wh i ch ble n ds with

th o se Of t he c a put l on gu m an d the l a tissi m us d or si The m uscul a r p or ti o n is .

q uite thi n i n i ts a n te r i or p ar t s o m ewh a t th i cke r b ehin d a n d i s n a rr o we r th an th e

, ,

a p o n eu r o ti c o r igi n I t is su cceeded b y a n a p o n eu r o ti c i n se r ti o n wh i ch e n ds ch iefly

.
,

by ble ndi n g with the f a sci a o f the f or e a r m a li ttle bel o w the elb o w Th e r e is h ow .
,

eve r a sm a l l b ut c on st an t te n di no us a tt a ch me n t t o th e Olec r an on
Rel a ti on s —
, .

E xte rn a lly the p a nn i cul us t r i ceps (l o n g an d i n te r n a l h e a ds )

.
, , ,

the i nn e r a nd middle fl exor s o f the c a r pus a n d the u l n a r vessels a nd n e r ve ; i n ,

t er n a l l y the l a tissi m us d o r si se rr a tus m a g n us a n d p o ste r i o r pe ct or a l muscles

s u pp l y —S ubsc a pu l a r ul n a r a n d deep b r a ch i a l a r te r ies
,

B l ood —
.
, ,

N er ve—
.

s u pp l y —R a di a l n e r ve
. .
, ,

. .

4 T r i ceps b r a chii (Figs 1 78 1 79 1 87 ) (B ra chi a l t r i ceps ; t r i c eps exte n s o r

—
. .
, ,

c ubi ti ) This t o gethe r with t h e p r ecedi ng mus cle c on stitutes the l arge m uscul ar
.
, ,

M Fa d y ea n Va u g h a n t er m t h i s m u s c l e t h e s c a p u l o-u l n a r i s , w hi l e A rl o i n g a n d L e s b r e
’
1
and
”
te r m it “
A n c o n e a e i re d u g ra nd d ors a l
c c s s o T h e a b o v e n a m e s eem s to a g ree b es t w i t h t h e
.

c h i e f i ns er ti o n a n d a c ti o n a lt h o u g h i t c er t a i nl y a r i s es l a rg e l y f ro m t h e t e nd o n o f i n s er ti o n o f
,

t h e l a ti s s i m u s d o rs i .
2 62 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

l a tissi m us d o rsi an d te n s or f a sci a an t i b r a ch i i m uscles t he b r a ch i a l a nd deep

, ,

b ra ch i a l vessels a n d the m ed i an an d u l n a r n e r ves ; beh i n d the l o n g he a d b r an ches

, , ,

Of th e deep b r a chi a l vessels a nd the r a di a l n e r ve .

B l ood s u pp l y —D eep b r a chi a l a nd ul n a r a r te r i es

,

- .

N erve s u ppl y —R a di a l n e r ve
.

—
. .

5 An n e
.
c o u s (M a n onc eus p ar vus s sub .a n c o n eus ) Thi s is a s m a ll fl esh y . .

m uscle whi ch c o ve r s the Olec ra n o n f o ss a a n d is c o ve r ed by th e t r i ceps I t is s o m e .

wh a t d iffi cult to sep a r a te f r o m the o ute r h e a d .

Ori gi n —The dist a l th i r d of the p o ste r i o r su r f a ce o f the h u m e r us

I ns er i i on —
.

The o ute r .

su r f a ce of the Olec r an o n
A c ti on —T o exten d th e
.

Deep ficxor ten d on

elb o w j o i n t and to r a ise th e ,

p c a psule Of th e j o i n t a n d
Di s a l
t e n d of s m a l l meta c a r -
a l bo ne
p r eve n t its bei n g pi n ch ed
S u s p en s or y l i ga ment du r i n g exte n si o n
S tr u c tu r e —
.

I t is a l m o st .

e n ti r el y fl eshy , an d is a d
he r e n t b y i ts deep f a c e t o
the j o i n t c a psule .

R el a ti on s . S u p er fi c i ~
ally the t r i ceps m uscle ;
,

deeply th e h u m e r us a nd
,

th e elb o w j o i n t .

B r a nch o f su p er fici a l fl ex or ten d on Bl ood su pp ly .

d i g i ta l a nn u l a r l i ga men t b r a ch i a l ar te r y
—R
.

Upp er bor d er of l a ter a l ca r ti l a ge N erve-s u ppl y . a d ial

n r e ve .

IV . FASCI E AND MUSCL E S

OF THE F OREARM
AN D MAN US
The f or e a r m is c o ve r ed
F 1 89 — D T O HO
IG PO T O V W IGI F RSE S ERI R IE
0 n th r ee S l d eS by th e 111 1 8
. .
, .

14 D p fl ee t d ; 1 5 p fi i l fl
ex or t d
en ; 16 p
on t i su er c a 1 ex or en on o s er or

v g i l li g m t cles Of th l S gr o up l eav mg
. , .
,

l li g m t f f tl k ; 1 7 p i m l
a nn u a r a en o l e oc , ro x a a n nu a r o r a na a en )

o f d i g it ; 1 1 l t l til g ; 2 4 p l nt c hi n (Af t E l l nb g
a e ra car a e the i nn e r su r f a ce o f the r a d i
a ar us o er e er er

B m A t f u K tl )
, , .

U S fo r the m o st p ar t S U b CU
au ,
na . r u ns er .

t a n eou s Th e exte n s o r s o f .

th e c ar pus a nd digi t li e o n th e a n te r i o r (d o r s a l ) a n d exte rn a l p ar t Of th e r egi o n ,

wh ile the fl exor s o ccupy the p o ste r i o r (v o l ar) su r f a ce .

The f a sci a Of th e f o r ear m (F a sci a a n ti b r a c h ii ) f or m s a ve r y st ro n g a n d c o m plete

i n vestme n t for a l l th e m us cles o f the r egi on The s up erfi ci a l f a s ci a is thi n a nd .
,

d is a ppe a rs a t the c a r pus by fusi n g wi th the d eep f a sci a The d eep f a s ci a is ve r y .

st ro n g a nd te nd i no us i n ch a r a cte r I t fu r n ish es i n se r ti o n a t its uppe r an d i n n e r .

p a r t to the te n s o r f a sci a a n ti b ra c hi i a n d p o ste r i or supe rfi ci a l pect o ra l muscles ;

a t its uppe r a n te r i o r a n d o ute r p a r t t o a p o n eu r o ses f r o m th e m as to i d O h u m e ra l i s ,
-

a n d bi ceps I t is a tt a ch ed a t th e elb o w by i ts deep f a ce to the o ut e r t ube ro sities o f

.

th e h u m e r us a n d ra dius to th e ul n a an d to the l a te r a l lig a m e n ts On the i nn e r

, ,
.

su rf a ce o f the f or e a rm i t ble n ds with th e pe r i o steu m on th e sub cut a n e o us su r f a ce

o f the r a d i us I t is cl o sely a dhe r e n t t o th e su r f a ce o f th e exte n s or mus cles but is
.
,

r a the r l oo sely a tt a ch ed t o the fl ex o r s F r o m i ts deep f a ce a r e det a ch ed i n ter .

mu s cul ar s epta whi ch f o r m she a ths fo r the m uscles a n d ar e a tt a ched to th e u n d e r

,

lyi ng b o n es The p r i n cip a l sept a a r e : (a ) On e whi ch p a sses betwee n th e c o mm on

.
 F A S C I /E AND M U S C LE S OF T HE F OR E A R M AND MA N U S 2 63

e xte ns o r (i n f r on t ) a nd the l a te r a l exte n s or a nd fl exo r c a r pi exte r n us (behi nd ) ;

(b) o n e b etwee n th e c o mm o n exte n s o r an d th e exte n s or c a r pi r a d i a l is ; (c ) o n e b e
twee n the i nn e r a nd midd le fl exo r s Of the c a r pus .

The carpal f a s c i a (F as ci a c a rpi ) is a di r ect c on ti n u a ti o n o f th a t o f th e f or e arm .

I t is a tt a ched chi efly t o the tube r o sities a t th e dist a l en d of th e r a d i us to the a o ,

c es s or y c ar p a l (pisif o r m ) b o n e a n d t o the l a te r a l lig a m e n ts

, I n f ro n t it f o r ms th e .

s o c a l led an t eri o r ann u l ar li g a m e n t (L i g a me n tu m c a r p i d or s a le ) b r id g i n g o ve r the

-
,

groo ves a nd b i n di n g d o w n t he exte n s or te n d on s and thei r syn o vi a l sh e a ths B e .

hi nd i t is g r e a tly th i cke n ed a nd f or ms th e po steri o r ann u l ar or tran s v er s e li ga

m e nt o f the c a r pus (L i g am e n t u m c a r pi t r a n sve r sum ) Th is st r etches a c r oss f r om .

the a ccess o r y c a r p a l b on e t o th e i n te r na l l a te r a l l ig a men t a n d the p r oxi m a l

ext r emity o f t h e i nn e r met a c ar p a l b on e I t thus c o m pletes the c arp a l c an a l i n
.
,

whi ch li e the fl exo r te n d on s thei r sy n o v i a l she a th a nd the p r i n cip a l vessels an d

, ,

n e r ves o f the re g i o n .

T h e f as ci a o f the m e ta c ar pu s a nd d i gi t (F a sci a met a c a r pe a et d igit a l is ) is i n ,

ge n e r a l thi nn e r th an the p r eced i n g I t is a tt a ch ed t o th e te n d o n s lig am e n ts an d

the exp o sed b o n y p ro mi n e n ces—e spe ci a lly to th e s m a l l m et a c a r p a l b o n es On the
.
, , ,

fl exi on su r f a c e o f th e fetl o c k j o i n t it is m u ch thi cke n ed by fib e r s p a ssi n g t r ansve r sely

f ro m one ses a m o id b o n e t o the o the r f o r m i n g an ann u l ar li gam e n t whi ch b i n ds d ow n
,

the fl exor ten d on s i n the ses a m o id g r oo ve or c an a l D ist a l t o th is is a sec o n d th i ck .

qu a d r i l a te r a l sheet (L ig a me n t u m v a gi n a l e ) wh i ch c o ve r s a n d is a dh e r e n t t o the
ten d o n o f the fl exor pe r fo r a tus I t is a tt a ched on eithe r side by tw o b an ds to th e
.

b o r de rs o f th e fi r st ph a l an x thus fi r ml y bi n di n g d o wn the fl exor ten d on s A l ittle

,
.

fu rthe r d o w n a c r es ce nti c fib ro-e l a s ti c s h ee t c o ve r s the te r m i n a l exp an si o n o f

the deep fl exor ten d o n I t i s a tt a ch ed on eithe r side by a st r o ng b a nd t o the
.

s ide of the fi r st ph a l a nx a b o ut its m i ddl e .

A E XTE NS OR DIV I S I ON
.

1 . E xten s o r carpi i s (M exte n s or c arpi ra d i a l is s r a di a li s d o rs a li s ; ex

r a d i al . .

te ns o r m et a c ar pi m a g n us ; a n ter i or exte n s o r o f th e m et a c ar p us ) — Th is is the .

l a r gest m u scl e of th e exte n s or d ivisi o n a n d l i es on the a n te r i or (d o r s a l ) su r f a ce of

,

t h e r a di us .

Ori gi n Th e exte r n a l c o n dyl o i d c r est o f th e h ume r us ; (2 ) the c o ron o i d

f o ss a
I n ser ti on —T h e tub e r o si ty o n th e a n te r i or (d or s a l ) su r f a ce Of the p ro xi ma l
.

ext r emi ty Of the l a r ge (thi r d ) m et a c a r p a l b on e

A c ti on —T O exte n d a n d fix the c a r p a l j o i n t a nd to flex the elb o w j o i n t
.

S tru ctu r e —The b elly Of the m uscle is r o un ded a n d r u n s ou t to a p o i n t a t the ,

dist a l thi r d o f the f or e ar m The te n d on whi ch r u n s n e ar ly t he wh o le le n gth of the

.
,

fleshy p or ti on a ppe a r s on th e su r f a ce o f the l a tte r a b o ut its middle ; he r e the m uscle

,

sh o ws a di sti n ctly pe nn a te ar r a n geme n t The te nd on p a sses th r o ugh the m idd le .

gr oo ve at the d ist a l ext r emity o f the ra dius an d o ve r th e c a psule of the c arp a l

j o i n t b o u n d d o wn by th e an te r i o r ann ul ar lig a m e n t an d i n vested with a syn ovi a l
,

s h ea th . Th e la tte r b egi n s th r ee t o f o u r i n ches (ca 8 to 1 0 cm ) a b o ve th e c ar pus . .

a n d exte n ds a l m o st t o th e i n se r ti on Of th e te n d o n I n the l o we r h a lf Of the f o r e a r m .

the d ee p f as ci a b le n ds w ith the te n d on a nd he r e the l a tte r l S j oi n ed by the l on g

,

ten d on o f th e b i ceps .

Rel ati ona fl S u p erfici a l l y the ski n f a sci a a n d th e o bl i que e x te n s o r ; deeply

, , , ,

t h e c a psu le o f th e elb o w j o i n t th e bi ceps te n d on the r a dius the c a r p a l j o i n t c a psu le

, , , ,

the an te r i or ra di a l ar te r y and the ra di a l n e r ve ; exte r na lly the a n te ri o r or com

, ,

m o n exte n s o r ; i n te r n a lly a t th e elb o w the b r a ch i a lis a nd b iceps .

B l ood s u pp l y —A n te r i o r r a d i a l a r te r y
, ,

- .

N er ve su pp l y —R a di a l n e r ve
.

- .
.

2 An teri o r or c o mm o n d i g ita l e xten s o r (M exte n s or d i g i t a l i s c o m mu n i s ;

.
.
2 64 F A S C I A; A N D M U S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E

an te r i o r exte n s o r Of th e ph a l anges ; exte ns or pedis ) —Th is m uscl e lies ext e r na l t o .

the f o r eg o i n g whi ch i t r ese mbles i n ge n e r a l f o rm a lth o ugh less bulky

, ,
.

Ori gi n The f ron t of th e dist a l ext r e m ity o f the hu m e r us j ust e xte rn a l t o ,

the c orono i d foss a ; (2 ) the exte r n a l tube r osity on th e p r o xi m a l ext r e m i ty o f th e

r a dius the exte rn a l l a te ra l lig a m e n t o f the elb o w a n d the exte r na l b o r de r o f th e
, ,

B ra chi a l i s

Ceph a l i c rei n

F l exor ca r p i i nter n us

A nteri or or co mmon extensor o f d i gi t

E xten sor ca r pi obl i qu us

M etacar p a l tu ber os i ty

Tend on of a n ter i or ex tensor

Tend on of l a tera l ex tens or

B r a n ch of s u s p en s or y l i ga men t to extens or
tend on
L a tera l ca r ti l a ge

FI G . 1 90 .
—
\l c s c r es
. or LE FT T H O AC C L MB o H O S
R I I r R E , F O M E L B OW D OW N WAR D A
R N r E a i oa VI WE .

B m A t
,

0 . E x te ns o r ca r pi i li
ra d a s ; g
’
, p fi i lp t lm l
su er c a e c o ra u sc e. (A ft E ll
er b g en er e r- au , na . f ur K i l ns t l er ).

radi us a t the j u n cti o n of its p r o xi m a l and mi ddle thi rds ; (3 ) th e exte rn a l su r f a ce

of the sh a ft of the ul n a ; (4 ) the f a sci a Of the f or e ar m .

I nser ti on The ext e n s or (or pyr a mid a l ) p ro cess o f th e [th i r d ph a l anx ; (2 )

.

the an te r i or su r f a ce o f th e p r oxi m a l ex t r e m i ties o f th e fi r st and sec on d ph a l a n ges

A c ti on —T o exte n d th e d igit a l a n d c a r p a l j o i n ts a nd t o flex th e elb o w j o i n t
.

S tr u c tu r e —The m uscl e is a c o m p o u n d o n e r ep r ese n ti n g the c omm o n exte ns or ,

.
,

,
 266 F A S C I ZE A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

wi th the te nd o n A sh e a th e n vel o ps the te n d on begi nn i n g a b o ut th r ee i n ches

.

(ca 6 t o 8 cm ) a b o ve th e c ar pus a n d r e a chi n g t o the p r o xim a l e n d o f the m et a c a r pus

. .
, ,

At the fetl o ck a s m a l l b u r s a lies betwee n the te n d o n a nd th e j o i n t c a psule but

,

o the r wise the te n d o n is a dhe r e n t t o the c a psule Th e te n d on be c o mes fl at a n d .

Ol ecr a non

Ul n a r h ea d of d eep flexor

La ter a l ex ten sor

Deep fl exor (hu mer a l h ea d )

E xtens or ca r pi obl i qs uu

Tend on of fl exor ca r pi ex ter nus

Acces s or y ca r p a l bone

M eta ear p a l tu ber os i ty

Tend o n fr om a n ter i or to l a ter a l ex ten s or

Check l i ga m ent

S u sp ens or y l i ga ment
E xter na l s ma l l meta ca r pa l bon e Fl exor ten d on s

B ra nch of s u s p en s or y l i ga men t to
exten s or ten d on

FI G . 1 91 .
—M U S C L E S OF LE FT T H O A C C R I LI M B O HO
F - L B O W D O W N WA D ;
I ts i z l ’ R O M E R E X T NAL V W
ER I E .

a, Ex te ns o r ca r pi ra d i li
a s; g, b h i li ; g
ra c a s
'
t i
a n er or psu er fi i l p t l:
c a ec t i
o ra c, a n er o r or m m n d i g it l
co o a

B m A t f li K il
,

te ns o r ; e, fle xor pi t
ca r e x e r nu s . (A ft E ll
er en b ger er- au . na . r ns tl e r . )

mu ch l ar ge r bel o w the c ar pus h a vi n g r ecei ved the te n d o n of th e r a d i a l he a d o f th e

,

a nte r i o r exte n s or a n d a st r o n g b an d f r om the a ccess o r y c a r p a l b on e

R el a ti on s —S u p e r fic i a l l y the ski n an d f a sci a ; deeply the o ute r f a ce o f th e

.

.
, ,

r a d i us a nd ul n a
; i n f r o n t the c om mo n exte n s o r the o bl iq ue exte n s o r a nd th e
, , ,

i n te r o sse o us a r te r y ; beh i n d th e exte rn a l fl exo r o f the c a rpus a nd the deep fl exor o f

,

the di git
B l ood s u pp l y —I n te ro sse o us a r te r y
.

-
. .
 F L E X OR D I V I S I ON 2 67

Ner ve-su pp l y .
—R a di a l n e r ve .

4 c ar pi o b li q
E xt en s or uu s (M a bdu ct or p o l licis l on gus e t exte ns o r p o l licis
b r evis ; Ob liq ue exte n s or of th e met a c a r pus ; exte n s or met a c a rpi Ob liq u us ) —Th is
. .

is a s ma ll muscle wh i ch cu r ves o b li q uely o ve r the di st a l h a lf o f th e ra di us and th e

c arpus
Ori gi n —Th e exte rna l b o r de r a nd a dj a ce n t p a r t o f the a n te r i o r su r f a ce o f the
.

r a dius (th e a tt a ch m e n t a r e a be gi nn i n g a t a p o i n t ab o ve the m iddle o f the b o n e a n d

ext e n di n g d o wn t o its l o we r f o u rth )

I nserti on —Th e he a d o f the i nn e r (sec o n d ) met a c arp a l b o n e
.

A cti on —T O ext e n d th e c ar p a l j o i n t
.
.

S tr u ctu r e —The muscle is pe n n a te a n d h as a fl at bell y wh i ch cu r ves d o w n w ar d

.

f o rw ard a nd i n w ar d o ve r t he dist a l p ar t of the ra di us The te n d on c on ti n ues th e

, .

di r ec ti o n o f the muscle c ro ssi n g o b li q uely o ve r th e te n d on of t he exte ns o r

,

c ar pi r a d i a lis ; it the n o ccupi es th e Ob li q ue gro o ve at the d ist a l e n d o f the r a dius ,

an d c r o sses the i nn e r f a ce o f th e c a r pus I t i s p r o v ided with a syn o vi al s h e a th .

.

FI G . 1 92 .
—
HT F O AR M o r H O
C R os s -s rz c'rro x or M DDL E I or RIG RE RS E

A
a, y ph li v i ; b t
c c ess o r ce b h f m di
a c v ; t
e n pi b li q
, cu a neous ra n c o e a n ner e c, e x e ns o r ca r o uus ; d, pos te i r or

ra di l
a t y;
ar er t lli t v i ; f m d i
e . sa e v ;g g l
e v l ; h l
e n v ; i p h li v i
, e a n ne r e ,
’
, u na r es s e s , u na r ne r e , ce a c e n; k t d n of
, en o

l
u na r h d f d p fl
ea o ; l i t
ee t y; m t
ex or pi d i li
, t i d i g it l t
n e r os s eo us a r e r , e x e ns o r ca r ra a s
‘
n , a n er o r a ex e ns o r ; l t l
a, a e ra

di g it al t n ; p fl
ex e s or pi t ; q q q h m l h d f d p d g it l fl
exo r ca r e x e rnu s
; di l h u e ra ea s o ee i a exor r ra a ea d o f s a m e : 3

p fi i l d i g ital fl
, , , , , ,

su er c a ; t fl pi m d i ;
exo r fl pi i t
, ; di
e xo r ; w
ca r ki ; e us u , e xo r c ar n e r n us r , ra us , s n z , t i
an er or ra d a i l
t y (Af t E ll b g i n L i i g A tl )
a r er . er en er er , e se r n
’
s as .

Rela ti ons .
—
S u p e r fici a l l y , the s k i n a nd f as ci a , t he l a te r a l exte n s o r , and the
c omm on e xte n s or ; deepl y , th e r a di us , th e exte ns o r c ar pi ra di a lis , the c arp a l ca p
sul e , a nd the i n te rn a l l a te r a l li ga me n t
B l ood-su pp l y —I n te r o sse o us an d an te r i o r ra di a l a r te r ies
.

—
.
.

Ner ve-su pp l y R a di a l n e r ve . .

FLE XOR DIV I S I ON B .

1 Fl e x or c ar pi in t ern u s (M fl ex or c ar pi r a di a lis s r a di a lis v o l ar i s ; i n te r n a l .

fl ex or of t he met a c a r pus ) —Th is m uscle l ies o n the i n n e r su rf a ce Of t h e f or e ar m

. .

. ,

i m medi a tely behi n d th e i nn e r b or de r of the r a di us

Ori gi n —The fl ex or (i n te r n a l ) epi c on dyle of t he hume r us bel o w a n d behi nd
.

the l ate r a l li ga m e n t
I nser ti on —
.

T he p r o x i m a l en d o f th e i n te r na l (sec on d ) m et a c a rp a l b on e .

A cti on —T o flex th e c a rp a l j o i n t a n d t o exte n d the e lb o w

.

S tr u ctu r e — Th e muscle h as a sh or t te n d on of or igi n wh i ch is su cceeded by a ,

s o mewh a t fl a tte n ed fusif o rm b elly Th e te n d on o f i n se r t i on be gi n s n e a r the dist a l

,
.

f o u r th Of th e r a di us I t is p r o vi ded w ith a sy n ovi a l S he a th wh i ch b egi n s t w o o r

.
2 68 F A S C I /E AND M U S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

th r ee i n ches (c a . 5 to 8 c m ) a b o ve the c a r pus

. a nd exten ds a lm o st t o the i n se rt i o n
Of th e te n d o n .

R el a ti on a fi S u pe r fic i a l l y , the ski n a n d f a sci a , th e p o ste r i o r supe r fici a l pe ct o r a l

a nd th e te ns o r f a sci ae an ti b ra c h ii ; deepl y , the elb o w j o i n t , th e ra di us , th e de ep
fl e xor , the fl ex or c ar pi m ed ius , th e p o ste r i o r ra di a l
vessels , an d th e medi an n e r ve A t the elb o w th e ar te r y .

a n d n e r ve li e i n f r o n t o f th e m uscl e , b ut bel o w th ey

d ip b e n e ath it .

B l ood s u pp l y — P o ste r i o r r a di a l
-
ar te r y
N er ve s u pp l y —M edi a n n e r ve
. .

-
. .

On emo v i ng t h e d ee p f as c i a on th e i nner s ur face of th e e l bow

r

t h e s t u d en t m a y n o ti c e a s m a l l m u s c l e l yi ng a l o n g th e l a t era l li ga
m en t . T h i s i s th e pro n a tor t e r e s w h i c h i s u su a ll y no t p r es en t o r
,

34 . a m er e v es ti g e i n th e h o r s e I t a r i s es b y a s m a ll fl a t t en d on f r om
.
,

t h e fl e xo r e p i con d y l e o f t h e h u meru s a n d i s i ns er t ed i n t o t h e i n ,

t er na l l a t er a l li g a men t of th e e l b o w On acc oun t of i ts s m a ll s i z e .

a n d t h e f a c t t h a t th e f o r ea r m i s fix ed i n th e p os i ti o n of p r o n a ti o n ,

t h e m u s c l e c a n h a v e n o a pp r ec i a b l e f u n c ti o n I t i s u su a l l y r e pre .

s en t ed b y th e l on g p o r ti o n o f th e i n t er n a l l a t er al li g a men t .

Fl exor carpi m e d iu s (M fl ex or c ar pi ul nar is S 2 . . .

ul n ar i s m edi a li s ; Ob liq u e o r mi ddl e fl exor of th e met a

c a r pus) —Th is mu scle li es on th e i nn e r a nd p o st er i or .

a spect of the f o r e ar m p a r tly u n de r p a r tly beh i n d the

p r e cedi n g muscle I t a r ises by t w o h e a ds—h u m e r a l

, ,

a n d ul n ar .

Ori gi n Th e fl exor (i n t ern a l ) epi c o n dyle o f

th e h u me r us j ust b ehi n d the p r ecedi n g muscle ;
(2 ) th e i nn e r su r f a ce an d p oste r i or b or de r of th e
Olec ra n on
I ns er ti on —
.

Th e uppe r edge of the a ccess o r y c ar p a l .

(pi sif o r m ) b on e
A c ti on —T O fl ex the c a r p a l j o i n t an d t o exten d the
.

elb o w
S tru ctu r e —Th e hum era l h e a d is mu ch th e l a r ge r
.

c o nstituti n g i n f a ct , th e b ul k o f t h e m uscle I t is ,
.

fl a tte n ed cur ved a n d t a pe r s at b o th e n ds The , ,

.

u l nar h e a d m u ch sm a l le r and ve r y thi n is c o ve r ed , ,

by an a p o n eu r o sis f ro m wh i ch m an y o f i ts fibe r s
FI G 1 93 — . D P MU CL . E E
a r ise
ER I t j o i n s the l a r ge h e a d a l ittle a b o ve th e
S ES or .

FO A M O HO RE R I F RS E
m i ddl e o f the f o r e ar m
N

T NAL V W ER I E .
,
Th e te n d on o f i n se r ti o n i s .

28 I t l h d f t i p ; sh or t and st r o n g ; i t b l en ds with th e p o ste r i or ann ul ar

, n e r na ea o r ce s

80 fl pi m d i ; 3 1 fl
exo r ca r lig am e n t of th e c ar pus
e us e x or

Rel a ti on s —S u p e r fici al l y the te n s o r f a sci ae a n ti

, , .

car pi i t ; t d
n e r n us f 31 ; en on o

32 , p fi i l d i gi t l fl
su er c a ; a exor ’
.
,

ra d i l h k li g m t :
a c ec t d a b r a ch i i supe r fi ci a l pect or a l and fl exor c ar pi i n te r n us
en en on , , ,

o f p fi i lfl
su er ; 33 c a3 3 b 88 ex o r th e ski n and f a sci a an d cut an e o us b r an ches o f the u l nar
a , , 0,
,
h m al h d
u er f d p fl ea s o ee
n e r ve ; deepl y the supe r fi ci a l a n d deep fl exor s o f the
; ex o r

d p fl
ee t d :
exo r b en p lon su ca r a
,

ch k li g m t : 3 4
ec al h en d f di git I n the di sta l h a lf o f th e f or e a rm the ul n a r vessels
u na r ea o .

d pfl d l h d fd p
; 35
a n d n e r ve l i e betwee n th e o ute r edge Of this m uscle a n d
ee exor , ra ia ea o ee

fl ; 36
e xo r p y li g m t
s us e ns o r a en
th e exte rn a l fl exo r o f the c a r pus
, .

(A f t E ll
B l ood—
b g i L i
—
i g
’ .
er en er er, n e se r n s

A tl ) as s u pp l y U l n a r a n d p o ste r i o r ra di a l ar te r ies
N er ve s u pp l y —U l n a r an d med i a n n e r ves
.
. .

- .
.

3 Fl e x o r c ar pi e xt ern u s (M exte n s o r c a r pi u ln a r i s 1 s ul n a r is l a te ra l is ;
. . .

ext er na l fl e xo r of th e m et a c ar pus ) — Th is m uscle l ies on the o ute r f a ce of th e .

f o r e ar m b ehi nd th e l a te ra l exte n s or Of the di git

, .

I n man th e m us c l e i s a n ex t en sor Of t h e h a nd
1
.
2 70 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C L E S or T HE H ORS E

b eh i nd th e l ate r a l l i ga me nts ; (2 ) th e dist a l ext remi ty o f th e fi r st ph a l anx ,

a ls o
b eh i nd th e l at e r a l lig a m e nts .

A cti on — T o fl ex th e d i gi t c a r p u s a n d t o e x te n d the elb o w ,

.

FI G 1 9 5 —
S Y N OV I \ L H AT H AND B UR
S E S S /E OF L OW E R FI G 1 96 —S \ N o v m n S H E AT H S AN D
'
B u ns fi or LO W E R
A T o B m" F
. . . . .

P A T R or RIG HT F Lm H o ns n or ou s e . I xr nn P R Lm r Il n E ra onn n or o sn, xr u n

NAL V i ew . NAL V W IE .

The s y no vi l a s h ea th s (c o l o re d ye ll ow ) a nd th e j i t p l ( l d pi k )
o n ca s u es i j tdc o o re n a re n ec e .

t f a. S hea h pi b li q ; b h t h o t
ex e ns o r c a r o u us , s ea Sh a th f t
, ea pi d i li ; b h t h o ex e ns o r ca r ra a s , s ea

o ffl pi i n t n :
exo r ca r p l h th ; d d er us c , ca r a s ea ,
’
, o f t i t
a n e r o r e x e ns o r
; h th f l t l t ; 1 c. s ea o a e ra ex e ns o r ( ,

d i g it l h t h ; a sb u nd ea t io t e. te u rs a er a n er r e x e ns o r n s h ea th f t t d
o f fl
ou er pi x t en : on o e xo r c a r e er nu s e. e
'
,

d on ; f p l e o f fetl k j i nt ; 1
, ca su t s pi oc o , ex en o r ca r car p l h th ;
a s ea d i g it l h t h ; 0 b d a s ea . u rs a u n er

ra d i li s ; 2 t d
a of t n . p i o b li q ; 3
en on ex e s or ca r u us , t i
a n er or t t d : h b
ex e ns o r d l t l en on . u rs a un er a e ra ex

fl x e
'
pi i t
o r ca r ; 4 fl ca p i m d i
n e rn us; 5 p fi , exo r r e us . su er t t d ;
e ns o r en p l f f tl k j i t : 1
on i
'

, t ca su e o e oc o n , e x e ns o r

c i l fl ex o t
a d n; d p fl r t d o ; 7 sp
en o y ee e xo r en n . su e ns o r car pi d i li ; 9 t i d i g it l x t
ra a s ; 3 l t
, l
a n er o r a e e ns o r , a e ra

li g m t ; 8 m ll m t a pa l b e ; 9 l g m t
a en s a e ac r on ar e e a d i g it l at ; 4 fl
e x e ns o r pi t ; e xo r ca r e x e rnu s

p fi i l fl
. . .

car pa l b ; I O p t i o ne l li g m t f fetl o k ; os er or a n nu a r a en o c t d en f 4; 5
o ns o t d ; d p
su er c a e xo r en on ee

fl
,

1 1 p x i m l d i g it l
, ro l li g m nt : 1
a d i s: 1 3
a a n nu a r a e °
ra u . e xe r t d ; en h on y li g m t; 3 t l
Sl lS e n so r a en . e x e rna

ra d i a pa l j i t ; 1 4 f tl
oc r k j i t : 1 6 l t l til a g ;
o n , e oc o n . a e ra ca r e m t e ac a rp l b : 9 l g m t a o ne p l b : 10 , ar e e aca r a o ne ,

16 h , d f m f t ph l
an t l t e l ca til ag e (A ft
ro i rs a a nx o a ra r . er p t i l li g m t f f tl k : 1 1 d i g it l
os e r o r a n n u a r la en o e oc , a a n nu a r

E ll e nb e g i Le i ri g s A tl
er , ) n se r n
'
as li g m t ; 1 9 f tl k j i t ; I 3 l t l
a en e til g ; 1 4
oc o n a e ra ca r a e

d f m fi t ph l
. . . ,

b an ro trs l t l , til ag (A ft
a anx o a e ra car e . er

E ll b gen i L l
er i g
e r, A tl )
n e s er n
'
s as .

S tr u c tur e —Th e fl eshy p o rt i on

th e muscl e o r h um e ra l h ea d t a kes o r igi n of

fr o m the h u m e r u s Th e r a di a l h e a d (C a put te n d i n eu m ) c on sists of a st r o n g fib r o us

.

b an d usu a lly te r m ed the ra d i al o r sup er i or ch e ck liga m en t , w h i ch fuses with th e

,
 F L EX OR D I V I S I ON 27 1

ten d o n n e ar th e c a r pus The belly o f th e m u s c l e is i nte r sected by te n d i n o us st ra nds

.

a n d fuses m o r e or less w it h t h a t o f th e d eep fl ex o r N e a r the c ar pus i t is suc ceeded .

by a st r on g th i ck t e n d o n wh i ch p a sses d o w n th ro ugh th e c a r p a l c a n a l f o rm ed by th e
, ,

p oste r i or li g a me n t of th e c a r pus t he a ccess o r y c a r p a l b on e and t h e p os t e r i or

, ,

a nn ul a r li g a m e n t (L i g a m e n tu m c a r pi t r a n sve r su m ) He r e i t is e n vel oped b y a .

syn o vi a l she at h i n c o mm o n w it h t he deep fl exor This c arpal sh e a th (Va gi n a

,
.

c a r pe a ) be g i n s th r ee o r f o u r i n ches (8 t o 1 0 cm ) a b o ve the c a r pus a n d exte n ds cl o w n .

,

w a rd n e a r ly to t h e m i ddl e o f the m et a c a r pus B el o w t h e c ar pus t he te n d on b e .

c o mes fl a tte n ed a n d b r o a de r N e a r t h e fetl o ck it f o rm s a r i n g th r o u gh wh i ch th e

.

te nd on o f th e deep fle x or p a sses (Fig He re th e tw o te n d on s a r e b o u n d

.

d ow n i n th e ses a m o i d groo ve b y t he p o ste r i o r ann u l a r li ga m e n t wh i ch fuses m o r e ,

o r less w ith th e supe r fici a l fl exor t en d on A t the dis t a l en d of the fi r st .

ph a l anx the te n d on d ivides i n t o tw o b r an ch es whi ch d i ve r ge t o r e a ch thei r p o i nts

of i n se r ti o n a n d betwee n these b r an ches t he te n d o n o f the deep fl ex o r e m e r ges
,

(Fig . A sec o n d syn o vi al sh ea th , th e d i g ita l o r s es am oi d ean (Va gi n a

Tend on of l a tera l ex te ns or Te nd o n of e
a nt r i or exte ns or

Upp er p ouc h of j oi nt ca ps u l e

Br a nc h of s us p ensor y l i ga me nt
I nter s es a moi d l i ga ment

Te nd o n o f su p er fici a l fl exor Te nd on of d eep fl er or

FI G . 1 97 .
—
C n o s s -s nc r i o x or D S TAL P A T
I R or Ls r r Ma r x c x np c s or HO RS E . J US T A BOVE S e s a u o rns .

digit a lis ) b egi n s a t t he dist a l t hi r d of th e m et a c arpus t h r ee t o fo u r i n c hes (8 t o

, ,

1 0 cm ) a b o ve the fe t l o ck , a n d exte n ds t o th e m i d d l e o f t h e sec on d ph a l a nx

Rel a ti ons —Th e b ell y o f th e m uscle i s r el a t ed supe r fi ci a lly t o t h e ul n a r h e a d
. .

of the deep fl e xo r the fl e x or c a r pi m edi u s , an d at i t s o r i gi n t o t he ul n ar vessels , , ,

a n d n e r ve ; deeply t o th e h u m e r a l h e a d o f t h e d eep fl exo r The t e nd on is r e .

l ated supe r fi ci a lly t o the s ki n a nd f a sci a ; deepl y to t h e deep fl ex e r te n d o n .

B l ood —s u pp l y
— P o ste r i o r r a d i a l a r te r x
.

s u pp l y -
n e rv e
. .

5 D ee p digi tal fl exor or fl e x e r p e rf or an s (M

. fl ex e r d igit a lis p r o fu ndus ; .

deep fl e xor of the ph a l an ges ) —The fl eshy p ar t o f th is m uscl e li es o n t he p o ste r i o r

.

su r f a ce of the r adi us u n de r c o ve r of the p r ecedi n g muscles I t is th e l a r gest

,
.

m uscl e of the fle xo r gr o up .

Or i gin The flexo r (i nt e r n a l ) epi c on dyle o f th e h u m e r us ; (2 ) t h e i nne r

su r f a ce o f th e o l e c r a n o n ; (3 ) th e m iddle o f t h e p o ste r i o r su r f a c e o f th e r a dius
a nd a s m a ll a dj a ce n t a r e a o f the ul n a

I nserti o n —The semi lu n a r c r est o f th e th i r d ph a l a n x an d th e a dj a ce n t su r f a ce

.

Of th e l a te r a l c a r ti l a ge
A cti on —T o fl ex th e d i git a n d c a rpus an d to exte n d th e elb o w
.

. .
,
2 72 F A S C HE A N D M U S C L E S OF T HE H ORS E

S tr u cture —T his m uscle c on sists o f th r ee p r i n cip a l h e a ds The h um eral h e a d .

put hu m e le c stitutes the b ul k o f the m uscle I t is m a r ked by te n d i no us

(C a r a ) o n .

i n te r se cti on s a nd is sep a r a bl e i n t o th r ee sec ond a r y he a ds The u ln ar h ea d (C aput

,
.

ul n a r e ul na r i s a ccess o r i us ) is mu ch sm a lle r a nd i s a t fi rst supe rfi ci a lly situ a ted b e

, ,

twee n th e o ute r a nd middle fl exors o f the c a r pus The r a d i al h e a d (C a put r a d i a le .

,

ra d i a lis a c cess or ius ) is the s m a llest a n d is n ot a lw a ys p r ese n t ; i t is situ a ted on the

dist a l tw o—
,

th i r ds o f the p oste r i or su r f a ce of the r adi us u n de r th e hume ra l h e a d E a ch

—
.
,

of these he a ds is p ro vided with a te n d o n The p r i n cip a l te n d o n th at o f the h u m e r a l

he a d —b egi ns a b o ut th r ee or f o u r i n ch es (8
.

t o 1 0 cm ) a b o ve th e c arpus I t is s o on . .

j o i n ed by the s m a l l te n d on of th e ul na r
he a d wh i ch begi n s a b o ut the m idd le o f th e ,

f or e ar m The te n d o n of th e ra di a l h e a d .

fuses wi th the p r i n cip a l te nd on cl o se t o

the c arpus The c o n j o i n ed te n d on p a sses .

d o w n w a r d th ro u gh th e c a r p a l c a n a l b ei n g ,

i n cluded i n the carpal syn ovi al sh ea th

with the supe r fi ci a l fl exo r te n d o n as ,

p r evi o usly desc r ibed C o nti n u i n g d ow n .

w ar d i t is j o i n ed a b o u t the midd le o f th e ,

17 m et a c a r pus by a st ro n g fib r o us b an d t he "

so c a lled i nf eri o r o r su b c arpa l c h e c k l ig a -

m e nt (C a put te n di n eu m ) This is a d i r ect .

c o nti n u a ti o n o f th e p o ste r i o r l ig a me nt of
th e c ar pus B el o w th is the te nd on p a sses .

th ro ugh th e r i n g f o r med b y the p er f or

a tu s th e n i n successi o n o ve r the ses a m o i d ,

groo ve the i n fe r i o r s esamoi d ean li ga ,

me nts a nd th e te nd o n su r f a ce o f th e th i r d ,

ses a m o id t o its i n se r ti o n (Figs 1 50 an d ,

.

I ts te r mi na l p a r t is m u ch wi de n ed .

F r o m th e dist a l thi r d o f the met a c ar pus t o

the dist a l en d o f the sec o n d ph a l a n x i t is
F 1 9 8 —D
IG . O .HO LAT
I oi TAL V W F
i n cl osed i n the d i gi tal s yn o v i al sh ea th de
RS E , ER IE .

1 L g m t p l b ; 2 d i t l d Of m ll sc r ibed i n c onn ecti o n with th e pe rf o r a tus

ar e e acar a o ne s a en s a

p l b ; 8 f tl k j i t ; 5 fi t ph l ;
.
, ,

m t e a ca r a o ne . e
The navi cul ar b ur s a o r b ur sa pod otr och
oc o n , rs a a nx

p t as j i nt ; 7
ern o d ph l : 8 ffi n j i t ; 9
s ec o n a a nx co o n
l e ari s is f o u n d betwee n th e te n d on a n d
. , ,

th i d ph l x ; 1 1 l t l til g :
r a an ,pp ( b a e ra car a e u er su

t
c u a ne o u s )b d Oi til g ; 1 2
or er p y li g car the thi r d ses am o id o r n a vi cul ar b on e
a e . s us e ns o r a .

m t;en b h f 12 t ra n c t t d ; 1 4 d p Th e te rmi n a l p ar t o f the ten d o n is b o u n d

o o e x e ns o r en on , ee

fl t d ; 16 p fi i lfl
exo r en on t d ;su b er h c a exo r en on ra nc
d o w n b y the fib ro us sheet desc r ibed with
,

o f 1 5; 1 6 p t i . ul li g m t f f tl k ; I 7
os e r o r a n n ar a en o e oc ,

p im l
ro x l a v g i l li g m t Of l i g i t ; I 8
a n nu a r or ath e f a sci a na a en (

Rel a ti on s —Th e belly o f th e m uscle is

, .

di t l
s a l li g m t
a nn u ar i f i g h th f d p
a en o r re n o rc n s ea o ee

fl x e t d ;
or l t l li g m t f ffi j i t ; 2 1
en on a era a en o co n o n ,

t d en f
on o mm t i
co t t d n f r el a ted p o ste r i o r ly to the pe rf o r a tus a nd
o n o r a n e r or e x e ns o r
; en o o

l t l t
a e ra ; 93 d i g it l v i
e x e ns o r (A ft E ll b g the middle fl exo r of the c ar pus ; i n te rn a lly
a e n er en er er
B m A t f K tl )
, .

,
au na ur u ns er
t o th e i n te r n a l c ar p a l fl exo r th e ra d i a l
.
, .

check li ga me n t an d the p o ste r i or r ad i a l ,

vessels and med i an n e rve ; exte rn a l ly to th e exte r n a l fl exor of the c a rpus an te r i o r ly , ,

t o the r a d ius a n d ul n a a n d b r a n ch es o f the p o ste r i o r r a di a l a r te r y a n d m edi an n e r ve .

B el o w the c a r pus the te n d o n i s a cc o mp an i ed by the vessels an d n e r ves o f th e d i git .

I t ma y a ls o be n o ted th a t th e m uscle is n o t e n ti r ely c o ve r ed by the o the r fl exo rs ; i t

c om es i n c o n t a ct wi th the s ki n a nd f a sci a o n the p oste ro — exte r na l a spect o f the
p ro xi m a l h a lf o f the f o r e a r m a n d a ls o on the o ute r a spe ct o f the dist a l f o u r th
B l ood su pp l y —P o ste r i o r r ad i a l a n d u l n a r a rte r ies
, .

N erve s u pp l y —M ed i a n a n d ul n a r n e rves
.
.

-
.
.
2 7-1 F A S C I ZE A N D M U S C L E S OF T HE H OR S E

o ute r su r f a ce a nd f ro n t o f the thi gh I t is te n di no us a n d ve r y st r o n g and for th e

.
,

m o st p a r t e a sily sep a r a ble f r o m the u n de r lyi n g m uscles I t fu r n ishes i n se r ti o n t o .

th e te n s o r f a sci a l a t a a nd t o the b i ceps fe m o r is (i n p ar t ) by b oth of wh i ch it is ,

te nsed At the sti fle i t is a tt a ched t o the p a tell a a nd th e i nn e r a nd o ute r st r a i gh t

.
'

li g am e n ts I nte r n a lly it is c o nti n u o us wit h the i n te r na l fem o r a l f a sci a I t fu r

. .

n ishes the f o ll o wi n g i n te r mu s cu l ar s e pta : (1 ) On e wh i ch p a sses b etwee n the v a stus

exte r n us a n d b i ceps fe mo r is t o be a tt a ch ed t o the exte r n a l t ro ch a n te r o f the fe m u r ;

(2 ) tw o whi ch p a ss betwee n the th r ee b r a n ches o f the bi ceps fem o r is ; (3 ) a fo u rth
betwee n the bi ceps fe m or is a n d se m ite n d i n osus .

The i n tern a l f e m or a l f a s ci a (F a sci a fe m or a l is m edi a lis ) c o ve r s the supe rfi ci a l

muscles o n th e i nn e r su r f a ce o f the thi gh At its uppe r p ar t it is j o i n ed b y p a r t o f
.

the a p on eu ro si s o f the exte r n a l o bl i que m uscl e (L am i n a fem o r a l is ) (Fi g Th e .

p o ste r i or p ar t is t hi n I t i s c o n ti n u o us w i th th e f a sci a l a t a i n f r on t a n d th e c r u r a l
.

f a sci a bel o w A t the sti fle i t fuses wi th th e te n d on s of th e s ar t or ius a n d gra ci li s

. .

The c r ura l f a s ci a o r f a sci a of th e le g (F a sci a c r u r is ) c onsists o f th ree l a ye r s

, , .

T w o o f these i n vest the e n ti r e r e g i o n a n d m a y th e r ef o r e be te rm ed the c o mm on , ,

f a s ci a . The supe r fi ci a l l a ye r is a c on ti n u a ti on o f th e f a sci a of the th i gh wh ile th e ,

sec o n d l a ye r ma y b e r ega r ded ch iefl y as a c o n t i n u a ti on o f th e t en d o n s o f th e supe r

fic i a l m uscles o f the hip a n d thi gh (b i ceps fe m o r is semi te n di n o sus te n s o r f a sci a l a t a , , ,

s a rt or ius a nd gr a cilis ) The t w o l a ye r s f r eq u e n tl y fuse a n d a r e a tt a ched ch i efl y

,
.
,

t o the p a tell a r li gam e n ts a n d th e c r est a nd i n te r n a l su rf a ce o f th e tib i a A b o u t .

th e middl e o f the leg t h e tw o l a ye r s u n i te b eh i n d th e deep flexor o f th e d i gi t a n d

f o r m a st r o n g b a n d whi ch p a sses d o w n w a r d i n f r on t o f th e te n d on s o f th e gastr oc
ne mi u s a nd sup e r fi ci a l fl exo r t o b e a tt a ch ed wi th th e l a tte r t o t h e an t e r i o r a nd
,

i nn e r p a r t of the tube r c a lcis Th is m a y b e r ega r ded as a n a c cess o r y or t ar s a l

.

te n d on of i n se r ti on o f th e b i ceps fe m or is an d se m ite n di n o sus The th i rd l a ye r .

f o r m s she a ths for th e muscl es fu r n ishi n g o r i gi n i n p a r t t o th ei r fibe r s Tw o im

,
.

p o r t an t in ter mu s cul ar s epta a r e det a ched vi z : (1 ) On e whi ch p a sses betwee n the ,

.

a n te r i o r a nd l a te r a l di gi t a l exte n s o r s t o be a tt a ch ed t o the fibul a a n d the ext e r n a l

b or de r o f the tibi a ; (2 ) o n e b etwee n the l a t e r a l exte n s or an d the d eep fl exor .

Th e tar s al f a s ci a (F a s ci a t a r si ) fuses w ith th e l i g am e n ts a nd b o n y p r o m i n e n ces

o f the r e gi o n I t is st r o n g an d te n d i n o us i n f r o n t a n d j o i n s the te n d o n of the a n
.
,

t e r i or exte n s o r b el o w th e j o i n t L a te r a l l y i t i s t h i n an d fuses wi th the li gam e n ts

.
, .

P o ste r i o r l y i t is ve r y th i ck a n d st r o n g f o r m i n g a n a nn u l a r li g a m e n t whi ch st r etch es

, ,

f ro m the i nte r n a l l a te ra l li ga m e n t t o th e fib u l a r t a rs a l b on e a n d the pl an t ar li ga

me n t This c o nve r ts the groo ve at th e b a c k o f the h o ck i n t o a c ana l i n wh i ch
.
,

a r e the deep fl exo r te n d o n wi th its syn o vi a l sh e a th a n d the pl an t a r n e r ves In .

f r o n t o f th e t ar sus a n d a b o ve a n d b el o w it th e r e a r e th r ee ann ul ar l ig am ent s

(L i ga me n t a t r an sve r s a) Th e p r oxi m a l o n e b i n ds d o w n th e t e nd on s o f th e a n te r i o r
.

exte ns o r pe r on eus te r tius a n d tib i a lis a n te r i o r o n th e dist a l en d o f th e tibi a Th e

, ,
.

middle on e st r etch es f ro m th e fib u l a r t a r s a l b o n e to th e o ute r te n d o n o f the pe r o

n eus te r tius f o r m i n g a l oo p a r o u n d th e te n d o n o f th e a n te r i o r exte n s o r
,
Th e d ist a l .

b an d st r etches a c ro ss the p r o xi m a l ext r e m i ty o f th e l a r ge m et a t a rs a l b o n e an d i n

cl o ses th e te n d o n s (a nd she a th s ) of the tw o exte n s or s o f the d i gi t .

The m eta tar s a l a nd digi tal f a s ci a d o n ot d i ffe r m a te r i a lly f r o m th o se o f th e

c orr esp o n d i n g r egi on s o f t he th o r a ci c li m b .

THE MUS CL ES
I . THE SUBLUNIB AR M USCLES (F i g s 4 50 4 56)
. ,

The m uscles of this gro up a r e no t c o n fi n ed t o th e sublu m b ar r e gi on b ut ex ,

ten d bey on d i t b o th bef or e a nd b ehi n d Th ei r chi ef fu n cti on is t o fl ex th e hip

j o i n t Tw o h o weve r —th e ps o a s mi n or a nd the q u a d ra tus l u m b o r um —h a ve
.

,
.
, ,

n o t th is a cti o n .
 THE S U BLU M B A R M U SC L E S 2 75

1 . mi no r (5 p ar v u s ) —Thi s i s a fusi fo r m fl a tte n ed pe nn ate mus c le

P s o as . .
, , ,

whi ch li es al o n g the ve nt ro l a te r a l a spect of the b o di es o f the l a st th r ee th o r a ci c

-

an d the l umb a r ve r teb r a .

0 r i gi n The b o d ies of th e l a st th r ee th o r a ci c a n d fi r st f o u r o r five lu mb ar

.
-

ve rt eb r a a n d th e ve r teb r a l e n d s o f th e sixtee nt h an d seve n tee n th r ibs

I ns erti o n —Th e ps o a s tube r cle o n the sh a ft o f th e i liu m
, .

A c ti on —T o flex th e pel vi s o n th e l o i n s o r t o i n cli n e it l a te r a ll y

. .

S tr u c tura —The m uscle a r ises by a se r i es of di git a t i o n s whi ch p as s b a ckw a r d

.
, .

and o utw ar d t o be i ns e r ted a t a n a cute a n gle on the te n d o n Th e l atte r lies a l o ng .

the o ute r b o r de r o f the fl eshy p or ti on a n d i s fl atte n ed I t a ppe a rs o n t he s urf a ce .

o f the m uscle a t th e th i r d l umb a r p r o cess a n d i n c r e a ses gr a d u a lly i n w idt h un t il i t

r e a ches t he pelvi c i nl et whe r e i t bec o m es n a r ro we r

Rel a ti ons —
, .

Th e ve nt r a l s u r f a ce o f t he th o r a ci c p ort i o n o f th e muscl e is r el ated

.

to the pleur a c r ur a o f t he di a ph r a gm a n d s ym p a t heti c n e r ve

, I n the a bd o me n , .
,

the ch ief ve n t r a l r el a ti o ns a r e th e p e r i t o n eu m th e ve n a c a v a (r i gh t side ) the ao rt a , ,

an d l eft ki dn ey (l eft side ) the s y mp a th et i c n e r ves a n d th e u r ete r s

, D ors a lly ,
.
,

the chi ef r el a ti o ns a re th e ve r teb r a t he ps o a s m aj o r a n d lum b ar n e rves N ea r , ,

.

i ts i ns e rt i o n th e te n d o n i s c r o sse d i n te r n a ll y b y t h e ext e rn a l i li a c arte r y and ex ,

te rn a l l y by the fem o ra l n e r ve
B lood s uppl y —I n te r c o st a l an d l um b ar a rt er ies
.

Nerve s u ppl y — L um b ar n e r ves

. .

2 P s o a s ma j o r (s m a g n us ) —Th is i s m u ch l a r ge r th an t h e p r eced i n g muscle

. .

. .
,
.

by whi ch it is p ar tl y c o ve r ed I t is t r i a n gu l a r w it h the b ase a n te r i or

0 ri g i n —The ve n t r al s u r f a ces o f th e v e rt eb r a l e n ds o f the l ast tw o r ibs a nd
. .
,

the t r ans ve rs e p r o cesses o f th e l u mb ar ve r t eb r a

I ns er ti on —The i n t er n a l t r o ch a n te r o f th e femu r by a c o mm o n ten d on with
.

.
,

the i li a cus
A c ti o n —
.

T o fl ex th e h ip j o i n t an d t o r o t a t e the th i gh o utw ard

S tr uc tu ra —The o r i g in o f th e m uscl e is flesh y t h e bel ly bei n g i n gen e ra l
. .

fl at te ne d t hi ck i n its mi ddl e thi n a t it s e d ges Th e th or a ci c p or t i on is sm a ll

, ,
.
,

the a b d o mi n a l p a rt mu ch th i cke r a n d wi d e r ext en di n g l ate ra lly bey on d t he ex ,

tremi ti es o f t h e lumb ar t r ans ve rse p ro cesses F rom the lumb o s a c r a l a rt i cul a ti o n .

-

it li es i n a deep groo ve f o r med in th e i l i a cus (wi t h wh i ch it is p artly u n ited ) b e ,

c o mes sm all e r and r o un ded an d p a sses d o w n w a r d an d b a ckw ar d t o te r mi n ate by a,

1
st ro n g te n d o n c o mm o n t o i t a nd t he i l i a cus
Rela tio na —D ors a ll y t h e l a s t t w o r i b s a n d th o r a ci c ve rteb ra t he lum b a r
.

, ,

ver te b ra th e i n te r n a l i n te r c o st a l s q u a dr a t us lum b o r um l on gissim us d or si a nd

, , , ,

il i a cus and the lumb a r vess el s a n d n e r ves ; v e n t r a lly the pleu ra an d pe r it on eum
, , ,

the ili a c fas ci a i n g ui n a l li g am e n t th e d i a p h r a gm ps o a s mi n o r an d s a rt o r ius th e

, , , , ,

k idn eys th e spleen th e i n testi n e (du o de n um c a cum et c ) a n d the ci r c u mflex

, , , ,
.

il i a c ve ssel s .

B l ood s u p pl y L umb ar an d ci r cum fl ex il i a c a rte r ies

- -

N erve— s u ppl y —L umb ar a n d fem o r a l n e r ves

.
.

3 Il i ac u s —Thi s m uscl e c o ve r s t he ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f the i h u m ext e rn a l t o

.

the s a c r o—
. .

ili a c a rti cul a ti o n a n d ext e n ds o utw a r d bey on d th e ext e rn a l b o r de r o f t h e

,

b on e u n de rn e a th t h e m i ddl e gluteus
—
.
,

Ori gi n The v e n t.r a l su r f a ce o f t h e iliu m ext e r n a l t o the i l i o pect i n e a l l i ne -

,

the ve n t r a l s a c r o i l i a c li g a me n t th e w i n g o f th e s a c r u m an d t he t e n d on o f t h e
-
, ,

ps o as mi nor
—
.

I ns erti on Th e i n te rn a l t r.
o ch a n t e r o f the femu r by a c o m m o n te n d o n W i th
,

the ps o a s m a j o r .

q
—
t o f th e i n ti ma t e u n i o n b et w een t h e p soas ma j o r a n d i li th ey fr e i e n t l '
t s
a re
1
On a c co u n
a c us

s o m e a n a t o mi s t s
'

i nc l u l e tl e
co ns i d ered a s i n g l e m u s c l e t o w h i c h t h e n a m e ih o p so a s i s a pp li ed ;
,

ps o as mi n or a l s o u n d er t h i s t er m .
27 6 F A S C I /E AND M U S C LE S OF T HE H OR S E

A cti on —T o flex the h ip j o i n t a n d t o r o t a te th e thi gh o utw a r d

S tr u ctu r a —The belly o f the m uscle is so deeply groo ved fo r the ps oa s m a j o r
. .

as t o give t he a ppe a r a n ce o f bei n g c o m pletely divided i n t o o ute r a n d i nn e r p or ti o n s .

Whe n the ps o a s is r e mo ved i t is see n h o weve r th a t the tw o he a ds a re n o t e n ti r el y

, , ,

sep a ra ted Th e o ute r l a r ge r he a d a r ises f r o m the wi n g o f the i li um ch iefly ; th e

.
,

i n n e r s m a l le r h e a d a r ises chiefly f ro m a s m a l l a r e a o n th e sh a ft o f th e i l i um b e
, ,

twee n the ps oa s tube r cle a n d the dep r essi o n fo r the i nn e r te n d o n o f th e r ectus

fe m o r is a n d f r o m th e te n d on o f th e ps oa s m i n o r
, Th e tw o p o r ti o n s i n cl o s e .

the ps o a s m aj or i n f r o n t o f the hi p j o i n t
R el a ti ona —D o r s a lly th e i l i u m s a c r u m s a c r o ili a c a r ti cul a ti on the gluteu s
.

-
, , , ,

m edi us th e i li o l u m b a r a n d exte r n a l ci r cu m flex vessels ; ve n t ra lly th e il i a c f a sci a

,
-
, ,

i n gui n a l li g a m e nt the ps o a s m aj or s a r t o r ius an d a bd o mi n a l m uscles At th e

, , , .

h ip j o i n t th e chief r el a ti on s a re : i n te r na l ly the fem ora l vessels th e fem o r a l n e r ve , , ,

a n d the s ar t o r ius m uscle ; exte r n a lly the r e ctus fem o r is a n d te n s o r f a sci a l a t a ; i n

,

f ro nt the a bd omi n a l m uscles ; b eh i n d the h ip j o i n t

B l ood s u p pl y —L u m b ar ci r cum flex i l i a c and deep fe m o r a l ar te r ies
.
, ,

-
,
. .
,

N er ve s u ppl y — L u mb a r a n d fe m o r a l n e r ves
-

4 Q u a dr a tu s l umb o r um —Th is th i n m uscle l i es o n the o ute r p art of the

. .

. .

ve nt r a l su r f a ces of the l um b a r t ra n sve r se p r o cesses

Or i gi n —The ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f the uppe r p a r t o f th e l a st tw o r ibs a n d th e
.

lu m b a r t ra n sve r se p r o cesses
I nser ti on —
.

The ve n t ra l sur f a ce o f the wi n g o f th e s a c r u m a n d th e ve nt ral

s a c r o—
.

i li a c li g a m e n t
A cti on —A cti n g t o gethe r to fix the l a st tw o r ibs a n d t he lu m b a r ve r teb r a ;
.

a cti n g si n gly t o p r o du ce l a te r a l fl ex i on o f th e l o i n s

S tr u ctu r e —The m uscl e is pe nn a te a n d is cu r ved with th e c on vexi ty o utw a r d

.
,

, .

I t is th i n l a r gely mixed wi th te n di n o us fibe r s a n d is i n gen e r a l l ittle devel o ped i n

, , , ,

the h o r se i n c om p ar is on wi th s o m e o f th e o the r a nim a ls (6 g d og sh eep )

R el a ti ona —Ve n t r a lly th e ps o a s m a j or a n d the l a st i n te r c o st a l a n d fi r st th r e e
. . .
, ,

lu m b ar n e r ves ; d o r s a lly the l a st tw o r ibs the l um b ar t r a n sve r se p r o cesses a n d

, , ,

the l a te ra l b r an ches o f the l u m b ar a r te r ies

B l ood su pp l y —L umb a r a r te r i es
.

N er ve s u ppl y —L umb a r n e r ves

. .

5 I n tertr an s v e rs a l e s l u mb o ru m (M i nte r t ra nsve r s a r i i l um b o r u m ) —Thes e

. .

. . .

a r e desc r ibed with the o the r spi n a l musc les (See p . .

II . THE E XTE RN AL M U SCLE S OF THE HI P AND THI GH

U n de r this h e a d wi l l be d esc r ibed th e mus cles o f th e o ute r su r f a ce o f the pelvis
a nd th i gh a n d th o se whi ch f o r m the p o ste r i o r c o n t o u r o f the l a tte r
,
They a re .

gi ve n i n th e o rd e r i n wh i ch th ey m a y be c o n ve n ie n tly ex a m i n ed .

1 T e n s o r f a s ci a l a ta (Fi g
.
— This is th e m o st a n te r i o r m uscle o f the
.

supe r fici a l l a ye r I t is t r i an gul a r i n f o r m wi th its a pex a t the exte r na l a n gle o f

.
,

the il i u m
Or i gi n —The exte r n a l a n gle o f th e i liu m
.

I m ed i a n —The f a sci a l a t a a n d t hus i n di r ectly t o the p a tell a the exte r n a l

. .

, ,

st ra i ght li ga me n t a n d the c r est of the t ib i a

A c ti on —T o te n se th e f as ci a l a t a flex the hi p j o i n t a nd exte n d the
,
.

.
, ,

stifle j o i n t
S tru ctu r a —The m uscl e a r ises b y a r a the r s m a ll he a d a b o ut tw o i n ch es (c a
.

.
,

5 c m ) wi de o n the a nte ro i n fe r i o r e m i n e n ce o f the exte r na l a n gle o f th e i li um

.
,
- .

B el o w this th e belly sp r e ads o u t a n d te r m i n a tes a b o ut mi dw a y betwee n th e p o i n t

o f the h ip a n d t h e st ifle i n the a p o n eu r o sis The belly fuses t o a c on side r a ble ex .

te n t with t h e supe r fici a l gl uteus The a p o n eu ro sis fuses with th e f a sci a l a t a a n d

.
,
2 78 F A S C HE A N D M U S C L E S or T HE H OR S E

wh i ch p a sses o ve r t he c o n vexity o f the t ro ch an te r to be i n se r ted i n t o th e c r est

b el o w i t The c on vexity is c o ve r ed with c a r ti l a ge a n d the tr o ch an ter i c b ur s a
.
,

(
‘
B u r s a t r o ch a n te r i c a ) is i n te p
r o sed betwee n t he te n d o n a n d the c ar ti l a ge
R el a ti on s —S u p e r fi c i a l l y the ski n l u m b o —
.

d o r s a l a n d glute a l f a s ci a th e te ns o r
‘

.
, , ,

f a sci a l a t a gluteus s u pe r fic i a l i s a n d bi ceps fe m o r is ; d eeply th e l o n gissi m us t he

, , , ,

i li um s a c ro i li a c a nd s a c r o sci a ti c l i ga m e n ts t he gluteus p r o fu nd us i li a cus a nd

- -

r e ctus fe m o r is the i li a c o —
, , ,

fe m or a l ar te r y the glute a l a n d i n te rn a l pud i c vessels a n d

, ,

n e r ves a nd the gr e a t s ci a ti c n e r ve

B l ood s u p p l y —G lute a l i l i o l umb ar lumb a r a n d i l i a c o fe m o r a l ar te r ies

.
,

- - -

N er ve s u pp l y —G l ute a l n e r ves
, ,
. .
,

4 G lute u s p r o f u n du s (D eep gluteus ; g luteus i n te r n us ; sc an sori u s ) —Thi s

. .

. .

m u ch sm a l le r qu a d r i l a te r a l muscl e l ies u n de r the p o ste r i o r p a r t o f th e p r ecedi n g

,

m uscle a n d exte n ds o ve r the hip j o i n t f r o m th e supe r i o r ischi a ti c spi ne t o th e

, ,

a n te r i o r p a r t o f th e g r e a t t r o ch a n te r (Fig

Or i g i n —
.

The supe r i or is ch i a ti c sp i n e a n d th e a dj a ce n t p a r t o f the sh a ft o f th e

.

Il l l l l l l
.

I m a ti on — The edge o f the a n te r i or p a r t o r c o n ve xity of the t r o ch a nte r m a j o r

o f th e fe m u r

A cti on —T o a bd uct the th igh a n d t o r o t a te it i n w a r d

.

S tru ctu r e —Th e m us cle is sh o r t a nd th i c k a n d c o n t a i n s n ume r o us te n di n o us

. .

i n te r se cti o n s The fib e rs are di r e cted a lm o st t ran sve rsely o utw ar d o ve r the c a psul e
.

o f the hip j o i n t a n d c o n ve r ge a t th e c o n v exi ty o f th e t r o ch a n te r

Rel a ti on a —S u p e r fic i a l l y th e gl uteu s m ed ius and b r a n ch es o f the glute a l vessels

.

a n d n e r ves ; deeply th e sh a ft of th e i li u m the h i p j o i n t an d the r e ctus fem o r is

, , ,

a n d c apsul a r is .

B l ood s u pp l y G lute a l a r te r y
- -

N erve su pp l y —A n te r i o r glute a l n e r ve
. .

bi ceps s p a r a me r o b i ceps ) —T h is l a rge muscle li es

.

5 B i c eps f e m ori s (G lute o—

.

-
. .

b eh i n d a n d i n p a r t up o n th e supe r fi ci a l a n d m i ddle glutei I t exte n ds i n a cu rved .

di r ecti o n f r o m the s a c r a l an d c o ccyge a l spi n es t o the o ute r su r f a ce o f the st i fle

a nd leg (Figs 1 7 8 2 00 2 01
.

Th e d o r s a l s a c r o—
, , ,

Or i gi n
-
. i li a c li g am e n t th e gl ute a l and c o ccyge a l f a sci a , ,

a n d the i n te r m uscul ar septu m b etwee n th is muscle a n d the se m ite n di n o sus ; (2 )

the tub e r isch i i
I ns er ti on —(l ) A tube r cle o n th e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce o f the femu r n e a r the ex
.

te r na l t ro ch an te r ; (2 ) the a n te r i or s u r f a ce a n d exte r n a l st r a i ght lig am e n t of the

p atell a ; (3 ) the tibi a l c r est ; (4 ) the a n te r i o r a nd i nte rn a l su r f a ce of the tube r
c a l cis
A cti on —The a cti o n is s om ewh a t c om plex bec a use th e m uscle is c o m p o sed
.

o f th r ee p or ti o n s h as seve r a l p o i n ts o f i n se r ti o n a n d a cts o n a l l th e j o i n ts of th e
, ,

l i mb except th o se o f the d igit The ge n e r a l a cti on is to exte n d th e l imb as i n p ro

.
,

pelli n g the b o dy r e a r i n g o r k i cki n g a n d t o a bdu ct it The a n te r i o r p art by its

, ,
.
,

a tt a ch m e n t to the p o ste r i o r s u r f a ce o f the fe m u r a n d to the p a tell a w o u ld exte n d ,

the sti fle a nd hip j o i n ts and a bdu ct the limb The m iddle p a r t bei n g i n se r ted .
,

chiefly o n the tibi a l c r est a n d t he exte r n a l st r a i ght li g a me n t w o u ld exte n d the ,

h ip a nd with the se m ite n di no sus fl ex the sti fle The p oste r i or p a r t by vi r tue

, , ,
.
,

o f its a tt a ch m e n t to the tube r c a l cis a ssists i n exte n di n g th e h o ck

S tru c tu r a —The m uscle h as t w o he a ds o f o r i gi n :2 The l o n g o r ve r teb ra l he a d

.
,

a r ises ch iefly f r o m the d o r s a l a n d l a te r a l s a c r o il i a c li g a m e n ts the c o ccyge a l f a sci a -

, ,

B y s o m e a na t o m i s t s t h e p o r ti o n i n s er t e d i n t o th e c r es t i s t e rm ed th e g l u t eu s a c c es s o r i u s ,
1

b u t Lesb r e co ns i d ers t h i s t h e d ee p g l u t e u s , h o mo l o g ou s w i t h th e g l u t eu s m i n i m u s o f m a n Th e .

p or ti o n i nser ted i n to th e t ro c h a n t er i c r i d ge a pp a ren tl y r e p res en t s t h e p i r i f o r m i s o f ma n .

2
A pp a re n tl y t h e m u sc l e re p res e n t s th e b i c e p s , t og e t h er w i t h p a r t o f th e g l u t eu s s u p er
fic i a l i s o f m a n Hen ce th e n a mes g l u t eo - b i c e p s a nd p a ra mero-b i c e p s h a v e b een su gges t ed
. .
 THE E XT E R N A L M U SC L E S or TH E HI P AND T H I GH 2 79

a nd the i n te rmuscu l a r sept u m The r e is o fte n a l a r ge b ur s a betwee n th is he a d a nd

.

the t r o ch a n te r m aj or The sh o r t o r isch i a ti c h e a d a r ises by a st r on g te n d o n f ro m

.

the ve nt ra l spi n e on the t ube r isch i i Th ey u n ite a n d a sh o r t t e n d on is det a c hed .

,

f r o m the deep f a ce o f the m us cle to b e i n se r ted i n t o the p o ste r i o r su r fa ce o f the

,

S a cro-coccyge us s u p er i or

Gl u tea l f a sc i a

E xter na l a ngl e o f i l iu m

S u p erfici a l gl u teu s

S ol eus
Ga s tr oc n emw s te nd on

Deep fl exor
L a ter a l ex ten s or

S u p erfici a l fl ex or te nd on

Deep fl ex or tend on

S u p erfici a l fiexor tend on

S u s p ens or y l i ga men t

F ro . 1 99 .
—M U S C L E 3 o r P E L V I C L I M B o r H OR S E P o s r s no E X T E R NAL l i E w ,
- 7
.

1 7 , P ositi n
o of tu b er is c h ii ; o" su pe r fi c i a l g l u t e us : q q
'
q
” b i c eps fe m o ri s r s e m ite n d i n os us 1
: ; s a c r o co cc y g eus

B i
, . . . , ,

l t e ali ;
a r s v, se mi m e m b ra n os us ; w , g ra c ili s; f , g as t r oc ne m i us .
(A ft er E ll e nb e r g e r- au m . A t na . f h
° u ns tl e r . )

femu r n e ar the th i r d t r o ch an te r (Fi g a b ur s a bei n g i n te r p o sed b etwee n t e

.

h
te n d on a n d th e b on e The m uscl e the n d ivi des i n t o th r ee p o rti on s wh i ch te r i
.

n a te o n a st ron g a p o n eu r o sis o ve r the j u n cti o n o f the thi gh a n d l eg Th e an te r i o r .

,
m
b ran ch is d i r ected t o w a r d the p a tell a the midd le t o w ar d the tib i a l c rest wh i le the
, ,
2 80 FA s c rzE A N D M U SC LE S or THE H O R SE

p oste r i o r o ne a ssists i n t h e f o r m a ti o n o f th e p o st e r i o r c o n t o u r o f the limb Th e .

a p o n eu ro sis ble n ds wi th the deep l a ye r o f th e f a sci a c r u r is a s a l r e a dy desc r ibed , .

A sy n o vi a l b ur s a o ccu r s u n de r th e p a tell a r i n se r ti o n .

Rel a ti ons — S u per fic i a l l y the ski n a n d f a sci a ; deepl y th e s a c ro i l i a c a n d s a c ro

.
, ,
-

sci a ti c li ga m e n ts the c o ccyge a l f a s ci a the fe m u r th e o btu r a t or ge m ellus qu a d r a tus

, , , , ,

fe mo r is a dd uct o r se m i m e m b ra n osus v a stus exte r n us a nd g a st r o c n e m i us muscles

, , , , ,

b ra n ch es o f the l a te ra l s a c r a l glute a l obtu r a t or fe m o r a l an d deep fe m or a l vessels

, , , ,

the gre a t sci a t i c ti bi a l pe r on e a l a n d p o ste r i o r glute a l n e r ves ; i n f r on t th e supe r

, , , ,

fic i a l a n d m iddle glutei ; behi n d a n d i n te rn a lly the se m i te n di n o sus

s u pp l y —G l ute a l
,

B l ood—
.

o btu r a t o r a n d fe m o r e p o plit e a l a r te r ies -

N erve s u pp l y —P o ste r i o r glu te a l an d gr e a t sci a ti c n e r ves

, ,
. .

6 S em it en d i no s u s (B i ceps r o t a t or tibi a li s ) —Th is is a l o n g muscle wh i ch

. .

. .

exte nds fr o m the fi rst t w o c o c cyge a l ve r teb ra to t h e p ro xim a l t h i r d o f the i nn e r

su rf a ce o f th e tibi a I t lies a t fi r st beh i n d th e b i ceps the n p a sses d ow n w ard on th e
.
,
'
b a ck o f the thi gh b etw e e n t h a t m uscle a n d th e semim em b ran o sus (Fi gs 1 78 1 79
, .
, ,

I t h as t w o he a ds o f o r i gi n .

Or i gi n Th e t ra n sve r se p r o cesses o f t he fi rst an d sec o n d c o ccyge a l v er

teb r a th e c o c cyge a l f a sci a an d the i n te r m uscu l ar septum b etwee n th is mus cle and
, ,

the bi ceps fe m o r is ; (2 ) th e ve n t r a l su r f a ce of t h e tube r i sch i i .

I ns er ti on The tibi a l c r est ; (2 ) th e c r u r a l f as ci a a n d th e tube r c a lci s

A c ti on —T o fl ex th e stifle a n d r o t a te the l eg i n w ar d ; a ls o to exte n d the h ip
. .

a nd h o ck j o i n ts a cti n g with th e b i ceps a n d se m imemb r an o sus i n p r o pulsi o n o f the

,

t r u nk r e a r i n g etc
S tr u ctu re —Th e l o n g o r ve r teb r a l h e a d is s m a l l a t i ts o r i gi n bu t b ec o mes l a r ge r
, .
,

.
,

by th e a ccessi o n o f fibe r s a r isi n g on th e i n te r muscu l ar septum B el o w th e t ube r .

i schi i it i s j o i n ed b y th e sh or t h e a d whi ch a r ises p a r tly b y fl esh y fibe r s p ar tly by a , ,

c omm o n te n d o n with the bi ceps Th e m uscle the n p a sses d o wn w a r d on the b a ck .

o f th e th i gh a n d te r m i n a tes o n a wi de te n d o n on th e i nn e r su r f a ce of th e p r o xi m a l
,

thi r d of the leg A disti n ct b a n d p a sses f o r w ar d t o b e i n se r ted on th e tib i a l c r est

.

(a b ur s a lyi n g betwee n th e te n d o n a nd th e tib i a ) p ar t fuses with th e f a sci a of the ,

l eg wh ile the r em a i n de r j o i n s th e b i ceps te n d o n a n d c o n cu rs i n th e form a ti on o f th e

,

te n di n o us b a n d wh i ch as b ef o r e desc r ib ed te r mi n a tes o n the tu be r c a lcis (Fig

, , ,
.

A b ur s a m a y o ccu r u n de r th e l o n g h e a d wh e r e it p a sses o ve r th e tube r isch i i

R el a ti o ns —E xte r n a lly t h e s k i n a n d f a sci a th e bi ceps a nd th e i n te rn a l he a d
.

.
, , ,

o f th e g a st r o c n em ius ; i n te r n a lly th e c o ccyge a l f a sci a the s a c r o sci a ti c lig a m e n t

, ,
-
,

the se m imemb ra no sus ; a n te r i o r l y th e b i ceps fe m o r is b r a n ches o f the fem o ra l , ,

a r te r y a n d the g r e a t s ci a t i c n e r ve

B l ood— s u p p l y —P o ste r i o r gl ute a l

, .

o b tu r a t o r a n d fe m ore p o plite a l a r te r ies -

Ner ve s u pp l y —P o ste r i o r gl ute a l a n d g r e a t sci a ti c n e r ves

.
, ,

—Th is m uscle l ies on th e i nn e r

. .

7 S e mi m e mb r an o s u s l (Fi gs 1 79 1 86 1 99
. .
, , ,

su r f a ce o f th e p r ecedi n g m uscle a n d the g a st r o c n e m i us a nd h as tw o h e a ds o f o r i gi n ,

.

Ori gi n Th e p o ste r i o r b o r de r of th e s a c r o s ci a ti c li gam e n t ; (2 ) th e ve n t ra l -

su r f a ce o f th e tub e r isch i i
I nser ti on —The i n te rn a l epi c o n dyle o f the fe m u r beh i n d th e l a te ra l lig a m e n t
.

A c ti o n —T o exte n d th e h ip j o i n t a n d t o a ddu ct the l i m b

. .
,

S tr u ctu r e —Th e l o n g h e a d sm a l l a n d p o i n ted a b o ve exte n ds t o w ar d th e r oo t

.

o f th e t a i l fusi n g wi th th e s a c r o—
, ,

, sci a ti c li g a m e n t P a ssi n g d ow n w ar d i t b ec omes .

,

l ar ge r an d c o ve r s i n p ar t th e p o ste r i o r a spe ct o f th e t ube r ischi i A b ur s a m ay b e .

f o u nd he r e B el o w th is i t j o i n s the sh or t h e a d wh i ch i s mu ch l a r ge r The l a rge

.
,
.

bell y so f o r m ed p a sses d o w n w a r d a nd fo r w a r d c o ve r ed i n g r e a t p a r t by th e g ra ci lis , ,

a n d t e r m i n a tes o n a sh o r t fl a t te n d o n o f i n se r t i o n a t th e d ist a l e n d o f th e femu r

R el a ti on s —Th e uppe r p a r t o f the m uscl e a ssists i n f o r m i n g th e l a te r a l b o u n

.
,

1
T h i s m u s c l e w a s i n co r r e c tl y d es i g n a t ed th e a d d u c t o r m a g nu s b y P e r c i v a l l a nd S t r a n g e
w ays . I ts n a me , h o w e v er , i s n o t a t a l l d escr i p ti v e o f i t s s t r u c t u r e i n th e d o mes ti c a t ed a ni ma l s .
282 FA s a A N D M U SC L E S OF THE H OR S E

b r a n osu s se m i te n di nosus a n d a t the m iddle o f th e fe m u r th e fem o r a l vessels ;

a nd , , ,

a n te r i o r ly the s a r t o r i us
,
I n the uppe r th i r d o f the thi gh the s a r t or i us a n d gr a ci lis
.

a r e sep a r a ted by a t r i a n gul a r i n te r v a l (fe m o ra l tr i a n gle ) i n whi ch lie the deep ,

i n gui n a l ly m ph gl ands a nd the fe m o ra l vessels

B l ood su ppl y —
.

-
Fe i n or a l a n d deep fe m o r a l a r te r ies
N er ve s u pp l y —Obtu r a t o r a n d s a phe n o us n e r ves
. .

- .
.

S E C O N D LA YE R
1 P e cti ne u s (Fi gs 1 86, 4 51 , 4 56) — Th is m uscle is fusif o r m a n d exte n ds f r om
. .

the a nte r i o r b o r de r of the pub is to the middle o f the i nn e r b o r de r o f the fe m u r

Or i gi n —The p r epubi c te n d on , th e pu h o- fe m o r a l li g a me n t , a n d the a n te r i or
.

b or de r of
the pubis
I n ser ti on —Th e m iddle o f the i n te r n a l b o r de r of the fe m u r n e a r the n ut r ie n t
.

.
,

fo r am e n
A cti on —T o a dd u ct the limb a n d fl ex the h ip j o i n t
.

S tr u ctu r e — The belly is cyli n d r i c a l a n d c o n t a i n s l ittle fib ro us tissue

. I ts .

o r i gi n is pe r f o ra ted by the p u b o fe m o r a l li ga m e n t a nd is thus divided i n t o tw o

-
,

u n equ a l p ar ts The l ar ge uppe r p a r t a r ises m a i n ly f r om th e p r epubi c te n d on

—on ly a ve r y sm a ll p a r t ga i n i n g d i r ect a tt a chme n t t o th e pub is Th e s m a l l l o we r
.

Rel a ti on s .
—
p art d o es n ot r e a ch the b on e Th e i nse r ti on is p o i n ted a n d te n di n o us
.

S u p er fic i a l l y the gra ci lis ; deeply the fe m u r th e v a stus i n te r n us

, , ,
.

th e te r mi na l te nd o n o f th e ps o a s m aj o r a n d i li a cus a nd the deep fem ora l a r te ry ; ,

a n te r i o r ly the s a r t o r i us
, the fe m o ra l vessels the s a ph e no us n e r ve an d th e deep
, , ,

i n gui n a l ly m ph gl an ds ; p oste r i o r ly the a ddu ct or o btu ra t or exte rn us a nd qu ad ra

, , ,

tus fe m or is a nd the o btu r a t o r n e rve (an te r i or d ivisi on )

B l ood su pp l y —Fe m o r a l a n d d eep fe m or a l a r te r i es
, .

N er ve s u ppl y —Fem o ra l a n d o btu r a t o r n e r ves

. .

-
. .

Th e f emora l ca n a l i s ex p o s ed i n t h e d i ss e c ti o n o f th e p r ec ed i n g m u s c l es (F i g s 200 , .

I t i s b ou n d ed a n t e r i o r l y b y t h e s a r t o r i u s , p os t er i or l y by t h e p e c ti n eu s , a n d e x t er na l l y b y t h e
i li acu s a nd v a s t u s i n ter n u s I ts i n t er n a l w a l l i s f or med b y t h e f emo r a l f a s c i a a n d th e g ra c i li s
. .

I ts u pp er o r a bd o m i n a l o p en i n g (L a c u n a v a s o r u m ) l i es beh i nd a n d a li ttl e i n t ern a l to t h e i n t er

n a l i n g u i n a l r i n g a n d i s b ou nd ed a n t er i o r l y b y t h e i ng u i n a l li g a men t , p os t er i o r l y b y t h e a n t e
r i o r b o rd e r o f t h e p u b i s , a n d ex t er n a l l y b y t h e t e n d o n o f t h e T h e c a n a l t er m i
psoas m i n o r .

n a t es b e l o w a t t h e i ns er ti o n o f t h e p ec ti n eu s I t c o n t a i ns t h e d ee p i ng ui na l l y m p h g l a n d s , th e
.

f emo ra l a r tery a nd v ei n , a nd th e s a p h eno u s n er v e .

1
2 . Addu cto r
(Fi gs 1 7 9 1 86 4 51 ) (G r e a t a n d sm a l l a dd u ct o r s o f the thigh )
.
, , .

This fleshy p r is m a ti c mus cl e l i es b eh i n d th e pe cti n eus a nd v a stus i n te rn us I t

, .

exte n ds d o w nw a r d a n d f o r w a r d f r o m th e ve n t ra l su r f a ce o f the pelvis to the i n te r na l

c o ndyle o f the fe m u r .

Or i gi n The ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f th e pubi s an d ischi um a n d th e te nd o n o f the

-

gr a ci lis .

I n s er ti on The p o ste r i o r su r f a ce o f the fe m u r f r om th e l evel of th e exte rna l

.

t r o ch a n te r t o the g r oo ve fo r th e fem o ra l vessels ; (2 ) th e i n te rna l epi c o n dyle o f the

fe m u r a n d the i n te r na l l a te ra l li g am e n t o f th e stifle j o i n t
A cti on —T o a ddu ct th e l i m b an d assist i n exte n d i n g the hip j o i n t
.

I t ma y .

a ls o ro t a te the fe m u r o utw a r d

S tru ctu r e —I t i s a l m o st e n ti r ely flesh y a nd is c o m p o sed o f p a ra llel bu n dles

.

.
,

u n ited ra the r l o osely I t is usu a lly p ossib le t o sep a r a te f r o m th e p r i n cip a l m a ss a

.

s m a ll a n te r i o r sh o r t p o r ti o n 2 whi ch is i n se r ted i n t o th e fe m u r beh i n d the pe cti neus

,
.

3
The p i cip l m ss is pe r f ora ted bel o w i ts middle by the fem o r a l vessels a n d is
r n a a ,

1 I t h a s b een c u s to ma r y to d es c r i b e tw o a dd u c t o r s — parv u s
a or b re v i s , a nd a l o ng u s or
ma g nu s T h i s d i v i s i o n i s l a rg e l y a r ti fi c i a l , a n d h as b een
.
a b a nd o ned i n th e n e w no me n c l a tu r%
a r e t u r n to t h e V i ew s Of B o u r g e l a t a n d G i ra r d .

2
Th i s h a s bee n t e r me d b y v a r i o u s a u t h o r s th e a d d u c or t p a rv u s or b r e vi s .

3
T er med b y v a r i o u s a u t h o rs t h e a d d u c t o r ma g n u s or l o ng u s .
 THE I N ER N A L M U SC L E S
T or TH E TH IG H 2 83

thus di vided i n t o t w o b r a n ches Th e o ute r b ra n ch is i nse r ted i n t o the b a ck o f the

.

fe m u r with the sh o rt p or ti o n wh ile the i nn e r b ra n ch is a tt a ch ed to the i nt e rn a l

,

epi c on dyle a nd l a te r a l li g a m e n t The r e is o fte n a supe r fici a l sl ip whi ch r e a ches

.

the i n te rna l st ra ight p a tell a r l iga me n t So m e fibe rs p a ss u n de r the l a te ra l liga m e n t .

a nd en d o n the te n d o n o f the se m i m emb ra no sus

Rel a ti on s —I n te rna ll y the gra ci lis a n d b ra n ches o f the fem o r a l a r te ry a nd o f

.

, ,

the o b tu r a t or n e r ve ; exte rn a lly the fe m u r the o btu r a t o r exte r n us qu a d r a tus

, , ,

fem o r is bi ceps fem or is a nd g a st ro c nemi us an d the fe m or a l d eep fe m o r a l a n d

, , , , ,

o btu r a t o r a r te r i es ; a n te r i o r ly the pe cti n eus v a stus i n te r n us a n d a l a r ge b r a n ch

, , ,

o f the o btu r a t o r n e r ve ; p o ste r i or ly th e se m i m e m b r an osu s a nd th e gr e a t sci a ti c

,

n e r ve .

B l ood su ppl y Fe m o r a l d eep fe m o r a l an d o btu r a t or arte r ies

- -

N er ve-su pp l y —
.
, , .

Obtu r a t o r n e r ve
3 S emi me m b rano s u s —D esc r ibed on p 280
. .
,

. . . .

T H I R D L A YE R
1 .
Q u ad ra
tu s f e m or i s (I sch i o -fem o r lis
a —
) Th i s i s a n arr o w fl at muscle .
, ,

wh i ch l ies u n de r c o ve r of th e uppe r p ar t of the a ddu ct o r (Figs 4 55

Ori gi n —The ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f the ischi u m j ust i n f r on t o f the s emi m emb ra no
.
,

I nser ti on .
—An
o bl i que l i n e on th e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce o f the fe m u r n e ar th e ,

l o we r p ar t of th e i n te r n a l t ro ch an te r
—
.

A cti on T o ext en d t he h i p j o i n t and to a ddu ct the thi gh a n d r o t a te it ou t

.
,

w ar d
S tru ctu r e —
.

I t is c o mp o sed o f p a r a llel b un dles o f fibe r s d i r ected d o wn w ar d

.
,

f o r w a r d a n d o utw ar d
Rel a ti on s —I n te r n a lly the a ddu ct o r se m i m emb r a n o sus a n d the o btu ra t or
.
,

, ,
.
,

vessels ; ext e rna lly th e o b tu r a t or exte r n us a n d bi ceps fem o r is the deep fe mo r a l

, ,

a r te r y a n d the gr e a t s ci a ti c n e r ve

B l ood -s u pp l y —D eep fe m o r a l a n d o b tu ra t o r a r te r ies

.
,

N erve— —
. .

su pp l y G r e at s ci a ti c n e r ve
2 Ob tur ator E xtern u s (Fi g 4 56) —This i s a p y r am id a l muscle wh i ch exte n ds
. .

. .

a c ro ss th e b a ck o f th e h ip j o i n t f r o m th e o btu r a t or f o r am e n t o the t r o ch a n te r i c

f oss a
Ori gi n —The ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f th e p ub is a n d isch i u m a n d th e m a r gi n o f th e
.

o btu r a t o r f ora me n
I nser ti on —
.

The t r o ch a n te r i c f o ss a
A cti on —T o a dd u ct th e thi gh a n d t o ro t a te i t o utw ar d
. .

S tr u c tu re —I t is a lm o st e n ti r ely fl esh y the muscle bu n dles bei n g r a the r l o o sel y

.
.

-
.
,

c onn ected Th e i n se r ti o n is p o i n ted fl a tte n ed a n d p a r tly te n di n o us Th e o r igi n

.
, ,
.

is pe r f o r a ted by th e o bt u r a t o r vessels a n d n e r ve .

R el a ti on s —I n te r n a ll y th e a ddu ct or an d qu a d r a tus fem o r is a n d the deep

,

fem o r a l vessels ; exte rna lly the ge m ellus the te n d o n of the o btu r a t or i n te r n us the
‘

, ,
,

b i ceps fe m or is a n d the gr e a t s ci a ti c n e r ve ; a n te r i or l y the h ip j o i n t the pecti n eus

, , , ,

a nd the exte r n a l p udi c vei n

B l ood s u pp l y —D eep fem o ra l a n d o btu r a t or a rte ries

.

su pp l y —
.

N er ve—
.

Obtu r a t or n e r ve
—This ar ises by t w o he ads withi n the pelvi c
. .

3 Ob tu r a tor in te rn u s (Fi g
. .

c av ity th e te n d o n eme r g i n g th ro u gh th e lesse r sci a ti c f o ra m e n

,
.

Ori gi n The pelvi c su r f a ce of th e pubis an d ischiu m a ro u n d the o btu r at o r

f o ra m e n ; (2 ) th e pel v i c su r f a ce o f the sh a ft o f th e il iu m an d th e wi n g o f the s a c r u m .

I n s er ti on —Th e t r o ch a nte r i c f o ss a
A cti on —T o ro t a te the femu r o utw a r d
. .

. .
284 F A S C I JE A ND M U SCLE S OF TH E H O R SE

S tr u ctu r e —Th e ischi o- pub i c he a d lies o n the pelvi c fl oo r a n d c o ve r s the Oh

t u r a to r f o r a m e n I t is thi n a nd fa n sh a ped
. The i li a c h e a d exte n ds a l on g th e — .
'

l a te r a l w a ll of the pelvi s , a n d is pe nn a te , with a ce n t r a l te n d on th r o u gh o ut B o th .

te r mi n a te o n a fl a t te n d o n whi ch p a sses o utw a r d th r o u gh th e l esse r sci a ti c fo r a

m en t o be i n se r ted i n t o the t r o ch a n te r i c f o ss a . A sy n o vi a l b ur s a f a ci lit a tes th e
p l a y o f th e te n d on o ve r the exte r n a l b o r de r o f the i s c hi u m l
R el a ti ona —The pelvi c su r f a ce is c o ve r ed by the pelvi c f a sci a a n d the p e r it o
.

n eum . The o btu r a t or vessels a n d n e r ve li e betwee n t h e t w o h e a ds an d th e i n tern a l ,

p udi c vessels an d n e r ve lie a l o n g th e d o r s a l edge of the il i a c h e a d .

B l ood s u pp l y Ob tu r a t o r an d i n te rna l p udi c a r te r i es

- -

N er ve— —G r e a t sci a t i c n e r ve
. .

s u pp l y
—This is a th i n t r i an gu l ar m uscle wh i ch exten d s
. .

4 G e m e ll u s 2 (Fig
. .
, ,

f ro m the ext e rna l b or de r Of th e is ch i u m to the t r o ch an te r i c fo ss a

Ori gi n —
.

The exte r n a l b o r de r o f th e i sch iu m n e a r th e ischi a ti c spi n e

I nser ti on —
. .

Th e t r o ch a n te r i c f oss a
r

A c ti on —T O r o t a te th e fe m u r o utw a r d
.

S tru ctu r e —fl es h y s o m e fi be r s bei n g i nse r ted i n t o the te n d on o f the o btu r a t o r

. .

i n te r n us
R el a ti on s —D o r s a ll y th e te n d on Of the o btu r a t or i n te r n us a n d the gl uteus
.

,
.

p ro fu n dus ; ve nt ra ll y th e o btu r a t o r exte r n us

B l ood s u ppl y —Obt u r a t or a r te r y
.
,
-

N erve s u pp l y —
.

-
S ci a ti c n e r ve
. .

II I . ANTE RI OR M USCLES OF THE THI GH

This gr o up c o n sists of th e s ar t o r i us qu a d r i ceps fem or is a n d c a psul ar is

1 S ar tori u s —Th is is desc r ibed on p 28 1
.
, ,

2 Q u a d ri ce ps f e m ori s (Figs 1 79 1 86 2 00) (C r u r a l t r i ceps ) —Th is c on

. . .

. . .
, ,

s ti tu t es the l ar ge mus cul a r m a ss wh i ch c o ve r s th e f r o n t a n d sides o f the femu r It .

h a s f o u r he a ds o n e o f wh i ch th e r ect us a r ises f rom th e il iu m ; the o th e r th r ee

, , ,

a r ise f r o m th e femu r A l l a r e i n se r ted i n t o the p a tel l a

—
. .

()1 R ec tu s f e m o ri s Th is is fusif or m a n d r o u n ded I t ar ises by tw o te nd ons

Ori gi n —T w o dep r essi o n s o n the sh a ft o f th e i li u m a b o ve a n d i n f r on t o f th e
. .

a cet ab ul um

I nser ti on —The b as e a n d a n te r i o r su r f a ce o f th e p a tell a

.

A c ti on —
. .

T O exte n d the sti fl e j o i n t a n d t o fl ex the hi p j o i n t

S tr u ctu re —I t h a s tw o sh o r t st r o n g te n d o n s o f o r i gi n ; b e n e a th the o ute r one
. .

i s a b u r s a The b el l y i s r o u n ded a nd r ests i n a gr oo ve f o r med by th e o th e r p or ti o n s

.

o f the qu a d r i ceps I ts sides a re c o ve r ed by a st r o n g te n di n o us l a ye r wh i ch fu r

.

'

n ishes i n se r ti o n to fibe r s of th e v a sti Th e te n d on of i n se r ti o n is f o rm ed b y th e

.

fusi o n o f these te n di n o us l a ye r s on the l o we r p ar t Of th e muscl e Th e l o we r p or ti on .

Of the muscle is pe nn a te the fib e r s o n eith e r side c on ve r gi n g on the te n d o n a t a n

,

a cute a n gl e

R el a ti o ns —I n te r na ll y th e i l i a cus s a r t o r ius a n d v a stus i n te rn us ; exte r n a lly

.

.
, , , ,

the te n s o r f a sci a: l a t ae glutei a n d v a stus exte r n us ; p o ste r i o r ly the h ip j o i n t a n d

, , ,

the v a stus i n te r m edi us ; a nte r i o r ly the f a sci a l a t a an d the ski n Th e a n te r i or ,

.

1
Th e i li a c h e a d i s d es c ri b ed b y so m e a u t h o rs as a s e p a ra t e mu s c l e , a n d t e r m ed th e p y r i
f o r m i s T hi s d o es n o t s ee m d es i ra b l e , es p e c i a l l y s i n c e i t i s a t l ea s t p ro b a b l e t h a t th e h o mo
.

l o g u e o f th e p y r i f o r m i s o f ma n i s t h a t po r ti on o f th e m i d d l e g l u t e u s w hi c h i s i ns er t ed i n t o t h e
b ac k o f t h e t ro c h a n t e r i c r i d g e .

2
Th e na m e i s b as ed o n t h e a rr a n g em en t i n m a n , i n w h o m th e mu s c l e co ns i s t s o f t w o
f as c i c u li f o r m i n g a g ro o v e b e t w een t h e m fo r t h e t e nd o n o f th e o b t u r a t or i n te r n u s I n th e h o rs e .

i t i s u n d i v i d ed , a n d i s g roo v ed fo r t h e o b t ur a t o r t en d o n , so t h a t a t fi r s t s i g h t i t a pp ea rs to b e
d ou ble . T h e g e me ll u s m a y b e r eg a rd ed as t h e ex t r a p e l v i c h e a d o f th e o b t u r a t o r i n t er n us
(G eg e n b a u r) .
2 86 FA S C U E A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H O R SE

R el a ti ons — E xte rn a ll y , the f a sci a l a t a a n d ski n , te n s o r f a sci a l a t a , supe r fi ci a l

gl uteus , a n d bi ceps fe m o r is ; i nte rn a lly , the fe m u r a nd fem or O p a tell ar j o i n t c apsule , —
th e r ectu s fe m or is , v a stu s i n te r m edi us , a n d th e i li a c o fe m or a l a r te r y —
—I li a c o —
.

B l ood — su p p l y fe m or a l a r te r y
. .

N erve s u pp l y — Fe m o r a l n e r ve
-

—
. .

()
3 V a st u s i n t e rn u s (s medi a lis ) This is sm a lle r th an th e p r e cedi n g muscle
. .

a n d l ies i n a si m i l a r p o siti on o n the i n n e r side of the th igh .

Or i gi n — Th e i n te r n a l su rf a ce Of the fe m u r , f r o m the n eck t o the d ist a l th i r d .

I nser ti on The uppe r p ar t of the i n n e r b o r de r of the p a tell a an d its c arti

-
.

l a ge ; (2 ) the te n d on Of th e r e ctus fe m or is .

A c ti on — T o exte n d th e sti fle j o i n t
S tr u ctu r e —Th is i s ve r y si m i l a r t o th a t o f th e v a stus exte r n us
. .

I t is , h ow .

eve r , m or e diffi cult t o sep ara te f r o m th e i n te rm ed i us , b ec a use m an y fibe r s o f th e

l atte r ar ise on th e te n di no us sheet wh i ch c o ve r s th e c on t a ct su r f a ce o f the i nn e r
v as tus I ts i n se r ti on i n t o the p a tell a is ch i efl y by me an s of a b r o a d st ro n g ten d on
—
.
.

F rom th e deep f a ce fleshy fib e r s a re i n se r ted a ls o i n t o th e fem or O p a tel l ar c a psul e .

Rel a ti on s — I n te r n a lly , th e ski n an d f a sci a l a t a , the i li a cus , s a r t o r ius , pecti n eus ,

.

a n d a ddu ct o r , the fem o r a l vessels a n d s a ph e n o us n e r ve ; exte rn a lly , the femu r ,

fem or O p a tel l ar j o i n t c a psul e , r ectus fem o r is , a n d v a stus i n te r medi us , th e an te r i o r
-

fem or a l a r te r y , a n d b ra n ch es of the fem o r a l n e r ve .

B l ood-s u pp l y — Fe m or a l a n d an te r i o r fe m o r a l a r te r ies
N er ve s u pp l y —Fe m o r a l n e r ve
. .

—
. .

()4 V a stu s i n t er m e d iu s (C r u r eu s ) Th is muscl e i s deep ly situ ated o n th e .

an te r i o r f a ce o f the femu r , a n d is e n ti r el y c o ve r ed b y th e p r ecedi n g h e a ds .

Or i gi n — (l ) Th e an t e r i or a n d exte r n a l su r f a ces of th e fem u r , f r o m the p r o xim a l

t o the dist a l f o u r th ; (2 ) th e a p on eu r o sis o f the v a stus i n te rn u s .

I nser ti on Th e b a se Of th e p a tel l a ; (2 ) the fem oro-p a tel l a r j o i n t c a psule

. .

A c ti on T o exte n d th e sti fle j o i n t ; (2 ) t o te n se (r a ise ) the femo r O p a tel l a r -

c a psule du r i n g exte n si o n of the j o i n t

S tru c tu r e —The muscle is usu a lly qu ite d i ffi cul t t o is o l a te f r o m th e o the r v a sti ,
.

s o th a t m a n y si n ce G un the r h a ve de cl ar ed i t an a r tef a ct 1
I t is e nti r ely fl eshy , a n d .

i s s m a l l a t its p r oxim a l end , b ut wh e n t r a ced d o wn w a r d i n c r e a ses i n bul k by th e

a ccessi o n o f fib e r s a r isi n g o n th e femu r a n d th e te n di n o us c o ve r i n g of th e v a stus

i nte r n us The te r mi n a l p a r t i s i n ti m a tely a dhe r e n t t o the femor O p a t ell ar j o i n t

.
—
c apsule , whe r e th e l a tte r bul ges upw ar d a b o ve th e level Of the p a tel l a
R el a ti on e —I n te r n a lly , th e v a stus i n te r n us ; exte r n a lly , the v a stus exte r n us ;
.

a n te r i o r ly , th e r ectus ; p o ste r i o r l y , th e fe m u r a n d fe mo r o - p a tell a r c a psule

—
s u p p l y —I li a c o fem o r a l a n d a n te r i o r fe m o r a l a r te r i es
.

B l ood — . .

N er ve-s u pp l y — Fe m o r a l n e r ve . .

The t i g h t l i g a men t s
s ra of th e p a t e l l a a r e to b e r eg a r d ed as t en d o ns o f th e q u a d r i c e p s w hi ch
o mm u n i c a te t h e a c ti o n o f th e l a tt er t o th e ti b i a t h e p a t e l l a b ei ng i n t er c a l a t ed as a s es a mo i d
g
,

o ne .

3 .
(Cap su l ar i s
Fi g 1 54 )( R ectus p a r vus —
) This is a s m a l l m uscle (s c a r cely as
. .

l ar ge as on e s fi n ge r) wh i ch a r ises o n the ili u m i mm ed i a tely a b o ve th e o ute r te n d o n

’

o f th e r e ctus fe m o r is an d p a sses d o w n b etwee n th e v a st us i n te r n us a n d exte r n us t o

,

b e i n se r ted i n t o th e a n te r i or su r f a ce o f the fe m u r I t p a sses o ve r the f r on t of th e .

h ip j o i n t t o the c a psule of wh i ch s om e fibe r s a r e a tt a ched S o m etimes the m us cl e

,
.

h a s t w o disti n ct he a ds i n whi ch c a se the a dditi o n a l he a d a r ises betwee n th e t w o

,

te nd on s o f o r i gi n of th e r ectus fem or is I ts a cti o n m ay be to r a ise the c a psule .

du r i n g fl exi on o f the j o i n t .

1
Wh i l e i t t ru e th a t th e s ep ar a ti o n of th e i n t er med i u s i s p ro b a b l y n ev er en ti re l y a n a t u ra l
is
on
e i n th e h or s e i t v a r i es i n i nd i v i d u a l ca s es a n d i s u s u a ll y c l ea r o n c ross s e c ti o ns I n s om e -
.
, ,

s u b j e c t s i t i s p o s s i b l e to s e p a ra t e a no t h e r s li p w h i c h ma y r e p r es en t t h e a r t i cu l a r i s g en u Of m a n .
 T HE M U SC L E S OF T HE LE G A N D F OOT 287

I V THE MU SCL E S OF THE LE G AN D

. F OOT
Th e muscles o f this r egi on c o ve r a lm o st a l l o f the tibi a ex cept i ts i n te r n a l f a ce ,

wh i ch is l ar gely sub cut an e o us As i n the f or e ar m the muscles f a l l i n t o tw o gr o ups ,

.
,

P a te l l a

Gas tr ocn emi u s , exter n a l h ead

Cres t Of ti bi a
S ol eu s

Tend on of ga s trocn emi us

A nteri or or l ong ex te ns or
Ta r s a l ten d on of bi ceps f emori s

La ter a l ex ten sor Deep fl exor

S u p erfici a l
fl exor ten d on
P r oxi ma l a nn u l a r l i ga men t"

E xter na l ma l l eol us

[Mid dl e a nn u l a r l i ga men t

Di s ta l a n nu l a r l i ga men t

Tend on f
o a n teri or exten s or

Tend on f l a tera l
o ex tensor
S u perfici a l fiexor
ten d on

Deep fiexor tend on

B r a nch of sus p ens or y l i ga men t to

ex ten s or te nd on

FI G . 2 0l .
—M L O W E R P A R T O T H G H L E G AN D F OOT OF H OR S E E XT E R N AL V I W
us c LE s or F I , , ,
E .

0
’
F as i l ta ;
c a a q q q"b i cep f m o i ;
’
mi te d i
s e :r s t r l c ond y l e o f ti b i a (A ft E ll e
se n no s u s e x er na er n b e r g er

B m A n t fu K i t l )
, , , , .

'
au , a . r i ns e r.

an a n te r i or or d or s o —
l a te r a l an d a p o ste r i o r o r pl a n t ar Th e muscles o f th e fi r st
, .

group ar e exte n s o r s of th e di gi t an d fl ex or s Of th e h o ck th o se o f th e sec on d h a ve th e ,

o pp o site a cti on .
2 88 FA S CI l E A N D M U SC LE S OF T HE H O R SE

A A N T E R I OR G R O U P
.

1 An te r i or l on g digita l e xte n s or (M exte n s o r d igi t a li s l on gus ; exte n s or

or ,

pedi s ; a n te r i or exte n s o r of the ph a l a nges ) —This m uscle is situ ated supe r fi ci a lly
. .

o n the a n te r o exte r n a l a spe ct o f the leg a n d is p r o vided with a l o n g te n d o n whi ch

-
,

p a sses d o w n ove r the f r o n t o f the t a r sus m et a t ar sus a n d d i git ,

Or i gi n —The s ma ll f o ss a (F o ss a e xte nso r i a ) betwee n th e exte r n a l c o n dyle a nd

.
,

the t r o ch le a o f the fe m u r .

I n s er ti on The exte n s o r p ro cess Of the thi r d ph a l a nx ; (2 ) th e ante r i or

su r f a ce o f the p r o xi m a l ext r e m ities o f th e fi r st a nd sec on d ph a l a n ges .

A cti on — T o exte n d the d i g it a n d flex th e h o ck I t a ls o a ssists i n fixi n g the .

sti fle j o i n t .

S tr u ctu r e — The o r igi n is by m e a n s o f a st r o n g te n d o n i n c omm o n with th e

pe ro n eus te r ti us o n wh i ch a ls o m a n y fib e r s a r ise The c o mm on te nd on p a sses
,
.

d o w n w a r d i n the g roo ve betwee n the o u te r c o n dyle a n d t h e tube r o sity o f the tibi a

whe r e a p o u ch f ro m the fe mor O—
,

tibi a l c a psule desce n ds fo u r o r fi ve i n ch es (ca .

1 0 to 1 2 cm ) be n e a th the te n d o n
. Th e b elly is fusifo r m a n d s o m ewh a t fl a tte n ed
. .

The l o n g te n do n o f i n se r ti o n begi n s i n th e b elly a b o ut i ts middl e a n d is cl e ar of th e ,

fl eshy p ar t n e a r the t ar sus I t p a sses d o w n w ar d o ve r th e f r o n t o f th e h o ck b o u n d

.
,

d o w n by the th r ee a n n ul a r li g am e n ts a l r e a dy d esc r ib ed (see c r u r a l f a sci a) a nd ,

e n vel o ped b y a s yn o vi al s h e a th wh i ch b egi n s a l ittle a b o ve the level o f th e exte r n a l

m a l le o lus a n d exte n ds n e a r ly t o th e j u n cti o n with th e l a te r a l exte n s o r te nd o n
,
.

’
Th is u n i o n o ccu rs usu a lly a b o ut a h a n d s b r e a dth bel o w th e t arsus I n the a n gle .

o f u n i on the exte n s o r b r evis a ls o j o i n s th e p r i n cip a l te n d o n B ey o n d th is p o i n t .

the a rr a n geme nt i s the s am e a s i n th e f or e l i m b

Rel a ti on s —
.

S u per fici a l l y th e ski n a n d f a sci a ; d eeply th e fe morO tib i a l c a psu l e

.
, ,
-
,

pe r o neus te r ti us a n d tib i a l is an te r i o r ; b eh i n d th e l a te r a l exte n s o r an d the supe r

, ,

fic i a l a n d deep pe ro n e a l n e r ves I n f r o n t Of th e t a r sus th e a n te r i o r tib i a l a r te r y

.

c rosses th e deep f a ce o f the te n d o n (Fig

’

B l ood s u pp l y —An te r i o r tib i a l a r te r y

.

-
. .

Ner ve su ppl y — P e r o n e a l n e r ve
-
. .

2 L a te ra l digita l e xt e n s or (M exte n s o r d igi t a lis l a te ra lis ; pe r o n eus ; l a te r a l

exte ns or of the ph a l a nges ) —Th is mus cle l ies o n the o u te r su r fa ce o f the leg
. .

.
,

behi nd th e p r ecedi n g one

Or i gi n —Th e exte r n a l l a te ra l li g a m e n t Of th e sti fle j o i n t th e fib u l a the ex
.

, ,

te r na l b o r de r o f the tibi a and th e i n te r o sseus li g am e n t

I n s er ti on —The te nd o n o f the a n te r i or exte n s o r a b o ut a th i rd o f the w a y d o w n
.
,

,
.

the met a t a r sus

A c ti on —T O a ssist the a n te r i o r exte n s o r
.

S tru ctu r e —The bel ly is fusif o r m fl a tte ned a nd pe nn a te

.

Th e te n d o n r u n s , ,
.

th ro ugh the e n ti r e le n gth o f the b el ly an d be c o mes f r ee f r o m i t a t the l o we r fo u r th

o f the tibi a I t p a sses d o w n w a r d th r o u gh th e gro o ve o n the exte r n a l m a lle o lus
.
,
'

b o u n d d o w n by a n an n u l ar l i g a me n t a n d i n cl i n i n g f o r w a r d ble nds (usu a lly ) with , , ,

the te nd o n o f th e a n te r i o r exte n s o r I t is p r o vid ed wi th a syn o vi a l s h ea th , wh i ch .

begi ns a b o ut o n e i n ch (ca 2 t o 3 cm ) a b o ve th e exte r n a l m a lle o lus a n d e n ds a b o ut

. .

o ne a n d o n e h a l f i n ches (c a 3 t o 4 cm ) a b o ve th e j u n cti o n
-
. S om eti m es the fusi o n . .

d o es n o t o ccu r a n d th e te n d o n the n p a sses d o w n the m et a t ar sus a l o n gside o f th a t

, ,

o f th e l o n g exte n s o r t o b e i nse r ted i n t o th e fi r st ph a l a n x li ke th e c o rr esp o nd i n g

,

muscle Of th e th ora ci c l imb

R el a ti ona —E xte r n a l ly the ski n a nd f a sci a a nd th e supe r fi ci a l pe r o n e a l n e r ve ;
.

i n te r na l ly the tib i a a n d fib ul a ; a n te r i or ly th e i n te r m uscu l a r septu m the l o n g

, , ,

exte n s o r a n d th e tibi a l is a n te r i or ; p o ste r i o r ly the deep fl exor a n d the s o l eu s

B l ood — —An te r i o r tibi a l a r te r y
.
, ,

s u pp l y . .

N er ve su pp l y — P e ro n e a l n e r ve
- . .
 90 F A S CUE A N D M U SC LE S or T HE H O R SE

I nser ti on The p ro xi m a l ext r e m i ties o f th e l ar ge (thi r d ) an d exte r n a l s m a ll

.

(f o u r th ) m et a t ar s a l b o n es a nd th e th i r d t a r s a l b o n e ; (2 ) th e fib u l ar a n d f o u r th
,

t a r s a l b o n es
A cti on —M ech a n i c a lly to flex th e h o ck wh e n th e st ifle j o i n t is fl exed
.

S tr u ctu re —Th is is e n ti r ely te n di n o us

.

Th e p ro xi m a l en d an d the u n de r lyi n g.

p r o l o n g a ti o n o f the sy n o vi a l memb r an e o f the fem o r O tib i a l j o i n t h a ve bee n men -

t i o n ed i n th e d esc r ipti o n Of the a n te r i or exte n s or Fi be r s o f the l a tte r m uscle an d .

Of the tibi a lis a n te r i or a r ise o n th e te n d o n as i t p a sses d o w n w ar d to t he f r o n t o f the

h o ck A t the d ist a l en d o f th e tibi a th e te n d o n divid es i n t o tw o b ran ches b etwee n
.
,

whi ch the te n d on o f th e tibi a lis an te r i o r e m e r ges The a nte r i o r b r an ch i s a tt a ched .

t o the th i r d t a r s a l an d thi r d a n d f o u r th m et a t a r s a l b o n es wh ile the o ute r o n e cu rves ,

o utw ar d b ifu r c a tes a n d is i n se r ted i n t o the fib u l a r a n d f o u r th t a r s a l b o nes (Fi g

R el a ti ons —S u p e r fic i a l l y the a n te r i or exte n s or ; deeply th e tib i a lis a n te r i or

.
, ,

.
, , .

The a n te r i o r tibi a l vessels c ro ss the deep f a ce of the o ute r b r a n ch

4 T i b i al i s an te r i or (M us cul a r p o r ti o n Of th e fl ex o r m et a t a r si ) —This lies
.

. .

o n the a n te r o exte r n a l f a ce o f the t ib i a ; it is wid e a n d fl a tte n ed a b o ve p o i n ted

-
,

bel o w
Or i gi n —The exte r n a l c on dyle a n d b o r de r of the tib i a a nd a sm a l l a r e a on th e
.

exte r n a l su r f a ce o f the tube r o sity .

I n ser ti on Th e met a t a r s a l tub e ro sity ; (2 ) th e fi r st an d sec on d t ars a l

b on es
A cti on —T o flex the h o ck j o i n t
.

S tru ctu r e —The o r i gi n i s fl esh y a nd is divided by the gro o ve i n whi ch lie

.

the c omm o n te n d on o f th e l on g exte n s o r a n d pe r on eus te r tius a n d a syn o vi a l

p o u ch P a ssi n g d o w n w a r d o n th e tib i a th e b el ly i s u n it ed by te n di n o us a n d flesh y
‘

.
,

fibe r s with th e pe r o n eus te r tius a nd te r m i n a tes cl o se t o the t a r sus i n a p o i n t on

,

the ten d o n o f i nse r ti on The l a tte r e m e r ges b etwee n th e b r an ches Of the pe r o n eus
.

te r ti us and bi fu r c a tes th e an te r i or b r an ch b ei n g i n se r ted i n t o th e met at ars a l

,

tube ro si ty the i nn e r o n e (cu n e a n te n d on ) i n t o th e fused fi rst and se c on d t a r s a l

,

b on es (cu n eif o rm p a r vum ) The te n d on is p r o vi ded with a syn o vi a l s h e a th at

.

i ts e m e r ge n ce a nd a b u r s a (cu n e an bu r s a) is i n te r p o sed betwee n the i nn e r b ran ch

,

a n d th e i n te r n a l l a te r a l li g a m e n t

R el a ti on s —Su p erfic i a l l y th e a n te r i o r a n d l a te r a l exte n s or s th e pe ro n eus

.

,
.
,

te r ti us and the deep pe r on e a l n e r ve ; d eepl y th e tib i a th e deep fl exor an d the

, , , ,

a n te r i o r t ib i a l vessels

B l ood s u pp l y —An te r i o r tib i a l a r te ry

.

N ervc s u pp l y —P e ro n e a l n e r ve
. .

-
.

B P OS TE R I OR G R O U P
.

1G a str o c ne mi u s (Figs 1 7 9 , 2 0 1 ,
.
— Th is m uscle exte n ds f ro m the l o wer
.

thi r d Of th e fe m u r t o the p o i n t o f t he h o ck I t ar ises by tw o h e a ds

Or i gi n — (l ) Oute r h e a d , f r om the exte r n a l ro ugh m a r gi n o f the s u p r a co n d y
. .

l o id f o ss a (F o ss a pl a n t ar is ) ; (2 ) i nn e r h e a d f r o m th e sup r a c o n dyl o i d c r est

I n ser ti on —Th e p o ste r i o r p a r t o f th e tube r c a l cis
.
,

. .

A cti on — T O exte n d th e h o ck
S tru ctu re —Th e t w o belli es a r e thi ck fusif o r m a n d s o mewh a t fl a tt e n ed
.

.
, ,

They a r e c o ve r ed by a st r o n g a p o n eu r osis a nd c o nt a i n te n di n o us i n te r secti on s .

They te rm i na te t o w a r d the middl e o f the l eg o n a c omm o n te nd o n (Te n d o c a l c an eus

s A chi l li s ) whi ch at fi r st l ies p oste r i or t o th a t Of the supe r fi ci a l fl exo r but by a
.
, , ,

twist i n b oth c o m es to l i e i n f r on t o f t he l a tte r The deep f a sci a bl e n ds w ith th e

,
.

te n d on th ro ugh o ut its l e n gth an d th e s o leu s muscle is i n se r ted i n t o its a n te r i or edge

,
.

A s ma ll b u r s a (B u r s a te n di n is c a l c a n ei ) l i es i n f ro n t o f th e i n se r ti o n o n t he tube r
c a l cis a nd a l a r ge b u r s a is i n te r p o sed betwee n the t w o te n d o n s f r o m th e t wi st
,
 T HE M U SC L E S OF T HE LE G AND F OOT 29 1

d o wn w ar d Th e supe r fi ci a l fl exor li es betwee n t he t w o he a ds a nd i s a dhe r e n t t o

.

the o uter on e (Fi g

R el a ti on s —A nte r i o r ly the sti fl e j o i n t th e supe r fi ci a l fl ex or p o pl iteus deep
.

, , , ,

fl exor p o plite a l vessels a n d ti bi a l n e r ve ; i n te r na lly (a b o ve ) t he se m ite n di n o sus

, , , ,

P a tel l a
S emi te nd i nos u s

Ga s trocn emi us
Cres t of ti bi a
P op l i teu s
L on g d i gi ta l fl exor
Ti bi a l i s p os teri or
Ga s tr oc nemi us tend on -

"
A nter i or l o ng d i gi ta l ex ten s or
'

or

D eep d i gi ta l flexor Ti bi a l i s a n ter i or

S u perfic i a l fl ex oQ r te nd on

P eron eu s ter ti u s

P r oxi ma l a nn u l a r l i ga ment
I n ter na l ma l l eol u s

I nn er (cu n ea n ) tend on of ti bi a l i s a n ter i or

D i s ta l a nn u l a r l i ga ment

Ch eck l i ga men t
A nteri or exten s or ten d on
S u p erfici a l fl exor tend on t

D eep fiex or ten d on

S u s p ens or y l i ga men t _

B ra nch f
o s u s p en s or y l i ga ment
to ex tens or ten d on

FI G . 2 03 .
—
M U CL S ES OF L E G AN D F OOT OF H O S R E , I NT E R N A L V i ew .

r
’
Ten d o n o f se m ite n d i n o s us ; w , g rac ili s ; x, t iu ; y v t i nt
sar or s , as us e r n us .
(A ft er E ll e n b er g e r- B au m , A t
na .

fur K ii ns t l e r ) .

semimemb r a no sus an d a d du ct o r (b el o w ) th e f a sci a a nd ski n ; exte rna lly (a b o ve )

, , ,

the bi ceps fem o r is a n d p er o n e a l (a n t e r i or ti bi a l ) n e r ve (b el o w ) the f a sci a a n d s ki n .

B l ood-s u pp l y —P o pl ite a l ar ter y

,

N er ve s u pp l y —Ti bi a l n er ve
. .

-
. .
292 F A S C I A: A N D MU S C L E S OF T HE H O R SE

2 S e o l u s (Fi
.
g — T his m uscle is ve r y s m a ll i n th e h o r se
.
I t li es i mm e d i .

r su r f a ce of the leg
a tely u n de r the deep f a sci a o n the p r o xim a l h a lf o f the o ute , ,

a nd is di r ected o bl i q uel y d o w n w a r d an d b a ckw a r d .

Or i gi n —The h e a d o f the fib ul a .

I n ser ti on —Th e te n d o n o f t he g a st r o c n emi us a b o ut th e m idd l e o f th e leg ,

.

A cti on —T O a ssist th e g a st r o c n e m i us .

S tr u ctu r e —I t i s a thi n fl eshy b a n d a b o ut a n i n ch (ca 2 to 3 cm ) i n wi dth , ,

. .
,

ter mi n a ti n g o n a thi n te n d o n whi ch fuses wi th th a t Of the g a st r o c n e m i us

—
1
.

R el a ti o ns S u p er fi ci a l l y the ski n f a sci a a n d per o n e a l n e r v e ; deepl y t h e

.
, , , ,

l a te r a l exte n s o r a n d deep
fl exor .

B l ood su pp l y - . P o ste
r i o r tibi a l a r t e r v
—
.

N erve- s u p p l y . T ib ial
e ve
n r .

d i g i t al 3 . S up e r fi ci al
fl e x o r o r fi e x o r p e d i s pe r
f ora tu s (Fi gs 1 99 20 1 203 ) .
, ,

(M fl ex or d i gi t a li s p edi s s ub .

l i mi s ; super fi ci a l fl ex or of th e
ph a l anges ) —T h e p r oxim a l .

p ar t of t hi s m us cl e l i es b e
twee n a n d u n d e r c o ve r of the
t w o he a ds o f th e g astr o cne
m i us (Fi g I t con .

sists a l m o st e n ti r ely o f a
st r ong te n d o n t he b elly b e ,

2 04 —
i ng ve r y li ttl e d evel o ped
CT ON L FT L O H O ; S E C T I ON C U T r i gi n —T h e su pr a c on
.

F C O
O
IG R S S -S E I or E EG F RS E 15

A L I TT L E A B OV M I D D L E O R ON
. .

E F E GI .

d y l o i d f o ss a (F o ss a pl a n t a r is )
i i
T b ;
a b. fi b l ; ati b i li t i, ; d p u a t ti ;
c, a s a n er or , e ro n e u s er us

e. t i
an l g d i g it l t
er o r or ; f l t
on l t ; g d a p o f the fe m u r
e x e ns o r , a e ra ex e ns o r . ee .

h d ea f d p fl
o (fl ee h ll i l g ); h i
ex or h d
e xo r f d p a
I nser ti on
uc s
The f ro n t
on us nn e r ea o ee

p fi i l h d f
,

i m l
.
'
fl e xo r(fl e x or ligit
a c c es s o r u s
g ); s ( o ru on us i , su er c a ea o
a n d si d es o f the tub e r c a l cis ;
.

d p fl
ee (ti b i li p t i ) ; k p p lit
e xor a ;
s t p fi i l fl
os e r o r , o eu s , su er c a ex or

t d ; m g t
en on mi t d
as ; l ;
ro c n e ki ; p us t i (2 ) the emi n en ces o n the
en on n so eu s 0 s n a n er or

ti b i l t y ; q p fi i l p
. , . ,

a a r er ,
l n v ; q d pp
su er c a l v ; p r o xi m a l ext r e m ity Of the
e r o n ea er e
’
. ee e ro ne a ne r e

r .b h f q;
ra n c p t i ti b i l t y ; t
o s, t os e r o r v ; a a r er , cu a n eo u s ne r e u ,

ti b i l v :
a ne r t ti b i l v i ; w ph
e r ,
r ec u rre n t y; ph sec o n d ph a l a n x a nd the
a e n , sa e no u s a r e r at . s a e ,

nou s v i ; y b e n h f ,
ph r a ncv (A ft E ll b g i n d ist a l ext r emity o f th e fi r st
es o sa e nou s ne r e . er en er er .

L i i g
e se r n A tl ) '
s as
ph a l anx b ehi n d the l a te r a l
.

l ig am e n t
A cti on —T o fl ex the digi t a n d exte n d the h o ck j o i n t
.

On a cc o u n t o f t he ex .

c ee d i n g l y s m a l l a m o u n t o f muscul a r t issue th e a cti o n is t o b e r eg a r ded chi efly as a

m ech a n i c a l e ffe ct r esulti n g f r o m th e a cti o n o f o the r muscl es o n th e stifl e j o i n t

,
.

S tr u c tu r e — The o r igi n is by m e an s o f a st r o n g r o u n d te n d o n whi c h is i n c om

p l etel y c o ve r ed wi th fl eshy fibe r s a s fa r a s the uppe r thi r d o f the l eg I t i s p r etty .

i n ti m a tel y a tt a ched t o the ga st r o c n emius espe ci a lly t o th e o ute r he a d At t he ,

.

d ist a l thi r d Of th e ti b i a i t wi n ds ar o u n d the i nn e r su r f a ce of th e g a st r o c n e m iu s

t e n d on a n d the n o cc upi es a p o siti o n b ehi n d the l a tte r At the p o i n t Of t he h o ck
, .

it wide ns o ut f or m i n g a s o r t o f ca p o ve r the t ub e r c a l cis d et a chi n g on ei the r S ide

, ,

a st r o n g b a n d whi ch i s i n se r ted i n t o the tube r c a l ci s with the t a r s a l te n d o n o f the

bi ceps a n d se m ite n d i no sus I t t he n p a sses d o w n w a r d o ve r th e pl a n t a r (C a l c a n e o .

m et a t a r s a l ) l ig a me n t b ec om es n a rr o we r a n d is a rr a nged bel o w as i n the th o ra ci c

, ,

li mb A l a r ge syn o vi al b ur s a l i es u n de r the t e n d o n f r o m t he di st a l f o u r th of the

.

1
T he so l eu s ma y , t h ere f o re , be i n c l u d ed w i th th e t w o h e a d s of th e g a s t ro c n e mi u s un d er th e
nam e t ri c e p s s u raa .
 294 F A S C I /E A N D M U S C LE S OF T HE H O R SE

I n s er ti on .
—Th e se m i lu na r c r est of the thi r d p h a l a nx and the a dj a cen t su r fa c e
of the l a te r a l c a r ti l a ge
A cti on —T O fl ex the digit a n d to exte n d the h o ck j o i nt
.

S tru ctu r e The i nn e r he a d (M fl exo r d igit a li s l o n gus s fl ex or a ccess o . .

r i us ) is e a si ly is o l a ted (Figs 2 03 I t h a s a f usif or m b elly wh i ch c r o sses the

.
, ,

l eg o bliq uely a n d l i es i n a g r oo ve f or m ed by th e o the r he a ds a n d th e p o pli teus .

Thi s ter m i n a tes n e a r t he l o wer thi r d of t he tibi a on a r o u n d te n d o n wh i ch p a sses

d ow n w a r d p ar tly e m bed ded i n th e i nte r n a l l a ter a l li g a m e n t Of th e h o ck a n d j o i n s
, ,

t he c omm on te n d on a b o ut a thi r d Of t he w ay d o w n t he m et a t ar sus I n its c o u r se .

o ve r t he i nn e r su r f a ce o f the h o ck the te n d o n l i es i n a c a n a l f o r m ed by th e st r o n g

t a r s a l f as ci a the tibi a a nd the l a te r a l l ig a m e n t an d i s p r o vi ded wi t h a syn o vi a l

, , ,

s h ea th whi ch exte nds f r om t he d ist a l f o u r th o f th e ti b i a t o t he j u n ct i o n wi th th e

p r i n cip a l te n d on (2 ) The supe r fi ci a l h e a d (M tib i a l is p o ster i or ) is o n ly p a r ti a lly
. .

sep ar a ble I t h as a fl a tten ed b el ly te r mi n a ti n g n e a r t he l o we r thi r d of t he tib i a

.
,

o n a fl a t te n d o n whi ch s oo n fuses wi th the p r i n ci p a l t e n d o n (3 ) The deep he a d .

(M fl exor h a ll ucis l o n gus ) is m u ch th e l a r gest I t li es on the p o ste r i or su r f a ce Of

. .

the tibi a f r o m the p o plite a l li n e o utw ar d an d d o wn w ar d

,
The b elly c o n t a i ns mu ch .

te n di n o us tissue an d te r mi n a tes b eh i n d the dist a l en d Of the tibi a on a st r o n g

,

r o u n d te n d o n Th e l a tter r ecei ves th e t e n d on o f th e tibi a l is p o ste r i or p a sses

.
,

d o wn w a r d i n t he t ar s a l g r oo ve b o u n d d o w n b y th e st r on g t ar s a l f a s ci a (L ig a me n tu m
,

l a ci ni a tu m ) a n d en vel o ped i n a sy n o vi a l sh e a th r eceives the te n d on o f the i nn er ,

he a d b el o w the h o ck a n d a littl e fu r th e r d o wn t h e so c a l led ch eck l ig a m e n t (C a put

, , ,
-

t e n di n eum [S ch ma ltz ] Th e tar s a l sh ea th (Va gi na t ar se a ) begi n s a b o ut tw o to th r ee

i n ches (ca 5 t o . cm ) a b o ve th e level o f th e i n te r na l m a ll e o lus a n d ext e n ds a b o ut
.
,

o n e f o u r th o f the w a y d o w n t h e met a t a r sus

-
(D iste n t i o n o f the she a th a s i n .
,
“
th or o ughpi n a ffects chi efly i ts p r o xi m a l en d ) The check lig a me n t r ese m b l es
, .

th a t o f th e f or e l i m b except th a t it i s l on ge r an d ve r y much we a ker ; it m a y b e

,

a bse n t The r e m a i n de r of th e te n d o n i s arr an ged l i ke th a t o f th e t h ora cic l i mb

R el a ti on s —A n te r i or ly th e tibi a a n d fibu l a th e p o pli teus l a te r a l exte n s o r
. .

.
, , , ,

tibi a l is a n ter i or a n d the tib i a l vessels ; p o ster i o r ly the g a str o c n e m i us super fi ci a l

, , ,

fl ex or an d th e tib i a l n er ve ; exte r n a lly th e f a sci a ski n a nd the s o l eus ; i n te r n a lly

, , , , ,

t he f a sci a a n d ski n .

B l ood s u pp l y — P o ste r i o r tibi a l a r te r y

-

N erve s u pp l y —Ti bi a l n e r ve
. .

-
. .

5 P o pli te u s (Fig — This t hi ck a n d t r i a ngul ar muscl e li es on the p o ste r i o r

su r f a ce of t he fe m or o—
. .

tib i a l ar ti cu l a t i on a nd th e p o ste r i or su r f a ce o f the tibi a a b o ve

the p oplite a l l i n e
0 r i gi n —
.

A sm a ll dep r essi o n o n th e exte r n a l epi c o n dyl e o f th e fe m u r cl o se t o

.
~

the ar ti cul ar su r f a ce a n d u n de r t he l a t er a l lig a me n t

I ns er ti on —A t r i a n gul ar a r e a o n t h e p o ste r i o r su r f a ce Of th e tibi a a b o ve a n d
.

.
,

i nte rn a l to th e p o plite a l li n e ; a ls o t h e p r o xi m a l h a lf o f th e i nne r b o r de r an d a

n a rr o w a dj a ce n t p a r t o f t he i n te r n a l s u r f a ce Of th e tibi a

A cti on —T O fl ex t he fe m o r O—
.

ti bi a l j o i n t a n d t o r o t a te the l eg i nw ar d
S tr u ctu r e —The st r o n g te n d on of o r i gi n l i es a t fi r st u n de r t he l a te ra l li g a me n t
.

a n d cu r ves b a ckw a r d a n d i n w a r d o ve r th e exte r n a l c o n dyl e o f the tibi a a n d its

se m i lu n a r c a r ti l a ge b ei ng i n vested by a r efl ecti o n of th e sy no vi a l c a psul e Of the

,

j o i n t (Fig . Th e te n d o n is su cceed ed by a thi ck t r i a n gul ar belly th e fibe rs ,

o f wh i ch a r e d i r ected o bli q uely d o w n w a r d a n d i n w a r d

R el a ti ons —S u p er fi c i a l l y the f a sci a a n d ski n se m ite n di n o sus g a st r o c n e m i us

.

.
, , , ,

s upe rfi ci a l fl e xo r ; d eeply the fe m or o tib i a l j o i n t the t ibi a t he p o plite a l vessels

,
-
, ,

a n d th ei r di vi si o n s The s a ph e n o us vessels a n d n e r ve l i e a l on g the i nn e r b or der

.

o f the muscle s ep a r a ted f r o m it h o weve r by the d eep f a sci a

B l ood s u p p l y —P o plite a l a n d p o ste r i o r tibi a l ar te r i es

, , ,
.

-
. .

N er ve su pp l y -
Tibi a l n e r ve .
-
.
 T HE M U SC LE S or T HE ox —M U S C LE S OF T HE FA C E 295

M U SCL E S OF THE ME TATAR SUS AN D DI GI T

E xte n s or pe d i s b r e vi s (M ext en s o r di git a li s b r evi s ) . .
—
This s m a ll muscle l ies
in the a n gl e Of u n i o n Of the l o n g and l a te r a l exte ns o r s o f the digi t (S h ow n i n
.

Fig 20 1 , but n ot m a r ked )

Or i gin —Th e o ute r t e n d o n o f th e pe r o n eus te r ti us t he middle
. .

, ann ul ar lig a
me n t an dt he o ute r l a te r a l lig a m en t Of th e h o ck
I nser ti on —Th e te n d o n o f th e a n te r i o r o r l o n g exte n s o r
.
,

A cti on —T O a ssist th e an te r i or or l o n g exte ns o r

.

S tr u ctu re — I t is p r i n cip a l ly fl eshy h a vi n g a supe r fi ci a l o r igi n f r o m th e a nn ul ar

,

l ig a m e n t a n d a d eep o n e (by a thi n te n d o n) fr o m th e o ute r t en d o n o f the pe r o n eus

,

t er tius Th e i n se r ti o n i s by a t hi n te n d on
Rel a ti on s —S u per fi ci a l l y t he ski n an d f a sci a an d th e ten d o n s o f the an ter i or
. .

.
,

a n d l a te r a l ext e n s o r s ; d eeply th e j o i n t c a psul e th e g r e a t met a t a r s a l a r te r y a n d

, , ,

the deep pe r o n e a l n e r ve
B l ood su pp l y —
.

-
Gr e a t met a t a r s a l a r te r y
N er ve su pp l y —
. .

-
D eep pe r o n e a l n e r ve
. .

Th e i nte r o s s e i an d l u mb ri c a l e s ar e arr a n ged l i ke t h o se of th e th o ra ci c li mb ,

t he o n ly n o ti ce a bl e di ffe r e n ce b ei n g the g r e a te r dev el o pme n t o f th e lumb r i c a les i n

the pelvi c limb .

THE MU SCLES OF THE OX

MU SCLE S OF THE FACE
Th e pa nni cu l u s i s mu ch m o r e d evel o ped th a n i n the h o rse p r ese nti n g as a ,

speci a l fe a t u r e th e exte n sive fr o n ta l i s m uscl e wh i ch c o ve r s th e fr on t a l an d na s a l ,

r egi o n s .

The o r bi c u l ar i s ori s d o es n ot f o r m a c o mpl ete r i n g th e d efect bei n g i n th e ,

mi ddl e o f th e u ppe r li p .

Th e l e va t or na s ol a bi al i s i s ext e n sive thi n an d n o t ver y disti n ct fr o m the , ,

fr on t a l is ; i t di vides i nt o tw o l a ye r s b etwee n wh i ch th e l ev a t o r l a bi i supe r i or is

,

p r o p r i us an d th e l a te r a l di l a t or of th e n o st r i l p a ss The super fi ci a l l a yer e n ds i n .

the n o st r i l a n d uppe r li p the d eep l a yer on th e a ccess o r y (l a ter a l ) n a s a l c ar ti l a ges

,

a n d o n the n a s a l p r o cess Of th e p r e m a xi ll a .

The l e va to r l a b ii s u peri ori s pro pri u s ar ises on an d b ef o r e th e f a ci a l tuber o sity

a n d t e r mi n a tes by seve ra l te n d on s i n the muz zl e I t p a sses between the tw o .

l ayer s of th e p r ecedi n g muscle b l en di n g i n p ar t w ith th e d eep l a ye r

,
.

Th e z yg o ma ti c u s is mu ch st r on ger th an i n th e h o r se I t a r ises on the m a sse .

te r i o f a sci a a nd e n ds chi efl y i n th e uppe r l ip

, .

The d e pr e s s o r l a b ii s up er i o ri s d o es n ot r ese m bl e th e muscle of th e s am e n am e

i n the h o r se I t a r ises j ust i n f r o n t o f the f a ci a l tub er o sity a n d divides usu a lly
.
,

i n t o tw o b ran ches whi ch te r mi n a t e i n a n umb e r o f te n d on s th a t f o r m a n etw o r k

,

i n the m uzz le a n d upper l ip .

The i n ci s i vu s i nf e ri o r i s a sm al l r o u n ded mu scl e whi ch a r ises on the b o dy of

, ,

the m an dibl e b el o w t he sec o n d a n d thi r d i n cis or s a nd e n ds i n th e l o wer lip , ,

ble ndi n g wi t h th e or bi cul ar is .

The d e pr e s s or l a b i i i nf e ri o ri s is t hi n a n d d o es n ot exte n d as far b a ckw ar d ,

as i n th e h o r se ; o n l y th e a n te r i o r e n d i s disti n ct f r o m th e b u cci n a t o r .

The b u c c i na t o r sh o ws n o m ar ked v a r i a ti on b ut its supe r fi ci a l l a yer is well ,

d evel o ped .

Th e d il a ta to r nari s l a terali s a r ises i n fr o n t of the f a ci a l tube r osity p asses for ,

2 96 T HE M U S C LE S OF T HE ox

w a r d b etwee n the b r a n ch es o f th e lev a t o r n a s o l a bi a lis a n d te r m i n a tes i n the o uter ,

wi n g of the n o st r i l .

Th e dil a t a t or n ar is t r an sver sus i s r epl a ced by the d i l ata to r nari s a pic al i s ,

whi ch is situ a ted i n th e muzz le a n d j o i n s i ts fell o w a t a medi a n r a ph e I t ar ises .

o n the b o r de r a n d uppe r su r f a ce o f the b o dy o f the p r e m a xi l l a th e fibe r s p a ssi n g ,

o bl iq u el y upw ar d a n d o utw ar d t o the i nn e r wi n g o f th e n o st r i l .

T he d il a ta tor na r i s sup er i or a r ises fr o m the a l a r c ar til a ge o f the n o st r i l a nd

e n ds i n the i nn e r wi n g of the n o st r i l .

'
50
«
37

FI G . L AT E R A L V W
2 07 .
—M U C L S ES or H AD E OF Ox , IE .

L ev t 0 l b ii p i o ris p p i ; b l eva t
a or a su er as l b i li s ; t p zi ;
ro r usm to id O— h me l i ; d
, d' or n o a a c, ra e us c
'
as u ra s

o m o—
, , , .

ph li ; h y o i d eus ; f d il t t o n i l t a li s ; g z y g m ti m a l i ; h b u i n to ; i
z y g m ti —
’
st O
e rn -c e a c us e, ; g , a a r ar s a er , o a cus , ar s , cc a r ,

d p e l b ii i nf i i ; k o b i c l is i m m te ; n p a ti d o a u i l i ;
r ess o r a er or s , r u ar or s a i l a i a nd
, as se r , ro - r cu a r s o
’
, o a co ur cu rs

sc t l o u i l i p e fic i a l i s i n fe i o ; sc t l o a i la i u p fi i l i p io ; u t ul O au i c l a is
u u -a - -
r cu ar s su r r r o u u u r cu r s s er c a s su er r sc r u r

su pe fi i a l i
r c i s ; p p sc t l i s ; f nt lis ; w m l h y i d ; I n h ; 2 3 p t i nd a nte i o
s a c c es s o r u ,
’
. u u ar u , ro a ,
- o eus , co c a , , os e r o r a r r

b d or f 1 ; 8
e rs o ti fo m a til ag e ; 9 z y g m ti a c h ;
, scu r c r m f m nd i b l e ; 3 7 , t n l m i ll a y ve i n ;
o a c r ra us o a , ex e r a ax r

38 j g l, u v i n ; 3 9 f i a l ve i ; 4 4 pa o tid g l d ; 60
u ar e , ac n b m x ill y g l nd ; d o t te d li ne a t 50 i nd i a tes po i
. r an , su a ar a c s

ti n o f l g l y m ph g l a nd a d a o th e li es p a tl y u d p o ti d g l nd j t i n f o nt f 4 4 : 68 i n te na l p l pe b a l
o ar e n n r r n er ar a us r o r a r

B m A n t fur K tl )
, , .

li g m nt ; 69 l a y ng e l p m i
a e , r a (A f te E ll e nb e g
ro ne n c e . r r e r- au , a .
‘

i i ns e r.

The d i l ata tor n ar i s i nf er i o r c on si sts o f tw o l a ye r s whi ch ar ise on th e n a s a l pr o

cess of th e p r e m a xill a a nd th e l a te r a l n a s a l c ar ti l a ge an d en d i n t he o uter wi n g
o f the no st r i l .

T he o rb i cu l ari s o cul i is wel l d evel o ped .

The c orr ug a t or supe r ci li i is n ot p r ese n t a s a sep a r a te muscl e i ts pl a ce and ,

fu n cti o n b ei n g t a k e n by th e f r o nt a l is .

Th e m a l a ri s i s b r oa d an d sp r e a ds o u t bel o w o n the f a sci a o ver the bu cci na t o r

,

a n d m a ssete r ; i t is d ivided i n t o tw o p a r ts .
2 98 T HE M U S C LE S OF T HE ox

Th e g e ni o - h yo id e u s is m or e devel o ped
—
.

The k era to h y o i d e u s h a s a n a ddi ti on a l a tt a chme n t on t he mi ddl e c o r n u Of th e

hy o id b o n e .

Th e hy o id e u s tr ans ve r s u s is b i fid .

Th e stern o -thyr o -hy o id e u s h a s n o i n ter m edi a te te n d on a n d is thi cke r

—
.

Th e o mo hy o id e u s a r ises a s a th i n b an d fr o m the f a sci a o ve r the thi r d a nd

f o u rth ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a I t ble nds he r e wi th the r ectus c api tis a n te r i o r m a j o r
. .

Th e o ccipito hy o id e u s is thi ck -
.

FI G 209 —M U C L S ES or H AD O Ox V E N T R A L V W
E F I E

m —
. . , .

1
( , d’ S t e r n o -ce ph a li c u ; s e, o hy id
o o eus; g z y g m ti ; h b i t ; i d p
, o a cus l , u cc n a or , e r es s o r ab i i i nf i o
er ri s

k i l
o rb c u a ri s or s ; i m m a e te ;
, ss r n , p a r o t i d O-a u i i c u a r s
'
l i ; z y g m ti o i l i ; w m o h y id
’
, o a c o -a u r c u a r s ,
- o eus ; 1 , c o ncha ,

con v ex su r a ce ; f 2 an te i o
r rbo d r e r o f c o nc h a ; an gl f j w ; 3 9 f i l v i ; 44 p
e o a tid g l d; ac a e n a ro an 45 l ow e li p r

B a u m A na t
. , , ,

48 , a ng e o fl mo u th ; 60 , sub ma xill a ry g l a nd ; 59 1 y , ; wi g
ar f tl as nx(A f t E ll nb g
x, n o a . er e er e r- . .

f ur Kuns tl e r ) .

MUSCLE S OF THE NE CK
A . VE N TR AL GR OUP

The sterno-c e ph ali cu s c o n si sts of tw o muscl es They ar ise f r o m th e m an u .

bri u m ste r n i a n d fi r st r i b Th e supe r fi ci a l muscl e (S te r no m an d ib ul a r is ) is i nserted

.
-

o n the a n te r i o r b o r d e r o f th e m a ssete r the r a m us o f the m a n d ibl e a n d the bu cc a l , ,

f a sci a Th e deep muscl e (S te r n o m a st o i d eus ) c r o sses u n d e r the p r ecedi n g a nd e n ds

.
-

on the m a st o i d p r o cess t h e m a n dibl e a n d i n c o m m on wit h t he r ectus c a pitis

, , ,

a n te r i o r m a j o r o n th e b a sil a r p r o cess o f th e o cci pit a l b o n e

,
.

The r e a re tw o sc a le n i The s ca l e n u s v e n tr a li s (S p r im a c o st a ) ar ises o n th e

. .

fi r st ri b a n d e n ds on the t r a n sve r se p r o cesses o f th e t hi r d t o t he seve n t h ce r vi c a l

V E N TR A L GR O U P 299

o n
t r
300 T HE M U SC LE S OF T H E ox

ve rteb r a I t is t r a ve r sed by th e r o o ts o f th e b r a ch i a l pl exus whi ch p a r ti a ll y ,

divide i t i n t o a s m a ll d o r s a l a n d a l a r ge ve n t r a l p ar t The b r a ch i a l vessels l i e .

b el o w t he l a tte r Th e s c a l e n u s d or s al i s (s s u p r a c os tal i s ) a r ises usu a ll y on the

. . .

sec on d thi r d a nd f o ur th r ibs a nd e n ds on th e t r ans ve r se p r o cesses o f th e th i r d

, , ,

t o th e si xt h ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a .

Th e re ctu s c apiti s a nt e ri or m a j or a r ises o n th e th i r d t o t he si xt h cer vi c a l

t r a nsve r se p r o cesses a n d bl e n ds a t its i nse r ti on wi th t h e sterno—
,
m a st o i deus a n d
th e m a st o i d p or ti o n o f t he m a st oi d O h u m er al i s -
.

The r e ctu s c a piti s ant er i o r mi n or is l a r ge r th a n i n t he h or se .

The r e ctu s c apiti s l a tera l i s a n d l ongu s c ol li r ese m ble th ose Of the h or se .

Th e i nte r tr a n sv e r s al e s a r e l ar ge F r o m t he si xt h ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a f o rw ar d
.

they f or m a m us cul ar m a ss (M i nt ertr a nsv er sa r i u s l ong us ) whi ch i s i n se r ted i n t o

.

the wi n g o f the a tl a s .

LATE R AL GR OUP B .

Th e spl e n iu s is th i n I t a r i ses di r ectly f r o m the fi r st th r ee or f o u r t h or a ci c

.

spi n es a n d e n ds by a th i n te n d on on th e o ccipit a l b o n e th e wi n g of t h e a tl a s
, , ,

a n d th e t r a n sve r se p r o cess of t h e a xi s bl e n di n g wit h th e m astoi d O h u m er a l i s

,
-
,

t r a ch el o m a st o i de us a nd omo tr a n s v ers ar i u s Th e r e m a i n i n g m uscl es p r ese n t no

-
,
-
.

ve r y m ar ked differ e n ti a l fe a tu r es .

MU SCLE S OF THE THOR AX

Th e l e va to re s c o s tar u m n u mbe r t en or el eve n p a i r s .

The d i aphr a gm p r ese n ts seve r a l i m p or t an t d iffe r e n ti a l fe a tu r es I ts sl o pe is .

m u ch steepe r a n d i ts width i s gr e a ter t h a n i n th e h o r se Th e c ost a l a tt a ch m e n t .

ext e nds a l m o st i n a st r a i ght l i n e f r o m th e uppe r f o u r th Of t h e l a st r i b to th e j u n c

ti on o f t he ei ghth r i b wit h i ts c a r ti l a ge a n d a l on g th e l a tter to th e ste r n u m The
, .

m i d li n e sl o pes f r o m t he twel fth t h o r a ci c ve r t eb r a o bl iq uel y a s fa r a s the ve na

-

c a v a bey on d whi ch i t is a l m o st ver ti c a l

,
The r ight c r us d ivi des i nt o tw o b r a n ches
.
,

whi ch ci r cu m sc r ib e th e oes o ph a ge a l Ope n i n g u n ite b el o w a n d t he n sp r e a d o u t i n

, ,

the t e n di n o us ce n te r Th e l eft c r us i s s m a l l Th e (e s o ph a ge a l Ope n i n g i s si tu a ted

. .

a b o ut f o u r t o five i n ch es (1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) b el o w t he eight h t h or a ci c ve r teb r a a l ittl e

.
,

t o th e left of th e m edi a n pl an e Th e f o r a me n ve na c a v a i s a littl e m o r e v en t r a l

.

a n d a l m o st i n th e medi a n pl a n e Th e o t he r m uscles r ese m ble t h ose o f th e h o r se

. .

MUSCLE S OF THE B ACK AN D LOI NS

The s err a tu s a n ti c u s i s ve r y th i n I t is i n se r ted on th e fifth to th e eighth r ibs

. .

I t ma y b e r ed u ced to t w o or th r ee digit a ti on s o r m ay b e a bse n t Th e s erra tu s .

po sti cu s i s usu a lly i n se r ted on th e l a st th r ee or f o u r r ibs .

The tr an sv e r s al i s c o star u m (I li o c o st a l is ) h a s a d isti n ct l u m b ar p o r ti o n whi ch

i s a tt a ched t o the l u m b ar t r an sve r se p r o cesses a n d th e exter n a l a n gl e Of the i li u m .

The l o ngi s s i mu s r ese m bl es t h a t Of the h or se b ut i t i s m or e fl eshy a n ter i o r ly , ,

a n d the spi n a lis d o r si i s cl e a r l y d isti n guish a b l e fr om th e c o mm o n m a ss I n th e .

l u m b ar r egi o n th e te n d on s m eet a c r o ss th e summits o f t he spi n es .

I nte r tr an s vers al e s a r e p r ese n t i n th e b a ck a n d i n t er s pi na l e s i n th e b a ck a n d

,

MU SCL E S OF THE TAI L

These r esembl e th o se Of th e h o r se ; the c o c cygeus is h o weve r , mu ch m o re ,

d evel o ped .
3 02 T HE M U S C LE S or T HE ox

Th e tr an s v ers u s abd o mi n i s p r ese n ts n o st r i ki n g d i ff e r e nti a l fe at ur es . Th e

t r an sve r s a lis f a sci a i s str o ng a n d di sti n ct except o ve r th e d i a ph r a gm .

MUS CLE S OF THE THOR ACI C LI MB

I . MUSCLE S OF THE SHO LDE R GI R D LE U
Th e tr a pez i u s is mu c h th i cker an d b r o a de r th an i n t he h or se a nd is u n divided , .

I t a r ises on the lig a m e n tu m n u c h m a n d sup r a spi n o us l ig a m en t f r o m the a tl a s to ,

the twelfth t h or a ci c ve r teb r a .

Th e o m o -tra ns ve rs ari u s is a m uscl e (no t p r ese n t i n th e h or se ) whi ch a r ises

“

o n the wi n g o f the a tl a s a n d ,
i n c o n st a n tly th e t r a n sver se p ro cess of the sec on d
, ,

ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a a nd is i n se r ted i n t o th e sc a pul a r spi n e a n d f a sci a

,
.

Th e r h o mb o id e u s is cl e a r l y d i vided i n t o ce r vi c a l a n d d o rs a l p o r ti ons the l a tte r ,

exte n di n g fu r the r t h a n i n th e h or se .

Th e l a ti s si mu s d o r s i h as a b r o a d te n d on o f o r igi n wh i ch bl en ds wit h the

1 umb o—
,

d or s a l f a sci a ; i t is a ls o a tt a ch ed to the el eve n t h an d twelfth r ibs th e f a sci a ,

o ve r the ext er n a l i n te r c o st a l a n d o b li q u e a bd o mi n a l muscles a nd by a te n di n o us ,

slip to the d eep pect or a l m uscl e

‘

The mas toi d o-h u me ral i s h a s tw o disti n ct p arts Th e d o r s a l divi si o n (M . .

cl eid o o ccipi t a l is ) a r ises on th e o ccip i t a l b o n e an d th e lig a me nt um n u ch ae The

-

ve n t ra l p ar t (M clei d o —
.

. m a st o i deus ) is s m a l le r a n d ar ises by a r o u n d ten d o n on

the m a st o i d p r o cess a nd the r ect us c a pi ti s a n te r i o r m a j o r a nd by a thi n te n d on on ,

the m a n d ible At th e sh o ul der a s m a l l m uscl e whi ch a r i ses o n the fi r st r i b ble n ds

—
.

wi th the deep f a ce o f th e m a st oi d o h u m er a l i s 1
.

The s up e r fi ci a l p e ct oral m uscl e d o es n ot p r ese nt a ny st r iki ng di ffe r en ce .

Th e d e e p pe cto ra l ar ises a s far f or w a r d a s th e sec on d r i b an d is u n d ivi ded .

Ho weve r the sc a pul ar p o r ti o n m a y b e c o n si de r ed to b e r ep r ese n ted by a s m a l l

,

b r a n ch exte n di n g o ve r the l o we r p ar t o f t he sup ra spi na tus A te n d on is det a ched .

f ro m th e d or s a l edge whi ch b le n ds wi th th e l a tissimus d or si a n d c o r a c o b r a chi a lis

,
-
.

The s erra tu s m a gn u s is cl e a r ly d ivid ed i n t o cer vi c a l a n d t h or a ci c p o r ti on s .

Th e f or me r is l ar ge a n d exte n ds fr om t he thi r d (or sec on d ) cer vi c a l ve r teb r a t o

th e fifth r i b b ei n g o ve r l a pped b ehi n d by th e t h o r a ci c p ar t The th o r a ci c p a r t i s
,
.

r el a tivel y th i n a n d is c o ve r ed b y a v e r y st r o n g a p o n eu r o sis ; i t is a tt a ch ed t o th e

f o u r th t o th e n i n t h r ibs b y si x d igi t a ti o n s a nd i s i n se r ted by a fl at te n d o n i n t o th e

,

i nn er f a ce of the d o r s a l a n gl e o f the s c a p ul a .

II . U
M SCL E S OF THE S HOUL DE R
Th e d e lto i d is cl e ar l y d ivid ed i n t o a c r o m i a l a n d sc a pul ar p o r ti on s The f o r me r .

a r ises o n th e a c r o m i o n th e l a tte r o n t he p o ste r i o r b o r de r o f th e sc a pul a a n d the

,

a p o n eu r o ti c c o ve r i n g o f th e i n f r a spi n a tus Th e sc a pul ar p a r t of the m uscle i s

.

l ar gely i n se r ted i n t o the f a sci a c o ve r i n g the t r i ceps .

The s upra spi na tu s , i nf ra s pi na tu s , a n d ter e s mi n o r d o n ot di ffe r m a te r i a lly

f ro m th o se of th e h or se .

Th e s ub s c apu l ari s c o n sists of t h r ee p o r ti o ns with a c o m m o n te n d o n o f i n ser

Th e te re s m a j o r a n d c ra c o o -b ra chi ali s r esembl e th o se of th e h o r se .

III . U
M SCLE S OF THE AR M
Th e b i c e ps is s ma l le r and l ess te n d i n o us a n d i s si tu a ted m or e i n te r na l ly th an
,

in th e h or se Th e t e n d on
. o f o r igi n is fl a t a n d i s b o u n d d o wn i n the b i cipit a l gr oo v e
,

Th is i s p ro b ab l y th e h om o l ogu e of th e subc a l vius of ma n .

 M U S C LE S OF T HE A RM 303

by a fib r o us b a n d .
(I n the sh eep th e t e n d o n is r o un d a nd p a sses t hr o ugh t he
sh o u l der j o i n t ) .

FI G 2 1 2 —M U S C L I-
:s OF ANT I BR A FI G 21 3 —M t sc m-
:s or AN TI BR A FI G 21 4 —M ns c u : s o r AN TI B R A
AN D M A NU S Ox
. . . . . .

ct AN D M as t s or Ox , C H UM AN D I M s x u s o r Ox , CB I UM or ,

AN I ’ ‘
E Rl OR V W IE . E XT NAL V W ER IE . I NT NAL V W ER IE .

t
E x enso r ca r
a, pi d i l ra a is E t
0 , pi d i li ; b
x en s o r c a r ra a s , E t a , p i d i li ;
x e ns o r ca r ra a s

, t i iti t ti
b e x e ns o r d g er i ; c, te nso ex r t
e x e ns o r d i g iti t tii ; mm er 0, co o n or b t
, d en f ton d i g iti t tii
o e x e ns o r er

i it i i
d g al s co m m u n s ; d , e te n x s or t i d i g it l t
a n e r or ; d
a ext ens o r , ex e n f t d
, en f ont o pi b e x e ns o r ca r o

i iti q ti t
d g uar e t
( e nd o n ) ; f o . x ens r so r d i g iti q ti ; fl xuar pi e, e
'
o r ca r ex l iq ; g b
u us h i li : I i t
,
ra c a s t, n e r oss e us

ca p i
r b li q
o ; g b h i li ;
u us rac a s te r nu s ; f t p i b li q
e x e ns o r c a r; o u us m di e p
us o r s u s y li g m t; ie ns o r a en

t d ; "b
. , ,

m ta e p l tu b e o it y
car a (A ft r s er f uln h d f fi
’
ar ea opi m d i exor c a r e flexo r en h f h; k
o ns z ra n c o

E ll e nb g e — B m A n t fur
.
, , ,

er r au a us ; g b h i li ; h
ra c i ta s n e r o ss e us fle x or pi i t car ; I fi n e r nu s e x or

pi m d i ; m p fi i l d i g it l
, .
. , ,

K uns t l er ) m di e p
u s o r s us y li g m t; i
e ns o r a en ca r e us su er c a a

B m
.
, .

fl exor t d ; i b
en o ns h f h t ’
, ra n c o , o fi ex o r (A ft E ll b g
. er en er e r- au ,

su p fi i l fl
er c a t d : 8 lex or en on , o e A t f K fi tl )
na . ur ns e r.

c r a no n ; 1 1 y
. p lb ;
a c c es s o r car a one

m t p lt b
e a ca r it y (A ft
a u e ro s er

B m A t f
.

E ll b g
en er e r- au , na . ur

K fi ns t l e r ) .

The i n te r na l h e a d of th e tr i c e ps is m or e devel o ped th an i n the h or se .

The te n s or fa s ci a anti b rachi i is a sl e n d e r muscl e .

3 04 T HE M US CLE S or T HE ox

IV . U
M SCLE S OF THE FORE ARM

D I V I S I ON A E XT E N S OR
.

Th e e xte ns o r c ar p i r a d i ali s is li ke t h a t o f th e h or se Ther e is s o meti m es a .

sm a l l mus cl e l yi n g a l o n g its i n n e r b or de r whi ch m ay r ep r ese n t the ext e n s or es ,

p o ll i cis .

The r e ar e t h r ee d i gita l e xte n s o r s : 1 The c o mm o n or an t eri o r di gi tal exte n s o r .

M r ises by tw o he a ds f r om th e ext e ns or epi c o n dyl e

( ext.e n s o r di git a lis c o mmu n is ) a

a nd the ul n a Th e b ea d s fuse a b o ut t h e mi ddl e of t he f or e a r m an d t er m i n at e

.
,

s oo n on a t e n d on wh i ch p a sses o ve r th e c ar pus an d m et a c a r pus g r a d u a ll y i n cl i ni ng ,

FI G 2 1 5
. .
-
RI G W T H B n AN D F 2 1 6 —R
HT
CA R P L S ‘
or Ox I CA PU u Ox W T H B
s a: m AN D IG . . I GRT R S or I o as

S O I Y N V AL N J CT D E X T NAL V W
S H E A I HS I’ ‘
E S Y N O AL S H AT H I N J CT D I N T
E ,
ER I ENAL V W. VI E S E E , ER I E .

1 E t , p i d i li it h y vi l h t h
x e ns o r c a r ra a d b s, w (I 2 s t no p i b li q
a s w it h y
ea i l an u rs a . e x e ns o r c a r o uus, s nov a

s h ea th d b an 3 t d i g iti t tii p p i
u rs a ; 4
, ex t d i g it li
e ns o r mm i ;er mm y vi l
ro r us , e x e ns o r a s co un s co on s no a

sh ea th f 3 d 4 ; 6 t
o an d i g iti q ti p p i w ith y vi l h th
, ex e ns o r ua r fi ro pi tr us , w it h s no a s ea exo r c a r e x e r nu s ,

b u rs a 7 fl pi i t, i t h y vi l h t h ; 8 d p d i g i t l fl
exor c a r n e r nus . w w it h
s noy vi l h th
a s 9 ea . ee a exor, s no a s ea ,

fle x o r pi m d i ; 1 0 p fi i l d i g it l fl
ca r e us . w it h
su y ervi l h t h
c a di a ; b p ; m t
exo r, p ; s no a s ea a ,
ra us , car us c, e aca r us

d , cu t dg e f l li g m t (A ft S h m id t h )
e o a n nu a r a en . er c c en .

f o r w ar d A t the fetl o ck j o i n t i t d ivides i nt o tw o b r a n ches wh i ch a re i n se rted

.
,

i nt o t he th i r d ph a l a n ges 2 The i n te rn al d i g ita l e xte n s or (M exte n s or digit i

. . .

t e rti i p r o p r i us ) a r ises o n th e exte ns or epi c on dyl e a n d i s i n ser ted b y t w o b r a n ches ,

i n t o the sec o n d a n d thi r d ph a l a nges of the i n n er digi t The te n d o n r ecei ves tw o .

r ei nf o r ci n g sl i ps f r o m th e suspe n s or y l ig a m e n t 3 The l a te r al d i gi ta l e xte n s o r . .

(M e xte n s or digi t a l is l a te r a l is s d igiti q u ar t i p r o p r i us ) a r ises f ro m th e exte r n a l

. .

l a te ra l l ig a m e n t of t he elb o w j o i n t th e exter n a l t ube r o sity o f the ra di us a nd t he , ,

ul n a Th e te n d o n te r m i n a tes l i ke t h a t o f t he p r eced i n g m us cl e
. .

The e xt e n s or c arp i o b l i q uu s r ese m bl es t h a t o f t h e h o r se .

The ext e n s or t e n d on s a re b o u n d d o w n at the c a r pus by a n a nn ul ar lig a me nt ,

a n d a r e fur n ished with sy n o vi a l she a ths (Figs 2 1 5 .

,
3 06 T HE M US CLE S OF T HE ox

di ve r ge t o be i n se r ted i n t o t he sec o n d a nd t hi r d ph a l a n ges bl e ndi n g wi th

, th e
l a te r a l lig am e n ts .

THE MU SCLE S OF THE PE LVI C LI MB

I . THE SUBLUIV
IB AR MU SCLE S

Th e p s oa s mi nor begi n s a t the dis c betwee n the twelfth a n d th i r teen th th o r a ci c

ver teb r ae .

The p s oa s m a j or h a s a fl eshy o r igi n o n the p o ste r i or b or de r o f t he l a st r i b a nd ,

a thi n te n d o n a tt a ched t o the twel ft h r i b .

The i l i a cu s b egi n s u n de r t h e b o dy o f th e sixth l umb ar ve r teb r a a n d is m o r e ,

cl o sely u n ited with t he ps o a s m a j or th a n i n th e

h o r se .

Th e q u a d ra tu s l u mb o ru m ext e n ds a s fa r
for w ar d a s th e b o dy o f t he t e nth or eleve n t h
th o r a ci c ve r teb r a .

II . E X TE RN A L M USCLE S OF THE HI P AN D
THI GH

Th e te ns or f a s c i a l a ta i s l ar ge an d t h e ,

fl eshy p ar t e xt e n ds fu r th e r d o wn th a n i n th e
h o rse .

The gl uteus s u p er fi ci al i s i s n ot p r ese n t as

such ; a pp ar e n tly i ts a n te r i or p a r t h a s fused
with the t e n s o r f a sci a l a t a a n d i ts p o ste r i o r
with the bi ceps fem o r is .

The glute u s m e d i u s i s s m a ll th e lu m b a r ,

p or ti o n b ei n g i n sig n ifi c a n t a n d exten di n g for

w ar d o n ly to the f o u r th l u mb ar v er teb r a I ts '

deep p o r ti on (G l uteus a c cess or i us ) is e a si l y

sep ar a ble a nd its st r o n g te n d o n is i n se r ted ,

i n t o the fe m u r b el o w th e t r o ch an te r m aj or ,

u n de r c o ve r o f the uppe r p a r t o f the v a stus

exte r n us .

Fl G. 218 F MO R O AN D E R AL E GI NS

Ox A T E R R E M O A L O s
The glute u s pr o fu n d u s i s th i n b ut ext e n ,
O F , “ F V F up

m m M cm . sw e
us eu a r i s m g a s fa r f o r w a r d
. a s t he ext e r n a l ,

p Gl t m di ; mi t d i
u eu s a n gl e o f the ili um a n d f r o m t he l o we r p ar t Of
e us r . se en n os u s

m m ‘9 8 "m
.
,
” t v as us e us e

f m ; 2 9 m m mb n the s a c r o sci a ti c lig a me n t

“
Th e fi be r s c o n ve r ge
s
-
.

e o ri s ; 80 g
, se t i e ra n o s u s , as ro c

ne mi ; 3 1us i ti li g m t ;
, t b on a te n d o n whi ch p a sses u n de r the uppe r p ar t
sa c r o -s c a c a en u er

co m fl fi t b i h i i : 1 9 -t u h t m i :
er
o f the v a stus exte r n us
sc r oc a n er a n d is i nse r ted i n t o a
a 0 r
,
2 0 p t ll ; a e t al dyl f ti b i ex e r na c on e o a
t ube r cl e a s h o r t d i st a n ce bel o w the g r e a t tr o
, .

(A h Eu b g
er B men Ku t
er eb au ' ns

l
er )
. ch an te r .

The b i c ep s f e m or i s i s ve r y wide at its

uppe r p ar t h a vi n g a pp ar e ntl y a bs or bed t he p o ste r i o r p a r t o f th e supe r fi ci a l
, ’

gl uteus I t i s divided i n the thi gh i n t o t w o p or ti o ns whi ch en d o n a wid e

.
,

a p on eu r o sis T he r e is n o fe m or a l a tt a ch m e n t A l a r ge b u r s a o ccu r s betwee n

. .

th e m uscl e a n d the gr e a t t r o ch a nte r i n the a d ult The p ar t o f th e te n d o n whi ch .

fuses with the ext e r n a l p a tell a r l ig a me n t p r ese n ts a fib r o c ar til a gi n o us thi cke n -

i ng a nd a n exte n sive bu r s a is i n te r p o sed betwee n i t a n d th e e xt er n a l c o n dyle o f

,

the femu r .

The s e mi ten d i n o su s a nd s e mi m e mb ran o s u s a r ise on the isch i u m on l y Th e .

l a tte r h as a b r a n ch a tt a ched to t he i n te r n a l c o ndyl e o f the ti bi a .

 A N TE R I OR M U S C L E S OF T HE T HI GH 3 07

III . ANTE RI OR M S CL E S OF THE THI GH U

The q ua d ri c e ps f e m o r i s r esemb les th a t o f the h o r se ; t he v a stu s i nt er m e diu s is
m or e cl e a r l y sep a r a ble a n d c on sists o f tw o p a r ts B u r s a o cc u r u n de r the i nse r ti on s
, .

o f the i n ter na l a n d ext e r na l v a sti an d o fte n u n de r t he en d o f t he bi ceps i n th e a d ult , .

FI G 2 1 9
.
—M ns c x
.E s OF L E r'r L E G AN D F OOT OF Ox , FI G . 2 20 .
—M AN D F OOT
usc1 Es . Ox E x or LE G or ,

AN T O V W E RI R IE . T NAL V W ER IE .

P a , t ti
e ro n e u s
; ti b i li te i ; b n
er us a
’
, a s an r or , a P 0 , t ti ; ti b i li
e r o ne u s t i ;b ter us a
’
, a s an er or , an e

tari t l g d i gi t l t
o or on ; b a t d i g i ti t tii ;
e x e ns o r
'
, e x e ns o r er i
r or or l g d i g it l t
on ; b t d a f b; p
ex e n s o r
’
, en on o c, e r o ne u s

c, p l gus ; d t
e r o ne us on d i g iti q ti ; i i ex ul
e ns o r u ar a nn ar l g ; d t
on us d i g iti q ti ; d p d i gi t l fl
e x e ns o r ; uar e, ee a e xor

f ; " b
. , , ,

li gam t ; k te a l l t l li g m t f h k j i t ; 1
en s , ex rn a e ra a en o oc o n , e
’
t d
, en on o h f i t
e e , m di ranc o n e r o ss e us e us o r sus

bra n ch f us p n
o s y l ig m t ; 20 p t ll ;
e s or at l
en . a e a e x e r na p y li g m
e n so r t; f g t a mi
en (t h l li j t
, as ro c ne us e s o e us es us

c on dyl f ti b i ; 28 t b
e o it y f ti b i
a (A ft E l l n
u e ro s o a er e i f
n t f f ); f t d n f f ; g t d
ro n o
’
f
en p fi i l o o en on o su er c a

b ge B m A
, . , ,

er r- aut fu K fi n t l )
, na . r s er . d i g it l fl a ; h i t
ex o r m di , p y li g
n e r o ss e u s e us o r s u s e ns o r a

m t; i i
en . l li g m t ; 2 0 p t ll ;
. a n nu a r t a l en s , a e a e x er n a

co nd y l f ti b i ; 28
e o t f ti b i
a (A ft E ll b g c re
s o a er en er er

B m A n t fii K u tl )
.
.

au ,
a . r ns er .

The arti c ul ar i s g en u or sub c r ur eus i s a sm a ll muscl e whi ch li es u n de r the l o we r

p art o f th e v a st us i n te r m edi us an d i s i n se r t ed o n th e {sup r a p a tell ar c ul -de sac o f ,
-

the syn ov i a l me m b r an e .

Th e caps ul ari s i s a bse n t .

308 T HE M US CLE S OF T HE ox

I V I N TE RN AL MU S CLE S OF THE THI GH

.

The s ar to ri u s ar ises by tw o he a ds o ne f r o m the te n d on o f th e ps oa s mi n o r ,

a n d t he i l i a c f a s ci a the o the r f r o m the sh aft of th e i li u m The fem o r a l vessels

,
.

p a ss b etwee n the m .

Th e gr a ci 1i s is m o r e ext e n sively u n ited w ith i ts fell o w th an i n the h or se .

The p e cti n e u s is l ar ge a n d ar ises b y a si n gle he a d f r om th e pubi c c r est an d ,

FI G 2 2 1 —L E F I ’ ‘
T A ns u s or Ox W TH S OI YN 222 —L F
A U O O W T H S Y N OV AL S H H AN D
E T T RS S F x I I E AI
'‘
S

AL S H AT H AN D B U I N J CT D
. .

VI E S R S /E E E , B n I N J CT D I N T u NAL V W
s /E E E , ER IE .

E XT NAL V W ER I E '
1 P t ti ; 2 t d
e ro neu s f ti b i li
er t i w it h
us en on o a s a n er or
, ,

t ti t d f I d h th d b 3 l g d i g it l fl d it h th ;
’
1 P , ; I
e ro n e u s er us , en on o an s ea , an u rs a , on a e xo r a n s s ea

it s h s th ea t d i g iti t tii p
0
e x e n so r er ro 4 ti b i li p t i ; 6 d p d i g it l fl
a s os er o r d it h th
ee 6 a ex o r a n s s ea

p fi i l d i g it l fl
, , , , ,

pi ;r us t d f 2; en mm
on o h th f co on s ea o t d en fg t
on o mi d b
as 7
ro c ne us an u rs a , , su er c a a exo r

t d en f
o ns o t d i g iti t tii
e x e ns o r d t er an e x e ns o r an d it h th s 8s b t
ea . b ; ti b i ; b p xi m l
, su cu a n eo u s u rs a a . a , ro a

d i g it li l a s
g (8 on 4 p us l g,
d , e ro n e u s on us a n l li g m t : t
a nnu a r :d m t t
a en c, (A f t S h mi d t h
a rs u s ) , e a a rs u s . er c c en .

it s sh th ea 6 t , d i g iti q,
ti d i t
e x e ns o r uar an s

sh th
ea t d f g t en mi ; 7 on o as r o c ne us

p fi i l d i g it l fl
. ,

su er c a d it a h th ex o r an s s ea ,

8 t , d en f ti b i li
on o t i ti b i ; b p i
a s an er or , a , a , ro x

m l a l li g m t ; t
a nnu a r a ; d di t l
en c, a rs u s , s a an

l
n u ar li g m t : am t t en ; f e, t l e a a rs u s , e x e rn a

l t l li g m t (A ft S h mi d t h )
a e ra a en . er c c en .

p r epubi c t e nd o n I t divi des i n t o tw o b ran ches on e o f whi ch i s i n se r ted as i n the

.
,

h or se whi le the o the r exte n ds t o th e i n te r n a l epi c o n dyl e o f the femu r

, .

Th e a d d ucto r r ese m bl es th a t o f the h or se b ut d o es not r e a ch to the i n te r na l ,

c o n dyle .

Th e q u a d ra tu s f e m or i s a n d obtu ra to r e xtern u s r ese m bl e t h o se of th e h or se .

Th e o btu ra to r i nte rn u s ar ises fr o m the i s ch i um on ly a n d i ts te n d o n p a sses ,

th r o ugh t he o btu ra t or f or a m e n .

The g e m e llu s is l a r ge .
31 0 T HE M U S C LE S or T HE ox

The r ei nf o r ci ng b an ds f r o m t he su s pe n s or y li g a me n t a r e a rr a n ged as i n th e
f or e li m b .

4 The e xte n s or b r e vi s r ese m bles th a t o f th e h o r se but 1 3 I n se r ted on the t en

. ,

d on o f th e a n te r i o r exte n s or o n ly .

The pe r o n e u s l o n gu s (n o t p r ese n t i n the h or se ) is S i tu a t ed I n fr on t of th e l a te r a l

exte ns o r I t a r ises o n th e exte r n a l c o n dyl e of th e tibi a a nd t he fib r o us b an d whi ch
.

r ep r ese n ts the sh a ft o f the fi bul a I ts te n d on p a sses d o wn w ar d a n d b a ckw a r d .

o ve r t h e o ute r su r f a ce o f t he h o ck c r osses o ve r th a t of the l a te ra l exte n s o r a nd u n de r ,

FI G 2 24 —l ) i STA I P A T O L MB O
R F I F Ox W I T n S Y N O FI G 225 A T O L MB —D TA Ox W T H S
IS I O P R F I or I YN

AN D B U S I N J CT D P O T
. . . . . .

V ALI S HE AT u s R . E I N J CT DE E AN SH Vl A L O
E AT us V W E E , S ERI R IE .

TE mo n V W I E 1 S p fi i l fl t d ; I b h f ’
.
, u er c a exo r en on , ra n c es o

1 , T e nd o n of e x t e ns o r d g i iti t tii er ,
w ith b u rs a l ; I 1 pp p t f y v i l h th f I u er 2 ar o s no a s ea s o
'
, ,

2 ,
t e nd o n o f t i
a n er or e x t e ns o r ; b ra nc h o f 0
d p fl
ee t d ; e xo r b h f 2;
en on pp ra nc es o u er

w it h vi l
s y no a sh ea th 3 t
e nd o n O f t
e x e ns o r i ii
d g t p t f y vi l h t h f
ar o s 3 3 l t
no lb
a s h f ea o
0 '
a e ra ra n c es o

fi
, , ,

q uar ti it h b
,
w u rs a a . me t t
a a rs u s ; rs t ph l a a nx ; i t m di
n e ro s s e us p y li g m e t; b h
us o r s u s e ns o r a en r a nc

0 , s eco n d ph l a a nx . ( A ft er Sc h m d i t c he n . ) o f m t sa p fi i l fie t d ;
o su f tl k j i t ;
er c a exor en on a , e oc o n

b p t
, j i t;
as e rnffi j i t ; d o n l li g m t
c . co n o n , e , a n nu a r a en s

f , i l i t d i g it l li g m t (A ft S h m i d t h n )
c ru c a n er a a en . er c c e .

the l a te r a l li g am e n t a n d e n ds o n the fi r st t ar s a l b o n e (C u n eif o r m p ar vum ) I t i s

,
.

e n vel oped by a s y no vi a l she a th I t w o uld a pp a r e n tly ac t as a n i n w a r d r o t a t o r .

a t the h o c k j o i n t .

The pe ro n e u s te rtiu s is a wel l -devel o ped m uscle whi ch a r ises o n the c om m o n

te nd o n wit h the l o n g a n d i n te r na l exte n s o r s I t h a s a l a r ge fusi fo r m b elly whi ch .
, ,

i s supe r fici a l ly si tu a ted o n th e f r o n t o f the l eg C l ose t o the t a r sus i t e n ds on a .

fl a t te n d o n whi ch is pe r f o r a ted by th a t o f the ti bi a lis a n te r i or a n d e nd s o n the

, ,

l a rge m et at a rs a l a n d s ec o n d a nd thi r d (fused ) t a r s a l b o n es (C u n eifo r m m a g n um ) .

The tib i a li s a nte r i or is s m a l le r a nd a r ises by tw o he a ds The l a r ge r he a d ,

.
 M U S C LE S or T HE PI G —M U S CLE S or HE AD 31 1

sp r i ngs f r o m t he o ute r su r fa ce o f the t ube ro sity o f th e tibi a ; t he o ut er s m a l ler ,

o n e (M ext e n s o r h a ll u cis l o n gus) f r o m the uppe r p a r t o f th e e xt e r n a l b o r de r o f the

.

tibi a an d the fi b r o us b a n d whi ch r epl a ces t he sh a ft o f t he fi bul a The te n d on .

pe r f or a tes t h a t of t he p r e cedi n g muscle a n d e n ds o n the m et a t ars a l a n d sec o n d a nd

thi r d t ar s a l b o n es .

B P OS T E R I OR G R OU P
.

The g a s tr o c n e mi u s an d s o l e u s r ese m ble th o se o f th e h or se The s u per fi ci al .

fi exor is m o r e fl eshy t h a n i n th e h o r se I ts te n d o n ter m i n a t es as i n the f o r e li m b

'

. .

The d e e p fi exor h as i n its upper p a r t a cl ose r ese m bl a n ce t o th a t o f t h e h o rse ,

b ut t he supe r fi ci a l he a d (ti bi a lis p o ste r i o r ) i s l ar ge r a nd disti n ct Th e te n d o n e n ds .

l i ke th a t o n t he f o r e li mb .

MUSCLE S OF THE P I G
MUSCLE S OF HE AD
The f a ci al panni c ul u s i s p a l e thi n an d di ffi cult t o sep a r a te fr o m t h e ski n
, ,
.

Th e or b i c ul ar i s o ri s is l ittl e devel o ped .

The l e va to r na s o l a b i al i s is t hi n a n d p a l e a n d is u n di vi ded ,
.

The l e va tor l ab ii s u peri or i s pr opri u s ma y well b e te r m ed th e l e vat or r o s tri .

I t h a s a l ar ge pe nni f o r m bel ly whi ch a r ises i n th e f o ss a o n t he l a c r i m a l b on e a n d

,

m a xi ll a The te n d o n e n ds o n th e a n te r i o r p ar t o f th e os r o st r i
. A muscul a r slip .

c o nn ects it wi t h t he p r em axi ll a .

The z ygo mati c u s ar ises on t h e f a sci a o ve r t he m a sseter a n d e n ds at th e a n gl e

o f t he m o ut h .

T he d epr e s s or l abii i nfe ri o ri s sep a r a t es fr om t h e b uc ci n a t or onl y n e ar t he

a n gle o f the m o uth ; i t e n ds by a n u mb e r o f te n di n o us b r a n ches i n t he l o we r lip .

Th e d i l atat or nar i s l a teral i s i s well d evel o ped I t ar ises u n de r t he lev a t or .

r o st r i a n d e n ds by a t e n di n o us n etw o r k a r o u n d t he n o st r i l .

The d il a ta t or nari s tran svers u s is r ep r ese nt ed o nl y b y a few fib e r s wh i ch c r o ss

o ver t he os r o st r i .

The d epr e s s or r o s tri ar ises on the f a ci a l c r est I t h as a l o n g st r o n g te nd on .

whi ch p a sses b el o w th e n o st r i l a n d tu r n s up a n d i n w ar d t o m eet th e t en d o n of t he

o pp o site si de an d e nd i n t he s ki n of t he s n o ut I t dep r esses t h e s n o ut a n d con .

t r a cts the n o st r i l .

The m a l a r is i s a bse n t a n d t he o t he r p a lpeb r a l m uscles p r ese n t n o speci a l

,

fe atur es .

U
M SCL E S OF MAS TI CATI oN
The d i ga s tri cu s h a s o nl y o n e b elly I t e n ds on t h e i n n e r . an d l o wer su r f a c e
o f the m a n di b le i n f r o n t o f the gr oo ve for th e f a ci a l vessels
,
.

The o th er m uscl es h a v e n o i m p or t a n t di ffer ent i a l fe atur es .

The s am e is t r ue o f t he o r a l h y o i d mus cles .

MU SCLE S OF THE NE CK

T he p anni cu l u s c ar n o s u s c on sists of t w o l a ye r s wh i ch c r o ss e a ch other ob

l iq
u el y . T he fib e r s of t he supe r fi ci a l l a yer ar e d i r ected n e a r ly v e r ti c a lly t h ose of ,

the deep l a ye r t o w a r d t h e f a ce o n whi ch t hey are c on t i n ued t o f orm t he f a ci a l

,

p or ti on .

Th e ma s toi d o-h u m eral i s is desc r ib ed on p 3 1 4 . .

 m s er s s or TH E PI G

—
The ste rn o c eph al i cu s (S t er n o-m a s t o ideus ) a r is es o n t he st er n um a nd i s in
se rt e d by a l o n g r o u n d t e n d o n o n t he m a s t o i d p r oce
The t hyro id p o rt i on o f t h e s t e rn o thyr o-h y o id e u s h as a pec u li ar ar r an gemen t — .

I t a r ises (sep ar a t el y f r o m t he o pp o si t e mu s cl e ) o n t h e m an ub r i u m st er ni A b o ut .

t he middl e o f t he n eck i t h as an o bli que t e n di no us i nt er sect i o n b e y o n d w hi ch it .

di vi des i nt o tw o b r a n ches : o n e o f t hes e is i n e r t ed i n t he us u a l f a s hi on t he o t her s

,

e n ds o n t he l a r yn ge a l p r o mi n e n ce The h y o id p or t i o n is well d evel o ped

—
.
.

The omo hyo i d e u s is t hi n I t ar ises as i n t he h o r se b ut ha s n o c o nn ect i o n . .

with t he m as t o i d e -h u m er al i s n or w i t h t he o pp o si t e m us cle .

The omo-tr an s v er sari u s ar ises o n t he fir st or s ec on d cer vi c a l v ert eb r a (u n der

—
c o ver o f t he m as to i d o h um er al i s ) an d is i ns e rt ed i nt o t he l o we r p ar t of t he s c a pul ar .

spi n e .

Ther e ar e t w o s cal e ni The s cal en u s ven tral i s (s p r i m ae c o st ae) r esembles . .

FI G .
—S F P E R FI CI A L Mt sc r s s or P m Ar r s a R E, M OVAL or P a x x xc m vs CA R N OS
'
I S .

a, Le vt a or n a s o ab a p ro p i s : b fl h y sl i p o f b w hi h me f ro m p
l i li s : b . lev t a or l b ii
a i
s u pe r o ri s r u
'
. es c co s re

d il t t d d p i l t bi l i i : f d epres s l b ii i n fe i o i ; g z y g ro s t i

l i d o o c i p ital is c l i d —
m ml l ;
'

a a c a li a o r na r s a e ra s: e res s o r r : c. or cu ar s or s . or a r r s . o

ma i us : h m m t : i a"
. .

"
b c h i o ce p h l i m t i d eus p l vi l r i ) ; k
te n - ph al i u : I t n —
t c . a er . i ra - a c us l c e - c , e o as o . ars c a cu a s .
, .

r o ce h y id e
c s m om . s
s er rs i s:
o t p zi :
o u t i d ee p pec t a l ; p
. o -t ra n v e ar u n. n
’
. ra e us o. an er or or .

l ati i m us d o s i ; qb m b d
ss r lf i bliq i a b d o m i n is e t e n us :
o - o rs a p ne ros i o f ;
asc a : t p ti c ;
r o u us x r r
’
a o u s r s se r ra us os us
" d lt o i d e ;
.
, . .

t se t m g n :
, rra us pos te i d p pe t l :
a us u , p ra p i t w
r or ee l o n g h d f t i ep : y
c o ra r . su s na u .
. . u e us I , ea o r c s .

t al he d f t i p z t
e x e rn a o f i t ib
r ce hii : 1 b ra hi li s :
s: . e ns o r e te n o pi d ial i s : 3 e te n di gi ti
a s c ze an ra c , c a 9 x s r ca r ra . x so r

q t i : 5 t n di g iti q ui ti : 5 e te so
uar . . ex e sor pi l na ris ; l n h d f d ee p fl
n . : 7 gl t
x med i : S
n r ca r u u ar ea o e xo r .
u eu s us ,

te ns o rffi c i e l a tze : 9 1 0z b ic p f m i I I s mi t e d i os
. . : 1 2 se mi m e m b a n
e s ; I3 a ud al m
e c l es ;
or s : . e n n us . r os u s . c us

14 p i l d ip i s ec ti ( A f t e E l l e nb e g e i n Le ise ri ng s A tl a )
’

. a nn c u u s a os u s n on . r r r. s .

t h at o f th e ox is att a ched t o t h e l a st f o ur ce r vi c a l ve r t eb r a a n d is per for at ed by

.

t he n e r ves o f t h e b r a chi a l pl exus The s cal e n u s d or s al i s (s s u pr a c os t a l i s ) ar ises . .

o n t h e t r a ns ve r se p r o cesses o f th e t hi r d t o t h e si xt h ce r v i c a l v e r t eb ra a n d e n ds on ,

t he t hi r d r i b .

The strai ght mu s cl e s o f t he he a d p r es e nt no speci a l fe a t u r es .

The l on gus c o lli is sep ar a t ed f r o m t he o pp o si t e m uscl e so t h a t p ar t o f the .

b o di es o f t h e ce r vi c a l ve r teb rae is e x po sed as i n m a n .

The i n te rtr an s v e rs al e s r esemble t h o se o f t h e ox .

The spl e ni u s is t hi ck a n d e xt e ns ive I t e n ds i n t h r ee p a rts o n th e o ccipit al .

,

t he t e m p o ra l a nd t h e w i ng of t he a t l a s (i n c o n s t a n t )
. .

Th e tra ch e l o-m a sto i d e u s i s s m a ll a nd its at l a nt a l p o rt i on is bl e n ded wi t h t he ,

l o ngi ssi m us .

The c o mpl e xu s is l a r ge a n d is cle a r ly di vi ded i nt o t w o p o r ti on s : t he d or sal ,

314 M U S C LE S OF T HE PI G

MUSCLE S OF TAI L THE

Th e supe r i o r a n d l a te r a l s a c r o - c o ccyg e i a r ise a s fa r for w ar d a s th e l a st l umb ar
ve r teb r a G u r l t expl a i n s the t wi s t of the t a i l as bei n g due to t he spi r a l arr a n ge m e n t
.

Of the i n se r ti o n s o f the te n d on s .

MUSCLE S OF THE THOR ACI C L I MB

MUSCLE S OF THE SHOU LDE R GI R DLE
Th e trap e z iu s i s ve r y wi de i ts l i n e o f or igi n exte n di n g f r o m t h e o c cipit a l b o n e
,

t o the te n th th o ra ci c ve r teb r a Ther e is no cl e a r di vi si o n b etwee n i ts t w o p ar ts

.
,

whi ch a re b oth i ns e r ted i n t o the sc a pul ar spi n e .

The omo-tr a n s v e r s ari u s r esembles th a t o f th e ox .

The rh o mb o id e u s c on sists o f th r ee p or ti on s Th e ce rvi c a l p or ti on (B h o m

.

b o id eu s ce r vi c a lis ) i s g r e a tly d evel o ped i ts o r igi n exte n di ng f r o m the sec o n d ce r vi

,

ca l t o the sixth th o r a ci c ve r teb r a The c e ph ali c p or ti o n (R h o m b o ideus c a pitis )

.

a r ises wi th the spl e n i us o n the o cci pit a l b o n e a n d i s i n se r ted wit h th e ce r vi c a l p a r t

, .

The d o r s al p o r ti o n (R h o mb o i deus t h or a ca l i s) e xte n ds as fa r b a ck as the n i n th or

te n th t h o r a ci c ve r teb r a .

The l a ti s s imu s d o r s i is a tt a ch ed t o the f o u r r ibs p r ecedi ng th e l a st I t is .

i nse r ted i nt o the i n te r n a l li p o f the bi cipi t a l g r oo ve .

The ma s toi d o h u mer ali s d ivides i n t o tw o p a r ts th e cl e i d o -m a stoi d e u s a n d

-
,

cl e i d o o ccipital i s , wh i ch a r ise o n the m a st o i d p r o cess a n d o ccipit a l c r est r especti vely

-
,

a nd u nite a t the fib r o us vestige o f t he cl a vi cl e .

The anter i o r s up er fici a l p e cto ral i s thi n T h e p o s teri o r s u per fi c i al p e cto ra l

.

is d ivid ed i n t o p ar ts one of wh i ch e n ds on th e h u m e r us th e o th e r on th e f a s ci a
, ,

o f the f o r e a r m .

The d e e p pe cto ral is cl e ar ly di vi ded i n t o t w o p a r ts Th e s c a pu l ar por ti o n .

r ese m bles th a t Of the h or se b ut i ts o r igi n d o es n ot exte n d b ehi n d t he fi r st tw o

,

ch o n d r o ste r n a l j o i n ts The p o ste r i or d e e p p e cto ra l i s v er y l o ng

-
. .

Th e ce r vi c a l p or ti o n of the s e rr atu s m a gn u s i s g r e a tl y devel o ped i ts o r i gi n ,

exte n di n g f r o m the wi n g Of the a tl a s t o the uppe r p a r t o f the fifth ri b a nd p a ssi n g ,

u n de r the th o r a ci c p or ti on ; the l a tter r esembles th a t Of th e o x .

U
M SCL E S OF THE SHO L DE R U
The d e lto i d i s u n divi ded ; it a r ises f r o m th e a p on e u r o sis c o ve r i n g th e i n fr a
s pi na t u s a nd i t e n ds l ar gely o n the delt o id r idge but p a r tl y o n the f a sci a o f t he
, ,

arm .

The supra spi na tu s is l a r ge ; i t e n ds chi efly on the exte r n a l t ube r o sity o f the
hume r us .

The i nf ra spi na tu s is i nse r ted i n t o a dep r essi o n bel o w th e p o ste r i o r divisi o n Of

t he exte r n a l tube r osity .

The tere s mi n o r i s well d evel oped ; i t e n ds on a t ube r cle b etwee n th e exte rna l
a n d del t o i d t ube ro siti es Of the hu m e r us .

The sub sc apul a ri s a n d te r e s m a j or h ave no r em a r k a bl e fe a t ur es .

The c o ra c o -b ra c hi al i s i s sh or t a n d u n divided .

T h e c apsul ari s is ve r y s m a ll a n d f r eq ue n tly a bse n t .

MUSCLE S OF THE AR M
The b ic eps b ra c h ii is fusi f or m a n d n ot g r e a tly devel o ped I t s te n d on o f or i gi n .

i s r o u n ded a n d p a sses th r o ugh the c a psule o f the sh o ulde r j o i n t Th e te n d o n o f .

i nse r ti o n is b ifid e ndi n g o n t he r a di us a n d ul na

, .
 M U S C LE S OF T HE F OR E A R M AND DI GI TS 31 5

The b rach i ali s i s well devel o ped a n d a ls o e n ds on th e r a di us a nd u l n a

, .

Th e te n s o r fa s ci ae a nti b r ac h i i r esemb les t h a t o f the h o r se .

The l o n g h e a d o f th e tr i ce ps i s d i vi ded i nt o t w o p a r ts except a t i ts d ist a l en d , ,

u n der whi ch t he r e is a sy n o vi a l bu r s a The e xtern al h e a d i s i n se r ted i n t o a c r est

.

on the o ute r su r f a ce o f t he Ol ec r an o n by a thi n te n d o n u n de r wh i c h the r e is a ,

b u r s a Th e i n tern al h e ad a r ises n e ar th e he a d o f the

.

h ume r us b e n e a t h t h e c or a c ob ra e h i a l i s
,
.

Ther e ar e tw o anc one i .

U
M SCLE S OF THE F ORE ARM AN D DI GI TS
Th e e xte ns o r c arp i r a di al i s i s a st r o n g fl esh y muscl e , ,

t he te n d o n of wh i ch i s i n se r ted i n t o the p r o xi m a l en d of
t he thi r d m et a c a r p a l b o n e I t m ay be divid ed i n t o tw o
.

p ar ts (M ext e n s o r c a r pi r a di a l is l o n gus b r evi s )

.
,
.

The e xte n s or c a rpi o b l i q u u s i s w el l d e v e l o p e d ; it e n ds

on the sec o n d m et a c a r p a l b o n e .

The r e ar e t h r ee (or f o ur ) d i gi tal e xten s o r s .

1 Th e c o mm o n o r a nt e r i o r d i gi ta l e xte n s o r (M ex
. .

te ns or digit a lis c o mmu n is ) a r ises on the exte n s o r epi c on

dyle o f t he h ume r us a n d th e l a ter a l l ig a me nt o f th e elb o w ,

a nd di vides i n t o t hr ee p a r ts Th e te n d o n of th e i nn e r
.

par t d i vi des i n t o tw o b r a n ch es whi ch en d on the s e c o n d

and thi r d d i gi t s ; t h e te n d o n t o th e se c o n d d igi t is s m a l l

a nd o fte n a bse n t The te n d o n o f t h e mi d d l e par t divides

.

l o wer d o w n i n t o tw o b r an ch es for th e th i r d an d fo ur th
(chi ef ) d i g its ; a b o ve t hi s b ifur c ati o n it d et a ch es a sm a ll
b r a n c h to the s e c o n d d i gi t wh i ch usu a lly u n ites wi th th e
,

te n d o n of t h e exte n s o r i n di ci s T h e te n d on o f t h e d e e p
.

h e a d divides i nt o tw o b r a n ches th e i nn er on e j o i n i n g t he
,

t e n d o n o f t he mi d dl e h e a d w hi l e th e o uter on e en ds on
,

227 —
t he fif th d i gi t .

F MU CL AN T IG S ES or I
2 The e xte n s or o f th e s e c o n d d i gi t (M
. .

. exten s or B AC H U M AN D MAN U S
.
R I

i n di ci s p r o p r i us ) i s c o ve r ed b y th e p r eced i n g m uscle O P AN T O E x
,
F IG , ER -

T NAL V W ER IE
w ith whi ch i t is p a r ti a ll y fused I t a r ises on th e ul n a
.

E t pi
. .

'
0 a x e n so r car
I ts d el i c a te te n d o n usu a ll y u ni tes with t h e ten d on of th e
, ,

d i li ; b t ra pi a s , e x e ns o r ca r

m iddl e he a d o f t he c o mm o n ext en s o r w hi ch g o es t o th e Ob li q ( bd t p ll i i uus s . a u c or o c s

s ec o nd d i gi t
l g ); d mm on us c, , e, co on or
.

t i d ig i t l t a n er or
; a ex enso r c
’

3 T he l a te ra l d i gi tal e xte n s o r (M e xte n s o r digi t a lis

,

. .
" t d f i ti c f en o ns o ns e r on o c,
‘

” t ”
l a te r a li s ) c on sists of tw o disti n ct p ar ts : (1 ) Th e l ar ge d d d f I ;
'
, , en o ns o ( e
’
, e ,

t d Of ; f t d f ons en on o
d or s al (a n t er i o r ) mu s c l e (M exte ns o r digiti q u a r ti p r o
en e .

t i di i ; g t e x e ns o r n c s , e x e n s or

p r i us ) h as a l o n g te n d o n whi ch e n d s on th e f o u rth d i gi t , d i g iti q ti ; h t uar ,

ex ensor

m d i g iti q i ti ; h t d f ’

a n d o fte n se n ds a sli p t o th e fifth d igi t ()

2 The s ll u n en on o

d k fl hy
a ,

t nd i
.

h; e nou s , a n es
v o l ar (p o ste r i or ) mu s c l e (M exte n s o r di giti q ui n ti pr o
,

.
p t f fl pi t ar; o ex o r c a r e x er nus

p r i us ) e n ds b y a l o n g te n d o n on the l a te r a l a spect o f the k t d n f k ; l l h d f ’

, en o o , u na r ea o

d p di g it l fl ; m p fi e xor su er
fif th d i gi t ee a ,

i l d i g it l fl h i li
.

; b c a a ex o r n , ra c a s.

The s upi na to r h as bee n f o u n d by Arl oi ng a n d Les b r e (A ft E ll b g , i L i er en er er, n e s

b ut i s usu a l ly a bse n t i n th e pi g .
i g A tl ) er n
’
s as .

Th e pr ona tor ter e s is a sm a l l muscl e whi ch li es on t he

i n ter n a l l a tera l lig am e n t of th e elb o w I t ar ises fr o m the i n te r n a l epi c on dyl e Of
.

the hume r us a nd r e a ch es a b o ut to the middl e o f the i nn e r b or de r o f t he

, '
ra di us .

The fl e xor car pi in tern u s i s wel l devel o ped I t a r ises on th e fl exor ep i cond yl e .

Of the h ume r us a n d is i n se r ted i n t o th e thi r d met a c a r p a l b on e

,
.

The fl e x or car pi m e d i u s is n arr o w an d h a s n o ul n a r h e a d .

31 6 MU S C L E S OF T HE PI G

T he fl exor c arpi e xt ern u s (M exte n s o r c a r pi u l n a r is ) i s c o ve r ed b y a thi ck

.
,

t e ndi no us b a nd whi ch e x te n ds f ro m the exte n s o r epi c o ndyl e t o th e a c cess or y c a r p a l

,

b o ne a n d o ute r a spect o f th e c a r pus The te n d o n o f the m uscle pe r f or a tes this

.

b a n d i n the dist a l p a r t o f the f o r e a r m a n d e n ds o n t he p r oxi m a l e n d o f the fift h

met a c a r p a l b o n e .

The sup e r fi ci al digital fl e x or h a s t w o belli es The te n d o n o f th e s u pe r fi ci al .

h ea d p a sses d o w n behi nd t he p o ste r i o r a nn ul a r lig a m e n t o f t he c a r p us (b o u n d

d o w n by a spe c i a l a n n ul a r l ig a m e n t ) f o r m s a r i n g a t the fetl o ck fo r a te n d on o f
,

the d eep fl ex or a n d e n ds by t w o b r a n ches on the sec o n d ph a l a n x o f the f o ur th

,

di gi t The te nd o n o f the d e e p h ea d a fte r det a chi n g a sli p t o the t en d on o f th e

. ,

d eep fl exo r p a sses d o w n wi th the l a tte r (for whi ch it f or m s a r i n g ) a n d e n ds o n

, ,

th e thi r d d i git
The d e e p d igita l fl exor h a s th r ee he a ds —h u m e ra l ul n ar a n d r a d i a l T h e
.

.
, ,

c o m mon te n d o n di vides i n t o fo u r b r a n ches t he l ar ge r c e n t r a l p a i r e n di n g on

,

the thi r d p h a l a nges o f the p r i n ci p a l digi ts t he sm a l l e r p a i r o n t he a ccess or y

,

digits The l atte r a re b o u n d d o w n by a pecu li ar spi r a l b a n d

.
The r e i s n o che ck .

lig a m e n t .

The lumb ri c a l e s a r e r ep r ese n ted by b u n dl es whi ch e x te n d f r o m th e deep fl exor

te nd o n to the te n d on o f th e deep he a d of th e s upe r fici a l fl e xo r .

The thi r d a n d f o ur th i n te r o s s e i a re p r ese n t E a ch se n ds tw o sli ps t o th e c or.

r esp on di n g ses a mo i d b o n es a nd exte n s o r te n d on .

The r e a re fl e xor s , a d du ct or s a n d a bd uctor s o f t h e s e c o nd a n d fif th d i gi ts

, .

MUSCLE S OF THE PE LVI C LI MB

SUB LUM BAR Mu scLE s

The p s o a s mi no r is i n ti ma tel y u n i ted wi th th e ps o as m a j o r i n f r on t a n d h as a
l o ng s ma ll te n d o n whi c h e n ds on t he ps o a s t ube r cl e I t h as n o th or a c i c p a r t . .

The p s oa s m a j or is l a r ge a nd r o u n ded I t begi n s at th e l a st r i b . .

The q u a d ra tu s lumb or u m i s wel l d evel o ped a n d ext en ds f or w ar d as far a s ,

the twelfth ri b .

MU SCLE S OF THE HI P AN D THI GH

The te n s or fa s ci ze l a tae is b ro a d ,
and i ts fl eshy p ar t r e a ches a lm o st t o the pa

The glute u s s u perfi ci ali s h a s a s a c r a l he a d o n l y ; i t ble n ds with th e bi ceps

fe m o r is .

The glute u s m e d i u s h as a s m a ll lu m b a r p a r t whi ch d o es n ot ext e n d so far

f or wa r d as i n the h or se Th e deep p ar t (G l ute us a ccess or i us ) i s p r etty cle ar ly
.

m a r ked .

The glute u s pr o fun du s i s ext e n si ve r e a chi n g n e a r ly t o t he exte r n a l a n gl e o f th e

,

il i um .

The b ic e ps f e m or i s h as a n arro w o r i gi n f r om t h e s a c r o sci a ti c lig a m e nt a n d -

tube r i schi i I t e n ds b el o w l i ke th a t o f th e o x
. .

The s e mite n d i n o s u s r esembl es th a t of th e h or se .

The s e mi m e mb ran o su s h a s t w o i n se r ti o n s as i n the o x .

The s arto r i u s h a s t w o h e a ds o f o r i gi n betwee n whi ch t he exte r n a l i li a c vessel s

,

a r e sit u a ted Th e i nn e r a r ises f r om the te n d o n of th e ps o a s m i n or t h e o ute r o ne

.
,

f ro m the i l i a c f a sci a .

The gra ci l e s ar e u n ited a t th ei r or igi n eve n m o r e th a n i n the ox .

Th e p e cti ne u s i s wel l d evel o ped a n d i s fl atte n ed f r o m b ef o r e b a ckw a r d .

T h e a dducto r sh o ws n o d i visi o n a n d i s p a r ti a lly fused wi th th e g r a ci l i s It .

e nds o n the fe m u r j ust a b o ve the o r i gi n o f the g a st r o c n e m i us .

31 8 T HE MU S C L E S or T HE D OG

THE MU SCLE S OF THE DOG

MUSCL ES OF THE FACE
The pann i culu s c ar no su s is well d evel o ped an d p r ese n ts tw o dist i n ct b an ds ,

on e o f whi ch is i n se r ted i n t o t he l o we r li p the o the r i n t o t h e scutif o r m c a r til a ge o f ,

the ear .

Th e or b i cul ari s ori s i s p oor l y d evel o ped I n the upper l ip i t i s divided cen .

tr al l y a n d i n the l o we r i t i s d isti n ct o nl y n e a r t h e a n gles o f th e m o uth

,
.

The l e va to r n a s o l ab i al i s i s wi d e an d u n divided a nd e n ds i n t h e uppe r l i p ,

.

The l ev ator l ab i i sup e ri o ri s pr opri u s a r ises b ehi n d the i nf ra or b it a l f or a m e n ,

r u ns f or w a r d u n der the p r ecedi n g muscl e a n d e n ds i n n u m e r o us sm a l l te n d on s ,

a r o u n d the n o st r il s o me bl e n di n g wi th th o se of t he o pp o site si de
,
.

The zyg o m a ti cu s l o ng a nd na rr o w a r ises on th e scuti f or m c ar ti l a ge a nd

, , ,

e nds a t the a n gl e of th e m o ut h .

FI G . 229 .
—
MU CL S ES or H AD E or D OG
t i i l m s l s; d h
S c u t u l a ri s ; b a n tit gi ; f f z y g m a ti s o t f w hi c h li i ;
°
a c. a n er or a u r cu a r u c e e c s e, ra cus o cu u o

i l : h p ti d —
, , , , ,

a po ti i r t ; a s li p o f p
on s cu , a nc l i : i m as e t ; k m a l i ; l l e v a t r n
a nn cu us . a ro l b i li s ;
o u u ar s , s er , ar s , o as o a a

m l v t , e l b ii p i i p p i ;
a or a d il t t
su i s l te a li s ; p b i a t o (b
er or s
n ro r us n, li m l i s ) ; q t a to
a a or ar a r o. , ucc n r u cca s, o ar ,
re r c r

a g li o i s ;
n u d i g as t ri
r ; my l h y oi d
r, ; 1 b as e o f on h ; 2 pa
c us s, ti d g l nd ;
o- p o ti d d c t ; 3 su b m a i l
eu s , c c a ,
ro a ar u , x

l y g l d ; 4 b m ill y l y mph g l a nd s ; 6 b
ar an su ax l g l nd ; 6 z y g m ti c h ; 7 m i ll a ; 8 d
ar m n as i ;
u cca a s o a a rc ax o rs u

ti d l y mph g l nd (E lle be g e B m A n t d H nd )
, , , , ,

9 p ,
a ro a . n r r- au , a . . u es .

The d e pr e s s or l a bii i nf eri o r i s is a bse n t u nl ess w e r ec o gn i z e as su ch a thi n ,

st r at u m a r isi n g on the b o dy o f th e m a n d ibl e an d sp r e a di n g o u t i n th e o r bi cul ar is .

The r e ar e n o speci a l na s al mu sc l e s , the h o m o l o gue o f the l a te r a l dil a t o r e n di n g

a l mo st e n ti r el y i n the uppe r l ip .

T h e bu cc i na tor is wi d e a n d ver y thi n a n d th e tw o pl a n es o f fibe r s c r o ss e a c h ,

o the r .

The pa lp e b ral mu s cl e s p r ese nt no ve r y n o tew or thy spe ci a l ch ar a cte r s .

MU SCLES OF MASTI CATI ON

Th e m a s s e te r is l a r ge I t ar ises fro m th e zyg o m a ti c ar ch a nd e xte nds b ey o n d
.
,

the b r an ch o f th e ja w bel o w a n d beh i n d Th r ee st r a t a may b e r ec o g n i z ed i n its .

st r u ctu r e .

T he te mp o ral i s is ve r y l ar ge a nd st r o n g a n d c o n t a i n s m uch te n di n o us tissue ,

.

I t ar ises f r o m the t emp o r a l f o ss a a n d t he o r bit a l lig a m e n t .

 H Y OI D M U S C L E S -
M U SCLE S or T HE T H OR A C I C LI MB 31 9

Th e di gas tri c u s is us u a lly not dig a st r i c b ut i s a st r o ng r o u n d fl eshy m uscl e , , , ,

whi ch ar i ses on t h e p ar am a st o id or styl o i d p r o cess an d is i nser ted i n t o t he b or de r

an d i nn e r sur f a ce o f the r a m us a t th e level o f t h e l a st m o l a r t eeth .

The styl o m an di bul ar is i s a bse n t -

.

HYOI D MUSCL E S
The myl o -hyo i d e u s is well devel o ped .

Th e s tyl o - hy o i d e u s is ve r y sl e n de r a n d i s i n se r ted i n t o th e b o dy ,
of the hy o i d
b on e : i t is not pe r for a ted by th e dig a st r i cus .

F C AL M US C L E S o D
FI G . 23 0 .
—S UP
A FT R M O AL o P ANN CU L U S CA N OS U
ER I I r oc , ER E V r I R S .

1 L v t l b i li ; 2 l v t l b i i p i i p p i ; 3 d il t t
, e a o r n as o a a i l t s li ; 4 , b e i t a or a su er or s ro r us , a a o r na r s a e ra s , u c c na o r

6 , t t r e ra c g li ri i i ; 6 z y g m ti ; 7 m l i : 8 m t ; 9 d i g t i ; 1 0
or a n u o s s . r s or u s t l i ; 11
, o a cu s . a ar s a s se e r , as r c u s , s cu u ar s ,

—
,

o th ri ul
er a u m l ; 1 2 p tid
c ar ri u l i ; 1 3 m y l h y id ; 1 4 t
u s c es h y id
, ; 1 5
a ro t th y id
o -a u i c ar s , o- o eu s . s e r n o- o eu s , s e r no- ro eu s

pl ni ; 1 7 l m b d l f i ; I8 t bd mi i ; 1 9 b li q b d mi i te p i
— yg
s e us , u o o rsa as c a
; , re c u s a o n s , o uus a o n s ex rnu s a o n e u r os s

f p di g; 20 i t t l m l ; 21 i ; 22 p i ; 23
i f i ; 2 4 g t t h t ; 2 5 j g ul v i n ; b b hi —ph l i ; d l v i l ; f t p z i ;
o re c e n , n e rc o s a yg usc e , s a c r o c o cc eu s a c c ess o r u s , sa c r o-cocc eu s su er or . s ac r o

c occ yg e us n er or , r ea r oc a n er , u ar e 0 . , c, ra c o ce a c us , c a c e e, , ra e us

g , t v i i ; h om t n
se r r a u s ce r i ; i l ti i m
c s d i ; k p t i d p p t l ; l p pi t ;
, o - ra s v e rs a r u s . a ss us o rs , os e r o r ee ec o r a . su r as na u s

m m d lt i d ;
,
’
,i f pi t ; t i p l g h d ;
e o n , ti p
n r as t l h d ; b hi li ; q t
na u s o, pi
r ce s, on ea o
'
, r ce s . e x e r na ea ra c a s , e x e n so r c a r

r ad i li ; a gl t m ed i ;
s r , gl t u p fi i li ; t t t n
eu s f i l t ; us t i ; b i p f m ri s ;
s, u eu s s u er c a s ,
’
, e sor as c ae a aa u , sa r o r us v, ce s e o
'
v ,

f i l t ; w m it di
as c a a a ; mi m mbse ; y t i ; z g i li ; 2 6 p
en no s u s t t ; 27 fi
z se pi e r a n os u s s a r o r us r ac s ro n a or e r es ex or c a r

p fi i l
, , , , , ,

ra d i il : 2 8 fl
a s pi l i ; 2 9 ti b i li
, ex or c a r t i ; 3 0 p p li t ; 3 1 d p d i g it l fl
u na r s ; 82 , a s an er or , o e us , ee a exo r , su er c a

d i gi t l fl a ; 88 g t mi ; 3 4 p i
ex o r f , p l ; p ti d g l d w ith ' i t d t ; fl b m ill y g l d ; 8
as r o c ne us , s ne o s ca u a a , a ro an ,
a , s uc , su ax ar an ,

b m xi ll y l y m ph g l p ti d l y m ph g l nd : s i nf i b l gl (A ft E ll
'
L i i ng s
’
su a d :ar an d s b g a roi a . er or ucc a an s . er en er e r, n e ser

A tl as ) .

The h y oi d e u s tr an sv er s u s and om o-h y o i d eus ar e a bse n t

'

The s tern o -th yr o -h yoi d eu s is l ar ge a nd a r ises chi efly on t he fi r st c o st a l c ar ti

MUSCL ES OF THE THORACI C LI MB

The trape z i u s i s t hi n a n d is n ot cl e ar l y d i v i d ed i n t o ce r vi c a l an d th or a ci c ,

p or ti o ns I ts l i n e o f or igi n ext e nds fr o m a b o ut th e m idd le of th e n eck t o th e

.

ni n th or t e n t h th o r a ci c spi n e t h e r ight a n d l eft m uscles meeti n g o n a m edi a n ,

fib r o us r a ph e .

Th e o m o -tran s ver sar i u s ar i ses b y a te n d o n o n th e l o we r p ar t of the S pi n e of

the s c a pul a (o fte n p ar ti a lly bl en ded w it h t he t r a pez i us ) and i s i nse r ted i nt o th e ,

wi n g of t he a tl a s .
32 0 T HE M U S C LE S OF T HE D OG

T h e r h o mb o id e u s c o n s i s ts o f th r ee p ar ts Th e d or s a l p o rti o n (R h o m b o id eus .

th o r a c a l i s ) is s m a ll ; it a r ises f r o m the f o u r th t o the sixth o r seve n t h t h o r a ci c

S pi n e , a n d i s i n se r ted i n t o the i nn e r su r f a ce (chi efly ) o f the d o r s a l a n gl e o f t he sc a p

ul a T h e ce rvi c a l p o r ti on (R h o m b o id eu s ce r vi c a lis ) a r ises f r o m the lig a m e n tu m

.

n u c h ze a s fa r f o r w a r d a s th e sec o n d o r thi r d ce r vi c a l v e r teb r a , a n d i s i n se r ted i n t o

the i n n er su r f a ce o f the ce r vic a l a n gle o f t he sc a pul a The c e ph al i c p or ti on (R h om .

h o id e ns c a pit is ) is a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f
the p r ecedi n g w h i ch is i n se r ted i n t o
the o ccipit a l c r est .

The l a ti s s i mu s d or s i i s exte n sive ,

a nd h a s a fl eshy a tt a ch m e n t t o th e

l a st tw o r i bs I ts l o we r edge ble n ds
.

n e a r the sh o uld e r with th e p a nn i

cul u s
—
.

Th e ma s toi d o h u meral i s c on
t a i n s i n f ro n t o f th e sh o ulde r a
fi b r o us m a ss i n wh i ch th e cl a vi cle is
e mbedd ed A n te r i o r t o th i s it sep a
.

ra tes i n t o t w o d i ve r gi n g p o r ti ons .

The d or s a l p or ti o n (M cleid o-ce r vi .

c a l l s ) i s a tt a ched t o th e medi a n ra ph e

o f the n eck a n d t o t he o ccipit a l b on e .

The v entr a l por ti o n (M cleid o m a s .

-

t o i d e u s ) is a tt a ch ed t o the m a st o i d
p r o cess T he c o m m o n m a ss p o ster i or
.

to t he cl a vi cl e a n d t he fib r o us i n te r
secti on whi ch i s a tt a ch ed t o th e
,

hu m e r us is h o m o l o g o us with th e
,

cl a vi cul a r p o r ti o n o f th e delt o id o f
ma n .

T he su pe rfi ci a l p e ctora l m uscl e
is s m a l l I t a r i ses on th e ste r n u m .

f r o m th e fi r st t o th e thi r d c o s t a l
c ar til a ge a n d is i n se r ted i nt o t he ,

a n te r i o r su r f a ce o f th e hu m e r us A .

supe r fi ci a l sli p d e t a ched f r o m it is

i nse r ted i n t o th e f a sci a o f the f or e
arm Th e d e e p p e cto ra l h as no pr e .

sc a pul a r p o r ti o n I t a r ises o n the .

—v m w M m H AD N C K AN D
. ster n u m a n d c o st a l c a r til a ges f r om
use u op E , E ,

T H O AX O DO R
th e sec o n d c o st a l to th e xi ph o i d car
F G

b d ig t ; t h y id ;
ti l a ge
,
I t I
ns
S i n se r ted ch iefl y i n t o th e
r1 c u s e . s e r no - o e 1 1s

c
'
. t s th y d
e r no - ; d t pl li
r ox e u s
; b hi , s e r n o- ce ia c us e, ra c o
. ;

ceph li ; a b
c us p l i ; a p fi i l p t l; h
su sca u ar s I n te r n a l tU b er OS I ty Of th e humer us
su er c a ec o ra
, , :
d p p t l; i t bd mi i ; k b li q b d mi i
ee ec o ra . re c us a
but a ls o by 5 11 1 3 “ S l l p S i n t o the ex
o n s , o u us a o n s
l
e x e rnu s; I l g h d f t i p ; m i t
on l h d f
ea o r ce s n e r na ea o
te r n a l t U b e l OS I ty a n d the f a sc 1 a Of
,
,

ti p ; bi p b h ii ;
’

r ce s n, 1
ce l i li ;
s ra c 0 , ) ra c i a s

m ill y l y m ph g l d : 3 t h y i d g l d ; 8 x t
ax ar an s l t he a r m‘
ro an e e rn a

B m A t d H d )
. .
,

j g l vi
u u ar ( E ll
e n b g . en er
The s err a tu s m a gn u s sh o ws n o
e r- au , na . . un es .

cl e ar d ivisi on i n t o ce r vi c a l a nd th o r
a c i c p o r ti o ns I t a r ises f r o m the l a st five ce r vi c a l ve r teb rae a n d th e fi r st seve n
.

o r eight r ibs a n d is i n se r ted i n t o the uppe r p a r t o f th e c o st l su r f a ce o f th e

, a
sc a pul a .

The d e lto id is cle a r ly di vid ed i n t o sc a pul a r a nd a c ro mi a l p a r ts th e for m e r ,

a r isi n g o n th e spi n e the l a tte r o n th e a c r o m i o n o f t he sc a pul a B o t h e nd on t h e

, .

delt o id tube r o sity .

32 2 T HE M US C LE S OF T H E D OG

The tere s m a j or i s thi ck I t a r ises on t he uppe r p a r t o f t he p oste r i o r b o r de r .

of th e sc a pul a a n d o n the subsc a pul a r is .

The c ora c o -b ra chi a li s i s sh o r t a n d u nd ivid ed a n d i s i nse r ted i n t o the uppe r ,

p a r t o f t he p oste ro i nte r na l su r f a ce o f the h u m e r us - .

Th e c a psul a r is is a bse n t .

The b i c ep s b ra chi i l i es a l m o st e nt i r ely o n th e i nn e r

su r f a ce o f t he h ume r us I t is l o n g a n d fusi f o r m Th e . .

te n d on o f o r igi n is r o u n d a n d p a sses t h r o ugh t he c ap ,

sule o f the sh o ulde r j o i n t The te n d on o f i n ser ti o n i s .

b i fld o n e b r a n ch bei n g a tt a ch ed t o th e ul n a r the o the r , ,

t o the r a di a l t ube r o sity .

The b ra c hi al i s is ve r y l i ttl e cu r ved an d i s i nse r ted ,

ch i efly i n t o the tub e r osity a n d i nn e r b or d e r of the ul n a .

The ten s o r f a s ci ae a nti b r a chi i i s thi n a n d n a rr o w .

I t a r ises o n the o ute r su r f a ce o f th e l a tissi mus d or si ,

a nd e n ds o n th e Ol ec r a n o n a n d t h e f a sci a o f th e f o r e a r m .

Th e tri c eps h as a n a ddi ti o n a l d eep h e a d (C a put

a ccess o r i u m ) wh i ch a r ises j ust b el o w th e h e a d o f th e ,

h u m e r us .

The b r a c hi o-ra di al i s is a l on g n a rr o w deli c a t e , ,

m uscle sit u a ted supe r fi ci a lly o n th e a n te r i o r su rf a ce of ,

the f or e a r m I t a r ises w i t h t he exte ns or c ar pi on the .

c r est a b o ve t he ext e ns o r ep i c o n dyle o f t he hu m e r us ,

a n d i s i n se r ted i n t o t he di st a l p a r t o f the i nn e r b or de r

o f the r a d i us I t is o fte n m u ch r ed u ced a n d is s o me .

,

ti m es a bse n t I t r o t a tes the fo r e ar m an d pa w o u t .

w ard .

The e xte n s or c ar pi d i vi d es i nt o t w o p a r ts Th e .

l ar ge r o ute r p ar t th e e xte n s or c ar pi ra d i al i s b r e vi s , e nd s
“

o n the p r o xim a l en d o f the t hi r d met a c ar p a l b o n e .

The i nn e r a n d m or e supe r fi ci a l p ar t th e e xte n s o r ,

c ar pi ra d i al i s l o ngu s , e n ds o n th e sec on d m et a c a r p a l
bon e (A te n d on t o t he fo u r th met a c ar p a l m ay o ccu r ) . .

The e xt e n s or c ar p i o b l i q uu s or a b d u cto r po ll i ci s
l o ngu s a r ises f r o m the o ute r b o r der an d a nte r i or
F 233 — M
1G A
su r f a ce o f th e ul n a the i n te r o sse o us lig a me n t a n d
u s c l es or NT I BRA

C H UM AN D l fl
. . .

, ,
DO
I A N US o r G
the o ute r b o r de r of th e r a d ius I t is i n se r ted i n t o
,

E XT NAL V w ER i e .
.

T i p b a h ii ; b b
, hi the fi r st m et a c ar p a l b o n e by a te n d on whi ch c o nt a i n s
r ce s ra c , ra c

a li ; s xt c. e p i d i li ; d a s m a ll (ses a m o id ?) b o n e
e ns o r c a r ra
I t a bd ucts the fi r st digit
a s , . .

co mm t i d i g it l t
on or a n er or a ex e n
' ” The r e a r e th r ee (o r f o u r ) e xte n s o r s o f th e d i gi ts
l d d
.
sor ; ( , t f, en o ns o

p d i g ; l t l d ig i t l t
re c e n e, a1 The c o mm o n d i gi ta l e xte n s o r (M exte n s o r di gi
e ra a ex en . .

f t d f p di g; g
a lis c o m m u n i s ) a r ises o n th e exte n s o r epi c o n dyl e o f
’
sor ; c , ,
t
en o ns o re c e n ,

ex e t n pi l i ; h h H
s o r ca r u na r s
’
ax o r
th e hu m e r us a nd the l a te r a l l ig a me nt of the elb o w
, ,

car pi l i ; i t u na r s pi b , e x e ns o r c a r o

l iq u us( bd t p lli i l g ) ; j o i nt I t h as f o u r belli es e a c h te r m i n a ti n g i n a t e n d on

s . a uc or o c s on us .
,
.

k i t
, i; I b
n e ro s s e h f mp These , ra n c
a r e i n se r ted i n t o th e thi r d ph a l a n ges o f t h e
es ro re

ce di g t n t t d ; 1 l
o e x e n so r en o ns , 0 e

c ra n o n : 2 di ; 3 t pi
.
sec o n d thi r d f o u r th a nd fift h di gi ts
ra us , ex e ns o r e , , ,
.

c on d yl fh m e o (A ft E ll u
2 The e xte n s o r o f th e fir st a nd s ec o n d d i g its
e rus . er en

A tl )
.

'
b g er e r , i L i i g n
M exte n s o r p o lli cis l o n gus et exte n s o r i n di cis pr o
e se r n s as .

p r i u s ) is sm a ll a n d is c o ve r ed by the c o m m o n an d ,

l a te ra l exte ns o r s I t a r ise s o n the p r o xi m a l p ar t o f th e u l n a I t s te n d o n p a sses

.
.

d o w n W i th th a t o f the c o mmo n exte ns or a nd d ivi des i nt o tw o b r an ch es Th e .

del i c a te i nn e r b r a n ch e nds o n the fi r st digi t whi l e the o th e r bl e n ds wi th th e te n d o n ,

o f the c o mm o n exte ns or fo r the sec o n d digit .

.

3 The l a ter a l d i g ita l e xte n s o r (M exte n s o r d igi t a l is l a te r a l is ) c o n sists of tw o

.
.
 M U S C LE S or T HE T H OR A C I C LI MB 3 23

muscles whi ch a r e no t r a r ely fused They a r ise o n th e ext e n s o r epi c o n dyle of th e

.

hu m e r us a n d the l a te ra l l ig a m e n t of the el b o w j o i n t The l ar ge r s upe r fi ci a l b e l ly . .

,

(M exte n s or digiti te r ti i e t q u ar t i ) te r mi n a tes o n a te nd on whi ch div i des a t o r

.

n e ar the c a r p us i n t o t w o b r a n ches whi ch a r e i n se r ted i n t o t he th i r d p h a l a n ges

,

o f the thi r d a n d f o u r th digits bl e n di n g with the c o rr esp o n d i n g te n d o n s o f the c o m

,

m o n exte n s o r . Th e po s te ri or b e l ly (M exte n s or digiti q ui n ti ) te rm i n a tes by a

.

te n d on whi ch fuses wi th th a t o f the c o mm o n exte ns o r for the fifth digit .

The u l nari s l a te r a li s o r e xte n s or carpi uln ari s c o rr esp o n ds to th e fl exor c a rp i

exte r n us of t he h o r se b ut is a n exte n s or of the c ar pus I t i s a l a r ge fl a t m uscl e
, .

w hi ch l i es o n the o ute r su r f a ce o f t he u l n a I t ar ises o n the ex .

te ns o r epi c o n dyl e o f the hume r us a nd is i n se r ted i n t o the pr ox i

,

ma l end o f th e fift h met a c a r p a l a nd th e a ccess or y c a r p a l b o n e .

The u l nar i s m e d i al i s or fl exor c arp i m e d i u s (s u l n ar is ) .

c o nsists of t w o q uite disti n ct he a ds Th e l ar ge r hu m era l .

,

h ea d a r i ses on t he fl exor epi c o n dyl e whi le th e sm a lle r supe r , ,

fic i al u l nar h ea d a r ises o n t he p o ste r i or b o r de r o f th e ul n a .

The te n d o ns o f the tw o e n d t o get he r on the a c cess or y

c arp a l b o n e .

The ra d i al i s v o l ari s or fi e xor c arpi i ntern u s (s ra d i a li s ) .

a r ises o n th e fl exo r epi c o n dyl e o f th e h u m er us a n d i s i n se r ted

by a bi fid te n d o n i n t o th e se c on d and thi r d met a c ar p a l b on es .

Th e te n d ons of t he f o r eg o i n g muscles a r e p r o vid ed with

sy n ovi a l she a ths at the c a r p us .

Th e pr o n at or tere s i s a r o u n d muscl e wh i ch i s situ a ted ,

supe r fi ci a ll y o n the i nn e r b or d e r of th e p ro xim a l p ar t o f the r a

dius . I t a r ises on t he fl exor epi c o n dyl e o f th e h ume r us a n d is ,

i nse r ted i n t o the i n te rn a l b o r de r o f th e r a di us I ts a cti on i s t o .

fl ex the elb o w a n d r o t a te th e f o r e a r m i n w a r d
23 4 —
.

The s uperfi ci al d i gi tal fl e xor is si t u a ted supe r fi ci a lly on the F V O LA M s IG . . R u

C s FO LE or RE

p o ste r i o r an d i nn er s ur f a ces of th e f o r e ar m I t ar ises on th e P W

. DO A or G .

fl exor epi c o n dyl e o f t he h u m e r us a n d t e rm i na tes ne a r t he A bd t p l a , uc or o

c a r pu s on a te n d on whi ch p a sses d o wn w ar d o utsi de o f th e li i b v i ” t pp c s re s e o o n e ns

p lli i ; b fl p lli _
o c s , ex o r o
c ar p a l c a n a l a n d r eceives bel o w th e c a r pus tw o r ei n fo r ci n g i b vi ; dd t c s re s c, a uc or

b an ds o ne f r o m the a ccess o r y c ar p a l th e o the r fr o m the p lli i ; d d d t

, ,
o c s , a u c or

d i g iti di; d
ses a m o i d b o n e at th e i nn e r si d e o f t he c a r pus B el o w this d t d i iti q i ti ; .
sec u n e, a

g f uc or u n .

i t di vi des i nt o f o u r b r a n ch es wh i ch a re i n se r ted i n t o the fl

, d i g iti q i ti ex or u n

sec o n d ph a l a n ges o f the se c o n d t hi r d f o u r th an d fifth digits b vi ; g bd t .

re s , a u c or
,
d i g iti q i ti ;
, ,
h i u n a
Th e d ee p d i gi tal fl e xor h a s h u m eral , ul nar , an d ra d i al t
.

i; 1 y e ros s e a c c es s o r

p l b ; 2 fi t
,

h ead s , th e l a tter a r isi n g f r o m t h e i nn er b or d er o f the r a di us . ca r a o ne , rs

d i g it ; 3 m id
They u n ite on a c omm o n t e n d o n whi ch p a sses d o wn th r o ugh s es a o s

f m t p ph l o e ac a r o- a an
t he c ar p a l c ana l gi ves off a b r an ch t o th e fi r st di git an d g l j i t
, (E ll , ea o n s en

div ides i n t o f o u r b r a n ches Th ese pe r f ora te th e t e n d o n s o f b g B m A t d

.

.
er e r- au ,
na . .

t he supe r fi ci a l fl exor an d a re i n se r ted i n t o th e thi r d ph a l a n ges H d ) un es .

of the se c o n d t o t he fift h di gits Th e te n d o n s a r e p r o vi ded

.

wit h sy no vi a l she a ths fr om th e mi ddl e of t he met a c a rpus d o wn w ar d a n d a r e ,

hel d i n pl a ce b y t h r ee digit a l a nn ul ar lig am e n ts .

The pal mar i s l ongu s a cce s s o ri u s is a s m a ll m uscle whi ch ar ises f r o m th e

deep fl ex or b el o w th e m i ddl e o f th e f o r e a r m a n d e nds by tw o te n d o n s whi ch u n ite
with th o se o f the supe r fi ci a l fl exor for t he t hi r d an d f o u r t h digits .

The s u pi n a t or is a sh o r t wi de muscl e whi ch a r ises on the h u m e r us be n e at h the

,

ext e r n a l l a t e r a l lig a m e n t c r o sses t he a n te r i or s ur f a ce o f the ra di us a n d i s i n se r ted

,
’
,

i nt o t he i nn e r b o r de r o f t h e r a d i u s (A p o u ch o f th e c a psul e o f th e elb o w j o i n t
.

lies u n de r t he te n d on o f o r igi n ) I ts a cti on is t o r o t a te the f or e ar m o utw ar d

.

(supi n a ti o n)
324 T HE M U S C LE S OF T HE D OG

The pr o na to r q u a d r a tu s c o nsists o f fibe r s w hi ch c r oss t he i nn e r sur fa ce o f th e

i nte ro sse o us li g a m e n t o f the f o r e a r m except a t t he tw o ext r e m ities o f th e l a tte r
,
.

I t is a tt a c hed to t he i n n e r b o r de r o f the ul n a a n d the a n te r i or su r f a ce o f t he ra di us .

I t r o t a tes th e fo r e a r m i nw a r d (p ro n a ti o n ) .

The pal m ar i s b re vi s is a ve r y s ma ll muscle whi ch a r ises on the t e n d o n ,

o f the su e r fi ci a l digit a l fl e xo r fo r the fifth digit a n d i s i n se r ted a t the fifth m et a

p ,

c a r p o ph a l a nge a l j o i n t i nt o the she a th a nd a nn ul a r lig a m e nt o f the deep fl e xor

- .

The lu m b r ic a l e s a re th r ee ve r y deli c a t e muscles whi ch a r i se on th e te n d on s ,

o f the deep fl e xo r a n d a re i n se r ted i n t o t he fi r st ph a l a n ges o f t he th i r d

,
f o u r th , ,

a n d fifth digits .

The a bd uctor p o ll i ci s b re vi s e t o pp o ne n s p o l l i ci s a ve r y s m a l l p a l e m uscl e , ,

a r i ses o n the fib r o us b a n d whi ch c o nn ects t he supe r fi ci a l fl e xor t e n d o n wi th t he

i n ne r c a r p a l ses a mo id a nd e n ds o n th e dist a l end o f th e fi r st m et a c ar p a l b o n e a n d

,
1
the fi r s t ph a l a n x o f the fi r st digi t I t a bd u cts the fir st di gi t
. .

The fl e xor p o l li ci s b re vi s a r i ses o n the p o ste r i or c ar p a l lig a m e n t o ver the sec o n d

met a c a r p a l b o n e a nd e nds o n t he v o l ar ses a m o i d of the fir st di git
,
.

The a dducto r p o ll i ci s situ a ted exte r n a l ly t o the p r ecedi n g i s t he l ar gest of

, ,

the thumb muscl es I t a r ises betwee n th e p r ecedi n g a n d th e sec o n d i n te r o sse o us

.

m uscle a n d is i n se r ted i n t o the fi r st ph a l a n x o f the fi r st digit

,
.

The a dducto r digiti s ecu nd i is si t u a ted b etwee n t he sec on d i nte r osse o us

m uscle a nd th e a dduct o r digi ti q ui n t i I t a r i ses on t he c ar p a l lig a m e n t a nd e n ds
.
,

o n th e fi r st ph a l a n x o f th e sec on d digit .

The a d d uctor d i giti q u i n ti a r ises cl o se t o th e p r ecedi n g m uscl e a n d p a sses ,

o utwa r d to en d on the fi r st ph a l a n x of th e fifth digit .

The fl exor digiti q u i nti a r ises o n t h e lig a m e n t c o nn ecti n g the a ccess o r y c a r p a l

t o the thi r d a nd f o u r th met a c a r p a l b o n es c r o sses the c o rr esp o n di n g i nte r o sse o us
,

m uscle a n d e n ds o n t he fifth digit wit h the n ext muscl e

,
.

The a b d u ct o r d igi ti q u i n ti i s l ar ge r th an t he tw o p r ecedi n g muscl es ; i t a r ises

o n the a ccess o r y c a r p a l b o n e a n d e n ds o n the o ute r ses a m o i d o f th e fift h digi t an d
,

o n the l a te r a l lig a me nt .

The r e a r e f o u r i n te r o s s e i wh i ch l i e o n t he v o l ar (p o ste r i o r ) s u rf a ce o f th e m et a
c ar pus They a re well devel o ped a n d fl eshy They a r i se on t he dist a l r ow o f t h e
. .

c ar pus a nd o n the p r o xi m a l e n ds o f the m et a c a r p a ls E a ch di vides dist a ll y i n t o .

t w o b r a n ches whi ch a r e i n se r ted by s m a ll te n d o n s o n t h e c o rr esp o n di n g ses a m o i d

,

b o n es a nd det a ch slips to th e ext e n s o r te n d o n s

,
.

MUSCLE S OF THE NE CK
The ste rn o -c e ph al i cu s i s wel l d evel o ped I t a r ises on t h e m a n ub r i um ste r n i.

a n d e n ds o n the m a st o id p r o cess bl e n di n g wi th the cleid o ce r vi c a l is

,
-
.

The s c a l e n u s ve ntr a l i s (s p r i m ae c o st ae ) a r ises on th e l a st f o u r ce r vi c a l t r a n s

.

ve rse p ro cesses a n d is i n ser ted i nt o th e fi r st r i b

, .

The s c a l e n u s d or s a li s (s s u p r a co s tal i s ) i s l a r ge A n te r i o r ly i t ble n ds with t h e

. .

p r eced i ng muscl e whi l e p oste r i o r l y i t divides i nt o tw o p arts The uppe r p ar t is

, .

i n se r ted o n the thi r d a nd f o u r th r i bs the l o w er par t by a l o n g t hi n te nd on on t he

, ,

eight h r i b .

The l o ngu s c ol li r ese m bl es th a t o f the h o r se .

The re ctu s c apiti s a nte ri or m a j o r a r ises o n the t r a n sve r se p r o cesses o f th e sec o nd

t o the s ixth c e r vi c a l ve r teb r ae a n d e n ds a s i n th e h o r se The r e c tu s mi no r a n d .

l a tera li s r esemble th o se o f the h o r se .

The i n te rtr a n s v e rs al e s r esembl e th o se o f t he o x .

The spl e ni u s is st ro n g an d exte nsi ve I t a r ises o n th e fi r st f o u r o r fi ve t h o r a ci c

.

1
M o v eme n t s of i nd i v i d u a l d i g i t s a r e s p e c i fi e d w i t h r e g a rd to t h e ax s of i th e m a n u s (h and ,
p a w ), a nd n o t t o th e med i a n p l a ne o f t h e b od y .
32 6 T HE M US C LE S OF T HE D OG

MUSCLE S OF THE ABDOME N

Th e a bd omi n a l t u ni c is p r a ctic a l ly a bse n t .

The o b l i quu s a bd o mi ni s e xtern u s h a s a n exte ns i ve fl eshy p or t i on I t a r i ses .

f ro m the l a st eight o r n i n e r i bs a nd the l u m b o d or s a l f a sci a - .

The ob li q uu s a b d omin i s i nte rn u s ar ises f r o m t he exte r n a l a n gl e o f the i li u m

a n d the l u m b o d or s a l f a sci a The fibe r s h a ve a n a l m o st ver ti c a l di r ecti o n a nd
- . ,

the r e is a fl esh y a tt a ch m e n t t o the l a st r i b .

The r e ctu s a bd o mi ni s is a tt a ch ed by a l o n g te n d o n o n the fi r st five or si x c o st a l

c ar til a ges a n d by fl eshy fibe r s o n the xiph o i d c ar ti l a ge I t h as th r ee t o six i n dis
,
.

ti n ct te n di no us i n sc r ipti on s .

The tr an sve r s u s a bd o mi ni s p r ese n ts n o speci a l fe a tu r es except th a t the p o ste

r i or p a r t o f i ts a p on eu r o sis

spl its i n t o tw o l a ye r s wh i ch
i n cl ude t he r e ctus betwee n
them .

MUSCLE S OF THE PE LVI C

LI M B
Th e p s o a s mi n o r a r i ses
on the l a st th o r a ci c a n d fi r st

f o u r o r five l u mb ar ve r teb r a ,

a n d i s i n se r t ed i n t o the i li o

pecti n e a l l i n e .

Th e ps o a s m a j o r i s
sh or t ar isi n g f r o m the l ast ,

f o u r l u m b a r ve r teb r a .

Th e o ute r h e a d o f the
i li a c u s i s s m a l l whi l e the
F o 23 5 —
,
M o s c s o TA L A s AN D G N I TAL OR AN o r Do c
r . . r. e r I ,
inn er h ead i s l a r ge a n d fuses
Nu ,
E G S .

1 D m , f m 3 t b S Ch 4 s
ru , e u r,t l g ,
6 s u I
Wl th the p s o a s m aj o r
er l ll . a c r o s c ra ic x a c ra

; 6 t l; 7 p n ; 8 e tu m ; p .

The q
re g ion , al ; 9 . e is .yg ea nus , r c a , s a c r o -c o c c us su e

i ; b
r or , yg o i
s a c ro - c o c c
a ce ; co e us
yg ; d co co cc y g ss r us u a d ra tu s 1u m b o r
c. cc eu s , sac r - eu s

i f i ;
n e r or t t e, i; f fre ph i t
ra c o r ni t
an ; g t t ’

u m i s W 6 11 d evel o ped
s nc e r
and a ex ernu s re ra c or

pe i ; h b l b —v n
, . ,

n ds l a te r a l ly b ey orid the
n s ; f t n v
o ca s peri i k m i chi
os u s ra s e rs u e r ne s o
f
u

u re th l ; I i hi
r a es
,

v ,; sc t n d
o -c a
n f b t u t i t
e r no s u s ;
exte
,

n . e o o o ra or
,

n ernu s
,

0 ,

g em l I e : pUS t h l m s l (A ft E ll b e g i n L i i ng A tl as ) o ute r edge Of th e l l l O ps oa s

, u re ra u c e . er en r er, e ser
’
s .
-
.

I t ar i ses f r o m th e l a st f o u r
r ibs a nd th e l u m b a r t r a n sve r se p r o cesses a n d e n ds o n th e pelvi c s u r f a ce o f the ,

wi ng o f the i l i u m .

The te n s or fa s ci a l a ta c on sists o f t w o p a r ts The an te r i or p a r t is l o n g a nd .

r o u n d ed ; the p o ste r i o r i s sh o r te r a n d fa n l i ke -
.

The gl ute u s s u pe rfici ali s is sm a ll I t a r ises o n t he s a c r u m fi rst c o ccyge a l .

,

ve r teb r a a n d s a c ro s ci a ti c l ig a me n t I t is i nse r ted b el o w a nd behi n d the tro

,
-
.

ch a n te r m aj o r o f the femu r o n the o uter b r an ch o f the l i n e a a spe r a ,

.

The glute u s m e d i u s h a s n o l u m b a r p o r ti on I t i s i n se r ted i nt o th e t r o ch a n te r .

m a j o r by a s t r o ng te n d o n .

The glute u s pr o fu ndu s i s b r o a d an d fan sh a ped I t a r ises on t he supe r i o r -

.

ischi a ti c spi n e a n d o n the i li um a s fa r f o r w a r d a s the gl ute a l l i n e a n d is i nse rted ,

i nt o the t r o ch a n te r m aj o r bel o w the med i us .

The pyri f ormi s is n ot bl e n ded with the gl uteus m ed ius I t a r ises fro m the .

b orde r o f the s a c r um a n d f r o m the s a c ro sci a ti c lig a m e n t a n d e n ds on the tro -

,

c h a n te r m a j o r .

T he b i c e ps f e m o r i s h a s tw o h e a ds o f o r igi n whi ch s oo n fuse Th e l ar ge r h e a d .

a r i s es f r o m the s a c r o sci a ti c lig a m e n t a nd tube r i schii the s m a l le r on e f r o m t h e tube r

-
,
 M US CL E S or T HE P E LV i c LI MB 32 7

isch i i
. The a p o n eu r osis o f i n se r ti o n e n ds o n th e p a tel l a the p a tell ar l ig a m e n t , ,

a n d the tibi a l c r est The r e is a ls o a te nd i n o us b a n d whi ch c o m es f r o m the deep

.
,

f a ce o f the m uscl e a nd te r m i n a tes at the t a r sus a s i n the h or se ,

.

Th e a b d u c t o r crur i s po s te ri or m a y be r eg ar ded as a n a ccess or y he a d o f th e

bi ceps fe m or is I t is a th i n m uscu l ar b an d whi ch a r i ses o n t he s a c r o sci a ti c
.
,
-

lig a m e n t p a sses d o w n w ar d b etwee n the b i ceps a n d se m i m e m b r a no sus an d e n ds b y

, ,

bl e n di n g wit h t he f o r m e r .

The s e mi te n d i n o s u s a r ises f r o m the t ub er ischi i o n ly I t e n ds as i n t he h or se . .

FI G . 23 6 .
—M t s c r r_s . or m m LIM B or Do c i N T E R N AL

V W IE

li p oas ; b t e nd n f p
a , I o- s mi n ; — cy . o o s o as or c . s a c ro c o c

geu s v n t li l a te li ; d
e ra s yg ; p y i f mi ; f o b t
ra s , c occ eus e, r or s , ur

at i nt ; g o i g i n of t t ni ; h h t i ;5 ’
or e r nu s ,
r re ra c o r a . , sa r o r u s ,
re c

tus f m i ; k v t i n t n ; l p c ti n s ; m ad d to ;
e or s , as us er us , e eu , uc r

n g
. ili :
ra c m it d i o
s o, se; p se mi m e m b n ; q g
en n sus , ra osus , as

t oc n mi
r e i ne h d ; q t d
us n f gr t n mi ; up
ea
’
en on o as ro c e us r. s er

fi i l d i g it l fl
. ,

c a ; a
'
t e d o n f ; t s a l t e nd o n o f b i p s
ax o r r ,
n o r s. ar ce

f m i ; t p p lit ; d p d i g it l fl o o t h d (fl
e or s , o eus u , ee a ex r, u er ea exor

h ll
a i s l ng ) ; ' l o g d i g it l fl e ; ” co mmo n t nd n o f
uc o us u ,
n a xo r u , e o

u an d ; u t e nd o n o f ti b i li p t i o ; w t i b i li a nte io ;
’
v, a s os e r r , a s r r

z t nd n o f a n t i
, e o l ng d i g it l t n ; I p l vi c s
er or or o a ex e sor , e ur

fa e o f ili u m ; 2
c ti o n o f sy mph y i s pe l v i ; 3 t b i hi i ;
. s ec s s , u er sc

4 i nt
.
l co nd y l e f f m ; 6 1 i g a me tu m p a t ll ; 7 i n
e r na o e ur , n e a ,

te n l
r a f f ti b i ; S t
s u r ace ; S
o fib l t l b o ne ; 9a a rs u s
’
u ar a rs a

B m A n t d H nd es )
. . .

m et t a a rs u
s (E ll e n b g . er e r- au , a . . u .

The se mi m e m b r an o s u s is l a r ge ises f r o m th e isch iu m on ly I t divides

an d a r .

i n t o tw o p or ti o ns : the a n te r i o r p or ti o n e n ds o n the te nd on o f the pecti n eus o n th e ,

femu r a b o ve the i n te r n a l c o n dyle a nd o n t he i nn e r (Ves a li a n ) ses a m o id b o n e ;

,

the p o ste r i o r p o r ti on e n ds on the i n te r na l c on dyl e o f the t ibi a the te n d o n p a ssi n g ,

u n de r the i n te rn a l l a te ra l l ig a me n t o f t he stifl e j o i n t .

The r e c tu s f e m o r i s h as o n ly on e t e n d o n of or igi n Th e si n gl e p a tel l a r lig am e nt .

a cts as t he te n d o n of i n se r ti o n o f the qu a dr i ceps .

32 8 T HE M U S C LE S OF T HE D OG

The c ap s ul ar i s is usu a lly p r ese n t b ut i s s m a l l a n d p a le ,

.

Th e s a r tor i u s c on sists of tw o p or ti ons I t a r ises f r o m t he exter n a l a ngl e .

a n d b or d e r of the i liu m The a n te r i or p or ti o n e n ds o n t he p a tel l a the

.
,

p o ste r i o r on the i nte r n a l su r f a ce of the t ibi a its t e n d on b l e n di n g wit h th a t ,

o f the g ra ci lis .

T he gr a cil e s a r e n o t s o m uch fused at t hei r or igi n as i n t he o th er a n i m a ls

The p e cti ne u s is l o ng a n d sl e n de r I t ar ises f r om the i li o—
.

pecti n e a l e m i n e n ce
.

a nd e n ds o n the i n te r n a l b r a n ch o f t he l i n e a a spe r a a b o ve th e d ist a l e n d o f the

femu r .

The r e a r e t w o d isti n ct a dductor s Th e s m a l l an te r i o r o n e e n ds on the p r oxi m a l

.

thi r d of the fe m u r the p oste r i or o ne on the dist a l p ar t of th e fem u r a nd on t h e

,

i nn e r f a ce of the stifl e j o i nt .

The q u a d ra tu s f e m o r i s i s sh o r t a n d st r o ng Th e o the r ext e rn a l r o t at or s of .

th e t high p r ese n t n o speci a l fe a tu r es .

The p er o n e u s te rti u s is r ep r ese nt ed b y a t e n di n o us b an d whi ch a r ises on th e

i nte rn a l su r f a ce of th e tibi a bel o w th e c r est I t p a sses d o w n w ar d on t he i nn e r .

su r f a ce of the tibi a lis an te r i or bl e n ds w i th t h e a nn u l ar l ig a m e n t a b o ve t he t a r sus

, ,

a n d is a tt a ched to the j o i n t c a psul e a n d t he p r o xi m a l en d o f the thi r d met a t a r s a l

b on e .

A rl o i ng an d
Les b re s a y : T h e t h i r d p er on eu s i s a p ro p er ex t en s o r of th e fif t h d i gi t ; i t
i s a v er y f ee b l e , fl es h y b a nd , s i t u a t ed b eh i n d t h e p e r o n e u s b r e v i s w h i c h i t p a r ti a ll y c o v ers . .

I t i s a tt a c h e d to th e u pp er p a r t o f t h e fi b u l a , a n d i s co n ti nu ed b y a l o ng , d e li c a t e t en d o n w h i c h
p asses i n th e s a me m a l l eo l ar g ro o v e w i th t h e m u s c l e m en ti oned ; i t t h en cr osses beh i n d th e
tend o n o f th e p er on eu s l on gu s an d ex t en d s to t h e p h a l a ng es of th e o u t er d i g i t , w h ere i t j o i ns
”
o n e o f t e b r a c es o f t e co
h n h h mm o n ext en so r .

The ti b i al i s a nte r i or is l ar ge a n d supe r fici a l I t a r i ses on t he exte r n a l c o n dyl e .

a nd c r est of t he tibi a a n d i s i nse r ted i n t o th e fi r st met a t a r s a l b o n e o r i n t o th e fi r st

, ,

t ar s a l a n d sec on d met a t a r s a l .

The r e a r e f o u r e xte n s o r s o f th e d igits .

1 The ante r i o r or l o n g di gi ta l e xte n s or (M exte n s o r digit a l is l o n gus ) i s fusi

. .

f or m a n d li es l ar gely u n de r t he p r ecedi n g muscl e I t a r ises f r o m th e exte n s or f oss a

, .

o f the fe m ur The te n d on is b o u n d d o w n by tw o a nn u l a r li g a me n ts an d d ivides

.
,

b el o w the t ar sus i nt o f o u r b r a n ches wh i ch en d on t he dist a l ph a l a n ges of th e digits

,

(sec on d to fifth ) .

2 Th e l atera l d igi ta l e xte n s o r (M exte n s o r digi t a lis l a ter a l is ) i s feebl e a n d se m i

. .

pe nn a te I t a r ises o n the fibul a bel o w t he h e a d

. Th e t e n d on p a sses u nd e r th e .

l a te ra l lig a m e n t of the t a r sus a n d j o i ns the b r a n ch of th e te n d o n of the l o n g exte ns o r

for the fifth digit .

3 The e xte n s o r h all uci s l o n gu s i s a ve r y thi n muscl e whi ch a r ises f r o m t h e

.

fibul a u n d e r the l ong exte ns or I ts deli c a te te n d o n a cc om p a n i es th a t of the t ibi a lis

.

a nte r i o r t o t he fi r st m et a t ar s a l b o n e o r b ec o m es l o st i n th e f a sci a
,
.

4 The e xte n s o r d igita li s b r e vi s h as th r ee di visi o n s

. I t ar ises on the fib u l a r .

t ar s a l b on e a n d the a dj a ce n t l ig a me nts The th r ee te n d o ns a r e i n se r ted i nt o .

the sec o nd thi rd a nd f o u r th d igits ble n di n g wi th the i nte r ossei

, , , (S om eti m es .

the r e is f o u nd a te n d o n to the r udi m e n t a r y fi r st d igit whi ch m a y r ep r ese n t th e ,

exte ns o r h a llu ci s b r evi s The r e m a y b e a f o u r th b el ly for th e te n d on t o th e sec o n d

.

digit ) .

The p e ro ne u s l o ng u s a r ises o n the exte r n a l c o n dyl e o f t he tibi a t h e ,

he a d of th e fib ul a a n d t he l a te r a l l ig a me n t Th e l o n g te n d on p a sses d ow n
, .

the leg p ar a l lel t o the fibul a c r osses th e pl ant a r (p oste r i o r ) su r f a ce o f the

,

t ar sus t ra nsve r sely a n d e nds o n the fi r st m et a t a r s a l b o n e A sh o r t b r a n ch is

, .

det a ched to th e exte r n a l m et a t ar s a l b on e .

T h e p e rone u s b r e vi s i s se mi pen n a t e a n d a r ises f r o m the d ist a l h a lf or m o r e

o f th e o ute r f a ce o f the ti bi a a n d t he fi bul a I ts te n d on a cc o mp a ni es t h a t of .
 THE DIGE S T IVE S Y S T E M
Thi s syste m c on sists o f th e o r g a n s di r e ctl y c on cer n ed i n th e r ecepti on and
di gesti o n of th e f oo d its p a ss a ge t h r o ugh t h e b o dy a n d t he expu lsi on o f th e u n
, ,

a bs or bed p o r ti o n These o r g an s a r e c on ve n ie n tly gr o uped u n de r tw o h e a ds

.
,

vi z : (1 ) the al i m e n tar y c a na l ; (2 ) th e a cc e s s ory or g an s

.
.

The al i m e ntary c ana l (Tr a ctus a li m e n t ar i us ) is a t ub e a b o ut 1 00 feet (ca ,

.

30 m ) i n l e n gth i n the h o r se a n d e xt e n ds f ro m th e l ips t o t he a n us

.
,
I t h a s a co m .

l e t e l i n i n g o f m u c o us m e m b r a n e exte r n a l t o whi ch i s a n a l m o st c on ti n u o us museu

p ,

l ar c o a t The a b d om i n a l p or ti o n of the tub e i s l ar gely c o ver ed w it h a ser o us

m e mb r a n e—the vi scer a l pe r it o n eu m
.

Th e c an a l c o nsists o f th e f o ll o wi n g c onsecu
.

tive seg m e nts :

1 M o uth
. . 4 S t o m a ch . .

2 P h a r y nx
. . 5 S m a l l i n testi n e . .

3 (E s o ph a gus
. . 6 L a r ge i n testi n e . .

The a cc e s s ory or gan s ar e the teet h t o n gu e s a li v a r y gl a n ds l ive r a n d p an c r e a s

, , , , .

D I GE STI VE SYSTE M OF THE HORSE

THE M OUTH

Th e m o uth (C a vu m o r is ) is the fi r st p a r t o f th e a l i m e n t a r y c a na l
1
I n the .

h or se i t is a l on g cyli n d r i c a l c a vity a n d wh e n cl o sed it is a l mo st e n ti r ely fi lled up

, ,

by th e c o nt a i n ed st r u ctu r es The e n t r a n ce t o i t (R i m a or is ) is cl o sed by t he l ips

. .

L a te r a lly it is b o u n ded by th e cheeks ; a b o ve by the h ar d p a l a t e ; b el o w by the , ,

b o dy o f the m a n dibl e a n d the m yl o hy o i d m uscl es ; b ehi n d by t he s o ft p a l a te

-
,
.

Th e c avi ty o f the m o uth is sub divided i nt o tw o p ar ts by th e teeth an d a lve o l ar

p r o cesses The S p a ce ext e r n a l to these a n d i n cl o sed ext e r n a lly by th e lips a n d
.

cheeks is te r m ed the vestib ule of t he m o ut h (Vesti bu l u m or is ) I n t he r esti n g .

st a te o f the p a r ts th e w a l ls o f t his c a vi ty a r e i n c o n t a ct an d the sp a ce is p r a cti c a lly ,

o blite r a ted I ts existe n ce b ec o m es ve r y evi d e n t i n f a ci a l p a r a lysis wh e n the f oo d

.
,

te n ds t o c o llect i n it l a te ra lly p o u ch i n g o u t t he cheeks ,

Th e sp a ce wit hi n th e .

teeth a nd a lve o l a r p r o cesses is t e r m ed th e m o ut h c a vity p r o pe r (C a vum o r is pr o

pr i u m) .
Whe n the teeth ar e i n c on t a ct it c o mm u n i c a tes wit h the vestibule o nl y,

by the i nte r d e n ta l sp a ces a n d the i n te r v a ls beh i n d t he l a st m o l a r teeth P o ste .

r i or l y it c o mm u n i c a tes with t he ph ar y nx th r o ugh t h e isth mus o f th e f a u ces .

The muc o u s m e mb ra ne li n i n g th e mo ut h (Tu n i c a m u c o s a o r is ) i s c onti n u o us

a t the m a r gi n o f the l i ps w i th the c o mm o n i n t egu m e n t a n d beh i n d with th e m u c o us
,

li ni ng o f the ph a r y n x D u r i n g l ife it is ch i efly of a pi n k c o l o r

. .

The l ips (L a b i a o r is ) ar e t w o m u scu l o m e m b r an o us f o lds w hi ch su rr o u n d the-

o r ifi ce o f the m o uth Th ei r a n gles of u n i on (A n gul i o r i s s c o m m i ss u ra l a bi or u m)

. .

a r e situ a ted n e a r th e fi r st cheek t oo th a n d a r e r o u n d ed E a ch li p p r ese nts t w o .

sur fa ces a n d tw o b o r de r s The o ute r su r f a ce is c ove r ed by the ski n whi ch pr e

.

se nts l on g t a ctil e h a i rs i n a dd iti on to the or di n a r y fin e h a i r The uppe r lip sh o ws .

1
The t er m mo u t h i s co mm o n l y us ed to s i g n i f y ei t h er t h e ora l ca v i ty (C a v u m o r i s ) o r th e
e nt r a n c e to i t (R i m a Ol l S )
‘

.
 T HE M OU T H 33 1

a sh a ll o w m edi an fu rr o w (P h i lt r u m ) the l o we r a r o u n ded p r o mi n en ce the chi n

, ,

(M e n t um ) The i nn e r or o r a l sur f a ce i s c o ve r ed wi t h m uc o us m e m b ra n e wh i ch i s
.

u d

I
V o
o n O ( f
n o

c o mm onl y m o r e or less pigm e nt ed . Th e s m a ll p a pi ll a on t his sur f a ce sh o w

o n thei r su mmi ts th e o pe ni n gs of t he d ucts o f the l a b i a l gl a n ds .S m a l l f o lds o f
muc o us m e m b r a n e w hi ch p a ss f r o m t he li p t o t he g um r ep r ese n t t he fr a n ul a l a b i i
332 DI GE STI V E S Y ST E M or T HE H OR S E

(supe r i or is i n fe r i or is ) The f r ee b or de r o f th e li p is de n se a n d p r ese nts sh or t

,
.
,

ve r y sti ff h a i r s The a tt a ched b o r de r is c o n ti n u o us with the su rr o u n di n g st r ue

.

tu r es a n d is a dhe r e n t t o the a lve o l a r b o r de r s o f the b o n es o f th e j a ws

,
.

S tr uctur e — T h c li ps a r e c o ve r ed ext e r n a lly by t he ski n a n d a r e l i n ed b y

. ,

m u c o us m e m b ra n e ; b etwee n these a r e m uscul a r tissue a n d gl a n ds The ski n .

lies d i rectly on the m uscles m a n y fibe r s of whi ch a re i n se r ted i n t o t he f or m e r Th e

,
.

muscles h a ve bee n desc r ibed (p a ge The l a b i al gl an d s (G l a n dul a l a bi a l es )

fo r m a c o mp a ct m a ss n e a r the a n gles ; they a r e n u m e r o us i n t h e uppe r l ip fewe r ,

i n t he l o we r The mu c o us memb r a n e i s o fte n pig m e nted a n d is r efle cted up o n

.
,

th e b o nes o f the j a ws to fo r m t he gums

Bl o o d -v e s s e l s an d N e rv e s —Th e a r te r i es ar e de r i ved f r o m th e super i o r an d
.

i nfe r i or l a bi a l a nd p a l a t e l a b i a l a r te r i es Th e se ns o r y n e r ves c o me f r o m the

-
.

t r igemi n us a n d the mo t or f r o m the f a ci a l n e r ve

,
.

The ch e ek s (B ucc a ) f o r m the S ides o f the m o uth a nd ar e c o n ti n u o us i n fr o n t ,

with the lips They a r e a tt a ched a b o ve a nd b el o w t o the a l ve o l a r b o r de r s o f t h e

.

b o n es of the j a ws
S tr uctur e —Th is c o m p r ises : (1 ) The ski n ; (2 ) th e m uscu l a r a n d gl a n d u l a r
.

l a ye r ; (3 ) th e muc o us me m b r a n e Th e ski n o ffe r s n o th i n g i n p a r ti cul a r t o no ti ce

. .

The m uscul ar tissue i s f or m ed m a i n l y b y the b u cci n a t o r b ut a ls o by p arts o f t h e ,

p a nn i culus zygo m a ti cus dil a t a t o r n a r i s l a t e ra l is l ev a t or n a s o l a bi a l is a n d dep r ess or

, , , ,

l a bi i i n fer i o r is Th e bu cc al gl and s (G l a n dul a bu cc a l es ) a r e arr an ged i n t w o ro ws

. .

The uppe r r ow (supe r i or b ucc a l or m o l ar gl an ds ) is f o u n d on t he o ut er su r f a ce o f

the bu cci n a t o r muscle n e ar its uppe r b or de r Th e a n te r i o r p a r t of t he r o w c on
, .

sists o f sc atte r ed l obul es ; the p o ster i o r p ar t wh i ch l i es u n de r c o ve r o f the m a ssete r

,

muscl e i s m o r e d evel o ped a nd c o mp a ct The l o we r r ow (i n fe r i or b u c c a l or m o l a r

,
.

gl a n ds ) less v o l u m i n o us th an t he uppe r i s S itu a ted i n the sub m uc o us t issue at t he

, ,

l o we r b or de r o f the b ucci n a t o r muscl e The m u c o us memb r a n e i s r eflected a b o v e

.

a n d bel o w up o n the gu m s a n d i s c o n ti n u o us behi n d wit h th a t o f t he s o ft p a l a te

, .

I t i s r eddish i n c o l o r a n d f r eq ue n tly sh o ws pigme n t ed a r e a s Opp o site t he th i r d .

’
uppe r cheek t oo th i s the o pe n i n g of the p ar o ti d (Sten s e n s ) du ct su rro u n ded by a ,

ci r cul a r f o ld o f the mu c o us m e m b r a n e A l i n e ar se r ies o f s m a l l p a pil l a a b o ve

.

a n d bel o w i n di c a tes th e o r ifi ces o f the s m a l l d u cts f r o m the b uc c a l gl a n ds

Bl oo d -v e s s e l s an d N erv e s —The bl oo d supply i s de r i ved f r o m th e f a ci a l an d

.

bucci na t o r a r te r i es The se n s o r y n e r ves c o m e f r o m th e t r igemi n us a n d the m o t o r

.

f ro m the f a ci a l n e r ve .

The g um s (G i ngiv a ) a r e c o mp o sed o f a d e nse fib r o us ti ssu e i n ti m a tely u n it ed

with the pe r i osteu m of the a lve o l ar p r o cesses , a nd bl e ndi ng a t th e edges o f the a lve o l i
with the a lve o l ar pe r i o steu m whi ch fixes the t eeth i n th ei r c a vi ti es Th ey a re
, .

c o ve r ed by a s moo th muc o us memb ra n e d estitute o f gl a n ds a n d of a l ow degr e e , ,

o f se n sibi li ty .

The h ar d pa l a te (P a l a tum d u r u m ) i s b o u n ded i n fr on t a n d o n the S i des by

the a lve o l a r ar ches ; behi n d i t is c on ti n u o us with th e s o ft p a l a te I ts o sse o us b a si s .

i s f o r med by the p r e m a xi l l a m a xill a a n d p a l a te b o n es

, ,
Th e mu c o us m e m b ra n e .

i s s moo th a n d is a tt a ched t o th e b o nes by a s ub m u c o s a wh i ch c o n t a i n s i n i ts

,

a n te r i o r p ar t a n exceedi n gly r i ch ve n o us pl exus c o n sti tuti ng a n e r ecti l e tissu e , .

A ce nt ra l r a ph e (R a ph e p a l a ti ) divides the su r f a ce i n t o t w o eq u a l p o r ti o n s E a ch .

o f the s e p r ese n ts a b o ut ei ghtee n t r a nsve r se cu r ved r i dges

(R ug a p a l a ti n i ) whi ch
h a ve thei r c o n c a vi ty a n d t hei r f r ee edges di r ected b a ckw a r d T hey ar e fu r t he r .

a p a r t a n d m o r e p r o m i n e n t a n te r i o r ly Th e r e ar e n o gl a n ds i n th e submu c o s a
Ve s s e l s an d N e rv e s —The bl oo d supply is de r i ved ch i efly f r o m th e p a l a ti n e
. .

a r te r ies a nd t he n e r ves f r o m the t r ige m i n us .

The s o ft pa l a te (P a l a t um mo l le ) is a m uscul e m emb ra n o us cu r t a i n whi ch -

sep a r a te s the c a vi ty o f th e m o ut h f r o m t h a t o f the ph ar y n x I t S l o pes d o w n w a r d .

a n d b a ckw ar d f r o m i ts j u n cti o n with the h ar d p a l a te The o r a l su rfa c e f a ces .

33 4 D I GE S T I V E S YS TE M OF T HE H OR S E

I ts te n d o n is the n r eflected a r o u n d t h e h a m ul us o f th e pte r yg o id b o n e , b ei n g held

i n p o si ti o n by a fi b r o u s b a n d a n d l u b r i c a ted by a b u r s a I t tu r n s i n w ar d a n d ex .

p a nds i n t h e a p o n eu r osis of t he s oft p a l a te I t te n ses t he s o ft p a l a te . .

Ve s s e l s a nd N e rve s — The b l oo d -suppl y Of th e s o ft p a l a te is de r ived f r o m the

i n te r na l a nd exte r na l m a x il l a r y a r te r i es The n e r ves c o m e f r o m the t r ige m i n us
v a gus a n d gl oss o —
.
,

, ph a r y nge a l n e r ves .

The fl oor o f the m o uth i n i ts a n te r i or p ar t is f r ee a nd is f o r med by the b o dy of

the m a n d ibl e c o ve r ed by m uc o us m e m b r a n e T he r em a i n d e r is c o n ce a l ed by th e
,
.

a tt a ched p o r ti o n o f th e t o ngue with the excepti o n Of a n arr o w sp a ce o n e a ch side

,

S ep tu m n a si S u peri or mea tu s

Va s o- l ncr i mo l (1 not
‘

S u p er i or tu r bi n a l
Common mea tu s
I n r o or bz tu l n or m
f
a n d r cs s c l s

c a l or l a bi i s u p e r l
or i s p r o p r i us
'

r bz n a l

membr a ne

B u cci n a tor

I nf eri or bu cca l n er ve
La bi a l vcz ns
B r a n ches of l i ngu a l n erve

I nf er i o r l a bi a l a r ter y

Myl o-h yoi d eu s

FI G . 24 0 .
—C n o s s -s r«:C T
I ON or H AD O H O S J U T
E F ON T O FAC AL C T
F R E S IN R F I RES .

1 . C v it y
a o f su p i
er o r t u rb na i l ca v ity o f i f i t bi l ; 3 v m i : 4 4 g i g l i ; 5 5 g i
n er o r ur na , ca u or s . . en o- oss , . e n o-h y o id i ;
e
6 , h y O-g IOSS US ; 7, u ppe r, l w
o er f th h k t t h L i t f i l t y
ou r c ee oo z y g m ti
. ne o ac a a r er c ro s s es o a cus .

of the l a tte r A b o ut o pp o s i te the c a n i n e t oo th on e a ch sid e i s a p a pill a th e

.

c ar u n cul a s ub l i ngu a li s , th ro ugh whi ch the d uct o f the subm a xi ll a r y gl a n d o pe n s .

J u s t behi nd these p a pi ll a is a med i a n f o l d o f mu c o us me m b r a n e wh i ch p a sses t o th e

u nd e r su r f a ce o f the t on gue c o n stituti ng th e f r e n um li ngu a On ei th e r S id e a r e
, .

the subl i n gu a l c r ests whi ch exte n d f r om th e f r e n um t o the l evel of th e f o u rth

,

cheek t oo t h The c r est p r ese nts n um e r o us s m a ll p a pill a th r o ugh whi ch Ope n th e

.

d ucts f ro m the subj a ce n t subli ngu a l gl an d l B ehi n d the l a st t oo th a ve r ti c a l fo l d .

I n th e u nd s u rb i t ed s t a t e o f t h e p a r t s t h ere i s no s p ace b et w een th e t o ng u e a nd t h e r a mi

of th e l o w er jaw ; q y th e t ong u e mu s t be d ra w n a s i d e to s e e th e s u b li ng u a l c res t
c o n s e u e n tl
.
 T HE TO N GUE 335

of the mu c ous memb r a n e p a sses fro m upp e r to l o we r ja w This is te r med the pli c a .

pte r yg o m a n di b ul ar is : i t c o n t a i n s a lig a m e nt Of li ke n a m e .

The i sth m u s f a u ci um is the o r ifi ce o f c o mmu n i c a ti o n betwee n the m o uth a nd

th e ph a r y nx I t is b o u nded a b o ve by t he s o ft p a l a te bel o w by the r oo t o f th e
.
,

t o n gue a n d l a te r a l ly by the a n te r i or pi ll a r s o f t h es oft p a l a te I t is l on g r el a tively

, .
,

sm a ll a n d n ot ve r y di l a t a bl e i n th e h or se a n d is cl osed b y the s o ft p a l a te u n der

, ,

n o r m a l c o n diti o n s except d u r ,

i ng degl utiti o n . Tra ch ea

Th yroi d gl a nd

THE TON G E U
Th e t o ngu e (L i n gu a ) is
S i tu a ted o n the fl o o r of th e

m o uth betwee n th e r a m i o f
,

th e m a n d ibl e a n d i s sup ,

p o r ted m a i nl y i n a s or t o f
S l i ng f or m ed by t h e myl o
hy o i d muscl es I t s p o st e r i or
.

p or ti o n ,th e r oo t (R a d ix
li n gu a ) is a tt a ch ed t o t h e
,
Ton si l
hy o i d b on e s o ft p a l a te a n d
, ,

p h ar ynx On l y t h e upper
.

su r f a ce of t his p ar t i s fr ee ,
Fol i a l e p a p i l la
an d sl o pes d o wn w ar d a n d
b a ckw ar d The midd le p or
.

Va l l a l e p a p i ll a
ti o n t he b o dy (C o rp us l i n gu a )
, ,

h as t h r ee fr ee su r f a ces The .

upper sur f a ce or d or s u m (D or
Dorsu m l i ngu ae
s u m li n gu a ) is r o u n d ed Th e .

l a tera l su r f a ces ar e n e a r ly fl at
for t he m o st p ar t b ut a n ,

t er i o r l y b ec om e r o u n ded a n d
n a r r o we r Th e l o wer s ur f a c e
.

is a tt a ched t o the m a n dibl e .

Th e a pex or tip (A pex l i ngu a )

i s f r ee sp a tul a S h a ped a nd
,
-
,

p r ese n ts supe r i o r a n d i n fe r i or
su r f a ces a nd a r o u n ded b or de r .

S tr u ctu r e — The t o n gu e
.

c o n sists of : (1 ) The m uc o us
A per: l i n gu a
memb r a n e ; (2 ) the gl a n ds ;
.

(3 ) th e m uscl es
4 1 —T O N U
.

Th e m u c ou s m e m b rane F 2 O HO IG .D O AL A P CT
. G E F RS E , RS S E .

(Tu ni c a mu c os a li n gu a ) a d
her es i n tim a tely to th e subj a ce n t ti ssue ex cept on th e l o wer p ar t Of th e ,

l a te r a l s ur f a ces o f t he b o dy a n d th e u n der su r f a ce o f th e tip I t v a r i es .

c onsiderab l y i n thi ck n ess On t he d or sum i t i s ve r y thi ck a n d de n se

. .

U n d er n e a th th is p or ti o n th e r e i s a de n se fi b r o us c o r d whi ch ext e n ds medi a lly ,

a dist a n ce of five or six i n ch es f or w a r d f r o m th e v a l l a te p a pi ll a On .

the si des an d u n d er sur f a ce o f th e t on gue the memb r a n e is m u ch thi nn er an d

s m oo th an d c a n m or e r e a dily b e d issected off th e m us cul ar tissue F r om
, .

the u n d er su r f a ce of th e fr ee p ar t of t he t o n gu e a f o l d of the mu c o us memb ran e

p a sses t o the fl oo r Of th e m o ut h f or m i n g the fre n um l i n g u a ,
Thi s c o n t a i n s the .

a n t e r i or edges o f th e ge n i o gl o ssi m uscl es P o ste r i or ly a f o ld p a sses o n e a ch sid e

-
.
33 6 D I G E ST I V E S YS TE M OF T HE H OR S E

f ro m t he edge of the d o r sum t o j o i n the s o ft p a l a te f or m i n g t he a nt e r i o r pi ll ars o f ,

the l a tte r A ce n t r a l gl o ss o epigl ott i c fo ld (P li c a gl o s so epi gl ot ti ca ) p a sses f r om

.
-

the r oo t to t he b a se o f t he epigl ottis The m uc o us m e m b r an e p r ese nts n ume ro us

p apil l a , whi ch ar e Of f o u r ki n ds—fil i fo r m fu n gif o r m v a l l a te a nd f o li a te Th e
.

.
, , ,

fil if orm pa pi ll a (P a pil l a fil i for m e s ) a re fin e p o i n ted p r o j ecti o n s They c o ve r t he ,

.

uppe r su r f a ce o f t h e b ody an d tip t o wh i ch t hey gi ve a disti n ct pi le The fu ngi ,

.

f o r m p ap i ll a (P a pi ll a fu n gi f or m es ) a r e r o u n ded at the f r ee en d w hi ch is supp or ted ,

by a n eck They o ccu r p r i n cip a ll y o n t he l a te r a l p a r t o f t he t on gu e b ut a re a ls o

. ,

f o u nd sc a tte r ed o ve r t he d o r su m a n d upper su r f a ce o f t h e f r ee p o rt i o n The .

val l a te pa pi l l a (P a pi ll a v a ll a t a ) ar e usu a lly tw o or t h r ee i n n u m be r The tw o .

c on st a n t o n es h a ve a d i a m ete r Of a b o ut 7 mm a n d a r e f o u n d on t he p o ste r i or p ar t .
,

the d o r sum o ne on e a ch sid e o f t he medi a n pl a n e a b o ut a n i n ch (ca 3 cm ) a p a r t

, ,
. . .

Dep r es s or l a bi i Gen i o-gl os su s

i nf er i ori s
Her o i c -hyoi d eu s
Hyo-ph aryngeu s

Thyr oi d gl
Tra chea

FI G . 24 2 . or TON U G E , H YO D I B O N E , P HA Y N XR , E TC or HO RS E .

T p T e ns o r a a ; L p p l ti e a or lv t a a p l ti ; Pl p p
p t e r y g o - h a r y ng e u s ; P p p l t ph
a a o- a r y ng e u s ; S p
h y o d e us ; Hy o 0 L h y o —
. .
, . .. . . , . .
, . .
,

t l p
s y o - h a r y n g e u s ; Th p . t p
h y r o - h a r y ng e u s ; C p
., . . ph. c r co -i a r y ng e u s ; Th h . .
, th y ro - i g l o ss us .
.

G p g u t t u ra l p o u c h ;
. .
. p , o a e F f li t p pill
a . a; A u ,
. . f i l t
ac a a r e ry a n d v i e n . The c o n c ea e d l p t
a r s o f th e h y o d b o ne a re i
i nd i t
ca ed by do tt ed line .

The thi r d whe n p r ese n t is beh i n d these is ce nt r a ll y si tu a ted a n d i s a lw a ys sm a ll e r

, , , ,
.

R a r ely a f o u r th m a y be see n They a r e r o u n ded b r o a de r a t t hei r exp osed th a n

.
,

a t thei r a tt a ched su r f a ces a n d a r e sit u a ted i n a cup S h a ped c a vity

,
The f o li a te -
.

pa pil l a (P a pi ll a f o li a t a ) a r e situ a ted j ust i n f ro n t Of the a n te r i o r pi ll a r s Of the s o ft

p a l a te whe r e t h ey f o r m a r o u n ded e m i n e n ce a b o ut a n i n ch (ca 2 to 3 c m ) i n le n gth
, . .
,

m a r ked by t r a nsve r se fissu r es The l a st t h r ee v a r i eti es a r e c o ve r ed with m i c r o

.

sc o pi c sec o nd ar y p a pil l a a nd ar e fu r n ished wi th t a ste b uds The m uc o us me m -

.

b ra n e o f the roo t o f the t o n gue p r ese nts n u m e r o us f o lds a nd dep r essi o n s I nt o .

the l a tte r o pe n the d ucts f r o m the li n gu a l gl a n d s (G l an dul a li n gu a l es ) w hi ch ,

c on stitute a thi c k l a ye r i n the l oose sub m uc o us tissue M u c o us gl a nds are f o u n d .

a ls o o n the d o r sum a n d sid e s o f the t o n gue I n the submu c o s a o f th e roo t i s .

fo u n d a ls o a l a r ge qu a nti ty of ly m ph f o l li cles (F Ol l i c u l i t o n si ll a r es ) a nd d i ff use

ly m ph o i d tissue .
3 38 D I GE ST I V E S Y ST E M OF T HE H OR S E

2 . Hy o - .
—Thi s i s
wid e fl a t m uscl e s om ewh a t thi cke r th a n t he pr e
gl os s u s a , ,

cedi n g I t lies o n the l a te r a l p a r t o f the r oo t a n d b o dy of t he t on gue p a r tly u n de r

.
,

c o ve r o f t he p r ecedi n g m uscle I ts deep f a ce is r el a ted to t he ge n i o g l oss u s I t

.
-
.

a r ises f r o m t he l a te r a l a spect o f t he hy o i d b o n e f r o m the li n gu a l p r o cess t o t he o r a l ,

ext r emity of th e g r e a t c or n u a n d f r om t he th yr o i d c or n u,
Th e fiber s p a ss o bl iq uel y .

for w ar d a nd upw a r d a nd for the m ost p a r t t u r n t o w a r d the medi an pl a n e of th e

,

d o r s um of the t o n gue I ts a cti o n is to r et r a ct a nd dep r ess the t o n gu e

. .

(I t i s usu a l ly p ossibl e to r ec o g n i z e i n this m uscl e th r ee p or ti o ns whi ch w o uld ,

c o rr esp o n d to t he ba s e O ke r a t o a n d ch o n d r o g l o s su s o f h um a n a n a t o m y ) -

3 G eni o gl os s u s —This is a fa n sh a ped m uscl e wh i ch li es p a r a l lel t o th e me

.

- -
. .
,

di a n pl a n e o f the t o n gu e I t i s sep a r a ted f r o m the m uscl e o f th e Opp o site si de by a

.

q u a ntity of fa t a n d c o nn ecti ve tissue I t a r ises f r o m th e i n n er su r f a ce of the r a mus

.

o f the m a n di bl e n e a r the sy m physis F r om t he te n d o n the fib e r s p a ss i n a r a di a ti n g

.

m a nn e r s o m e t o w ar d the tip o t he r s t o w a r d th e d o r sum a n d o th e r s t o w a r d the

, , ,

r oo t o f the t o n gu e ; s o m e fibe r s p a ss f r o m th e p o ste r i or e n d o f th e te n d o n t o the

b o d y a nd s m a l l c or n u o f the hy o i d b on e Th e m uscl e a s a wh o l e i s a dep r ess o r of .

th e t on gue a nd especi a lly o f i ts m i ddle p o r ti o n ; wh e n b o th m uscl es a c t a medi a n

, ,

g ro o ve is f or m ed o n t he d o r sum Th e p o ster i or fib e r s p r o t r ude the t o n gue th e

.
,

m iddle fibe r s dep r ess the t o n gue a n d t he a n te r i o r fi be r s r et r a ct the ti p o f th e

,

t on gue .

Ve s s e l s a n d N erve s — T h e a r te r ies o f th e t o n gue a r e th e l i ngu a l a n d sub

li ngu a l b r an ches o f th e exte r n a l m a xill a r y ar t e r y The se ns or y n e r ves a r e t h e .

l i n gu a l a n d gl oss o ph ar y n ge a l a nd the m uscl es ar e i nn e r v a ted by the hyp o gl o ss a l

-
,

n e r ve.

THE TE E TH
The t eeth ar e h a r d whi te or yel l o wish whi te st r uctu r es i m pl an ted i n th e a lve o l i -

of th e b o n es o f t he j a ws —p r e m a xi ll a m a xill a
,

a n d m a n dibl e M o r ph o l o gi c a l ly
, ,
.

they ar e l a r ge c a l cified p a pi ll a Fu n cti o n a lly t hey a r e or g a n s Of p r eh e n si o n

.

a n d m a sti c a ti o n a n d m a y se r ve a s we a p o n s o f o ff e n se a n d defe n se
, They ar e .

cl a ssified a cc or di n g t o f or m a n d p o si ti on a s f o ll o ws :
I Th e i n c i s o r t e e th (D e n tes i n cisivi ) a r e situ a ted i n f r o n t a n d a re i m pl a n ted
.

i n the p r e m a xi ll a a n d m a n dible .

2 Th e c anin e t e e th (D e n tes c a ni ni ) ar e sit u a ted a l ittl e fur th e r b a ck a t o r

.
,

n e ar the p r e m a xi ll a r y sut u r e i n the uppe r ja w ; i n the l o we r ja w they a r e n e a r e r

th e i n cis or s .

3 Th e ch ee k te e th (D e n tes p r em o l ar es et m o l a r es ) t h e r em a i n i n g teeth o ccupy

.
, ,

the sides of the de n t a l a r ch The S p a ce b etwee n t he i n cis or s a n d ch eek teet h is

.

t e r med the i n te r de n t a l o r i n te r a l ve o l a r S p a ce I t i s cust o m ar y t o d i vi de th e cheek .

teet h i n t o a n a nt er i or se r i es te r m ed p re m o l ar s , whi ch a ppe a r a s te m p o ra r y

, ,

decidu o us o r m i l k teeth a n d a r e r epl a ced by pe r m a n e n t success or s a nd a p o ste r i o r

, , ,

se r i es the m o l ar s , whi ch a ppe ar o n l y a s pe r m a n e n t teeth wi th o ut deci du o us pr e

,

d eces s o r s .

A s the teeth o f the tw o si des Of t he j a ws a r e a l ike i n n umbe r a n d ch a r a cte r

(i n n or ma l c a ses ), the c o m pl ete d e ntiti o n m a y be b r i efly i nd i c ated by a d e n ta l
f o r mu l a su ch as the f o ll o wi n g :
—P —l\l
2 1 2 3
-
C
2 l 2 3

In thi s f o r m ul a t he letter s i n di c a t e th e ki n ds o f teeth a n d the figu r es a b o ve a nd ,

bel o w the l i n es gi ve the n u m be r of teeth o f o ne sid e i n the uppe r and l o we r jaw

r e s pectively i n m a n .

Th e i nd ivid u a l teeth of e a ch g ro up ar e d esig n a ted n u m e r i c a lly the st ar ti n g ,

p o i n t bei ng the midd le li n e ; t hus the i n cis o r on eithe r S ide of the m idd le li n e is th e
 T HE TE E T H 3 39

fi r st i n cis o r an d may b e c o ve i e tly i di c ted by th e o t a ti

,
n n n I n Th e tem
a n on
‘
.

por a ry or deci du o us teeth m a y b e desig n a ted i n a si m i l a r m a n n e r pr e fix i n g D ,

(for decid u o us ) to the lette r i n d i c a ti n g the ki n d Of t o o th I n a ddi ti o n to the a b ov e .

syste m a ti c m eth o d o f n o t a ti o n o th e r te r ms h a ve r eceived the s an cti on Of p o pul ar

”
us a ge Th us th e fi r st i n ci s or s ar e c o mm o n l y c a lled pi n che r s
. or
“
,

the sec o n d i n te r m edi a te ; a n d the thi r d c o rn e r teeth

,
The c a n i n es whe n hi ghly
,
.
,

devel o ped may b e t er m ed tusks or f a n gs The v estigi a l a n d i n c o nst a n t fi r st

,
.

”
p r e m o l a r o f t he h o r se i s p o pul a r ly te r m ed the w o lf t oo th
“
.

E a ch t oo th p r ese n ts for desc r i pti o n a p o r ti o n c oa ted with e n am el te r m ed th e ,

cr o w n (C o r o n a de n tis ) a n d a p o r ti o n c o ve r ed with ce m e n t te r m ed the r oo t (R a di x

, ,

de n tis ) Th e li n e of u n i o n o these p a ts is t he ec k (C o ll u m den tis )

. f r n
1
I n many .

teet h th e n eck i s disti n ct a nd i s em b r a ced by t he gum e g th e teeth of the d o g , . .

,

a nd th e t emp o ra r y i n cis or s of th e h o r se I n o the r t eet h n o c o n st r i cti o n is seen as

.
,

i n th e pe r ma n e n t i n cis or s o f th e h o r se B etwee n th ese ext r emes may b e n o ted

.

t he m o l a r s o f the h or se i n wh i ch the n eck is see n o n l y i n a dv a n ced age

, .

Th e s urfa ce o f a t o o th di r ected t o w ar d th e l i ps i s te r m ed l a b i al ; t o w ar d the

cheek b u ccal ; a n d t o w a r d th e t on gue l i n gu a l (F a ci es l a b i a l is b u cc a l is li n gu a li s )
, , , , .

The su r f a ce Opp o sed t o a n eighb or i n g t oo t h o f th e s a m e de n t a l a r ch is te r med th e

”
(F a ci es c o n t a ctus ) Th e g r i n di n g or ma s ti c a to ry or t a bl e
“
c o n ta c t s u r fa ce .

s u r f a ce (F a ci es m a sti c a t or i a ) is t h a t wh i ch c o mes i n c o nt a ct with a t oo th or teeth

o f th e Opp o site ja w

S tr u c tur e —Teeth a r e c o m p o sed of f o u r tissu es wh i ch a r e c o n sider ed h e r e

.

fr o m withi n o utw ar d The pu l p (P u lp a de n ti s ) i s a s o ft gel a ti n o us t issue wh i ch

.
,

o ccupi es a S p a ce i n t he ce nt r a l p ar t o f the t oo t h ter med t he pul p c a vi ty (C a vu m

de n tis ) The pulp is well suppl i ed wit h b l oo d —
. vessels an d n er ves I t o ccupi es .

a r el a tively l a r ge sp a ce i n y o u n g g r o wi n g teeth b ut l a t e r th e de n ti n e dep o sited ,

o n its s ur f a ce g r a d u a ll y e n c r o a ches on it u n ti l i n a dv a n ced a g e the c a vity is , ,

o b liter a ted o r m uc h r edu ced Th e d e nti ne (S ubst an ti a eb u rn e a ) f o rm s th e bu l k

.

o f m ost teet h c o ve r i n g t he sur f a ce of t h e pulp

, I t is v er y h a r d a nd i s yell o wish .
,

wh ite i n c o l o r The e na m e l (S ubst an ti a a d a m a n ti n a ) c o n stit utes a l a ye r of v a r yi n g

.

thi ck n ess c o ve r i n g the de n ti n e of t he c r o w n o f the t e e t h I t is e a si ly disti n gu ish ed .

by its cle ar blu ish whit e a ppe a r a n ce a n d its ext r e m e de nsity

-
Th e c e m e n t .

(S ubst an ti a o sse a ) is a lw a ys th e o ute r m o st t oo th subst a n ce I n si m pl e t eet h i t .

f or m s usu a l ly a thi n l a ye r o n th e su r f a ce o f the d e n ti n e of th e r o o t o n ly but i n com ,

pl ex teeth it exi sts i n c o n si de r a b l e q u a n tity te n di n g to fi ll i n t h e sp a ces b e twee n t h e

,

e na mel f o l ds of the c r o wn a ls o I ts st r u ctu r e is p r a cti c a ll y th e s a me a s th a t of

.

b o n e with o ut Ha ve r si an c a na ls a nd eve n these o c cu r w he r e th e ce m e n t for m s a

,
.

ve r y t hi ck l a yer Th e e m b edded p ar t o f t h e t oo th is a tt a ch ed to th e a lve o l us b y

.

a v a scul a r l a yer Of c o n n ecti ve t issue t he a lv e o l ar pe ri o st e um (P e r i o steu m a lve o l a r e )

, ,

whi ch c on stitutes the pe r i o steum a t o n ce o f t oo th a n d a lve o l us .

T he b l oo d -s u ppl y t o th e pulp is de r ived f r o m th e a lve o l ar o r de n t a l b r an ches

Of th e i n te r na l a r te r y ; th e n erv e - s u pply c o m es f r o m b r a n ch es of th e t r igemi n us .

1
It l l b e n o t ed t h a t t h i s d e fi n i ti on o f c ro w n a nd root d oes n o t a g ree ex a c tl y w i t h th e
wi
p o p u l a r V i ew t h a t th e cr ow n i s t h e f r ee p or ti o n a n d th e r o o t t h e emb ed d ed p o r ti o n T h e o bje c .

ti o n to th e l a tt er s t a t emen t l i es i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s n o t c a p a b l e Of g en era l a pp li c a ti on T h u s .

t h e mor p h o l o g i c a l cro w n o f t h e p er m a n e n t m o l a rs i n t h e h o rs e i s ex t re m e l y l o n g a n d i s fo r th e , ,

m os t p ar t em b ed d ed i n t h e b o n e i n th e y o u n g a n i m a l
,
T h e roo t p r o p e r b eg i ns to f o r m a t f o u r
.

or fiv e y e a rs o f a ge a n d c o n ti n u es i ts g ro w t h fo r a b o u t e i g h t y ea r s
,
A s t h e e x p os ed p a r t o f th e
.

c r o w n w ea r s d o w n t h e e m b ed d ed p a r t p u s h es o u t Of t h e a l v e o l u s t h u s p r e v e n ti n g d e fi c i en c y o f
, ,

l en g t h On t h e o l d b as i s w e s h ou l d h a v e to sa y t h a t s u c c ess i v e p o r t i on s o f t h e r oo t b eco me
‘

cro w n w hi l e i n p o i n t Of f a c t i t i s o n l y i n v er y ex t r e me a g e t h a t t h e t r u e roo t co mes i n t o w ea r

,
.
34 0 D I GE STI VE S Y S TE M OF T HE H OR S E

THE TE E TH OF THE HOR SE

THE P E R M A NE N T TE E T H
The f or mul a Of the pe rm a n e n t t eeth of the h o r se is

3 or 4 3
P 40 or 42
3

FI G . Q- l
l - —U PP ER TE E TH or HO RS E A B O UT FO U R AND ON E - HAL F FI G 24 5 —
LO W ER TE E TH or HO RS E

Y FO U R Y ARS o A E
.
. . . ,

A
E RS OL D . E r G .

1 3 , 1 3 . I n c i S OFS : C . c a ni n e ; P 3, P 3, P 4 , p re mo l a rs ; Ml , M Z M3
, ,
l' 1 F i t nd eco nd pe m n n t
.
3
, rs a s r a e

mo l a rs . i c i ; D 5 th i d d i d
n s o rs 43 , i i r The ec u ou s nc sor .

ch k t ee t h
ee nu mb ed a cco d i n g t
a re er r o

p p l
o u ar usa
ge .

I n the m a r e the c a n i n es usu a lly are ve r y s ma ll a nd do n ot e r upt r ed u ci n g th e nu m

,

ber t o 3 6 or
1
E l l e n b e r ge r
f o u nd a s th e res u l t o f ex tens i v e Ob s er v a ti o ns (8000 su b j ec t s ) t h a t a b o u t
, ,
2 to 3 pe r c e n t o f ma res h a v e e ru p t ed c a n i nes i n b o t h j a w s t h a t 6 to 7 er c e n t h a v e t h em i n
; p
. .
.

th e u pp er j a w ; w h i l e 2 0 to 3 0 p e r c e n t h a v e t h e m i n t h e l o w e r ja w
. .
34 2 D I GE STI V E S YS TE M OF T HE H OR S E

ext e r n a ll y ; c o n c a ve with a m edi a n r idge i nte r n a l ly ; its edges a r e sh a r p an d the ,

a pex is p o i n ted i n t he u n w o r n t o o th The r o o t is r o u n d a n d t he pulp c a v i ty i s .

l a rge pe r sisti ng t o a d v a n ced a g e

—
.
,

C eeh k T t
e e h (P r e i n o l a r s a n d Th e c o nst a n t n u m be r o f th ese is
twe nty f o u r twelv e i n e a ch ja w -
.

I nf u nd i bu l u m
-
Quit e c o m m o nl y h ow ever the , :

n u m be r i s i n c r e a sed by the p r es
e n ce i n t h e upper ja w of the so
Cem en t Cemen t c a l led w o lf t o o th Thi s t ooth is -

fl "
.

P eri p hcr u l ' w '

usu a lly S it u a t ed j u st i n f ro n t Of
lg
the fi r st wel l —
mm
d evel o ped t o o th ; i t
Centr a l mu m
é w e n, ' La bi a l s mfa ce is a mu c h r edu ced v estige n ot -
,

Ofte n m o r e th a n o n e h a lf or t h r ee -
Li ng ua l s u rf a c e
f o u r ths of an i n ch (ca 1 t o 2 cm ) . .

i n l e n gth (I t i s i n te r esti n g a s .

b ei n g th e r e m n a nt of a t e e th
whi ch w as w el l d evel o ped i n the
,
-
E o ce n e a n c est o r s o f t he h o r se )
y
.

I t m a y e r upt d ur i n g th e fir st si x
m o n ths a n d is o fte n shed a b o ut ,

the s a m e ti m e as t he mi lk t oo th -

behi n d i t b ut may r em a i n i n ,

defi n i tely Th e o c cur r e n ce Of a .

S i mil a r t oo t h i n th e l o we r jaw

wh i ch r ar el y e r upts—i n c r e a ses
F IG 24 8
.
— L ON T U D NAL S CT ON
. GI P MAN N T I N C O
I
the E
de
I
n t a l f o r m ul a PO 4 4 W h 1 0 h
or ER E IS R
’

r m HO ooA B O U T N AT U AL S Z
or RS E .
i s c o n s i de r ed th e typ i c a l n u m b e r
R I E .

for m a mm a ls They may b e .

r eg a r ded as bel o n gi n g t o the pe r m a n e n t set h a vi n g n o p r ed e cess o r s The cheek , .

t eeth a r e ve r y l a r ge p r ism a ti c i n f or m an d q u a d r i l a te r a l i n c r o ss secti o n except

, ,
-
,

t h e fi r st a n d l a st Of the se r i es wh i ch a r e t r i a n gul a r Th e c r o w n i s r em ar k a bly

, .

l o n g m o st o f it bei n g e m bedd ed i n t he b o n e or situ a ted i n th e m a xi l l ar y si n us i n

,

Can tr a l
en a mel I n u n d i bu l u m
f

Ca ni n e tooth

FI G 2 ~
19 T OOT n OF I I O RS E LI N UAL A P CT
G S E FI G 2 50 -
CAN N AN D I N C
I E I S OR TE E TH or HO RS E

B
. . . . .
. .

A ft
( er E ll en b e rg e r -
au m A t na . fur I i ii ns t l e r . ) Th e b o n e h as b e e n vre m o e d to sh ow t h e e mb e d
B a u m A na t
,

d ed p t ar s o f th e t thee .
(A ft E ll
er e n b e rg e r — , .

fur K il ns t l e r ) .

th e y o u ng h or se A s the e x p o sed p a r t we ar s d o w n th e embedded p ar t push es up

.

t o r epl a ce it S O th a t a fu n cti o n a l c r o w n Of a b o ut f o u r fift h s o f a n i n ch (c a 2 c m )

,
-
. .

1
I t i s c o m mo n i n v et e r i n a r y w o r k s to c a l l a l l t h e c h ee k t eet h m o l a rs s i n c e i n th e h o rs e .
, ,

a r ti c u l a r l y t h e p r e m o l a rs a r e mo l a r i f o r m i d o n o t d i ff e r m a t er i a l l y f ro m t h e t r u e m o l ars
p , e , . .
,

m S i z e o r f o r m T h e t e rm c h ee k t eet h c o nv e ni en tl y i ncl u d es t h e p remo l a rs a nd m ol a rs

. .
 T HE TE E T H OF T H E H OR S E 34 3

is m a i nt a i n ed T he r oo t b egi ns to g r o w a t f o u r or fi ve ye ar s o f ag e a nd is c om
.
,

pl ete a t twelve t o f o u r tee n a lt h o ugh t he dep o siti o n o f ce m e n t m ay c o n ti n ue

,

i nd efi n itely.

The upp e r o r m axi ll ar y tee th ar e emb edded i n t he a lve o l a r p r o cesses of the

m a xil l a Th e exp osed p ar ts of th e c r ow ns a r e n or m a lly i n cl ose c o n t a ct f or m i n g a

.
,

c o n ti n u o us r ow wh i ch is S lightl y cu r ved wi th th e c o n vexity t o w ar d the cheek

,
.

The emb edded p ar ts di ve r ge i n t he m an n er sh o w n i n the a nn exed figu r es (Figs .

2 51,
T hus th e l o ng a xis of the fi r st i s di r ected upw ar d a n d a little f or w a r d ,
344 D I GE S T I V E S YS TE M OF T HE H OR S E

t hat the sec o n d is a l m ost ve r ti c a l whi le i n the r em a i n de r i t i s cu r ved b a ckw ar d

of ,

i n a n i n c r e a si n g deg r ee The a ve r a ge l e n gth at six ye ar s of a ge is a b o ut t h r ee t o

.

t h r ee a n d a h a lf i n ches (ca 7 t o 9 The b ucc al (or o ute r ) s ur f a c e p r ese n ts a

.

ce nt r a l r idge r u nn i n g l e n gthwise a n d sep a r a ti n g tw o g r oo ves ; t he fi r st t oo t h h as in

, ,

a dditi o n a l ess p r o m i n e n t r idge i n f r o n t o f the p r im ar y o n e

,
Th e li n gu a l (or .

i nn e r ) s urf a c e is m a r ked by a w i d e r o u nd ed r i dge the a ccess or y pi l l ar or c o l u m n , , ,

whi ch sep a r a tes t w o ve r y sh a l l o w g r oo ves The m a sti c a tory or ta b l e s ur f a c e .

p r ese n ts t w o i n fu ndi bul a a n a n te r i o r a n d a p oste r i or I t sl o pes o bli q uely d o w n

,
.

w ar d a nd o utw ar d S O t h a t the o uter edge i s p r o m i n en t a n d sh a r p T he fi r st a nd

,
.

l ast teeth h a ve th r ee r o o ts th e r e m a i n de r f o u r or th r ee ,
.

Th e p ositi o n Of the e m b edded c r ow n s an d r oo ts of the l a st f o u r v ar i es a t _

di ffe r e nt a ges a n d i n di ffe r e n t subj ects Tw o f a ct or s i n th is v ar i a ti on m ay b e .

n o ted Al l these teeth a r e devel o ped i n t he m axi ll ar y si n us cl o se t o the o r b it a l

.

f o ss a A s g r o wt h p r o ceeds th e teet h m o v e f o r w ar d s o th a t c o mm on ly o nl y t h e
.
,

l a st th r ee b ut s o meti m es a ls o th e thi r d r e m a i n (except as t o t hei r f r ee c r ow ns )

, ,

i n th e S i n us The sec on d c a use of v a r i a t i o n i s the f a ct th a t th e a n te r i or l i mit o f

.

the m axi ll ar y S i n us m ay b e at th e ext r e m ity of th e f a ci a l r idge or mor e th a n a n ,

i n ch b ey o n d it I n the l a tte r c a se t he thi r d t oo th p r oj ects i nt o the si n us :1

.

0 15
8 17 7 1 6

FI G . 2 52 .
— CT ON O C H T T H
C R o s s -S E HOI S F EE R EE or RS E .

B ucca l (o u te r ) S ur a cesf f a ce to l ft
e . A, Upp t th B l w t th ; I t i I p t i
er oo . , o er oo , a n er o r,
’
, os e r o r i nf u nd ib l
u u m bo h
, t
l m t fi ll d p w ith m t
a os e u ce en .

The str u ctu re is q ui te c o m pl ex T w o i n fu n d ibu l a r u n ver ti c a lly th r o ugh t h e .

e nti r e l e n gth of the c r o w n ; these bec o me fi ll ed w i t h ce m e n t Th e r e a r e five m a i n .

divisi o ns of the pulp c a vi ty an d fi ve e na m el f o l ds f o u r of whi ch a r e a rr a nged

-
,

sy mm et r i c a lly whi l e th e fifth i s an o utg r o wt h f r o m th e i nn e r S id e o f the a nte r o

,

i n te r na l f o ld On t he exp osed c r o w n o f the u n w o r n t o o th the en a mel f o lds f or m

.

r o u n ded r idges c o ve r ed with a t hi n l a ye r Of cem en t A fte r th e t oo th c o m es i n t o .

we a r the e n a m el on the m asti c a t or y su r f a ce st a n ds ou t i n the f or m o f sh ar p

p r om i n e n t r idges P r ogr essive ce m e n t a ti o n of the pe r i ph e r y of t he t oo th t a kes
.

pl a c e thus level i n g up the i r r egul a r iti es o f su r f a ce t o a c o n si de r a bl e exte n t

, .

The l o w er or m andib u l ar ch e e k te e th a r e i m pl a n ted i n th e r a m i of the ma n di

bl e f or mi ng t w o st r a ight r o ws wh i ch dive r ge behi n d
, The sp a ce b etwee n th e r ows .

is c on si de r a bly less t h a n th a t sep ar a ti n g the uppe r teeth especi a lly i n th e mi ddl e ,

Of the s e r i es The le n gth of th e l o we r teeth is a b o ut the s a m e a s th a t Of the uppe r

.

set Thei r d i r ecti o n is a ls o si m i l ar but the emb edd ed p or ti on s d ive r ge eve n m o r e

.
, ,

with the excepti on o f th e fi r st a n d sec ond Th e l on g a xi s of the fi rst i s ve r ti c a l ; .

the r e ma i nd e r p roj ect d o w n w a r d a n d b a ckw a r d i n a g r a d u al l y i n er eas i n g o bl i qu ity .

The b u cc a l (o ute r ) s u rf a c e h a s a l on gitudi n a l fu rr o w ; th e l a st m o l ar h as a sec o n

Th e s t u d e n t i s a d v i se d to a m p li f y t h es e v ery g en e r a l s t a t e men t s b y th e exa m i n a ti o n Of
1

h e a d s o f s u b j e c t s o f v a r y i n g a g es I t ma y a l so b e no t ed t h a t t h e p os i ti o n o f th e s ep t u m b e t w ee n
.

t h e tw o d i v i s i o ns o f t h e S i n u s v a r i es mu c h .
31 6 D I G E ST I V E S YS T E M OF T HE H OR S E

pul p c a vity h a s t w o p r i n cip a l divisi o n s a nd fo u r o r t h r ee sec o n d ar y d ive r t icul a

-
,
.

The e n a m el f o lds c o r r esp on d f o r mi n g a p a tte r n eve n m o r e c o mpli c a ted th an on

,

the u ppe r teet h .

THE TE M P OR A R Y TE E T H
”
The d e cidu o u s te m p or a r y or mi lk te e th (D e n tes deci dui ) a r e sm a ll e r
, ,
“
an d
fewe r th a n th o se Of t he pe r ma n e n t set The f or m ul a is : .

The d e cidu o u s i n ci s o r s a r e m uch s m a lle r th a n t h e pe r m a n e n t o n es They .

h a ve a disti n ct n e ck a t the j u n cti o n Of th e c r o w n a nd r o o t Th e cr o w n i s sh or t .

,

white i n c o l or a n d its l a bi a l su r f a ce is sm o o t h
,
Th e i nf u nd ib u lu m is sh a ll o w . .

Th e ro o t i s fl a tte n ed i t u n de r g o es a bs or pti on a s the pe r m a n e n t t oo th d evel o ps

b ehi nd i t .

The d e cid u o u s c an in e s a r e q ui te vestigi a l Th ey o c cu r i n b o th sexes as sle n de r

.

s p i c u l ze a b o ut a qu a r te r o f a n i n ch i n l e n gth bu t d o n ot e r upt Th e l o wer one , .

d evel ops cl ose t o the c or n e r i n ci s o r They a r e not usu a lly i n clud ed i n the f o r mu l a
.
,

as they a r e n eve r fu n cti on a l .

Th e d e cid u o u s c h e e k t e e th d i ffer f r o m the pe rm a n e n t set chi efly i n th a t they

h a ve mu ch sh or te r c r o w n s th an th e l a tte r Th e r oo ts f o r m e ar ly so th a t a d isti n ct
.
,

n eck o cc u r s .

Th e subj o i n ed t a b le i ndi c a tes th e a ve ra ge pe r i o ds Of th e e r upti o n o f th e teet h :

T E E TH ER UPT O I N

A . Deci d u o u s :
i nc i sor B i r t h o r fi r s t w ee k
l st (D i 1 )
—
—
.

2 nd (D i 2 ) 4 6 w ee k s .

3 rd (D i 3 ) 6 9 mo n t h s .

C an i ne (
8p 2 )
. 0
p re m o l a r
l
l st
th
g
ir firs t
or
2 nd (D p 3 )
u

W0 w eek S
3 rd (D p 4 ) J
.

B P er ma ne n t:
.

l s t i nc i s or (I 1) y e a rs .

2 nd (I 2) y e a rs .

3 rd (I 3) y ea rs
—
.

(C 4 5 y ea rs
—
.

l s t p rem o l a r (
or w o l f t oo t h )
-
(P 1) 5 6 mo n t h s .

2 nd (P 2) 2 % y e a rs .

3 rd (P 3) 3 y e a rs .

4 th (P 4) 4 y e a rs
—
.

l s t mo l a r (M 1) 1 0 1 2 mont h s

—
.

2 nd (M 2) 2 y ea r s .

3 rd (M 3) 3 % 4 y ea r s .

(T h e p er i o d s g i v en fo r P 3 a nd 4 r e f er to th e u pp er t ee t h ; th e l ow er ones ma y er u p t a b ou t
mo n t hs ea r li er ) .

THE S ALI VAR Y GLAN D S

Th is te r m is usu a ll y r est r i cted t o t h e th r ee p a i r s o f l ar ge gl a nds S i tu a ted on th e

sides of the f a ce a nd the a dj a ce n t p a r t Of th e n eck —th e p a r o tid subm a xi ll ar y a n d , ,

subli n gu a l Thei r d u cts Ope n i n t o t h e m o u th

The p ar o ti d gl a n d (G l an du l a p aro tis ) (Fig 1 7 2 )—so n a med f r o m its p r oximi ty
. .

t o th e ea r —is t h e l a r gest o f the s a li v a r y gl a n ds i n t h e h o r se

.

I t is si tu a ted chi efl y .

i n th e S p a ce b etw ee n the r a m us o f the m a n dibl e a n d th e wi ng Of t he a tl a s I t is .

s o m ewh a t t r i a n gul a r i n s h a pe t h e a pex p ar ti a lly e m b r a ci n g th e b a se Of th e exte r n a l

,

ea r . I ts l e n gth i s a b o ut eight t o t e n i n ch es (c a 2 0 to 2 5 a n d its a ve r a ge thi ck

.

n ess n e a r ly a n i n ch (c a 2 I t s a ve r a ge weight i s a b o ut seve n o u n ces (ca

. .

200 t o 22 5
 T HE SAL I VARY GL A NDS 34 7

I t p r ese n ts for desc r i pt i o n tw o su r f a ces , tw o b o r de r s , a b a se , a nd a n a pex .

T h e e xternal (or supe r fi ci a l ) s u r f a ce is c o ve r ed by the p aro ti d f a sci a , the p a n ni cu l us ,

a n d th e p a r ot id O-a u r i cu l ar is mus cle I t i s c r o ssed o bli quel y by th e j ugul ar vei n ,
.

whi ch is emb edded i n t he gl a n d tissu e to a v a r yi n g exte n t I t i s a ls o r el a ted to .

t he gr e a t a u r i cu l ar vei n , the ce r vi c a l b r a n ch of t he f a ci a l n e r ve , a nd b ran ches Of th e

sec o n d ce r vi c a l n e r ve The i n te rn al (or deep ) s urface is ve r y u n eve n , an d h a s n u
.

m er ou s i mp o r t a n t r el a ti o n s S o m e o f these a r e : t he guttu r a l p o u ch , an d th e gr e a t
.

c o r n u o f t he hy o i d b o n e ; the m a ssete r , s tl m a xi ll a r is , d ig a st r i cus , a nd o ccipit o

-

hy o i deus m uscl es ; th e te n d o n s o f t he masto i d o h u m era l i s an d ste r n o— —

ceph a l i cus
(whi c h sep ara te the p a r o ti d f ro m the u n de r l yi n g subm a xil l ar y gl an d ) ; th e exter n a l
c a r o ti d a r te r y a n d s o m e Of i ts b r a n ches ; t he f a ci a l n e r ve ; t he ph a r y n ge a l
lymph gl a n ds The ante ri o r (or f a ci a l ) b o rd e r i s cl o sely a tt a ch ed t o the r a mus Of
.

t he m a n dible a n d the m a ssete r muscle ; i t o ve r l a ps th e l a tter t o a v a r yi n g ext e n t .

( I n s o me c a ses the r e is a wel l -

m a r ked t r i a n gu l ar f a ci a l p r o cess , whi ch c ove r s t he
te m p or o- m an dib ul a r j o i n t , the f a ci a l n er ve , a n d th e t r ansve r se f a ci a l vessels ) .

Th e po s teri or (or ce r vi c a l ) b or d e r is s o m e wh a t c o n c a ve , an d is l oo sely a tt a ched t o

th e u n de r l yi n g m uscl es T he b a s e or v e ntr al b ord er is r el a ted t o the exte rn a l
.

m a xi ll ar y vei n The apex i s a tt a c hed t o th e b a se Of th e exte rn a l ear , whi ch it

.

p a r ti a l ly emb r a ces .

The gl an d h as a yel l o wi sh -gr a y c o l o r an d i s disti n ctly l o b ul a ted I t is i h .

cl o sed i n a c a psul e f orm ed by t he p ar o ti d f a sci a The par o ti d d u c t (D u ctus p a r o .

t i d eu s S t en oni s ) is f o r med a t t h e l o we r p a r t o f t he gl a n d n e a r t he f a ci a l edge by , ,

the u ni on o f t h r ee or f o u r r a di cles I t l e a ves th e gl a n d a b o ut a n i n ch (ca 2 to 3

cm ) a b o ve t he ext er n a l m axi l l ar y vei n c r o sses th e te n d o n o f the ste rn o —
. .

.
,
ceph a li cus ,

a n d g a i n s th e i nn e r f a ce Of th e pte r yg o i d eus i n te r n us I t the n r u n s f o r w ar d i n the .

s ub m a xill ar y sp a ce b el o w t he exte r na l m a xi l l ar y vei n an d wi n ds a r o u n d th e l o we r

b o r de r o f t h e m an dib le b ehi n d th e ve i n p a sses upw a r d b etwee n the vei n a n d the
,

m a ssete r mu scl e for a b o ut tw o i n ch es (ca 5 tu r n s f o r w ar d u n de rn e ath t he

.

f a ci a l vessels a nd pe r f o r a tes t h e ch ee k o b li qu ely Opp o sit e the th i r d uppe r cheek

,

t oo th . B ef o r e pi e r ci n g t he c h e ek i t i s s o mewh a t di l a ted b ut its te r mi na ti on is ,

sm a ll a n d is su rr o u n ded by a ci r cu l a r mu c o us f o l d (P a pi ll a sa l i v a l i s)
B l oo d -su ppl y —B ra n ch es o f t h e c a r o ti d a n d m a xi l l a r y a r te r ies
, ,

N erve -su ppl y —

. .

T r igemi na l f a ci a l a n d sym p a theti c n e r ves

.
, ,
.

Th e su bmaxil l ary gl an d (G l a n d ul a sub m a xi ll ar is ) is mu ch sm a lle r th a n th e

p ar o ti d I t i s l o n g n arr o w an d cu r ved th e d o r s a l edge b ei ng c o n c a ve I t
.
, , ,
.

exte n ds fr o m the f o ss a b el o w t he wi n g o f the a tl a s t o the b o d y of th e hy o i d b o n e ,

so th a t i t is c o ve r ed p ar tly b y th e p a r o ti d gl an d p a r tly b y the l o we r jaw I tS ,

.

l e n gt h i s a b o ut eight t o t en i n ches (ca 20 t o 25 its wi dth a n i n ch to a n i n ch

.

a n d a h a lf (c a to 3
. a n d i ts t hi ckn ess a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (c a 1 It .

weighs a b o ut one a nd a h a lf t o tw o o u n ces (ca 4 5 t o 60 I t is Often divisib l e.

i n t o tw o p ar ts .

I t p r ese n ts fo r desc r ipti o n tw o su r f a ces tw o b o r de r s a n d tw o ext r e m ities , ,

.

The e xte rnal s u rf a ce is c o ve r ed b y the p a r o tid gl an d th e stl m a xil l a r is di g a s ,

-
,

t ri cu s a n d pte r ygo ideus i n te r n us m uscles

,
The te n d o n of th e ste r n o ceph a li cus
.
-

c r o sses this su r f a ce a n d i s a usefu l gu ide i n sep a r a ti ng the p a r o tid gl a n d f r om it

,
.

The i n te rn al s u rf a ce i s r el a ted chi efl y to th e fl exor m uscl es of t h e h e a d ; the gut

t u r a l p o u ch ; th e l ar y nx ; the divisi o n Of th e c a r o tid a r te r y ; a n d t he t e n th eleve n th , ,

a n d sy m p a t heti c n e r ves Th e s u peri o r b or d er is c on c a ve a n d th i n I t is r el a ted

. .

t o the gutt u ra l p o u ch a n d th e d u ct o f th e gl a n d Th e i nf e ri or b or d er is c on vex .

a n d thi cke r . I t is r el a ted to th e thy r o id gl a n d a n d the exte r n a l m a xi ll a r y vei n .

T he po s te ri or e xtr e mity i s l oo sely a tt a ch ed i n th e f o ss a a tl a n tis The a nte r i o r .

e x tr e mi ty li es a t t h e S ide o f the roo t o f t he t o n gue a n d is c r o ssed ext e r n a l ly by ,

th e ext e rn a l m a xi ll a r y a rte r y .
34 8 D I G E ST I V E S Y S TE M OF T HE H OR S E

The s ub m axi ll ar y du ct (D u ctus sub m a xi ll ar is W h ar t oni ) is f or med by th e u ni on

o f sm a l l r a di cles whi ch e m e r ge a l o n g the c o n c a ve edge I t r u n s f o r w a r d a l on g t hi s .

b or de r a n d a fte r le a vi n g the a n te r i o r ext r emity c r o sses th e i nt e r m e d i a t e t e n d o n

, , ,

o f t he dig a st r i cus p a sses betwee n the h y O g l os s u s a n d m yl o hy o id eus a n d

,
- -
,

g a i n s th e i n n e r su r f a ce Of the subl i n gu a l gl a n d I ts te r m i n a l p ar t li es on .

the b o dy Of t he m a n d ibl e u n de r t he mu c o us me m b r a n e whi ch i t p i e r ces

, ,

Opp o si te t he c a n i n e t o o th The o r ifice is a t t he e n d of a fl a tte ned p a pi ll a

.

(C a r u n cul a sub li ngu a lis )

—
B l oo d s upply —Occip i t a l ext e r n a l c a r o tid a n d exte r n a l m a xi ll ar y ar te r ies
.

, .

N er v e- s upply —
.
,

C h o r d a ty m p a ni a nd sym p a theti c n e r ves

. .

The sub li n gu al gl an d (G l a n dul a subli n gu a l is ) is S i tu a ted be n e a t h t he m u c o us

memb r a n e Of t he m o uth betwee n the b o dy of t he t o n gu e a n d th e ra mus of the
,

m a n dible I t ext e n ds f r o m the sy m physis t o t he th i r d o r f o u r th l o we r cheek t o o th

. .

I ts le n gth is a b o ut five o r six i n ches (c a 1 2 t o 1 5 c m ) a nd its weight a b o ut h a lf a n . .

Ou n ce (ea 1 5 t o 1 6 .

I t is fl a tte n ed l a te ra lly a n d h as a thi n upp er b o r d er wh i ch c a uses a n el ev a ti on

,

o f the m u c o us m emb r a n e of the fl o or o f th e m o uth te r med the s ub l in g u al c re s t ,

(P l i c a sub li ngu a lis ) The e xtern a l s u rf a c e is r el a ted t o the m yl o hy o i deus m uscle -

a n d the i n t e rna l s u rf a c e t o the ge n i o—

.
,

gl o ss u s an d styl o gl ossu s the subm a xi ll ar y

-
,

du ct a nd b r a n ches Of t he li n gu a l n e r ve T he i nf eri o r b or d er i s r el a ted t o t he ge n i o

,
.

hy o id muscl e .

The s ub l in gu a l du ct s (D uctus sub li n gu a l es m i n or es ) ab o ut thi r ty i n n umbe r , ,

a r e sm a l l S h o r t a nd twisted ; they o pe n o n s m a l l p a p ill ae o n t he subl i n gu a l c r est

B l oo d - supply —S ub li ngu a l a r te r y
.
, ,

—
. .

N e rv e supply — T r igemi na l a n d symp a t heti c n e r ves

. .

THE P HAR YN X

The ph a r y n x is a m u scu l O me m b r a n o us s a c whi ch b el o n gs t o the digestive an d

-

r espi r a t o r y t r a cts i n c o mm o n I t is fu nn el sh a ped the b a se j o i ni n g the m o uth

.
-
,

a n d n a s a l c a vity whi le the a pex i s c o n ti n u ed by the oes o ph a gus

,
I t s l o n g a xis .

i s di r ected o bli quely d o w n w ar d a n d b a ckw a r d a n d h as a le n gth o f a b o ut S i x i n ches ,

(ca 1 5
.

The ph a r yn x i s a tt a ched by its muscl es t o the p a l a te pte r yg o id an d hy o id , ,

b on es a n d to the c r i c o id a n d t hyr o i d c ar ti l a ges o f the l a r y n x

, .

I ts p r i n ci p a l re l a ti on s a r e : d o r s a lly th e b a se of the c r a n i u m a n d t he guttu r a l

,

p o u ches ; ve n t r a lly th e l ar y n x ; l a te r a ll y t he i n t e r n a l pte r yg o i d m uscl e the g r e a t

, , ,

c or n u of the hy o id b on e the i n te r n a l a n d exte r n a l m a xi l l a r y ar te r i es t he gl o ss o

, ,

ph ar y nge a l supe r i or l a r y n ge a l a n d hyp o gl oss a l n er ves the sub m a xi l l ar y s a liv a r y

, , ,

gl an d an d the ph a r y n ge a l ly m p h gl a n ds
, .

I t p r ese n ts s e v e n Op eni n gs The p o ster i o r n ar e s (C h oa n ae ) c omm u n i c a t e

.

d o r s a l ly with the n a s a l ch a m b e r s The ph a r y n ge a l o r ifi ces (Osti a ph a r y nge a ) Of

.

the tw o E u sta c h i an tub e s a r e situ a ted o n t he l a te r a l w a l l b ehi n d t he n ar es a nd a little

bel o w the l evel o f t he i nfe r i o r n a s a l m e a tus They a r e sl it li ke o pe n i ngs S lightl y .
-
,

Ob li que d o w n w a r d a nd b a ckw a r d a n d a r e a little m o r e t h a n a n i n ch (ca 3 c m ) i n

,
. .

l e ngth They a r e b o u n d ed i n te r n a lly by a v a lvul a r fl ap f o r m ed by the exp an ded

.

ext r e m ity o f the c a r t i l a gi n o us E ust a chi a n tub e The i sth mu s fa u cium is situ a ted .

bel o w a nd i n f ro n t I t is cl o sed by th e s o ft p a l a te except du r i n g sw a ll o wi n g The

. .

l aryn g e al ori fi c e (A ditus l a r y n gis ) o ccupi es th e g r e a te r p a r t o f the ve nt r a l w a l l or

fl oo r o f the ph a r y n x B ehi n d thi s i s the (e s o ph a g e a l Op e ni n g
. . .

The w a ll o f th e ph a r y n x c o m p r ises f r o m with o ut i n w ard : th e muscles the ,

ph ar y n ge a l a p o n eu r o sis a n d th e m u c o us m e m b r an e
, .

Th e mu s cl e s (Figs 2 4 3 2 4 4 ) ar e c o ve r ed by the ph a r y n ge a l f a sci a w hi ch is

.
, ,
3 50 D I GE STI V E S Y ST E M OF T HE H OR S E

p r ecedi ng muscl e—f r o m wh i ch i t is no t disti n ctly sep a r a ted—c r o sses t h e l ev a t o r

p a l a ti a n d i s i nse r ted i nto the m ed i a n ra ph e I ts a cti o n i s si m i l ar t o t h e p r ecedi n g
,
. .

4 T he hy o -ph aryn g e u s ma y c o n sist o f t w o p o r ti o n s :

.

The k e ra to ph ar yn g e u s is a s ma ll a n d i n c o n st a n t m uscl e whi ch a r ises

-

f r om the i n n e r su r f a ce o f the g r e a t c o r n u o f the hy o i d b on e n e a r i ts l o we r en d .

I t p a sses upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d tu r n s i n w a r d t o w a r d the r a p h é a n d S p r e a ds o ut

, ,

u nd e r the n ext m uscl e .

The c o d -ph r yn g e u s
, b r oa d a
n d fl eshy a r ises f r o m t h e thy r o i d c o r n u
()b h n ro a ,

Of t he hy o id b o n e a n d by a thi n f a sci cul us f r o m th e wi n g Of th e thy r o id c ar ti l a ge and

e n ds a t the m ed i a n r a ph e .

5 The thyr o ph ar yn g e u s a r ises f r o m the l a te r a l su r f a ce o f the wi n g of th e

.
-

thy r o id c a r ti l a ge I ts fibe r s p a ss f or w a r d a nd i nw ar d to the medi a n r a ph e

. .

6 The c ri c o-ph aryn g e u s a r ises f r o m th e c r i c o i d c a r ti l a ge a n d e n ds a t th e

.

r a ph e .The fibe r s a re di r ected u pw a r d f or w ar d a n d i n w a r d ; th ey b le n d b ehi n d

, ,

with the l o n gitudi n a l fibe r s of the oes o ph a gus .

T h e l a st th r ee muscles a r e c on st r i ct o r s o f th e ph a r y nx .

The ph aryn g ea l ap o n e u r o si s i s a tt a ch ed t o th e b a se of th e c r an iu m I t is .

well devel o ped on the i nn e r f a ce o f th e p a l a t o ph a r y n geus m uscle a nd f o rms a -

m edi a n r a ph e (R a ph e ph ar y n gi s ) d o r s a lly w hi ch i s wide i n its p o ste r i o r p a r t

, .

The muc o u s m e mb rane o f th e ph a r y nx i s c o n ti n u o us wi th th a t of th e sev e r a l

c a vi ti es wh i ch Ope n i n t o i t I t i s thi n a n d cl o sely a d he r e n t to the b a se of the sku ll
.

i n the vi ci n i ty o f th e p o ste r i o r n a r es whe r e th e muscul a r w a l l is a bse n t

,
B ehi n d .

the E ust a chi a n Ope n i n gs is a med i a n cu l de sa c the ph ar yng ea l rec e s s The r ecess
- -
,
.

i s s om ewh a t v a r i a bl e but is usu a lly a b o ut a n i n ch i n depth a nd wi ll a dmi t the end

,

Of t he fi nge r I n the a s s a nd m ul e i t i s mu ch deepe r

. H er e a lso the m uscul ar .

w a ll is a bse n t a n d the m u c o us me m b r a n e li es a g a i n st th e guttu ra l p o uches F r o m .

the E ust a chi an Ope n i n g a f o l d of th e m u c o us m emb r a n e (P li c a s a lpi n g o ph a r y nge a ) -

p a sses t o w ar d b ut d o es n ot r e a ch the l a r y n ge a l o pe ni ng B el o w a h o r i z on t a l f o ld
the p o ste r i o r pil l ar o f th e s oft pal a te (A r cus ph ar y n g o—
.
, ,

p a l a ti n us ) p a sses a l o ng t he ,

l a te ra l w a ll a n d u n ites wi th its fel l o w o ve r th e e n t r a n ce to the oes o ph a gus Th e .

uppe r p a r t Of the c a vi ty (th e n a s o ph a r y n x ) i s l i n ed w ith a ci li a ted epitheli u m

-
,

whi le the l o we r p a r t (or o ph a r y nx ) h as a st r a tifi ed squ a m o us epi theliu m The

-
.

c omm u n i c a ti on betwee n the tw o is o v a l a n d is b o u n d ed by the f r ee edge o f th e s oft

p a l a te a n d its p o ste r i o r pill a r s ; i t is te r m ed the ph ar yn g e al i s th m u s On ei th e r si de .

o f the l a r y n ge a l o pe n i n g is a n a r r o w d eep d ep r essi o n th e pyri f o r m s in u s (R ecessus ,

pi r if o r m is ) .

The sub m u c o us tissue c o n t a i n s n u m e r o us m u c o us gl a n ds (G l a n dul ae p h ar y n

g e ae )
. I n th e y o u n g subj ect th e ly m ph f o l li cles a re n um e r o us a n d f o r m a c o llecti o n
d or s a lly a n d betwee n the E ust a chi a n Ope n i n gs k n o w n as th e ph a r y n ge a l t o nsi l
B l oo d - s upply —E xte r n a l c a r o tid
, .

. exte r n a l m a xi l l a r y a n d th e l ar ynge a l
, ,
-

a r te r i es

N e rve - su pply —G l o ss o ph a r y n ge a l v a gus a n d sy m p a theti c ner ves

.

-
. .
, ,

THE (E SOP HAG S U

The oes o ph a gus i s a m u s c u l O me mb ra n o us tub e a b o ut 50 t o 60 i n ches (ca
-
,
.

1 2 5 t o 1 50 c m ) i n l e ngth w hi ch exte n ds f ro m the ph a r y n x to th e st o m a ch

.
, It .

begi ns i n th e m edi a n pl a n e a b o ve the c r i c o id c a r ti l a ge o f t he l a r y nx I n i ts c o u r se .

i t sh ows seve ra l ch a nges of d i r ecti o n A t the lev el Of the f o u r t h ce r v i c a l ve r teb r a

.

i t i n cl i n es to the left side o f th e t r a che a a n d c o nti n u es thi s r el a ti o n t o th e level of

,

t h e thi r d t h o r a ci c ve r teb r a He r e i t a g a i n g a i n s the d o r s a l su r f a ce Of t he t r a che a

.
,

a n d p a s s i n g b a ckw a r d c r o sses the left b r o n chus bei n g h e r e a l mo st i n th e m edi a n

, ,

pl a n e I t c o nt i nues i n the m ed i a sti n u m betwee n th e lu ngs b a ckw a r d upw ar d

.

, ,

a n d a l ittle t o th e left to r e a ch the hi a tus oes o h a e u s o f the d i a ph r a gm P a ssi n g

, p g .
 T HE (E S OP HAGUS 3 51

th ro ugh this it t e r mi n at es a t on ce a t the c a r d i a c or ifi ce o f the st o m a ch a t the l evel ,

of the f o u r tee n t h th o r a ci c ve r teb r a a littl e t o th e left Of th e m edi a n pl a n e a n d , ,

a b o ut f o u r or five i n ches (ca 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) v e n t r a l t o the ve r t eb r a l c o lu m n

. . .

Vi ewed wi th r efe r e n ce t o the f r on t a l pl a n e i ts c o u r se i s d o w n w a r d a nd b a ck ,

w a r d ti ll it e n te r s the th o ra x a nd p a sses u pw a r d to g a i n t he d or s a l f a ce of th e t r a che a .

For a sh o r t d ist a n ce (i e to the r oo t o f th e lu ng ) i ts di r ecti o n i s a l m o st h o r i z o n t a l ;

. .
,

Temp or a l mu s cl e

Cor onmd pr oce ss

'

E xter n a l ma x
i l l a ry vei n
h yr o i d cor n u of
-

h yoi d bon e
Lymp h gl a nd
P a r oti d d u ct

C T ON H AD O H O S
FI G . 2 55 .
—
C R os s—
SE I or E F R E .

Th ti p
e sec thong h th t m p m d ib l
a s s es ro u ti l t i b t i li g h t l y b li q
e e 1 C p
o ro- an u ar ar cu a o n. u s s o ue .
, or us cal

l osu m; 2 l t . lv t i l fb i ; 3
a e ra en d t
r c e o l ; 4 i t
ra n l p l ; 5 l ti l
, ca u l ; pti h i
a e nu c eu s . n e r na ca su e , en c u a r nu c e u s o c c as ma ;
7, m id d l b l
e c e ret y ; 8 ph i d l i
ra ar er ; 9 vs i ; 1 0 E t hi t b i
e no l mi ; 1 1
S n u s es na 1 1
l p h ; I 2 ft p l t ; 1 3 p ig l tti ; 1 4 h y —
, a . ca e rno u s S nu s . us ac an u e, n ne r a , ,

gu tt u ra ouc es . so a a e p ig l tti m l ; 1 5 t h y h y id m l
. e o s , o e o c u sc e , ro - o usc e .

b ehi n d this it p a sses s o mewh a t u pw a r d t o its te r mi n a ti on T h e c ervi c a l p ar t o f .

the tub e i s a b o u t f o u r t o six i n ch es (1 0 to 1 5 cm ) l o n ge r t h a n th e th o ra ci c par t , .

whil e the so c a ll ed a bd o m i n a l p ar t is a b o ut a n i n ch (2 to 3 c m ) l on g
-
1
. .

1
C a re f ul Ob s er v a ti o n s (es p e c i a l l y on f r o z en s u b j e c t s a n d t h os e i n w h i c h t h e o r g a n s h a v e b een
h a r d en ed i n s i tu ) s h o w t h a t t h ere i s n o a bd o mi n a l p a r t o f t h e oeso p h a g u s i n t h e s t r i c t s en s e o f t h e
t er m Th e s t o m a c h h ere li es d i re c tl y on t h e d i a p h r ag m s o t h a t t h e l a s t i n c h o r s o of t h e oes o p h a
. .

gu s i s p l a c ed o b li q
,

u e l y i n t h e h i a t u s mso p h a g eu s a nd i s p a r tl y co v er ed b y t h e p l e u r a b u t no t b y
, ,

p eri t o n eu m I n so f t s u b j e c t s t h e w e i g h t o f t h e s t o m a c h o r t r a c ti o n on i t d r a w s p a r t of t h e
.
, ,

(e so p h a g us i n t o t h e a bd o men i nc l o s e d i n a c o ll a r Of p er i t o n eu m
,
.
3 52 D I G E S T I V E SYS T E M OF T HE H O R SE

The p r i n ci p a l re l a ti on s o f the oes oph a gus a t its o r igi n a re : to the c r i c o id

c a r ti l a ge bel o w ; t o th e guttu r a l p o u ches an d t he v e nt r a l st r a ight muscles ab o ve ;
a nd t o th e c a r o tid a r te r i es l a t e r a lly I n the m iddle of th e n eck the r el a ti o n s a r e :
.

t o th e left l o n gus c o ll i m uscl e a b o ve ; t o th e t r a che a i n te r n a lly ; t o th e left c a ro t id

a r te r y v a gus sy m p a theti c a nd r ecu r r e n t n e r ves exte r n a lly
, , ,
At i ts e n t r a n ce .

i n t o the th o r a x it h a s t he t ra che a on its i nn e r side ; t h e fi rst r i b t he r oo ts of t h e ,

b r a chi a l plexus of n e r ves an d t he i n fe r i or ce r vi c a l g an gli on exte r na lly Afte r .

g a i ni n g the uppe r su r f a ce o f t he t r a che a i t h as th e a or t a o n its left an d th e ve n a ,

a zyg o s a n d r ight v a gus n e r v e o n its r ight sid e I n its c o u r se t h r o ugh th e p o ste r i o r

.

medi a sti n u m the oes o ph a ge a l t r u n ks o f t h e v a gus n e r ves li e a b o ve a nd b el o w it ,

a nd the (e s o ph a ge a l a r t e r y is d o r s a l t o i t

S tr u ctu re —The w a ll is c o m p o sed o f f o u r c o a ts : (1 ) A fib r o us she a th ; (2 ) th e

.

muscul a r c oat ; (3 ) a sub m u c o us l a ye r ; (4 ) t he m u c o us memb r a n e The mu s cul ar .

c oat is of the st r iped v a r i ety as fa r as th e b a se o f th e h e a r t whe r e it r a p i dl y ch an ges ,

t o the u n st r iped type I n a ddi ti o n t o this ch a n ge t he m uscu l a r c oa t b ec om es

.
,
1
mu ch thi cke r a n d fi r m e r w hil e t h e lu me is d i mi n ished
,
n The o ute r fi be r s a re .

a rr a n ged l o n gi tudi n a lly b egi nn i n g i n tw o bu n d l es a tt a ch ed i n t he i n t er v a l b e

,

twee n the a r yte n oi d and c r i c o i d c ar ti l a ges Th e i nn er fib e r s r u n i n tw o spi r a l

.

st r a t a to the te r m i n a l p ar t o f the tube wh e r e th e a rr a nge m en t is an o ute r l o ngi

,
2
t u d i n a l a n d a n i n n e r ci r cul a r l a ye r Th e m u c o u s m e mb r an e i s p a le an d is c ove r ed
.
,

w i th squ a m o us st r a tified epi theli u m I t is l oo sely a tt a ched t o the muscu l a r c oa t

.

by a n a bu n d a n t sub m uc o s a a n d li es i n l o n gi tud i n a l f o lds wh i ch o bli te r a te the lume n

,

except du r i n g degluti ti o n .

B l o o d s upply — C a r o tid b r o n ch o oes o p h a ge a l a n d g a st r i c a r te r ies

-
.
,
-
, .

N e r ve - supply — Va gus gl o ss o p h a r y n ge a l a n d symp a th eti c n e r ves

.
,
-
, .

THE ABDOMI N AL CAVI TY

Th e a bd o m i n a l c a vity (C a v u m a bd o m i n is ) i s th e l a r gest o f t h e b o d y c aviti es .

I t is sep a r a ted f r o m the t h o r a ci c c a vity by the d i a ph r a g m an d is c o nt i n u o us b eh i n d

wi th the pelvic c a vity .

I t is o v o i d i n f o r m but s o mewh a t c o m p r ess ed l a te r a l ly I t s l o ng a xis exte n ds .

o bliquely f r o m the ce n te r o f the pel vi c i n l et t o th e st e rn a l p ar t o f th e di a ph r a gm

I ts d o r s o —
.

ve n t r a l d i a m ete r is g r e a test a t t h e fi r st l umb ar ve r teb r a wh i l e its g r e a test ,

t r an sver se d i a m ete r is a little n e a r e r the pelvis .

The d or s al wa ll o r r oo f i s form ed by th e lu m b a r ve r teb r ae t he lu m b a r muscles , ,

a nd the lumb a r p a r t o f the di a ph r a g m .

Th e l ate ra l w al l s a r e f or m ed by th e o b li q u e an d t ran sve r se a bd om i n a l m uscles ,

t he a bd om i na l tu n i c the a n te r i or p a r ts o f the i li a th e c a r til a ges o f the a ste rna l

, ,

r ibs a n d the p a r ts o f the p o ste r i o r r ibs whi c h a r e b el o w th e a t t a ch m e n t o f th e d i a

,

p h rag m .

The v e ntra l wa ll o r fl oor c o n sists o f t h e tw o r ecti th e a p o n eu r o ses o f the o bl i que ,

a nd t r a n sve r se m uscl es the a bd o m i n a l tu n i c a n d th e xi ph o id c a r ti l a ge

, .
,

The a nte ri or w a ll is f o r m ed by t he di a ph r a gm whi ch i s ve r y d eepl y c on c a ve , ,

thus g r e a tly i nc r e a si n g the si z e o f th e a bd o m e n a t the expe nse o f the th o ra x .

I t s h o u l d b e n o t ed t h a t th e d i a p h r a g m a l s o c o n c u rs p ra c ti c a ll y i n t h e f o r m a ti o n o f a c o n
s d e ra b l e p a r t o f t h e l a t e r a l w a l l s s i n c e i ts c os t a l p o r ti o n e v e n d u r i n
g o rd i n a r y i n s p i ra t i o n l i es
.

i ,

d i re c tl y o n t h e r i bs o v e r a w i d t h o f f o u r o r fiv e i n c h es (ca 1 0 to 1 2 i n e x p i ra ti o n t h i s a rea
.

1
T h e po t e n ti a l l u men i s d i ffi c u l t t o d e t er mi n e a t a l l a c c u r a t e l y Wh en d i s t en d ed , i ts d i a m .

et er (ac co rd i ng to R u be l i ) v a ri es f ro m c m a t i t s o r i g i n to 4 c m a t i ts c a rd i a c e nd
. The . .

t h i c k nes s o f th e w a l l v a r i es (i n v ers e l y a s th e l u men ) f ro m 4 mm to c m o r m o re . . .

9
A t th e o r i g i n o f t h e t u be m u sc u l a r b u n d l es a r i s e o n t h e ra p h e p h a ry ng i s a nd b l end w i t h th e
c ri co-p h a ry ng eu s Ve n t i a l l y fi b ers c o m e f ro m t h e d e p re ss i o n b e t w ee n t h e c r i c o i d a nd a ry t eno i d
'
.

c a r ti l a g es . B u nd l es o f s t r i p ed fi b e rs m a y b e c o n ti nu ed i n t h e s u p er fi c i a l p a r t o f t h e mu s c u l a r
coa t as fa r as t h e c a rd i a .
3 54 D I G E ST I V E S YS TE M or T HE H OR S E

ar e norm a ll y sep ar ated on ly by th e thi n fil m o f se r o us fl ui d (sec r eted by the mem

b r a n e ) whi ch a cts as a l ub r i c a n t .

The f r ee su r f a ce o f the m e m b r a n e h a s a gliste n i n g a ppe a r a n ce a n d i s ve r y

sm oo th This i s due t o the f a ct th a t this su r f a ce is f o r med by a l a ye r of fl a t en
.

d o t h e l i a l cells a n d is mo iste n ed by the pe r it o n e a l fl uid

,
F r i cti o n i s t hus r edu ced .

t o a m i n i mu m du r i n g t he m o ve m e n ts of the visce r a Th e o ute r su r f a ce o f t h e pe r i

.

t o n e u m is r el a ted t o th e subpe r it o n e a l tissue whi ch a tt a ches i t t o t he a b d o mi n a l

,

w a ll or t he visce r a .

I n o r de r t o u n d e r st a n d the ge n e ra l disp o siti o n o f th e pe r it o n eu m w e m ay ,

i ma gi n e the a bd om i n a l c avity to b e e m pty an d l i n ed by a si m pl e l a ye r o f pe r it o

n eu m te r med the p ar i e ta l l a y e r (L a m i n a p a r i et a li s )
,
We may r eg ar d th e o r g a n s as .

b egi nn i ng t o devel op i n the subpe r it on e a l tissue e n l ar gi n g a nd mig r a ti n g i n t o th e, ,

c a vity to a v a r yi n g exte n t I n d o i n g so they c a rr y th e pe r i t o n eu m b ef or e t he m

.
,

p ro du ci ng i n t r o ve r si o n of th e si m pl e sa c a n d f o r m i n g f o lds w hi ch c o nn ect t hem

,

wi th t he w a l l or with e a ch o the r The visce r a thu s r ec eive a m o r e or l ess c o m plet e

.

c o ve r i ng of pe r it o n eu m te r med the vi s c era l l a yer (L a m i n a vi sce r a l is ) Th e c on

,
.

n ect i ng f o lds a r e te r m ed o m e n ta , m ese n t e r i e s , l ig a m e n ts , etc They c on t a i n a .

v a r yi ng qu an tity of c onn ective tissu e fa t a nd lymph gl a nds a n d fu r n ish a p a th for

, ,

the vessels a n d n e r ves of th e vi sce r a S o m e c on t a i n u n st r i ped m uscul a r tissue A n

. .

o m entum is a f o ld whi ch p a sses f r om th e st om a ch t o o th e r visce ra The r e are th r e e .

o f these n a m ely : (1 ) th e s m a l l o r g a s tr o h e p a ti c o m e n tu m (Om e n tum mi n us ) w hi ch

-
, ,

p a sses f r o m t he lesse r cu r v a tu r e of the st o m a ch to the l ive r ; (2 ) th e ga str o - s pl e ni c

o m e ntum (L ig a me n tum g a st r o li e n a le ) whi ch exte n ds f r om th e g r e a te r cu r v a tu r e
,

o f th e st om a ch t o the splee n ; (3 ) th e gr e a t o m e n tum (Ome n tu m m a j us ) w hi ch ,

p a sses fr om the g r e a te r cu r v a tu r e of th e st om a ch an d fr o m th e splee n to th e t e r m i na l

p a r t o f the g r e a t c o l o n an d the o r igi n o f t he s m a ll c o l on I t d o es n ot p a ss d i r ectl y .

f r o m one or g a n to t he o the r b ut f or ms a n exte n siv e l oo se sac (Figs 2 78

,
.
,

A m e s e ntery (M ese n ter i um ) is a f o l d wh i ch a tt a ches t he i n testi n e t o the d o r s al

w a ll of th e a bd o me n The r e ar e tw o m ese n te r i es n a m ely : (1 ) the gr e a t m e s e nte ry
.
,

wh i ch c onn ects the g r e a te r p ar t of th e sm a l l i n testi n e with the d o r s a l a bd o mi n al

w a ll ; (2 ) the c o li c m e s e ntery , whi ch a tt a ch es th e sm a l l c o l on to the d or s a l a bd o m
i n a l w a ll L iga m e nts a r e f o lds whi ch p a ss b etwee n vis ce r a o th er th an p ar ts o f t h e
.

d igestive t ube o r c o nn ect th em wi th th e a bd o m i n a l w a l l The te r m is a ls o a ppli ed

,
.

to f o lds whi ch a tt a ch p a r ts o f the di gestive t r a ct t o th e a bd o m i n a l w a ll but d o n ot ,

c on t a i n thei r bl oo d vessels a n d n e r ves I n s o m e c a ses (e g the l a te r a l a n d co r

-
. . .
,

o ma ry lig am e nts o f the l ive r ) they a r e st r e n gthe n ed by fib r o us tissu e ; i n o the r c a ses

(6 g the b r oa d lig a me n ts of the ute r us ) they c o n t a i n a l s o u n st r iped muscul ar tissue
. .
,
.

THE P E LVI C CAVI TY

The pelvis is th e p oste r i o r p a r t of th e t r u n k I t i n cl o ses the pelvi c c a vity .

(C avu m pelvis ) wh i ch c o mmu n i c a tes i n f r on t wi th the a bd o m i n a l c a vi ty the l i n e

, ,

of dem ar c a ti o n bei n g the pel vi c b r i m o r te r m i n a l li n e .

The d or s a l w al l o r r oo f i s f or m ed by the s a c r um a n d fi r st th r ee c o ccyge al

ve r teb rae The l a te ra l w al l s a r e f o r med by th e p a r ts o f th e i l i a b eh i nd th e i li o
pecti ne a l li n es a nd the s a c r o—
.

sci a ti c lig a m e n ts The v e ntr al w al l or fl oor is fo r m ed

.

by the pubi c a n d i sch i a l b o n es The b o u n d a r y o f the o utl e t i s fo r m ed by t he thi r d

.

c o ccyge a l ve rteb r a d or s a lly the i sch i a l a r ch ve n t r a lly a n d the p o ste r i o r edges of

, ,

t h e s a c r o sci a ti c l ig a m e n ts a n d the se m i m e m b r a no sus m u scles l a te r a lly

-
Th e ou t .

l et i s cl osed by the pe r i n e a l f a sci a ; this c o n sists o f supe r fi ci a l a n d d eep l a ye r s ,

whi ch a re a tt a ched a r o u n d the m a r gi n o f the o utlet a nd ce n t ra lly t o th e o r g an s at

t h e o utlet—the a n us a nd i ts m uscl es the vu lv a (i n the fe m a le ) a n d the r oo t o f the
, ,

pe ni s (i n th e m a l e ) .

The c a vity c o n t a i n s the r ectu m p ar ts o f the i n te rna l ge n e ra ti ve a nd u r i n a ry

,
 T HE PE L VI C C A VI TY 3 55

org a ns s o me fmtal r em n an ts muscles vessels

, , , , a nd e ves
n r . It i s l i ned b y
the f a sci a pelvi s a n d i n p ar t by the pe r i ,

t on e u m .

Th e pe l vi c p e ri to n e u m is c o n ti n u o us i n
f ro n t with th a t o f t he a bd o me n I t li n es .

th e c a vity a s fa r b a ck as th e thi r d o r fo u r t h
s a c r a l ve r teb r a i n t h e h or se whe r e it is r e ,

fl ect ed o n t o t he visce r a a n d f r o m o n e o r g an ,

t o an o t he r We ma y the r ef o r e dis ti n gu ish

.

a n a n te r i o r pe r it o n e a l a nd a p o ste r i o r re
, , ,

t ro p eri t o n ea l p a r t o f th e c a vity A l o n g the .

mid d o r s a l li n e it f or ms a c on ti n u a ti o n o f
-

th e c o li c mese n te r y t he m e s o re c tu m , wh i ch ,
F 2 56 —D A AM O S T I S CT O N O
a tt a ches th e fi rst or pe r it o n e a l p a r t o f t he IG I '‘
. . GR F AGI AL E I F

MAL P LV O H OW D P O T ON O E E IS T S IS SI I F
r ectu m t o th e r oo f I n a n i m a ls i n f a i r co n .
P T ON UM ERI E .

diti o n a c o n si d e r ab l e q u a ntity of su b per i P h b tw t m d f f v it y a , ou c e ee n r e c u an r oo o ca ,

to n eal a n d r et r o pe r it o n e a l fa t i s f o u n d on ti l t ll y w ith b t g it l p h ; co n n u ou s a era , re c o - en a ou c

v i g it l p h; d p h b l w bl d d c, es c o- en a ou c ou c e o a er
the w a lls a nd i n t he v a r i o us i n te r st i ces
-
,

nd i t l t l li g m t T h l t l li f
.

a s a e ra a en s . e a e ra ne o re

I n t he m a l e th e ge n e r a l di sp o siti o n o f fl ti f t h p it m i d tt d Th ec on o e er o ne u s o e . e a re a

the pe r i t o n eu m he r e i s a s f o l l o ws If f t m v d b y p it m v i w id l y o rec u co e re er o neu a r es e

t m i m p ty t h fl ti d
.

ll y
.

Wh th e en r ec u s e e re ec on o rs a
t r a ced a l o n g th e d o r s a l w a ll i t is re
,

m y b t th p t i d f th m; w h , a e a e os e r o r e n o e s a c ru en

fl ected a t th e thi r d or f o u r th s a c r a l ve r te th t m i v y f ll th fl ti m y e rec u s er u . e re ec on a occu r a

1 m“ m m “ b b d t h p m t m
b a o n t o t h e ectu m f o r mi n g th e visce a l 8 e ‘n e r° ° n °
r r r ,

per it o n eu m for t he fi r st p ar t of t h a t tub e .

L a te ra lly it is r efl ected i n a simi l a r f ashi o n I f th e r ect u m b e ra ised it w i l l b e see n .

,

A
FI G 2 57 —S C H MAT C C R OS SE I -
SE CT O N S
H OW A AN M N T P L C P T O N UM
I To S HO A MAL ;
RR GE E or E VI E RI E or RS E : IN E

B
. . ,

F MAL I N E E

t—
.
,

A: a, b. R e c o
g it l p h ;
en a v i g it l p h ; d d p h b l w b l ad d
ou c c. c, d it l t l li g m t ;
es c o - e n
‘

a ou c . , ouc e o er a n s a er a a en s

1 m es o rec t u m; 2 2 g i t l f ld ; 3 3 l t
u ro en a l 4 m d i li g m t f b l d d ; d
o d f
a e ra; m t e an a en s o a er v v as e e re n s u u e ru s

t —
, ,
. .
. .
,
, . , , ,

mas c u li n us . B: a , b , it l p
re c o
g h; en v i g nit l p h ; d d p h b l w b l d d
a ou c c , c,d it l t l
es c o - e a ouc , , ou c e o a er a n s a e ra

i
l g a men t s; 1 , m es o rec t m ; 2 2 b d li g m t f t ; 8 3 l t l 4 m ed i li g m t f b l d d
u . , r oa a en s o u e ru s , , a e ra , , an a en s o a er .

t h a t the per i t on eum p a sses f r o m i ts ve n t r a l su r fa ce a nd f or ms a t r an sve r se fold

whi ch li es on the d o r s a l su r f a ce o f t he bl a dd e r (Fig . Thi s i s t he ur oge mtal
3 56 D I G E STI V E S Y S TE M OF T HE H OR S E

f o ld (P li c a u r o ge n it a l is ) I ts c o n c a ve f r ee edge p a sses o n eith e r sid e i n t o t h e i n

.

gui na l c a na l Th e ve nt r a l l a ye r o f th is f o ld is r eflected o n t o t h e d o r s a l su r f a ce
.

o f th e bl a dde r n e a r its n eck Thus the r e is f o r m ed a p o u ch betwee n the r ectum

.

a n d bl a dd e r
— the re cto-ve s i c a l p o u ch (E xc a v a ti o r e ct o vesi c a l is ) wh i ch is p a r ti a lly -
,

subdivi ded by th e u r oge n it a l f o ld i n t o r ect o ge n it a l a nd vesi c o ge n i t a l c a vi ties - -

.

Th e f o ld c o nt a i n s th e v a s a d e fe r ei i t i a p a r t of th e vesi cul ae semi na les a n d th e , ,

u te r us m a sculi n us (a f oet a l r e mn a n t ) The sp a c e o n eithe r side o f th e r ectu m is .

o ccupi ed by c o i ls o f th e s m a ll c o l o n a n d th e pelvi c fl ex u r e o f th e g r e at c o l on usu a lly .

I f th e bl a dd e r is n o w r a ised i t is see n th a t t he pe r i t on eum p a sses f r o m its ve n t r a l

,

su r f a ce on t o the pelvi c fl oo r f o r m i n g a medi a n f o ld th e so c a l led mi dd l e l ig a m e nt

, ,
-

( P li c a u i n b il i ca l i s m edi a ) I t a ls o f or ms o n e a ch side a l a te r a l f o ld
. th e l a teral ,

S acc us e me u s (l ef t extr emi ty )

A r ea of a tta ch men t to d i a fi

ph ra g m (n on p er i to nea l )
-

B u e-d u c t

FI G . 2 58 —S O
. T \i Ac n
. or HOR S E , P A RI E TAL S U R FAC E W I T H F ,
T PAR T o r D U O D E N UM
I RS .

Fi x ed in t
si u w hen f ll b t
u u no t d it
s e nd e d . The l ge
ar r b ra n c h e s of th e a nt i o g t i a t y w ith t w o
er r as r c r er t llite
sa e

v i
e ns a re s h o w n .

l i ga m e n t (P li c a u mbi li c a li s l a te r a lis ) w h i c h c o nt a i n s i n i ts edge th e so c a l led r ou nd

,
-

l iga m e nt m — th e p a r ti a lly o cclud ed u mbi l i c a l a r te r y wh i ch is a

(L ig a me n tu te r es ) ,

l a rge vessel i n th e fte t u s .

I n the fe m a le th e a rr a n geme n t i s m o dified by t h e p r ese n ce o f th e ute r us ;

t h e u r o ge n i t a l f o ld i s ve r y l a r ge so a s t o i n cl o se th e ute r us a n d a sm a l l p a r t o f th e
,

v a gi na I t f o r ms t w o exte n siv e f o lds t he b r oa d l ig a m e nts of th e ute r u s (L i g a

.
,

me nt a l a t a ute r i ) w hi ch at t a ch th a t o r g a n t o the sides o f th e pelvi c c a vity a nd th e

,

l u m b a r p a r t of t he a bd o m i na l w a l l (Fig I t thus d ivid es t h e r ect o vesi c al

—
-

p o u ch c o m pl etely i nt o d o r s a l a n d ve n t r a l c o m p a r t m e n ts —the re cto g e n ita l p o u c h

.

( E xc a v a ti o r ect o ute r i na )-
a n d th e v e s ic o -g
, e n ita l p o u ch (E xc a v a ti o vesi c o ute r i n a ) -
.

Fu r the r det a i ls w ill be give n i n th e d esc r i pti o n of th e pelvi c vi sce ra .

3 58 D I GE STI V E S Y ST E M OF T HE H OR S E

sixtee nth r ibs a n d t h e di a ph r a g m I t i s r el a ted t o t h e p a n c r e as behi n d an d ‘

a nd .

t he b a se o f the splee n ext e r na ll y The r ight o r pyl or i c e xtr e mi ty i s m u ch s m a lle r .

a m a r ked
a n d is c o n ti n u o us wit h t h e d u o de n u m t h e j u n ct i o n bei n g i di c t ed by
n a
,

c o nst r i cti o n I t li es o n th e li ve r a littl e t o th e r ight o f t h e m ed i a n pl a n e a nd a

.
, ,

li ttle l o we r th a n the c ar di a c o pe n i n g A b o ut tw o or th r ee i n ch es (ca 5 to 8 c m ) .

. .

f r om the pyl or us t he r e i s a c o nst r i cti on wh i ch m a r ks off the antru m pyl or i f r o m the

r est o f the r ight sac The (e s o ph a g e a l o r ific e o r c ar d i a is situ a ted a t the left ex
.

tre m i ty o f the lesse r cu r v a tu r e b ut a b o ut eight to t e n i n ch es (c a 20 t o 2 5 cm ) ,

. .

f rom the left ext r e m ity The (e s o ph a gus j o i n s the st om a ch ve r y o bl iquely Th e .

.

o pe n i n g is cl o sed by the sphi n cte r c a r di ac a nd n u m e r o us f o lds o f m u c o us me m b r a n e .

The pyl ori c orifi c e c o mm u n i c a tes w ith th e du o de n u m I ts p o sit i o n is i nd i c a ted .

exte r na lly by a d isti n ct c on st r i cti o n I n t e r n a lly it p r ese n ts a ci r cul ar r idge pr o .

d u ced by a r i n g o f muscul ar tissue

the S phi n cte r pyl o ri .

Th e st o m a ch is h eld i n p o siti o n
m a i nl y by th e p r essu r e of the su rr o u n d
i n g visce r a a n d by t h e oes o ph a gus Th e .

f o ll o wi n g pe r it o n e a l f o lds c onn ect i t

wit h t he a dj a ce n t p ar ts :
1 The ga str o -ph r e n i c li ga m e n t .

(L i g g a str oph r eni cu m ) c onn ects t h e .

g r e at cu r v a tu r e f r o m th e c ar di a t o ,

the l eft ext r emi ty with th e c r u ra o f ,

the d i a ph r a g m T h is le a ves a n ar r o w .

a r e a u n c o ve r ed wi t h p e r it o n eu m an d ,

he r e th e st o m a ch i s a tt a ch ed t o th e
di a p h r a g m by l oo se c o nn ect ive tissu e .

2 Th e s m a ll o r ga str o -h e pa ti c .

o m e n tu m (Ome n tu m m i n us ) c onn ects

th e l esse r cu r v a tu r e a n d th e fi rst p ar t
o f th e du o de n u m wi th the live r bel o w
t he oes o ph a ge a l n o tch a nd the p o r t a l
F 2 60
in — EV T D S T O MA C H ER HO E F OM W H H fissu re
or RS E R IC
’

3 Th e ga S tI O-S pl e mc o m en tu m
. .

'
H M T E M M B AN H B N R M OV D
u cou s E R E AS EE E E .
.

O (E p h g ; D sod d am; b i
us l l y ; (L i g g as t r o l i ena l e ) p a sses fr o m th e
uo e nu c rc u a r a er
-

l b li q fi b ;
, .
, ,

c
’
i t n e r na o l p ue d di ;e rs
left p ar t Of t he gr e a t cur v a tur e tO the
oo a ro u n car a

t l b li q fi b ; t fi b
.

t iti
ra n s f i t on o lt n e r na o e x e r na o ue e rs a e rs
h l l l l S Of th e spl ee n
,

c o n nec ti g t h t b n h e f th w o di l p; p
ra n c es o e car ac oo ,
.

t l p h i t ; p py l i ph i t
a n ra s nc er
’
(E ll b g
, or c 4 Th e gr ea t o r ga s tr o - c ol i c o m e n
s nc e r . en er er

B m“ " m md fi m m
u au e
tu m (Om e n tu m m aj us ) c o nn ects th e
ve n t r a l p ar t o f th e g r e a t cu r v a tu r e
a n d the fi r st cu r ve o f th e du o d e n um with th e te r mi n a l p a r t o f the g r e a t c o l on a n d

t h e i niti a l p a r t o f the s m a ll c o l o n .

5 The g a str o -pan c r e a ti c f o l d (P li c a g a st r o p a n c r e a ti c a ) exte n ds f ro m t he l eft

.
-

s a c a b o ve the c a r di a t o th e du o de n um I t i s a tt a ch ed d o r s a lly t o th e l ive r and .

ve na c a v a ve n t r a lly t o th e p a n c r e a s
, .

The st o m a ch of the equi d ae i s r el a ti vely sm a l l its c a p a ci ty v a r yi ng f r om tw o ,

t o f o u r g a ll o n s (c a 8 to 1 5 lite r s ) . .

T h e s i z e f o r m a n d p os it i o n o f t h e s t o m ac h a re s u b j ec t to c o n s i d e ra b l e v a ri a ti o n
, ,
Wh en .

th e s t o m a c h i s ne a r l y e m p t y t h e s a c c u s cze c u s c o n t a i n s o n l y g a s a n d i s s t ro n g l y c o n t r ac t ed ; t h e
mi d d l e p o r ti o n (p h y s i o l o g i c a l f u nd u s ) co n t a i ns t h e i nges t a a n d p res er v es i ts r ou n d ed c h ar ac t er ,

w h i l e t h e p y l o r i c p o rti o n i s c o n t r a c t ed Wh en d i s t e nd ed t h e m i d d l e p or ti o n s e ttl es d o w n so me
.

f o u r o r fiv e i nc h es p u s h i ng b a c k c o i l s o f th e s m a ll co l o n a nd s ma l l i n tes ti n e w h i c h may l i e b e t w een

,

t h e g re a t c u r v a t u re a n d t h e l a r g e co l o n a nd a l s o p u s h i n g t o t h e l e f t o r r i g h t t h e l e f t d o rsa l p a r t o f
,

1
T h i s i s th e p os i t io n i n th e ex p i ra t o ry p h as e a s u s u a l l y s ee n i n t h e d ea d s u b j ec t I n i ns pi ra .

ti on th e s a cc u s c au c u s l i es u n d e r t h e u pp e r p a r t s o f th e s i x t een t h a nd s e v e n t een t h r i b s .
 T HE STO MACH 3 59

tfi
t e g r ea t l
co on ; th e s p l een, s ma ll co o n , a nd s m a
l l l i n t es ti n es a r e p us h ed b ac k by th e d i s t en ti o n of
e l ef t sac .

S tr u ctu r e .
—Th e w a ll i s c o mp o sed of f o u r c oa ts—se r o us muscu l a r sub mu c o us
, , ,
a nd mu c o us .

Th e s er o u s c oat (Tu ni c a se r os a ) c o ve r s t he g r e a te r p a r t of t he o r g a n a n d i s
c l o sely a dhe r e n t t o t h e muscul a r c o a t except a t th e cu r v a tu r es I t p a r ti a lly b r i dges .

o ver the l esse r cu r v a tu r e a n d c o ve r s h e r e el a sti c tissue whi c h a ssists i n r et a i n i ng

,

t he b e nt f o r m o f th e st o m a ch The pe r it on e a l f o lds h a ve b ee n desc r ibed

.
.

The mu s cu l ar c oa t c on sists of th r ee i n c o mplete l a ye r s a n ext e rn a l o f l on gi t u ,

di n a l a mi ddl e of ci r cu l a r a nd a n i nt e r na l of o bli qu e fib e r s The l a ye r of l o n gi

, , .

tu d i nal fib er s (S t r a tum l o n gitudi n a l e ) is ve r y thi n a n d exists o nl y a l o n g t he cu r v a

t u r es a nd a t t he a n t r um A t t he l esse r cu r v a tu r e i t i s c onti n u o us wi t h the l ongi
.

S a cc u s ca’ cu s

(l ef t extr emi ty )

(E s oph a gea l r egi on

(n on - gl a nd u l a r )

E s op ha gus

Du od ena l
d i ver ti cu l u m

P yl or i c gl an d r egi on

FI G . 2 61 .
—F N TAL
RO SE CT ON O I F S T O MA C H AND F S T P A T
IR R OF D U OD N UM E or HO RS E .

’
C, C di
ar ifi
ac or ce . P h o t o g a p h o f pe i m e n fi
r s c x ed in
'

s z tu .

t u di n al fib e r s o f th e oes o ph a gus On th e a n t r u m pyl or i it f o r ms a wel l devel o p ed

.

c o mpl et e l a ye r Th e l a yer of c i rc ul ar fib er s (Str a t u m ci r cu l ar e) exi sts o n ly on

. .

the r ight s a c A t th e pyl o r i c or ifi ce i t f or ms a thi ck r i n g— th e pyl ori c s phi n cte r

. .

A n o the r r i n g th e a n t r a l sphi n cte r is f o u n d a t t he l eft en d of th e a n t r u m pyl o r i

, ,
.

Th e o b l i qu e fib ers (Fib r ae o bl i qu ae) a r e a rr a nged i n tw o l a ye r s ; t he exter n a l st r atu m

c ov er s th e l eft sa c a n d is a c on ti n u a ti o n (i n p ar t ) of t he l on gitudi na l fib e r s of th e
oes o ph a gus ; th e i n t e r n a l st r a tum i s f o u n d als o on th e l eft sac an d exch a nges fibe r s ,

with th e ci r cul ar and ext e r na l o b l iqu e l a yer s I t f or m s a r e m a r k a b l e l oo p ar o u n d .

th e c a r di a c o r ifi ce c on stituti n g a p o we r ful c ar di a c S phi n cter (Sp hi n ct e r c ar di a )

,
.

Th e s ub mu c o u s c o a t is a l a yer o f l o o se c on n ecti ve tissu e wh i ch c o nn ects th e

mus cul ar a n d m u c o us c o a ts ; i n i t t h e vessels a nd n e r ves r a mify b ef o r e e n t e r i n g
the mu c os a .
 3 60 D I GE ST I V E S Y ST E M OF T HE H ORS E

Th e mu c o u s c o a t i s cl e a r ly divid ed i n t o t w o p a r ts Th a t whi ch li n es th e l eft .

sac r esembl es the oe s o ph a ge a l m u c o us m e m b r a n e a n d is te r med oes oph a g e al o r ,

cuti cu l ar I t i s white i n c o l o r destitute o f gl a n ds a n d c o ve r ed wit h a th i ck

.
, , ,

sq u a mo us st r a tified epitheli u m At the c a r di a c o r i fice i t p r ese n ts n u m e r o us fo lds

, .

1
whi ch o c cl ud e the o pe n i n g I t te r mi n a tes a b r uptly a t a n elev a ted d e n ti cul a ted
.
, ,

si nu o us li n e te r m ed the cuti cu l ar r idg e (M a r g o pl i c a t u s ) B el o w an d t o th e r igh t

,
.

o f thi s l i n e t h e m u c o us m e m b r a n e h a s a t o t a lly di ffe r e n t ch a r a cte r b ei n g s o ft ,

a n d velvety to the t o u ch a n d c o ve r ed by a mu c o i d sec r eti o n

,
I t is gl a ndul a r a n d .
,

th r ee z o n es m a y b e r ec o g n i z ed a lth o ugh n o sh a r p li n e of dem ar c a ti o n exi sts A

, .

n a rr o w z o n e n ext t o the cuti cul a r r idge h as a yel l o wi sh g r a y c o l o r a nd c o n t a i n s -

,

sh or t tubul a r c ar di a c gl a n d s (C a r di a c gl a n d r egi on ) N ext t o this i s a l a r ge ar e a .

whi ch h a s a m o ttled r eddish b r o w n c o l o r an d c o n t a i n s fu nd u s gl an d s (fu n dus gl an d

-
,

r egi o n ) This p a r t o f th e m u c o us .

me mb r a n e is th i ck an d ve r y v a scul a r ,

a nd c orr esp o n ds t o t he fu n dus of

the st o m a ch i n m an a nd the d o g .

Th e r e m a i n de r o f th e m u c o us m em
b r a n e h as a r eddish g r a y c o l o r a n d -

c o n t a i n s b r an ch ed tubul a r pyl o ri c , ,

gl an d s (pyl o r i c gl a n d r egi o n ) ; it cor

r esp o n ds t o th e pyl o r i c p o r ti o n o f
m a n a n d th e d og .

Th e f o ldi n g o f the st o m a ch w a l l
at the l esse r cu r v a tu r e p r o du ces a
p r o m i n e n t r idge whi ch p roj ects i nt o
the c a v ity o f t he st om a ch C i r cul a r .

r idges o ccu r a t the a n t r a l a n d pyl o r i c

2 62 — S phi n ct e r s
F D A A M O Z ON O M M M B AN
—
'

B l oo d v e s s e l s a nd N e rv e s —Th e
IG . . I GR F ES E u cou s E R E

S T OM AC H H m
or o r» o e .

st o m a ch r eceives bl oo d f ro m a l l th e
b ra n ches o f th e c oeli a c a r te r y Th e g a st r i c vei n s d r a i n i n t o t he p or t a l vei n
. .

The n e r ves a r e de r i ved f ro m the v a gus a nd symp a theti c n e rves .

THE SMA LL I NTE STI N E

The sm al l i nte stin e (I n testi n um te n u e ) i s th e tube whi c h c o nn ects th e st o m a c h

wi th the l ar ge i n testi n e I t begi n s at the pyl o r us a n d t e r m i n a tes a t the lesse r
.

cu r v a tu r e o f the c ze c u m I ts a ve r a ge l e ngth i s a b o ut seve n ty feet (c a 22 m ete rs )

. . .

Whe n diste n ded i ts d i am ete r v a r i es f r o m t w o t o f o u r i n ches (5 t o 1 0

-
I ts
c a p a city is a b o ut twelve g a ll o ns (4 0 t o 50 li te r s ) .

I t is cle a r ly divisi ble i n t o a fix e d a n d a m e s e n t er i c o r fl o a ti ng p o r ti on Th e .

fixed p o r ti o n is te r m ed the du o d e n u m w hi le the m ese n te r i c p or ti on (I n testi n u m ,

te ue
n m es e n t e r i a l e ) is bi t
a r r a r i ly d i vi ded i n t o p a r ts te r m ed the j ej u n um a n d il eu m 2
.

The du o d e n um is a b o ut th r ee t o f o u r feet (c a 1 to m ) l on g I ts sh a pe . . .

i s s o m ewh a t li ke a h o r sesh o e th e c o n vexity bei n g di r ected t o w a r d th e r ight The

, .

fir st p ar t i s di r ected t o th e r ight a n d f o r m s a n a ) sh a ped cu r ve The c on vexity o f -

.

the fi r s t p a r t o f t h e cu r ve is d o r s a l o f the sec o n d ve n t r a l I t li es o n th e middle

, .

a nd r ight l o bes o f t h e live r a n d p r ese n ts t w o d il a t a ti o n s A m pull ae with a c o n s tr i c

, ( )
ti o n betwee n them The d u o de na l a n gle or h e a d o f th e p a n c r e a s l ies i n the c on
.

T h i s o c c l us i o n i s us u a l l y so c o m p l e t e t h a t d i s t ent i o n o f t h e s t o m ac h b y a i r or fl u i d f o rc ed
i n t h ro u g h t h e p y l o ru s m a y b e c a r r i ed fa r e no u g h to ru p t u r e t h e s t o ma c h w i t h o u t li a ti n
g g the
(E so p h a g u s .

2
N o n a t u ra l li n e o f d e m a r c a ti o n e x i s ts b u t t h er e i s a m a rk ed i n c rea s e o f th e t h i c k n es s
, of
th e w a l l t o w a rd t h e te r mi na l p a r t Ot h er d itf er e nc es w i l l b e no t e d i n t h e f u r t h e r d es c r i p ti o n
.

. .
3 62 D I GE ST I V E S Y S TE M OF T HE H OR S E

c re c u m a t the l esse r cu r v a tu r e of its b a se The a ve r a ge di a mete r of the jeju no .

i leu m i s a b o ut tw o a n d a h a lf t o th r ee i n ches (c a 6 t o 7 I n the c a d a ve r o n e .

fi n ds m o st o f th e t ube p r ese n ti n g i rr egul a r c on st r i cted a n d di l a ted p ar ts The .

l a st th r ee o r f o u r feet (ca 1 m ete r ) ar e usu a lly ti ghtly c o n t r a ct ed r esembli n g s om e

. ,

wh a t the te r mi na l p a r t o f the oes o ph a gus This p a r t m a y b e te r m ed the i leu m . .

The m ese n te r i c p a r t is c onn ect ed w i th th e d o r s a l a bd o m i na l w al l by the gr ea t

m e s en tery This is a wide fa n—
.
sh aped f o l d c on sisti n g of tw o l aye r s o f pe r it o n eum , ,

b etwee n whi ch th e vessels a n d n e r ves r e a ch the b o wel ; i t a ls o c o nt a i n s th e m ese n

ter i c ly m ph gl a n ds a n d s o m e fa t The visce r a l b or de r o f th e mese n te r y c o n t a i n s
.

the i n testi n e w hile t he p a r iet a l b or d e r o r r oo t (R a d ix m ese n te r i i ) is att a ched t o a

,

s ma ll a r e a a r o u n d the g r e a t m ese nt e r i c t r u n k u n de r th e fi r st an d sec on d lumb ar

ve r teb r ae The r oo t is th i ck a s it c o n t a i n s a l arge n u m b e r o f vessels an d n e rves
.
,

pl a ced cl o se t oget he r Th e mese n t e r y is sh or t a t fi r st but s oon r e a ches a l en gth

.
,

o f on e an d a h a lf t o t w o feet (ca 50 c m )— s u fli c i ent to a ll o w c o i ls of the i n testi n e . .

t o r e a ch the a bd o mi n a l fl o o r the pelvi c c avity or eve n t o desce n d i n t o th e sc r o tu m

, ,

th r o ugh the i ngui n a l c an a l N e ar its ter m i n a ti o n th e i nt est i n e (i leu m ) le a ves

.

th e b or de r o f t h e mese nt e r y so th a t ,

th e l a tte r h a s a f r ee edge wh i ch p a sses

/i
Pa n c r e a c
t o th e c mc u m
S tr u ctu r e —Th e w a ll c o n sists o f
.

f o u r c o a ts —se r o us muscu l ar sub

.

, ,

m u c o u s a n d mu c o us e n um e r at ed , ,

fr o m wi th o ut i n w ar d .

Th e s er o u s c o a t is c o mplete ex
c ept at th e mese n te r i c edge w he r e ,

th e v ess els an d n e r ves r e a ch t he

b o wel '
.

Di z/ e r h c u l u m
‘

T he mu s c ul ar c o a t c on sists o f
d U Od e m a n o ute r l o n gi tu di n a l a n d a n i n n e r

FIG .2 64 —D A A M O S CT ON O D V T CU L UM D u o
. I GR F E ci r cul a r l a ye r th e l a tte r bei n g t h e
I F I ER I
,
“ O HO D
thi cke r I n the l a st few feet o f t h e
F RS E
?
'

S l d l t m m mb
j O

o i d i ne i n i ca es uc o us e ra n e
i ntest i n e the muscu l a r c o a t i s ve r y
.

th i ck a nd b ei n g u su a lly fi rm ly c o n ,

t r a cted i n the d e a d subj ect gives th e i m p r essi on th a t t hi s p a r t o f t he b o wel is o f

,

s m a lle r c a libe r ; s uch h o weve r i s n o t t he c a se du r i n g l ife

, , .

The sub mu c o u s c o a t i s a l a ye r o f a r e o l a r tissu e i n whi ch th e vessels a n d n e rves

r a m ify I t c o nt a i n s a ls o the d u o d e n a l gl a n ds a n d th e b a ses o f the s o lit ar y gl a n ds
.

’
a n d P eye r s p a t ches .

Th e mu c o u s m e mb r an e i s s o ft and v elvety I t h as a g ra yi sh or yell o w ish red .

-

c o l or a nd is ve r y v a scul ar A b o ut five o r S i x i n ch es f r o m the pyl or us i t f or m s a

.

p o u ch the d iv er ticul um d u o d e ni , i n whi ch th e p an c r e a ti c a nd hep ati c du cts o pe n

, .

On a s m a ll p a pi ll a o pp o si te this is the te r m i n a ti o n o f th e a ccess or y p a n c r e a ti c d u ct .

A t the i l e o c ae c a l o pe n i n g th e m u c o us me m b r an e p r o j ects sl igh tl y i n t o th e c a vity

-

o f the c w c u m f o r m i n g t he il e o - c aec al v a lve

, Th e f r ee su r f a ce i s t hi ckly b eset with .

vil l i s m a l l p r oj ecti o n s o f th e mu c o us m e m b r a n e wh i ch ca n b e see n wel l by pl a ci n g

,

a pi e c e o f t he me m b r a n e i n w a te r Th ey ar e r el a ti vely sh o r t a nd t hi ck an d h a ve a .

d isti nct n eck i n th e h or se E a ch c on t a i n s a ce nt ra l l ymph vessel (l a cte a l ) a nd

.
-
,

a r o u n d this a pl exus of c a pi ll a r i es lymph o id tissu e an d u nst r iped mu scl e fib e rs , ,

-
.

T h e y a r e i mp o r t a n t a ge n ts i n a bs o r pti o n f r o m the c on te n ts o f t h e i n testi n e Th e .

epit heli um i s c o lu m na r wi th m a n y go b let cel ls U n de r n e a th th e b a se m e n t mem

, .

b ra ne i s a l a ye r o f u n st r iped muscle fib ers the mu sc u l a r i s mu c o s ae -

,
.

The gl a n ds o f the s m a ll i n testi n e a r e of th r ee ki n ds :

1 T h e i nt e sti na l gl a n d s (G l a n dul ae i n t esti n a l es Li eb er k u eh n i ) a re f o un d
.

th r o ugh o ut T h e v a r e si mpl e tubul a r gl an ds whi ch o pe n b et w ee n th e vi ll i

. .
 T HE L A R GE I N T E S T I N E —T HE C JE C U M 363

2 Th e d u o d e nal gl and s (G l an du l ae d u o d e na l es B r u n n er i ) a r e f o u n d i n t he
.

fi r st twe n ty feet (ca 6 m ete r s ) of th e b o wel Th ey a r e r a ce m o se gl a n ds a nd a r e

. .
,

S itu a ted i n t he submu c o s a so t h a t thei r du cts pe r f o r a te t h e muscul a r is m u c os m a n d

,
.

the mu c o us memb r a n e .

3 The lymp h f ol li cl e s (N o dul i lymph a ti ci ) are f o u n d eith e r sc a tte r ed or i n

.

g r o ups I n the f o r m e r c a se they are te r med s ol i tary g l an d s (N o d ul i ly m ph at i ci

.

s o l it a i i ) i n the l a tte r P eyer s p a tc h e s (N o duli lym ph a ti ci a gg r eg a ti ) The

r ,
’
.

s o lit ar y gl a n ds ar e a b o ut t h e si z e o f a mi ll et seed or a s m a l l s a g o gr a i n P eye r s -

.
’

p atches a r e S itu a t ed chi efl y a l o ng th e su r f a ce o pp o sit e t o th e mese n te r i c a tt a ch m e n t

a n d be g i n a b o ut th r ee o r f o u r feet f r o m th e pyl o r us Th ey n u mb e r on e t o tw o .

hu n d r ed a nd a r e usu a lly o n e t o tw o i n ch es (2 t o 5 cm ) l on g a n d a q u ar te r of a n
, .

i n ch t o on e h a lf i n ch (c a 2 t o 1 4 mm ) wi d e
-
. L a r ge r o n es o c cu r i n t h e te rmi n a l
. .

p ar t w he r e on e p a t ch m a y h a ve a l e n gt h of seve n t o fiftee n i n ches (ca 1 7 t o 38

,
.

cm ) an d a width of h a lf a n i n ch t o o ne i n ch (ca 5 t o 2 5 mm ) i n y o u n g h o r ses

. . .

(E ll en b e r ger) They u n de r g o a t r o phy i n ol d subj ects

. .

FI G . 2 65 .
—P Y E
'
ER S P AT C H ES OF S MALL I N T T N ES I E OF HO RS E .

Ve s s el s an d N erv e s —T h e ar teri e s o f the sm a ll i n testi n e c om e f r o m the

c ml i ac a n d a n te r i o r m ese n te r i c a r te r i es T he v e i n s g o t o the p o r t a l v ei n The. .

l ym ph -v e s s e l s a r e n ume r o us a nd g o to th e mese n te r i c ly m ph gl an ds Th e n e rv e s .

a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e v a gus an d symp a th eti c t h r o ugh th e s o l a r plexu s .

L AR GE I N TE STI N E THE
The l ar ge i n testi ne (I n testi n um cr assu m ) ext e n ds f r o m the te r m i na ti o n o f the
i leum t o t he a n us I t i s a b o ut twe n ty fiv e feet (ca
. t o 8 m ) i n l e n g th I t
-
. . .

d iff e r s f r o m the sm a l l i n t esti n e i n i ts gr e a te r si z e i n b ei n g s a c cu l a ted for th e m o st , ,

p ar t p o ssessi n g l o n gi tudi n a l b an ds a n d h a vi n g a m o r e fixed p o si ti on I t is divi ded

, ,
.

i nt o c aecum g r e a t c o l on sm a ll c o l o n a n d r ectu m
, , ,
.

THE CA E CUM
The c aecu m (I nt esti n u m c a cum ) i s a gr e a t cul de s a c i nte r c a l a ted b etwee n the - —
sm al l i n t esti n e a n d t he c o l o n I t h a s a r e ma r k a bl e S i z e sh a pe a n d p osit i on i n the
. , ,

h or s e I ts le ng th i s t h r ee t o f o u r feet (c a 1 to
.
a n d its c a p a c i ty a b o ut .
3 64 D I G E S TI V E S Y ST E M or T HE H OR S E

seve n t o eight g a ll o n s (ca 2 5 t o 3 0 lite r s ) I t is c o n i c a l i n f o r m an d i s cu r ved

. .
,

s om ewh a t li ke a r eve r sed c o mm a I t is si tu a ted a l m o st e n ti r ely t o the r ight o f

.

the m edi a n p l a n e exte n di ng f r om the r ight i l i a c a n d subl u mb ar r egi on s t o the ah

,

d o m i n a l fl oor behi n d the xi ph o id c a r til a ge B o t h ext r e m i ti es a r e b li n d a nd th e .

,

tw o o r i fices a re pl a ced cl ose t o get he r o n the c o n c a ve cu r v a tu r e I t p r ese nts for .

d esc r ipti o n a b a se a b o dy a n d a n a pex

, ,
.

The b a s e (S a ccus c aecus ) exte n ds f r o m a b o ut the thi r tee n th i n te r c o st a l sp a ce

b a ckw ar d a l mo st t o th e pelvi c i n let I ts g r e a te r cu r v a tu r e is d o r s a l its l esse r .
,

ve nt r a l ; c o nn ected wi th the l a tte r a r e the ter m i n a ti o n o f t he i l eu m a nd the o r igi n

o f th e c o l o n . The b o d y (C o r pus c aec i ) exte n ds d o wn w a r d a nd for w ar d fr o m th e
b a se an d r ests l ar gely o n the ve n t r a l w a ll o f th e a bd o me n I t s lesse r cur v a tu r e i s .

a b o ut p a ra ll el wi th the c o st a l a r ch a n d a b o ut five t o six i n ch es (1 0 to 1 5 c m ) b el o w .

i t Th e a pe x (A pex caaci ) li es usu a lly on the a bd o mi n a l fl oo r a b o ut a h an d s

.
’

le n gth behi n d the xi ph o id c a r ti l a ge .

The b a se is a tt a ched d o r s a lly by c o nn ective tissue a n d pe r it on eum o n t h e

ven t r a l su r fa ce of th e p an c r e a s a n d r ight ki d n ey the ps o a s muscl es a n d the i li a c , ,

f a sci a ; i nte rn a lly i t is a tt a ched t o t he te rmi n a l p ar t of the g r e a t c o l o n a nd v en

, ,

o f s ma l l . col on

FI G . 2 66 . DI A GR \
-
. M or C CUM AN D LA
E RGE C O LON OF HO
RS E .

tr a l l y t o the o r igi n o f the g r e a t c o l on Th e b o d y is a tt a ch ed d or s a lly t o the fi r st

.

p art o f the c o l o n by the c ecc o c o li c f o l d Th e a pex is fr ee a n d c o nseque n tly may

-
.
,

v a r y i n p o siti o n .

Th e c aec um h as fo u r l ongi tu d in a l b an d s (T aani ae ) situ a ted on the d o r s a l , ,

ve n t r a l right a nd left su r f a ces ; th ese c a use f o u r ro ws o f s a c cul a ti ons (Ha ust ra )

, , .

Th e ve n t r a l b a n d is e n ti r ely exp o sed or f r ee (T a n i a li b e r a ) ; th e d ors a l b an d i s

f r ee o n the a pex The c aac a l a r te r i es a r e pl a ced o n th e o the r t w o The r ight or
. .

p ari et a l su r f a ce of th e c aecum i s r el a ted chi efly t o th e r igh t a bd o m i n a l w a ll th e ,

d i a ph r a g m du o de n u m a n d li ve r The l eft or vi sce r a l su r f a ce li es ag a i n st the left

, , .

d ivisi o ns o f the c o l on the r oo t o f th e g r e a t m ese n te r y a n d the sm a l l i ntesti n e

, ,
.

Th e i l e o -c aec a l or ifi c e (Osti u m il eocaec a l e ) i s situ a ted i n th e l esse r cu r v a tu r e

o f the b a se a b o ut f o u r or five i n ches (c a 1 0 to 1 2 em ) t o th e r ight o f the medi a n
, . .

pl a n e an d a b o ut o pp o si te th e l o we r en d of the l a st r ib The en d of the i leu m i s .

p a r ti a lly tel esc o ped i n t o the c aecu m so th a t th e o r ifi ce is su rr o u n ded by a f o ld o f

,

m u c o us m e m b ra n e f o r m i n g the i l e o - c ae c a l va lve (Va lvul a i le o c aec a li s )

, Th e .

pe r i t o n eum a n d l o ngi tudi na l muscle fib er s d o n o t t a ke p a r t i n its f o r m a ti o n -

.

The cae c o c o li c ori fi c e (Osti u m caec o c o l i c u m ) is pl a ced a b o ve a n d ext e r na l t o

-
3 66 D I GE STI V E S Y S TE M OF T HE H OR S E

the fiexu r es The fi r st ri ght v e ntral par t (C o l o n ve n t r a l e dext r u m ) b egi n s at

.
, ,

the c a c o c o l i c o r i fice a b o ut o pp o site the m iddle Of th e l a st r ib p a sses d o wn w ar d

-
,

a nd f or w a r d a l o n g th e r i ght c o st a l a r ch a n d r e a ches the fl o o r o f the a bd o m e n ,

.

Ove r th e xi ph o id c a r til a ge i t b e n ds sh a r ply t o the l eft a n d b a ckw a r d f or mi n g the ,

stern al fl e xu r e (Flexu ra d i a ph r a g m a ti c a ve nt r a lis ) The sec o n d l e ft v e n tral .

,

t C l ve t le i i st um ) p sses b a ckw a r d o n th e left p a r t Of the a b d omi

p ar ( o o n n r a S n r a ,

V N T AL V W
FI G . 2 69 .
—A B D M NAL V C A
O I IS ER OF HO RS E ,
E R IE .

Th v t l w ll d p t f t h l t l w ll f th b d m
e e n ra a m v ed
an C c ar o e a e ra a s o e a o e n a r e re o .
'
, u m; t v nt ral
ri g h e

p t f l ; Q t
ar o lfl
co on f v,l ; L C l ft v t l p t f l ; d Q d i p h
.
, s e r na ex u re o co on 1; .
, e e n ra ar o co on . .
, a ra g m ati fl e u e o f c o l n ;
c x r o

D m ll i t ti
. s a
; M m ll
n es 1 ; nev t lf b d f m; b i
. s b d f
a 00 0 0 a , en ra ree an o cz
e cu , n ne r an o e cu m ;
cs a l t , l b nd o f
a e ra a

v t l p t f l ; d v t l b d f v t l p t f l ; p i t f lb w ; f t i
e n ra ar o co o n e n ra an o en ra ar o co on 0 o n o e o a n er o r e nd o f s t e n a l eg i n
r r o

i ph i d til g : h t t (A ft E ll b g B m T p A t d P f d )
, , ,

(1
, x o ca r a e , ea s . er en er e r- au , o . na . . er es .

nal fl oor a n d on r e a chi ng th e pelvi c i nl et b e nds S h arply d o r s a lly a nd f o r w ar d ,

, , ,

f or m i n g the p el vi c fi exu re (Fl exu r a pel vi na ) This i s c o n ti n u ed by t he thi r d , l e ft .

d o r s a l par t (C o l o n d o r s a le S i n ist r u m ) whi ch p a sses f o r w a r d a b o ve t he left ve n t r a l ,

p o r ti on On r e a chi n g the st o m a ch di a ph ra gm a n d l eft l o be o f the li ve r i t tu r n s

.
, , ,

to the r i gh t f o r mi n g th e d i a phr a gm a ti c o r ga str o -h e pa ti c fi e xur e (Fl exu r a di a

,

p h r a g m a t i c a d o r s a l is ) The f o u r t h or ri ght d o r s a l pa rt (C o l o n d or s a l e dext r um )

.

p a sses b a ckw a r d a b o ve the fi r st p o r ti o n a n d o n r e a chi n g th e i n n e r or left su r fa c e ,

 T HE G RE A T C OL ON 367

o f t he b a se o f t he c ae cu m i t tu r ns u pw a r d an d t o the l eft behi n d the left sac o f

t he st o m a ch ; he r e i t bec o mes c o nst r i cted a nd j o i n s th e sm a l l c o l o n bel o w the left ,

kid n ey .

The c al ib er of the g r e a t c o l on v a r i es g r e a tly a t di ffe r e n t p o i n ts A t i ts o r igi n .

i t i s o n ly a b o u t tw o t o th r ee i n ch es (ca 5 t o c m ) i n di a mete r Thi s s oon . . .

i n c r e a ses t o a b o u t ei ght t o ten i n ch es (ca 2 0 t o 2 5 cm ) for th e ve n t r a l p o r ti o ns . . .

B ey on d th e pel v i c fl exu r e the di a mete r is r ed u ced t o a b o ut th ree o r f o u r i n ches

(c a 8 t o 9 . N e ar th e di ap h ra g m a t i c fiexu r e the c a li b e r ra pidly i n c r e a ses ,

a nd r e a ches its m a xi mu m i n t he l a st di visi o n whe r e i t m a y b e a b o ut twe n ty i n ches ,

(50 cm ) i n i ts wi dest p ar t This i s suc ceed ed b y a s o mewh a t fu n n el sh a ped

. .
-

te r mi n a l c o n t r a cti o n .

V C A o HO FI G . R HT S D
2 70 . D P V WTO
-
P O AP H Y GR OF IS ER r RS E . IG I E , EE ER IE .

1 R Fi t t h i v t b ; 1 L fi t l mb v t b ; 2 K
. .
, rs o ra c c d l pi ; S
er e pul ; A h m
ra ; . .
, rs u ar er e ra . .
, s ec o n s a c ra s ne , sc a a , u e ru s

B il i m ; O f m
, u S h p bi ; S i i h i m ; S L t
.
,
e ur m; L
'
i g h t l b f li v ; N i g h t k id y ; C
c .
, u s .
. sc u , s e r nu .
, r o e o er r . .
, r ne .
,

b dyo b C” p
, f m; as e , igh t v t l l ; Q t a ex o lfi f l ; d Q d i ph g m ti
ecu
ca r en ra co on v . .
, s e rna e x u re o co on . .
, a ra a c

fl ex u re f l n; igh t d
o l l ; F p l i fi
co o f l ; D m ll i t ti ; H
r i y bl dd ;
o rs a co o n .
, e v c e x u re o co o n .
, s a n es ne . u r na r a er

M t m ; l ft v t ri l ;
.
,
r ec u i g h t v t i l ; b b i gh t
a , e eny t y ; l ft t i m ;
c e a ig h t t i m ; d
’
, r en r c e ,
’
, r c o ro n a r a r er c, e a r u c r a r u ,

sm l l (l ft ) a y v i ;e v zy g ; f t i v
c o r o na r v ; a p t i v
e n v ; h i
e, ena a v ; os , a n e r or e na ca a ,
os e r o r e na ca a , s nu s e no s u s i ,

ri g h t ph i v ; k ig h t v g
r e n c ne rw it h i t d l (k ) d v nt l (k”) d i v i i ; l
e , r t ; ma ph g ;
us , s o rs a
’
an e ra s o ns , ao r a , oes o a us n .

t h ;
ra c d i p h g m (m d i
ea o, ti ) ; i g h t l t l li g m t f li v ; q d d m ;
a ra e d tt d li
a n s ec i di on r a e ra a en o er , uo e nu r , o e ne n

ca ti g p iti i m d i
n osti n f d i ph g m i i p i t y ph ;
on n e an t s ec
yg ; t po y li g m
o t a ra n ns ra or as e 8 , rec o -c o c c eu s , su s e ns o r a en

o f t m;
re c u ph i t ni ; v i l mi li ; w p t t ; b l b
u , s nc e r a th l (C w p ) g l d ; y
v, th ;
es c u a se na s , ro s a e x u o -u r e ra o er s
'
an , u re ra

z b d mi l w ll ; z i ph i d til g
, a o na (A ft E ll n b g
a i L
’
, xi g A tl od ed ) ca r a e . er e er er, n ei s e r n
’
s as , re uc .

The fir st p ar t o f t he g r e a t c o l on is a tt a ched t o the lesse r cu r v a tu r e Of the c a c u m

b y tw o l a ye r s o f pe r i t o n e um w hi ch f o r m th e caeco-c ol i c f o l d Th e ve n t r a l p a r ts Of .

the c o l o n are si m i l ar l y c o nn e cted t o th e d or s a l p a r ts of th e s a me side by the mes o

c o l o n The r i ght p o r ti on s ar e u ni ted a ls o by ar e o l a r tissu e a n d m us cu l a r fibe r s
.
,

the su r f a ce Of c o n t a ct bei n g a b o ut f o u r or five i n ches (ca 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) wi de ; th e . .

l eft p o r ti o ns a r e a tt a ched t o e a ch o the r by a pe r it o n e a l f o ld wi de e n o ugh t o a l l o w

them to b e d r a w n a p a r t five or six i n ches (ca 1 2 t o 1 5 cm ) n e ar th e p elvi c fiexur e . . .

Th e ter mi n a l p ar t Of th e c o l o n i s a tt a ched by pe r it o n eum a n d ar e o l ar tissue t o

the ve nt r a l su r f a ce Of th e p a n c r e a s d o r s a ll y an d t o the b a se of th e c mc u m ext e r
n a l ly I t i s c o nn ected i ndi r ectly wi th th e di a ph r a gm a nd li ve r by m e a n s Of a f o ld
.

d e r i v ed f r o m th e r ight l a te r a l lig a me n t Of t he l ive r .

368 D I G E ST I V E S YS TE M OF T HE H OR S E

The re l a ti o n s a r e c om pl ex b ut the m or e i m p or t a n t f a cts a r e as f o ll o ws : Th e ,

ve n t r a l p or ti o n s (fi r st a n d sec o n d ) h a ve exte nsi ve c on t a ct wi th the a bd o mi n a l w a l l

ve nt ra lly a n d l a te r a lly On the r ight si de the c o l on i s a l mo st e n ti r ely excl ud ed f rom .

c o n t a ct with th e fl a n k by the c aecu m ; on the left si de it h as n o c on t a ct with th e

uppe r p a r t of the fl a n k bei n g excl uded h e r e by c o i ls of the sm a l l c o l on a nd s m a l l ,

i ntesti n e D o r s a l ly the chi ef r el a ti o n s a r e to the st o m a ch du od e n u m live r

.
, , ,

p a n c r e a s s m a ll c o l on s m a ll i n testi n e a o r t a ve n a c a v a a nd p or t a l vei n S i n ce
, , , , ,
.

the r e a r e n o t ra n sve r se a tt a ch m e n ts o f the r ight a n d l eft p o r ti o n s a nd th e l a tte r ,

h a ve n o a tt a ch m e n t t o the w a ll th ey a r e subj ect t o c o side a b l e displ a ce m e n t

n r
‘
,
.

AP H Y V C A O HO L FT D
FI G . P V W271 .
—T P O OG R or IS ER F RSE , E EE IE .

I R Fi t th i v t b ; I L fi t l mb v t b ; 2 K
.
,
rs o ra c c d l pi ; S
er e p l ; A h m ra ; .
,
rs u ar er e ra .
,
s ec o n s a c ra s ne .
, sca u a u e rus

B ili m ; F f m
.
, ; S h
u p b i ; S L i hi m ; L li v (l ft l b ) ; Il l ” t m h t h p t i
.
, e ur c .
,
u t s f w hi h , sc u .
, er e o e a s o ac , e os e r o r c o n o u r o c

i i d i t d b y d tt d li
s n ; M
ca ep l ; l N l ft ki d y o l d p t i d i t d b y d tt d li ; AL m ll
e ne I
'
t, s ee n . e ne , co ncea e ar n ca e o e ne , s a

l ; D m ll i t ti p t f w h i h h v b
co o n s a m v d ; I d C l ft d
n es ne , l l ; l ft v t l l ;
ar s o c a e ee n r e o e . . e o rs a co o n e e n ra co o n

t Q . t l fl.
, ; d Q d i p h g m ti
s e r na fle ; O l ft v y ; U
e x u re . t i ; L l b d li g m t
.
, a ra a c x u re .
, e o ar .
, c o r nu u er . .
,
ro a a en

AI R t m ; V v g i ; H b l d d ; l ft v t i l ;
re c u i g h t v t i l ; b l ft
a na y t y w it h d a di g er a e en r c e a
’
r en r c e e c o ro n a r ar er es c e n n

mfl
.
, .
, , , . ,

(b ) d i
’
(b ) b
an h ; l ft i l ; d p l m
c rc u yex t y ( t) ;
”
t ; f li g m t m t i m ;
ra n c es 0 , e au r c e , u o na r ar er cu 0 , a or a , a en u a r e r osu

g b hi ph li t k ( t i
ra c oce t ); h t h ; 2 a p h g ; k l ft p h i
c ru n v ; I d i ph g m i m d i
a n er or aor a ra c ea 1 (e s o a us e re n c ne r e a ra n e an

fl ti f
. , , , ,

sec ti ; m F ll pi t b ;
on b , v i ; a th ; o t dg
an f b
u d li g m t ; q li
e n , f u rs a o ar ca o , u re ra cu e e o ro a a en , ne o re ec on o

p l vi p it
e m: c t er yg ; o ne u ll d p y li g mr, t f t m ; t ph i t
re c o -c o c c i i t ; eus a, s o -c a e s us e ns o r a en o re c u . s nc er an n e r nu s u ,

yg i f i ;
s a c r o -c o c c bd m i l w ll ieus ti ; xi p h i d
n e r or til g (A ft
v, a E ll b g i L i
o i g na a n se c on o ca r a e . er en er er , n e s er n
’
s

A tl ) as .

The pelvi c fl ex u r e i s v a r i a bl e i n p ositi o n b ut usu a lly i t is d i r ected to th e r ight ,

a c r o ss the pelvi c i n l et .

Th e ve n t r a l p or ti o n s of th e c o l o n h a ve f o u r l on gi tudi n a l mu scul ar b an d s
(T ae n i ae ) whi ch p r o duce f o u r r o ws o f s a ccul a ti on s (Ha ust r a ) On th e fi r st p ar t .

th e exte r n a l a nd i n te r na l b a n ds a r e f r ee ; th e d or s a l b an d is c o ve r ed by th e a dhesi on
to the o ve r lyi n g d o r s a l di visi o n wh i le th e v e n t r a l b a n d i s l a r gel y c o ve r ed by th e ,

a dh esi o n t o th e c aecu m On th e l eft ve n t r a l p a r t the exte r n a l a n d ve n t ra l b a n ds .

a r e f r ee ; o f th e tw o d o r s a l b a n ds the i nn e r o n e is c o n ce a led by th e m es o c o l on the , ,

o ute r o n e is ch iefly f r ee The pelvi c fl ex u r e h a s a b an d on i ts l esse r cu r v a tu r e .

,

whi ch is c o nti n ued o n to the thi r d p ar t c on ce a l ed by th e pe r it o n e a l a tt a ch m e n t ; ,

these p a r ts a r e p r a cti c a lly n on s a c cu l a ted N e a r th e di a ph ra g m a ti c fl exu re tw o -

.

Ab n o r ma l d i s p l a ce me n t , c .
g .
, t o rs i o n o f th e l e f t p a r ts ,
is no t rar e , a nd is li ab l e to p r o d u ce
d ea t h if no t p ro m p tl y red u c ed .
3 70 D I G E S TI V E S Y S TE M OF T HE H ORS E

80 t o 90 I ts p a r i et a l b o r d e r i s a tt a ched a l o n g a l i n e exte ndi ng f r o m th e

ve nt ra l su r f a ce o f the l eft kid n ey t o t he s a c r a l p r om o nt o r y ; i t is c o n ti n u o us i n
f r on t with the r o o t of the g r e a t m ese n te r y , a n d beh i n d w ith th e mes or ectum .

The r e ar e tw o tmmae a n d tw o r o ws o f s a ccu l a ti on s Of the t aen i as, o n e is f r ee ,

'

the o th e r c on ce a l ed by the m ese n te r y Whe n the b o wel i s h ar d e n ed i n si tu i ts .

lu m e n betwee n the p o u ches is r ed uced to a n a rr o w sli t .

THE R E C T UM
The r e ctum (I n testi n u m r ectu m ) is th e te r m i n a l p a r t o f the b o wel ; it exte n ds
f r o m the pelvi c i n let t o the a n us 1
I ts le n gth is a b o ut o n e f oo t (ca 30
. I ts .

di r ecti o n m ay be st r a ight o r Obli q u e Th e fi r st o r pe ri to n e a l p art Of th e r ectu m i s .

l ike the s m a ll c o l on a n d is a tt a ch ed by a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f the c o li c mese n te r y te rm ed

,

the m e s o re ctum The sec o nd o r re tr o p e ri t o n e al p ar t f or m s a fl ask sh a ped dil a t a

.
-

ti on ter med the a mpu l l a r e cti ; i t is a tt a ch ed t o th e su rr o u n di n g st r u ctu r es by c on

n e c ti v e tissu e a n d m uscul a r b a n ds .

The fi r st p a r t o f the r ectu m is r el a t ed t o the s m a l l c o l o n a n d the pelvi c fl ex u r e

Of the g r e a t c o l o n I t is f r eq ue n tly d efl ect ed t o t he l eft by th e l a tte r
. Th e sec o n d .

p a r t of the r ectum is r el a ted d o r s a ll y a n d l a te ra lly t o t h e pelvi c w a l l Ve n t r a lly .

the r el a ti on s d i ffe r i n the t w o sexes I n th e m a l e th ey a r e the b l a dde r th e t er.

,

m i na l p a r ts Of the v a s a defe r e n ti a t he vesi cu l ae se m i n a les th e p r o st a te th e bu lb o

, , ,

u r eth ra l (C o wpe r s ) gl a nds and the u r eth r a I n th e fe m a l e th ey a r e t he ut e r us

’

"
.
, ,

v a gi na a nd v u l v a fi
,

S tr u ctur e o f th e L ar g e I n t e s ti n e — The s er ou s c o a t c o ve r s the di ffe r e n t p a r ts

.

i n v a ryi n g deg r ees I t d o es n o t c o ve r (a ) th e o pp o sed su r f a ces of th e c aecu m

.

a nd c o l o n whi ch a r e betwee n the l a ye r s o f th e caeco c o l i c f o ld a n d m es o c o l o n ; -

(b) the a r e a s o f a tt a ch m e nt Of the c ae c u m a n d c o l o n to th e p an c r e a s r ight kid n ey , ,

a nd sub lu mb a r r egi o n ; (0 ) t he sec o n d p a r t Of th e r ectu m .

Th e mu s cul ar c o a t c o n sists of l o n gi t u di n a l an d ci r cu l ar fib e r s The bul k of .

the f o r m e r i s i n th e b a n ds a l r e a dy d esc r i bed S o me Of th e ci r cu l ar fib e r s p a ss .

f r o m on e p ar t o f the c o l on t o a no t he r wh e r e th ey a r e a tt a ched t o e a ch o the r , ,

for m i ng the fibrae t r a n sve r s ae c o l i The muscul a r c o a t Of the sec o n d p ar t o f th e

.

r ectu m p r ese n ts speci a l fe a t u r es Th e l o n gi tudi na l l a ye r o f fibe r s is ve r y thi ck

.

a nd c o nsists o f l a r ge b u n dles l oo sely u n i ted A l a r ge b a n d the r e cto c o ccyg e u s ,

,
.
,
-

is det a ched f ro m i t o n eithe r side a nd p a sses upw a r d a n d b a ckw ar d to be i nse r ted

,

i n t o the f o u r th a n d fifth c o c cyge a l v e r teb r ae .

The sub muc o u s ti s s u e is a bu n d a n t i n th e w a ll of th e r ectu m so t h a t the m u c o us ,

me m b r a n e is l oo sely a tt a ched t o t he m uscu l ar c o a t an d f o r ms n ume r o us f o lds ,

whe n the b o wel i s empty .

The mu c o u s m e mb ra ne of th e l ar ge i n testi n e is thi cke r an d d ar ke r i n c o l o r

th a n th a t of the s ma ll i n testi n e I t f o r ms l ar ge c r esce n ti c or semi l u n a r f o lds cor
.

’
r esp o n d i ng t o the exte r n a l c o nst r i cti o n s I t h a s n o vil li B r u nn e r s gl a n ds o r .
, ,

P eye r s p a tches The i n te sti n a l gl an d s (of Li eb er k ii h n ) a r e l a r ge a n d n u m e r o us

’
. .

S o li ta ry gl a nd s a r e a ls o n ume r o us especi a lly a t th e a pex Of the cze cu m a n d i n t h e

,

l ef t d o r s a l p a r t Of the c o l o n .

B l oo d supply — G r e a te r a n d l esse r mese n te r i c a nd i n te r na l pudi c ar te r i es

-
. .

The vei n s g o t o the p or t a l vei n .

N e rv e supply -
M ese nte r i c pl exus o f the symp a theti c n e r ves
. .

l
T l i ere is t l li n e o f d e ma rca ti o n b e t w een t h e s ma ll c o l o n a nd rec t u m : t h e p l a n e
n o n a u ra
o f th e p e l v i c i n l e t I s s e l e c t ed fo r c o n v en i e n c e o f d es c r i p ti o n
' .

2
T h e a n t e r i o r p a r t Of th e r ec t u m i s v ery v a r i a b l e i n p os i ti o n a n d r e l a ti o n s I t i s no t o fte n .

med i a n b u t m a y b e d e fl e c t ed e i t h e r t o r i g h t o r l e f t M os t Of t en i t i s p u s h ed to t h e l e f t b y t h e
p el v i c fl e xu re o f th e c o l o n I n o t h e r ca ses —es p ec i a l l y w h en em p t y —i t ma y l i e ag a i ns t t h e r i g h t
, .

w a l l a nd t h e s p a c e to t h e l e f t i s o c c u p i ed b T h e a mo u n t co v e red b y p er it o neu m
,
.
y th e s ma ll co l o n .

( l rs l l y nd l a t e r a ll y i s v ery v a r i a b l e a n d a pp ea rs to b e i n i n v ers e p ro p o r ti o n t o t h e f u l l n ess o f

t ge la o w ea
,

.
 T HE P A N CRE AS 37 1

Th e an u s i s th e t er mi n a l o r ifi ce o f th e a li m e nt a r y c ana l I t is situ a ted bel o w .

th e r oo t o f t he t a i l w he r e it f or ms a r o u n d p r o j ecti o n w ith a ce n t r a l dep r es s i on

, ,

whe n c o n t r a cted I t i s c o ve r ed exte r n a lly by a n i n tegu m e n t wh i c h i s thi n h a i rl e s s

.
, ,

a n d p r o vi ded wi th n u m e r o us seb a ce o us a n d swe a t gl a n ds T he m u c o u s li n i n g is .

p a l e gl a n dless a n d c o ve r ed wi th a thi ck squ am o us st r a tifi ed epit heliu m

, , , , .

Ther e a r e t h r ee muscles o f t he a n us .

1 Th e s phi n cter ani i n te rn u s is me r ely a te r m i n a l thi cke n i n g of th e ci r cul ar

.

c oa t Of th e b o wel .

2 Th e S phi n cte r ani e xtern u s i s a b r oa d b a n d Of st r iped m uscle fib er s o utside

.
-

th e i n te r n a l sphi n ct e r So m e fibe r s a r e a tt a ched t o t he c o ccyge a l f a sci a ab o ve

.
,

o the rs t o t he pe r i n e a l f a sci a bel o w I ts a ct i o n is t o cl o se th e a n us

. .

3 The r e tr a ctor ani (M l ev a t o r ani ) i s a fl a t m u scle w h ic h li es betwee n th e

. .

r ectum an d th e s a c r o-sci a ti c l ig a m e n t I t ar ises f r om th e supe r i o r i sch i a ti c spi n e

a n d th e s a c r o—
.

sci a ti c l ig am e n t a n d e n ds u n de r the exte r n a l sphi n ct e r I t s a cti on

, .

i s t o r ed u ce th e p a r t i a l p r o l a ps e whi ch t h e a n us u n d e r g o es d u r i n g defec at i on .

T h e suspe n s or y lig a m e n t of t h e a n us i s a b a n d o f u n st r iped muscl e whi ch a r ises

f r o m t h e fi r st c o ccyge a l ve r teb r a p a sses d o wn w a r d o ve r th e r et r a ct o r an d u n ites
, ,

wit h its fell o w b el o w th e a n us I n t h e m a le i t i s l a r gely c o n ti n ued by th e r et r a ct o r

.

pe ni s muscl e ; i n t h e fe m a le i t b l e n ds w it h the c o n st r i ct o r vu lv a I t m a y ac t as
a n a c cess o r y sphi n cte r Of th e a n us

B l oo d - s u pply —I n te r n a l p udi c a r te r y
.

N e rv e - s upply —Hze mo rr h o i d al a n d pe r i n e a l n e r ves (for th e sphi n cte r a n i ext er

. .

~
.

n u s a n d r et r a ct o r a ni ) .

THE PANCRE AS
The pan c re a s is situ a t ed t r a ns ve r sely on th e d o r s a l w a l l Of th e a bd o me n the ,

gr e a te r p ar t b ei n g t o t he r ight of the me d i a n p l a n e I t s ce nt r a l p ar t li es u n de r the .

S ixt ee n th a n d seve n tee n t h th or a ci c ve r teb r ae .

Wh en fr es h i t h a s a r eddish c r e a m c o l o r , b ut if l eft i n t h e u n p r ese r ved c a d a ve r

i t r a pi dl y de c o mp o ses a n d b ec o mes d a r k I t r esemb l es t he s a li v a r y gl an ds i n .

a ppe a r a n ce b ut i s s o ft e r a n d i ts l o b u les a r e m or e l oo sely u ni ted I ts a ve r a ge

, , .

weight is a b o ut twelve o u n ces (ca 3 50 .

.

Wh e n h ar de n ed i n si tu its sh a p e i s ve r y i rr egu l ar I t i s t r i a n gul ar i n o utli n e .

,

a n d p r ese n ts f or desc r ipti o n tw o sur f a ces t h r ee b o r de r s a n d th r ee an gl es

1
, ,

Th e d or s al s u rface f a ces upw ar d a n d f or w ar d I t is p a r ti a ll y c o ve r ed by .

"

p er it on e um I t is r el a t e d chi efl y t o t h e v en t r a l su r fa ce o f t h e r i gh t kid n ey a n d
.

a dr e n a l th e p o st er i or ve n a c a v a th e p or t a l vei n th e c ml i a c ar te r y a nd its
, , ,

d i vi si o ns th e g a st r o phr e ni c li gam e n t a n d t he s a ccus c aecus o f the st om a ch

,
-
,

th e r ight a nd c a ud a te l o bes Of th e l iv er a nd th e g a st r o p a n c r e at i c fo ld The r e ,

-
.

a re gr oo ves for th e di vi si ons of t h e c oeli a c a r te r y a n d a l a r ge on e fo r t he sple ni c ,

ve i n .

Th e v en tr al s urf ace l oo ks d o wn w ar d a n d b a ckw a r d ; it is i n ge n er a l c o n c a ve .

I t p r esen ts t w o i m p r essi o n s sep a r a ted b y a n Ob l i qu e r idge

,
The s ma lle r of .

t hes e (I mp r essi o cze cal i s ) li es t o th e r i ght a nd i s c a used by th e p r essu r e o f the ,

b a s e o f th e c aecum ; th e l ar ger o ne (I mp r essi o c o li c a ) i n di c a tes th e a r e a of con

t a ct wi th th e te r mi n a l p a r t Of th e g r e a t c o l o n a n d i ts j u n cti on wi th th e s m a ll c o l on .

I t h as usu a ll y n o per i t on e a l c o ve r i ng except ove r a s m a ll a r e a a t the a n te r i o r a n gle .

The ri gh t b or d er i s n e ar l y st r a ight ; it is r el a ted t o the sec on d p a r t o f the d uo

d en u m a n d t h e c a ud a te l o b e o f th e li ve r .

The l e ft b o r d er is sl ightly c o n c a ve an d i s r el a ted to t he fi r st p a r t Of th e d u o de

,

n u m t h e l eft sac o f th e st o m a ch a n d the spl e n i c vessels

, ,
.

A d es c r i p ti v e m e t h o d b as ed
1
on th a t in us e i n h u m an a na o t my ca nn o t be a pp l i ed wi th
c l ear nes s t o t h e o r g an i n t h e h ors e .
3 72 D I GE S TI V E S Y S TE M or T HE H OR S E

The p o ster i o r b or d er p r ese n ts a d eep n otc h t o th e r ight Of the m edi a n pl an e

fo r th e p o r t a l vei n whi ch p a sses th ro ugh the gl a n d ve r y o b li qu ely
,
Th e r e is a .

t hi n b r idge Of gl a n d tissue d o r s a l t o the vei n thus f o r m i n g th e p or tal ri n g (A nn u lus ,

p o r ta r u i n ) The r oo t o f t he g r e a t m ese n te r y i s i n c on t a ct w it h the b or de r j ust t o

.

the l eft Of the m ed i an pl a n e .

The ante r i o r or du o d e nal an gl e (C a put p a n c r e a tis ) i s a tt a ched to th e c o n c a vity

o f th e sec o n d cu r ve o f the du o d e n um a n d th e a dj a ce n t p ar t o f the r ight l o b e Of the
,

l ive r The du cts le a ve a t th is ext r e m i ty

. .

The l e ft or spl e n i c an gl e (C a ud a p a n c r e a tis ) c o rr esp o n ds t o t he t a i l Of th e p a n

c r e as i n m a n I t is i n c o n t a ct with the b a se of t he splee n the left ki d n ey a nd
.
,

a d r e n a l b o dy a n d the s a ccus c aecus o f the st o m a ch

,
.

S t o ma c h

FI G . 2 73 .
—PAN C R E AS or HORS E W T H CH F R LAT ON S V N T AL V W
I IE E I ,
E R IE .

The p a nc r e a ti c d uc t a nd i ts t w i f
o ch e i l
ra d c e s a re i d i t d b y d tt d l i n i th y
n ca e o e i th e s , s nc e e a re n e s u b s t a nc e o f th e

gl d
an .

The r ight an gl e is r o u nded a n d l ies on the ve nt r a l su rf a c e Of the r ight kid n ey

,

a nd a d r e n a l b o dy .

T h e p a n c r e a s is a tt a ch ed d o r s a lly by c o nn ecti ve tissue to the ki d n eys an d

a d r e n a l b o di es the g ast r o ph r e n i c lig a me n t a nd the suspe ns o r y lig a me n t o f th e
,
-

splee n the p o ste r i o r ve na c a v a the p or t a l fissu r e a n d the g ast r o p a n c r e a ti c f o ld

, , ,
-
.

The ve n t ra l su r f a ce is m a i n ly a tt a ched by ar e o l ar tissu e t o the b as e o f th e c aecu m

a n d the te r m i n a l p a r t o f the g r e a t c o l o n .

The r e are a l m ost i n v a ri a bly tw o d u c ts The l a rge o ne is te r med the pan .

cre a ti c d u ct (D u ctus p a n c r e a ti cus [Wi r su n g i ] I t i s f o r m ed by the u n i o n o f tw o

r a di cl es whi ch c o m e f r o m the r ight a n d l eft ext r emi ties a n d p a sses th r o ugh th e du o
,

d enal a n gle t o en d a t the du o de n a l di ve r ti culu m a l o n gside Of the b i le -d uct The .

3 74 D I G E ST I V E S YS T E M OF T HE H OR S E

oeso p h a g ea ) whi ch is m a i n ly o ccupi ed by t he thi ck m a r gi n o f the oes o ph a ge a l o pe n

i ng o f th e d i a ph r a g m .

The v e n tr a l b or d e r is thi n a n d is m a r ked by tw o d eep i n te r l o b ar fi s su re s o r

,

i n ci su r e s (I n cisu rae i n te r l o b a r es ) whi ch p a r ti a l ly divid e the o rg a n i n t o t h r ee p r i n

,

c i pa l l ob e s — r i ght , mi dd l e a n d l e ft ,
The r ight l o be i s the l ar gest except i n o l d
.
,

subj ects i n wh i ch i t is f r eque n t ly mu ch a t r o phi ed Th e m idd le l o b e i s the s m a llest

,
. .

I t is m a r ke d by seve r a l s m a ll fissu r es a n d by t he umb i li c al fi s s ur e (I n ci su r a um

,

bi l i c a l i s ) ; the l a tte r c o n t a i n s th e u m bi l i c a l vei n i n t h e f oetus wh i ch i s t r a nsf o rm ed ,

i nt o t he r o u n d lig a me n t a ft e r b i r th .

The right b o r d er i s thi n a n d l o n g I t is n e ar ly ve r t i c a l a n d exte n ds b a ckw a r d

.
-

t o a b o ut the m idd l e o f the sixtee n th r i b .

The l e ft b or d er is thi n a nd sh or t I t exte n ds b a ckw a r d to a p o i n t o pp o site

.

R i g ht l a te ra l l i ga ment

P os ter i or ve n a ca va

(E S O ) ha 9ea t
n otc l i L ef t l a ter a l l i ga men t

Fa l ci for m l i ga men t

Rou n d
l i ga men t
FI G . 2 74 .
—L V
I ER OF Y O UN HOG RS E , HA D N DR E E in s i tu , P A RI E TAL S U R FA C E .

the l o we r p a r t o f the n i n th o r te n th r i b Th e ve n t ra l a n d l a te ra l b o r de r s t ogethe r

.

c o nsti tute the ma rg o a cutus .

The li ve r is held i n p o si ti o n l ar gely by th e p r essu r e of th e o the r visce r a a n d

by i ts cl os e a ppl i c a ti o n to th e di a ph r a gm I t h a s si x l ig a m e n ts . .

l The c o ron ary l iga m e nt (L ig c o r o n a r i u m hep a ti s ) a tt a ches i t cl o sely t o

.
.

the d i a ph ragm I t c o nsi sts of t w o l a m i n ae Th e r ight one i s a tt a ched to th e

.
.

r ight o f the f o ss a v e n z e c a v ae ; th e l eft o n e b egi n s t o the l eft of th e ve n a c a v a a n d

p a sses u pw a r d a n d o utw a r d be c o m i n g c o n ti n u o us with the l eft l a te r a l lig am e n t at

,

the l eft m a r gi n of the oes o ph a ge a l n o tch ; i t det a ch es a m iddl e f o ld whi ch ext ends
t o t h e n o tch a n d is c o n ti n u o us wi th the s m a l l o m e n tum Th e tw o l a m i n ae u n ite .

b el o w th e ve na c a v a to f or m the n ext l ig a m e n t .

2 Th e f a l cif orm ligam e n t (L ig f a l cif o r m e h ep a tis ) is a c r esce n ti c f o ld wh i ch

.
.

a tt a ches th e m iddl e l o b e t o the ste r n a l p a r t o f the di a ph ra g m a nd to the a bd o mi n a l

fl oor for a v a r i a bl e dist a n ce I n i ts c on c a ve f r ee edge is f o u nd

.
 T HE LI VE R 3 75

The r o u n d li ga m e nt (L ig te r es h ep a tis ) a fi b ro us c o r d wh i ch exte n ds

3 . .
,

f ro m th e umbi l i c a l fissu r e to the u m bi l i cus ; it is th e vestige o f the u mbi li c a l

vei n whi ch i n t he f oetus c a r r ies the b l oo d f r o m the pl a ce n t a t o the l ive r
, .

4 The ri ght l a ter a l l iga m en t (L ig t r i a ngu l a r e d ext r u m ) is a w ide f o ld wh i c h

. .

a tt a ches the d o r s a l b o r de r o f the r ight l o be t o the c o st a l p a r t o f the d i a p h r a g m .

R ena l i mpres si on C a u d a te p r o cess

P os ter i or ven a ca va

A tta c hmen t o f ga s tr o p a n cr ea ti c f ol d
-

P or ta l ve i n

P or ta l fi s s u re
Hepa ti e a rter y

A tta ch ment of l es s er o mentu m

Hepa ti c d u ct
(E s o p h a gea l n ot

I nter l oba r fi s s u r e

bor der

Umbi l i ca l fiss ure

FI G . 275 —L V
. I ER HOR S E V C AL S U FAC
IS ER R E .

S pe i m
c en f ro m mi d d l e-a g ed su bj t h d
ec , d i mi
ar ene n n .

5 Th e l e ft l a te ra l lig a m e nt (L ig t r i a ngul a r e S i n ist r u m ) a tt a ches the d o r s a l

. .

edge of t he left l o b e t o the te n d i n o us ce n te r o f the di a ph r a g m .

6 Th e h epa to-r e n al o r c a ud a te l iga m e nt (L i g h e p a t or e n a l e ) a tt a ches the

. .

c a ud a te p r o cess t o the r ight ki d n ey a nd the b a se of the c aecum Th e g a st r o hep a ti c .

-

o me n tum a n d th e m es o du o de n u m h a ve b ee n desc r ibed .

As st a t ed a b o ve the l ive r is di vided by fi ssu r es i n t o th r ee p r i n cip a l l o bes

,

r ight mi ddl e a n d left

, ,
The r igh t l o be is the l a r gest i n the y o u n g subj ect a n d i s
.
3 76 D I G E STI V E S Y ST E M OF T HE H OR S E

i rr egul a r l y q u a d r i l a te r a l i n f o r m On its d o r s a l p a r t i s the c a ud a te l o b e wh i ch

.
,

e n ds i n a p o i nted p ro ce s s di r ected o utw ar d an d a ssists i n f o r m i n g th e c a vity for ,

the r ight k i d ney The m idd le l o b e i s n o r m a lly m u ch the s ma l lest T he l eft l o b e

i s o v a l i n o utli n e a nd t hi ckest ce n t ra lly I n o l d or middl e —
. .

a ged subj ects i t o fte n

.

exceeds the r ight o ne i n si z e I n s o m e c a ses t he a t r o phy of the r ight l o b e is so

.

ext r e m e t h a t the middle l obe m ay exceed i t i n si z e .

Th e h ep a ti c d u ct (D u ctus hep a t icus ) is fo r m ed a t th e v e n t r a l p ar t o f the p o rt a l

fissu r e by the u n i o n o f r ight a nd left chi ef l o b a r d u cts I t is tw o o r th r ee i n ches .

(ca 5 to 8 c m ) l o ng a n d a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (ea 1 to
. . cm ) wi de I t p a sses b e . . .

twee n the t w o l a ye r s Of th e l esse r om e n tum a n d pi e r ces th e w a l l of th e du o de n um ,

a b o u t five o r six i n ches (c a 1 2 t o 1 5 c m ) f r om the pyl o r us a l o n gside o f the p a n

. .
,

R ena l i mp r es si o n

P os ter i or rc n a ca va

P or ta l

Hep a ti c a r ter y

Hepa ti c d uct

(E so ph a gea l n otch

M idal e l obe

Umbi l i ca l re i n

FI G 2 76 .
—L IVE R OF N E W - ORB N FOAL H A D N D i , R E E n
'
s z tu . V IS C ERAL S U FA C R E .

Th e d f if e r e nc e s , w he n co mp d
a reit h t h g i n t h
w e or an e ad u lt , a re v y t i ki g
er s r n .

c r e ati c du ct The ducts p a ss o bli qu ely th r o ugh th e w a l l of th e d u o de nu m for a b o u t

.

h a lf a n i n c h (ca 1 c m ) b ef o r e o pe n i ng i n t o the d ive r ti cul u m du o de n i

. . Th e .

arra n ge m e n t f or ms a n e ffective v a lve w hi ch p r eve n ts r egu r git a ti o n f r o m the

,

i nt esti n e The r e i s no g a ll bl a dd e r -

S tr uctur e —The l ive r i s c o ve r ed by a n o ute r se r o us a n d a n i nn e r fib r o us c o a t

.
.

. .
,

The s ero u s c oat c o ve r s the gl a n d ex cept a t the a tt a ch m e n t of th e p a n c r e a s a n d a t

th e p or t a l fo ss a ; i t i s r eflected f rom it t o f or m th e lig a m e n ts a n d th e l esse r o m e nt um .

Th e fib r o us c apsu l e is i n ge n e r a l t hi n ; i t se n ds l a m i nae i n t o t he l ig a m e n ts a n d a ls o ,

F l ow er a n d R u g e d es c r i b e th e ma m ma li a n li v er a s b ei n g p r i ma ri l y d i v i d ed b y th e u mb i li ca l
fi ss u re I n t o tw o p a r t s t h e r i g h t a nd l ef t l o b es Se co n d a ry fi s s u res o n ei t h er s i d e may s u bd i v i d e
, .

ea c h o f t h es e p r i m ary l ob es On t h i s b a s i s w e m a y r eco g n i z e i n th e li v er o f th e h o rs e r i g h t l a t era l

.

,
ri g h t c e n t r a l l e f t c e nt ra l a n d l e f t l a t er a l l o b es I n t h e y o u n g f o a l t h es e f o u r l o b es a re di s ti n c tl y
.
, , .

r eco g n i z a b l e. T h e t w o c e n t r a l l o b es w o u l d c o r res p o n d to t h e m i d d l e l o b e o f t h e f o re g o i n g d e
,
q
s c ri p t i o n a n d t h e r i g h t c e n t r a l l o b e w o u l d b e t h e e u i v a l e n t o f t h e
qu a d ra t e l o b e o f m a n .
3 78 D I GE STI VE S Y ST E M OF T HE H OR S E

p o u nd s i n h o rs es w ei g h i ng 1 00 0 to 1 200 p o u n d s . T h e c h i ef v a ri a ti o n i n ou tli ne c on s i s t s of i ncreas e

o f w i d t h es p e c i a ll y o f t h e d o rs a l p a r t
,
.

It exte n ds o bli quely i n a cu r ved di r ecti o n f r o m the l eft c r uS of t he d i a ph r a gm

a n d the s a ccus e meus o f th e st o m a ch t o t he ve n t ra l thi r d o f the n i n t h o r te n t h r i b .

I t p r e s e n ts for d esc r i pti o n t w o su r f a ces t w o b o r d e r s a n d tw o ext r emi ti es

, , .

The p ar i e ta l o r e xte rn a l su r f a c e (F a ci es p ar i et a li s ) i s c on v ex a n d li es chi efly ,

a g a i n st th e di a ph r a g m but is i n di r ect c o n t a ct with t he u ppe r p a r ts of the l as t

,

t w o r ibs a n d t o a s m a ll exte n t wit h th e fl a n k a t t he lu m b o c o st a l a n gle -

.

The Vi s c era l o r in te rn al s u rf a c e (F a ci es visce ra lis ) i s i n ge n e r a l c on c a ve It .

i s d i vi ded i n t o t w o u n eq u a l p or ti o n s by a l o n gi tud i n a l r idge ; on thi s is a g r oo ve ,

the hi lu s , i n whi c h t he vessels a nd n e r ves a r e si tu a ted The a r e a i n f r o n t of the .

r idge (F a cies g a st r i c a ) i s m o uld ed o n the g r e a t cu r v a tu r e o f the st o m a ch ; i t is a b o ut

t w o i n ches (ca 5 cm ) wi de
. . Th e a r e a beh i n d the r idge (F a ci es i n testi n a li s ) is
.

P os ter i or bas a l a ngl e

A tta c h me n t o f s us p ens ory l

l i ga ment
A n ter i or ba sa l a n gl e

S p l e ni c a r ter y

S p l eni c vei n

A n ter i or bor d er

277 —
SPL N E E HO or RS E ,HA D N D R E E in s i tu . V C AL S U FA C
IS ER R E .

T he a re a ma r ked i t ti l i m p
n es na i i l td
r es s o n s re a e t o th e fi t il f t h m ll l
rs co o e s a co o n .

m u ch m o r e exte n s i ve ; i t is el a ted chi efly t o the s m a ll c o l o n th e s ma l l i n testi n e

r
, ,

an d the g r e a t o me n tum I t m a y b e m a r ked by o n e o r t w o fissu r es

. .

Th e a nte ri o r b or d e r (M a r g o a n te r i or ) is c on c a ve a nd thi n .

The p o ste ri or b or d er (M a r g o p o ste r i o r ) is c o n vex a nd thi n .

Th e b a s e o r d or s a l e xt re mi ty i s beveled an d fits i nt o t h e i n te r v a l b etwee n

,

the left ki d n ey a nd the left c r us o f th e d i a ph ra g m a n d th e ps o a s m a j o r Whe n .

h a r de n ed i n si ta it sh o ws a n i m p r e s si o n (F a cies r e n a l is ) wh e r e i t li es a g a i n st the
,

kid ney Th e left ext r e m ity o f the p a n c r e a s t o u ch es i t a ls o T he a nt e r i o r b a s a l

.
.

a ngl e fits i n betwee n the s a c cus c aecus o f t h e st o m a ch an d th e l eft kid n ey

; th e
p oste r i or b as a l a ngle usu a lly l i es a g a i n st th e fl a n k j ust behi n d th e l a st ri b
Th e ap e x or v e ntra l e xtr e mi ty is s m a ll ; i t l i es—w h e n th e st o m a ch i s not ful l
.

betwee n the l eft l o b e of the l ive r a nd the l eft d or s a l p or ti o n o f t h e c o l on ; whe n

 T HE P E RI TO NE UM 3 79

t he st o m a c h i s ful l the spl ee n is pushed fu rthe r b a ck an d l o ses c o n t a ct with

,

t he live r .

The spl ee n i s a tt a ched by tw o pe r it o n e a l f o lds th e suspe n s or y l ig a m e n t a n d ,

th e g a st ro S pl e i i i c om e n tum Th e s u s pe n s ory l i gam e nt (L ig suspe n s o r i u m l ie n is )

-
. .

a tt a ches the b a se t o t he left c r us o f the d i a p h r a g m a n d th e left kid n ey ; i t c o n t a i n s

a q u a n tity o f el a sti c tissue The p a r t whi c h p a sses t o t he d i a ph ra g m i s th e lig a

.

m e n tu m p h r e n i c O l i en a l e a nd b le n ds wi th th e g a st r o p l i r e n i c li g a m e n t ; th e p a r t
-
,
-

whi ch g o es t o t he kid n e y i s te r m ed th e l ig a m e n tu m r e nol i e n a l e The g a str o .

s pl eni c o m e n tu m (L i g g a st r o li e n a le ) p a sses f r o m the hi l us t o the left p ar t o f the

.

g r e a t cu r v a tu r e o f t he st om a ch I t is n a r r o w a b o ve wh e r e i t j o i n s t h e suspe n s o r y
.
,

lig a me nt ; b el o w i t b ec om es m uc h w i de r a n d is c o n ti n u o us wi t h the g r e a t o m e n tu m .

S ma l l g l o b u l ar o r l en ti c u l a r m as s es o f s p l eni c ti s s u e m ay b e fo u nd i n th e g as t ro -s p l en i c
o me n t u m T h ey a re t er m ed acc e s s ory s pl e en s (L i c h es a c c ess o ri aa)
. .

S tru ctur e .
—T he spl ee n l m ost c o m plete s e r o u s c o a t S ubj a ce n t to
h as an a .

thi s a n d i n ti m a tel y u ni ted w i t h i t i s a c aps u l e o f fib r o us tissu e (Tu n i c a a lbugi n e a ) ,

whi c h c o n t a i n s ma n y el a sti c fib e r s a n d s o m e u n st r ip ed muscu l ar tissue N u m e r ou s .

trab e c u l a (T r a bec u l aa l ie ni s ) a r e give n Off f r o m th e d eep f a ce o f the c a psu le a n d

r a mi fy i n t he subst a n ce o f t he o r g a n t o f o r m a supp o r t i n g n etw o r k I n the i n te r .

s ti ces of t his f ra mew o r k is t he s pl e e n pu l p (P u lp a li e n is ) a d a r k red s o ft g r u m o us , , ,

m a te r i a l T h i s is supp o r ted b y a del i c a t e a de n o i d r e ti cu l um a n d c o n t a i n s n u m e r

o us leuk o cyt es t he l ar ge sple ni c cel ls r e d bl oo d —
.
,

, c o r p uscles a n d pig m e n t Th e
, ,
.

pul p is r i chl y suppli ed wit h bl oo d Th e b r a n c hes o f t he sple ni c a r te r y e n te r a t

.

t he hi lus a n d p a ss a l o n g the t r a b ecul ae The a r te r i es whi ch e n te r t he pulp h a ve a

.

she a th o f lymph o i d tissue whi c h c o l lects o n th e vessel w a l l a t ce r t a i n p o i nts f or m

i ng sm a ll lymph n o d u l e s , the so—
, ,

c a l led M a lpigh i a n c o r puscles (N o du l i lymph at ici

l i e na les ) T hese a r e V i si bl e t o th e n a ked eye a s whi t e sp o ts a b o ut a s l a r ge as the
. .

he a d o f a p i n T he b l oo d pa sses i n t o c a ve r n o us sp a ces li n ed by e n d oth el i u ni

.

whi ch is c o n ti n u o us wi th the cells o f t h e r eti cu l u m of t h e pu lp F r o m these the .

v ei n s ar i se The spl e ni c vei n r u n s i n th e hi l us i n c o m p a n y wi th the a r te r y a nd

.

n e r ves a n d j o i n s the p o ste r i or g a st r i c vei n t o f o r m a l a r ge ra di cle o f the p o r t a l vei n

B l oo d -s upply —S p le ni c a r te r y
.
,

N e rve-s u ppl y —S pl e n i c pl exus

. .

. .

THE P E R I TONE UM
The ge n e r a l disp o siti o n o f th e pe r i t o n eum h a s b ee n desc r ibed a n d o the r f a cts ,

i n r eg a r d t o it we r e m e n ti o n ed i n th e d esc r ipti o n o f th e vis ce r a I t is n o w desi r a ble .

(Figs 2 56 2 57 2 78
1
t o stud y it a s a c o ti n u o us wh o l e
n . .
, , ,

We may c on sid e r the pe r it o n eu m as c o n sisti n g of tw o s a cs— a g r e a te r a nd a

lesse r The gre ater s a c li n es t he g r e a te r p a r t of th e a bd om i n a l c a vity an d c o ve r s
.
,

m o st o f t he visce ra whi ch h a ve a pe r it on e a l i n vestme n t The l e s s e r s a c is an .

i nt r o ver si o n o r r ecess Of t he g r e a te r s a c f or med du r i n g th e d evel o p m e n t of t he vis

,

ce r a Th e t w o s a cs c o mmu n i c a te by a r el a tively n ar r o w p a ss a ge te r m ed the

.
,

e pi pl o i c f o r am e n o f Wi n sl o w (F o ra me n epipl o i cu m ) Thi s Ope n i n g is situ a ted on the

.

Vi sce r a l su r f a ce o f t he l i ver a b o ve th e p o r t a l fissur e I t ca n b e e n te r ed by p a ssi n g .

t he fi n ge r a l on g th e c a ud a te l o b e o f th e l ive r t o w a r d its r o o t I ts d or s a l (o r a n .

ter i or ) w a l l is f o r m ed by th e c a ud a te l o b e a n d the p o ste r i o r ve n a c a v a I t s ve n t ra l .

p o ste i w l l c sists f the p c e s the g st p c r e a ti c f o l d a nd the p o r t a l

(o r r o r ) a o n O a n r a a r o a n ,
-
,

vei n Th e w a lls a r e n o rm a l ly i n c o n t a ct a n d the p a ss a ge m e r ely a p o te n ti a l o n e

.
,
.

I t is usu a ll y a b o ut f o u r i n ches (c a 1 0 cm ) i n le n gth . I t is n a r r o west a t the r ight

. .

T h e s t u d en t i s s t r o n g l y r eco m me n d e d to s tu d y t h e p er i t o ne u m o f a f o a l or o t h er sma ll
s u b j ec t w h en t h e Opp o r t u n i t y o c cu r s , a s i n t h es e t h e Vi s c er a a re eas i h a nd l ed , a nd th e c o u r se
c

o f t h e p e ri t o n eu m c a n b e f o l l o w ed w i t h o u t d i ffi c u l t y .
3 80 D I GE STI VE S YSTE M OF T HE H OR S E

t o 3 c m ) wid e
1
ext r emity wh e r e it is a b o ut a n i n ch (ca
,
I f th e fi nge r i s p a ssed . . .

i nt o th e f or a m e n f rom r ight to l eft it e n te r s the c a vi ty o f the lesse r s ac I f now ,

.

a n Ope n i n g is m a de i n t he g r e a t o me n tum a n d the o th e r h a n d i n t r o du ced th r o ugh

it t he fi nge r s o f the t w o h a nds t o u ch e a ch o the r o ve r the lesse r cu r v a tu r e o f the

,

st om a ch Th e f o r m a ti o n a n d b o u n d ar i es o f the lesse r s a c s h o u l d n ow b e ex am i n ed
.

by sp r e a di n g o u t the g r e a t o m e n tu m I t wi l l be f o u n d th a t th e l a tte r n ow i n cl oses .

a c o n sid e ra ble c a vity behi n d the st o m a ch ; this is te r m ed th e o m enta l c avi ty

(B u rs a om e n t a lis ) P a ssi n g f or w ar d o ve r the lesse r cu r v a tu r e of the st o m a ch
.
,

we e n te r a no t he r sp a ce t he v e stib u l e o f the o m e n t a l c a vi ty (Vestibulum b u r s ae

,

o m e n t a lis ) This sp a ce is cl o sed o n the left by the g a st r o ph r e ni c lig a m e nt b el o w

.
-
,

a n d o n the r ight by the lesse r o m e n t u m a n d d o r s a lly by the g a st r o p a n c r e a ti c -

,

f o ld wh i ch i s a tt a ched to the d o r s a l b o r de r o f th e live r a nd t o t he p oste r i o r ve n a

,

c a v a A b o ve the oes o ph a ge a l n ot ch the fi n ge r s ca n b e p a ssed a r o u nd th e b o rd er

.

o f th e li ve r a n d the ve n a c a v a ti l l th e c o r o n a r y lig a me n t is e n c o u n te r ed Thus .

the vestibul e i s cl o sed except (1 ) on the r ight whe r e it c om m u n i c a tes with the c a vity ,

M c scnlcrj

FI G . 2 78 .
—D I AG R A M OF GE N AL A AN M N T
ER RR GE E OF T N E UM (o r MAR E )
P E RI O SAG I TTAL T RA CI N G .

a , P ouc h b e tw e e n re c u t m an d f f p l vi
ro o oti e s , con nu o u w it h b
s e t o g e it a l p u h ;
, r c -
v i o g it a l p o h ;
n o c c, es c - en uc

d, po uch l ow b l d d
be a e r a nd i ts l t l li g m t ; f l
a e ra a en s , esser o m nt u m ;eI nt m ll i n t ti n e
.
, Ths ow p o i n t
a es . e a rr s

t o t h e epi p l o i c f m n o ra e (o f W in l s ow ) .

of th e g r e a te r sac by the epi pl o i c f o r am e n ; a n d 2 ) b eh i n d whe r e it c omm u n i c a tes ,

with the c a v i ty Of the o m e n tum .

The ge n e r a l a r ra ngeme n t of t he g r e a t o m e n tu m h a s a l r e a dy bee n i n di c a ted .

We may n ow t ra ce its li n e of a tt a ch m e n t whi ch w o u ld c o rr esp o n d to th e m o uth o f ,

the s a c B egi nn i ng a t the ve n t r a l p a r t of th e g r e a t cu r v a tu r e of the st om a ch , the

.

li n e p a sses t o th e ve n t r a l f a ce of th e pyl o r us the n c r o sses o bli qu ely th e fi r st p ar t o f ,

the du o de nu m t o t he p o i nt wh e r e th e p a n c r e a s is a dh e r e n t t o it H e r e it p a sses .

to th e a n te r i o r f a ce o f the te r mi n a l t r a n sve r se p a r t of th e g r e a t c o l on r u n s a l o n g ,

this t r a n sve r sely (f r o m r ight to left ) a n d c o n ti n ues for s om e t en o r twelve i n ches ,

(c a 25 to 3 0 em ) o n t he sm a l l c o l o n I t the n f o r ms a n a cut e a n gl e p a sses i n w a r d

. . .
,

a nd f or w a r d a l o n g th e s m a ll c o l o n t o th e d o r s a l p a r t o f th e h i lus o f th e splee n
,

wh e r e i t b le nds wi th th e suspe n s or y l ig a m e n t o f th e l a tte r a n d f o r ms a r ecess ,

(R ecessus li e n a l is ) behi n d th e s a ccus c aecus of the st om a ch I t no w p a sses a l o n g .

the hil us of th e spl ee n a n d is c on ti n ued to th e g r e a t cu r v a tu r e o f th e st om a ch by the

,

g a st r o spl e n i c om e ntum I t is c o n ve n i e n t to r eg a r d the spl ee n a s b ei ng i n te r c a l

-
.

p a ss ag e j ec t g oo d d e a l v a r i a ti o n li b er m e ti m es p l e t ely
5s
he is su b to a of in ca and is so co m
o ec u l e
3 82 D I G E ST I V E S YSTE M OF T HE ox

d e nu m . The li n e o f o r igi n o f the c o li c m ese nte r y begi n s o n the i nn e r p ar t of th e

ve n t r a l su r f a ce of the left kid n ey a n d e x t e n ds t o t he s a c r a l p r o mo n t o r y wh e r e
.

, ,

the m es o r ectu m begi n s A t the te r m i n a ti o n Of the l a tte r th e pe r it on eum is r e

.

fl e c ted f ro m the r ectu m o n the d o r s a l a n d l a te r a l w a lls o f th e pelvi c c a vity B el o w .

th e r ectu m i t f o r ms the u r oge n i ta l f o ld a nd p a sses o n to th e d o r s a l su r f a ce o f th e

bl a dde r c o ve r s i ts a n te r i o r p a r t a n d is r efl ected o n t o th e b o dy —
,

, ,
w a l l l a te ra lly an d
ve n t r a lly f o rm i ng th e l a te r a l a n d m iddl e lig a m en ts o f the bl a dde r I n the fem a le
,
.

t he b ro a d l ig a me nts of the ute r us r epl a ce t he u r o ge n i t a l f o ld with wh i ch th ey a re ,

h o mo l og ous .

I n t he n e w b o r n f o a l ce r t a i n f o lds a r e speci a l ly l a r ge
-
The f a l cif or m lig a m e n t .

o f the live r exte n ds t o t h e u m bi l i c a l o pe n i n g a n d c o n t a i n s i n its f r ee edge th e l a r ge

u m bi li c a l vei n The b l a dde r— a t this ti m e a n a bd o m i n a l o r g a n—h as a ve nt r a l

,

m edi a n f o ld whi ch c o nn ects i t a n d t he u r a chus w ith th e a bd o m i n a l fl o o r

,
Thi s i s .

fl a n ked o n eithe r S id e by a f o ld whi ch a ls o exte n ds t o the umbi li cus a n d c o n t a i n s ,

the l a r ge umbi l i c a l ar te r y .

DI GE STI VE SYSTE M OF THE OX

THE MO TH U
Th e c avity o f the m o uth is S h or te r a n d wi de r th a n th a t o f t he h or se a n d th e ,

vestibul e is m o r e c a p a ci o us .

The l ips a r e thi ck wi d e a n d c o m p a r a tively i mm o bi l e Th e m iddle p ar t o f

, ,
.

th e uppe r li p an d t he su r f a ce betwee n the n o st r i ls i s b a r e a nd is te rm ed the m u z z le ,

(P l a n u m n a s o l a bi a le ) I t i s s m oo th a n d (i n he a lt h ) is kept c oo l an d m o ist by a
.
,

Fl oor f mou th
o

Fi rs t i n ci s or tooth A n gl e Of mou th
Con i ca l pa p i l l a:

li p
Fm . 2 80 —AN T E R I OR P A T R or LO W ER J Aw or Ox .

60 , T i p of to ng ue .
(A fte r E ll e n b e rg e r—a u m B ,
A t na . fu r K il nst l e r .
)

cle a r fl uid sec r eted by a l a ye r of sub cut a n e o us gl a nds (G l a n du l ae n a sol ab i a l es )

a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (c a c m ) t hi ck
. I t sh o ws i r r egul a r li n es m a ppi n g o u t s m a l l
. .
,

p o lyg o n a l a r e a s on whi ch the o r ifi ces o f th e gl a n d du cts a re visible A n a r r o w .

b a r e s t r i p a l s o exi sts a l on g th e edge of the l o we r l ip Th e r em a i n de r o f th e i nt eg u .

m e n t i s p ro vid ed w it h o r di n a r y a n d t a cti l e h a i r s The f ree edge a n d th e l i n i n g .

me m b r a n e p r ese n t ve rr u c o se h or n y p a pi ll ae The l a b i a l gl a n ds f or m c o m p a ct
, .

m a s ses n e a r th e a n gl es o f th e m o uth .

Th e c h e e k s a r e m o r e c a p a ci o us th a n i n th e h or se Th e m uc o us m e m b r a n e .

p r ese n ts l a r ge c o ni c a l p o i nted papil l m, wh i ch a r e di r e cted t o w a r d the f a u ces a n d

a re c o ve r ed with a h o r n y epith el i um T he l a r gest of these h a ve a le n gth o f a b o ut
.
 T HE M OU T H 383

h a lf a n i n ch (ca 1 t o cm ) a n d a r e S it u a t ed a r o u n d th e a n gle o f t h e m o uth a nd

. .

p a ra llel wi t h the cheek t eet h The o r ifi ce o f the p a r o t id du ct i s o pp o si te the fifth .

uppe r chee k t o o t h (I n t he sheep a nd g oa t i t is o pp o site th e f o u r th t oo th ) Th e

.
.

b u cc al or m o l ar gl an d s are ve r y wel l devel o ped a n d a r e a rr a n ged i n th r ee p a rts , .

T he d o r s a l r ow exte n ds f r om the m a xi l l a r y tub e r o sity t o th e a n gl e o f th e m o uth .

I ts l o b ul es a r e o f a light yell o w c o l o r Th e ve n t r a l p a r t c onsists o f a c o m p a c t .

F r o nta l s i n us

Ca vi ty of grea t el h mol u r bi na l

(w il y of s u p er i or tu r bi nal

a vi l i es o f i nf er i or tu r bi ne

m u s cl e

FI G . 28 1 .
—A TTAL
S H AD OF Cow O
GI SE CT ON
L TT L O H R H T O H M D AN P LAN
I 0? E , UT A I E T T E IG F T E E I E .

1 C b l h mi ph
. e re : 2
ra r t i t m ; 3 hi pp m p ; 4 l f t y b l b ; 5
e s e re p q d i g mi
. co pus s r a u . oca us , o ac or u , c or o ra ua r e na

6
'
o pti v ; 7 p ; 8 m d ll Ob l g t ; 9 pi l d ; 1 0 pit it y b d y : 1 1 ph i d i ; 1 l t l
c ne r e , o ns . e u a on a a , s na c or , u ar o , s e no s nu s 9 a e ra

m as s of t hm i d ; 1 3 v t l t i g h t m
e o l ; 1 4 p h y g l ( t ph y g l ) l y mp h g l d ; 1 5 l g
, e n ra s ra lli ;u s c es . ar n ea re ro ar n ea an , on u s co

ft p l t : 1 7 v ll t p p il l ; 1 8 t ill i ; 1 9
so a a e . a a i l p pill f h k ; 2 0 h y p i g l t t i
e a ae m , o ns a r s nus . co n c a a ae o c ee ,
o -e o c us us

cl e ; 21 pi g l tti : 2 2 h y g l
. e o sm l ; C 1 C2 tl . i S b j t w h d ed w it h m t h p
o- o s s us us c e , , a as , ax s . u ec as ar en ou o en .

b r o wn ish m a ss whi ch r e a ches fr o m th e a n gl e o f th e m o ut h a sh or t di st a n ce u n der

“

the m a ssete r muscle The mi dd le p a r t c on sists of l oosely arr a n ged yell o w l o bul es
.
.

A li n e a r ser i es o f l a r ge p a pi ll ae exi st s on the fl oo r o f t he m o uth o n e a ch S i de of

the fr e n um l i n gu ze N e ar th ese a r e f o u n d th e o pe n i n gs of the sm a ll du cts of t h e
.

subl i n g u a l gl an d The p a pi ll a o n whi ch th e sub m a x i ll a r y du ct o pe n s is w i d e h a rd

.
, ,

an d h as a se rr a ted edge .

The h ar d pal a te is w ide a nd is usu a lly m or e o r less pi gm e n ted Th e b o dy of ,

.

the p r em a xi ll a i s c o ve r ed w ith a t hi ck l a ye r of de nse c o nn ective tissue whi ch h as a ,

 3 84 DI GE STI VE S YSTE M OF T HE ox

thi ck h o rn y epitheli a l c o ve r i n g—f or m i ng the s o c a lled de n t a l pl a te o r p a d The

,
-
.

p a l a ti n e r idges exte n d f ro m t his b a c kw a r d a b o ut t w o thi r ds o f the l e n gth o f the -

h a r d p a l a te They a re n e a r ly st ra ight a nd fo r t he m o st p a r t a r e se rra ted o n t he

.
, , ,

f r ee edge A m edi a n fu rr o w exte nds betwee n the r idges The p o ste r i o r t hi r d of

.
.

t he p a l a te is s m oo th B etwee n t he de nt a l pl a te a nd th e fi r st r idge is t he t r i a n gul ar

.

p a pi ll a i n cisi v a ; o n eithe r si de o f this is a d eep fu rr o w i n w hi ch is the or a l o pe n i n g ,

Ca vi ty
S u p er i or S u per i or S eptu m o f s u p er i or Fr o nta l
tu r bi na l mea tu s n a si tu r bi na l vei n

M i d d l e mea tu s
N a s o-l a cr i ma l d u ct

Inf er i or tu r bi n a l

I nf er i or mea tus I nf ra or bu a l n er ve

Ma xi l l a r y
l l/I a s s etcr

Pa l a ti n e si nu s

Pa l a ti n e a r ter y

a c i a l a r ter y

B u cci na tor

I l a bi a l I n feri or bu cca l
f
n er i or
vess el s gl a n d s

Hyp ogl oss a l n erve S u bl i n gu a l gl a nd

Di ga s tri cu s

S u bnia xi l
l a r y d u ct
FI G . 282 .
—C R OS S -S E CT ON O H AD O Ox
I F E E .

The sec ti o n p a s ses th ro u g h th e i nt e r na l ca n th i . L . a Li g

.
,
l t i Th
n ua a r e r es . e a r ro w i nd i c tes
a t h e c o mm u n c a i ti o n
b e t w ee n t h e m a x ill y d p l ti i
ar an a a n e s n u s es .

of the na s o -pa l a ti ne c ana l This c ana l is tw o i n ch es o r m o r e (c a 5 to 6 cm ) i n

. . .

l e n gth a n d o pe ns on the fl oor of the n a s a l c a vity ; i t a ls o c omm u n i c a tes by a slit

l i ke o pe n i n g wi th th e o r g a n of J a c o bs o n .

The s o ft pa l a te is s om ewh a t S h o r te r th a n th a t of t he h o r se but is l ong ,

e n o ugh to cl o se th e isthmus o f the f a uces Th e p o ste r i o r pi ll ar s d o not .

exte nd t o the e n t r a n ce o f t he oes o ph a gus The a z yg os m uscle i s mu ch bette r .

3 86 D I GE S TI V E S YSTE M OF T HE OX

p ar t The v a l l a te p a pi ll a a r e a b o ut twe nty o r t hi r ty i n n umbe r ; t h ey a re sm a lle r

.

th a n th o se o f the h o r se a nd ar e i r r egul a r ly dist r ibuted o n eithe r si de of the p o ste r i or

,

p a r t o f the p r om i n e n ce o f the d or su m The f o l i a te p a pi ll a a nd the li ngu a l fib r o us .

c or d ar e a bse nt The muscles ar e wel l d evel o ped ; t he h y o g l oss u s a r ises b v

.
-

a d diti o n a l p or ti o n s f r o m the g r e a t a n d m i ddl e c or n u a o f th e hy o i d b o n e Th e .

t on gue is highly p r ot r a cti l e a n d is the c hi ef o r g a n o f p r ehe n si on .

THE TE E TH

Th e de nt a l f or m ul a o f th e o x i s :
O 0 3 3
C P M
4 0 3 3

The i n ci s or s a re a bse n t f ro m the uppe r ja w Th er e a re eight i n cis or s i n th e .

l o we r jaw a rran ged i n a s o m ewh a t fan li ke m an n e r Th ey a r e si m ple teeth w ith o u t

,
-
.
,

i nf u n d ibul u m Th e c r o w n i s white sh or t a n d sh o vel sh a ped Th e r oo t i s

.
, ,
-
.

FI G . 2 84 .
—I N C I S OR TE E TH or Ox , L I N G UAL A P CT
S E . FI G . 2 85 .
—I N C I S OR T OO TH or Ox .

C . s .
,
C a ru n u la
c sub li ng a li
u s . L i ng l ua f
s u r a c e o f c ro w n ; 24 mas ti
c a to r y s u r a c e f . T he c ro w n is l l y m k d ff
c ea r ar e o

f m the r o u nd e d t by k (A ft E ll e n
—
ro ro o a ne c er

B
.

b e rg e r au m , A t na . fti r K il ns t l e r . )

ro u n ded an d i s e m bedded i n th e ja w i n su ch a m a nn e r as t o a l l o w a c on si de r ab l e
,

d eg r ee of m o veme n t Th e r e i s a d isti n ct ne ck I n a dd it i o n t o the si m ple n ume r i

. .

c a l desig n a ti o n th e f o ll o wi n g te r m s a r e c o m m onl y a ppli ed t o the i n dividu a l teeth :

,

pi nche r s or ce n t r a l fi r st i n te r m ed i a te sec o n d i n te r med i a te a nd c or n e r i n ci s or s

, , ,
.

I t is p r o b a ble th a t th e l a t ter a r e m u ch m o difi ed c a n i n es Th e i n cis o r s of th e .

o x d o n o t a dv a n ce ou t o f the a lve o l i as is the c a se i n t he h o r se ; i n o l d a g e h o w , ,

eve r the g u m r et r a cts so th a t the r o o ts ar e p ar tly exp o sed a nd m ay c om e

,

i nt o we a r 1 .

The d e ci d u o u s i n ci s o r s di ffe r f r o m th e pe r m a n e n t set chi efl y i n b ei n g mu ch

sm a ll e r The c r o w n s a r e n arro we r a nd d i ve r ge m o r e
. .

Th e c ani n e s a r e a bse n t (u n l ess th e f o u r th i n cis or s be c on sid e r ed t o r ep r ese n t

the m ) .

The ch e e k te e th (Fi g 2 86) r esem bl e th o se o f th e h o r se i n n u m b e r a n d ge ne r a l

.

a rr a n ge m e n t They a r e h o weve r s m a l le r a n d a ls o d i ffe r i n the fa ct th a t they

.
, , ,

e nt w il l n o t e h ere t h e d i fl e re n c e b e t w een th e s t ru c t u re a n d b eh a v i or o f th e
t
'
‘
T he s ud .

br a c h y d o n t (S h o r t c ro w ned ) i n c i sors o f t h e o x a nd th e h y p so d o n t (l o ng c r o w ned ) t y p e o f th e h ors e

- -
.
3 88 D I GE STI VE S YS T E M OF T HE ox

p r o gr essi vely i n c re a se i n si z e f r om befo r e b a ckw a r d This fe a tu r e i s s o m ar ked .

th a t th e fi r st too th is qu ite s m a ll a nd t he S p a ce o ccupi ed by th e fi r st thr ee (i e

,
. .
,

the p r em o l ar s ) i s o n ly a b o ut o n e h a lf of th a t r equi r ed for t he p o ste r i o r t h r ee

-

(i e the t r ue m o l a r s ) The e na m el f o lds st a nd o ut eve n m o r e p ro m i n e n tly i n

. .
, .

r eli ef o n the m a sti c a t o r y su r f a ce th a n i n the h o r se The o ccu rr e n ce o f w o lf teeth .

-

i s rar e .

The f o r mul a o f the d ecid u o us teeth is :

i Dc —D p

T ABLE OF A VE R A G E P E R I OD S OF E RUPTI ON OF T HE T E E T H I N T HE OX
TE E TH E RUPI’ ‘
I ON

A . Te mp orar y :
F i rs t i n c i so r (D i 1 )
S e c o n d i n c i so r (D i 2 )
T h i rd i n c i s o r (D i 3 )
BH th to 3 w eek s .

Fo u r t h i n c i s o r (D i 4 )
F i rs t c h ee k t oo t h D I 1 ) B i r t h to 3 eeks
S e co nd c h ee k t oo t h D p
w .

B .
T h i rd c h ee k t o o t h (D p

P er ma nen t:
j r t h to few d a y s
E' .

F i rs t i nc i so r (1 1 )
S ec o nd i n c i s o r (I 2 ) .

T h i rd i n c i s o r
F o u r t h i nc i s o r (I 4 ) .

F i rs t c h ee k t oo t h (P 1 )
S e c o nd c h ee k t oo t h (P 2 )
Th i rd c h ee k t o o t h (P 3
Fo u r t h ch ee k t oo t h (M 1 )
F i f t h c h ee k t oo t h (M 2 )
S i x t h c h ee k t oo t h (M 3 )

The e r upti on of the pe r m a n e nt teeth is subj ect t o g r e a t v ar i a ti o n Th e a b o v e .

figu r es a r e the a ve r a ge o f o bse r v a ti o n s of i m p r o ved b r eeds u n de r f a v o ra bl e c on d i

ti on s .

THE S ALI VAR Y GL ANDS

Th e paro ti d gl a nd is s ma lle r th an th a t o f the h o r se an d i s l ight re d b r o w n i n ,

-

c o l o r I t h as s o mewh a t the fo r m of a ve r y n ar r o w l ong t r i a n gl e an d li es ch iefly

.
,

o n the p o ste r i or p a r t o f t he m a ssete r m uscl e Th e thi ck wi d e u ppe r en d p ar tly

.

c o ve r s a l ar ge s u b p ar oti d lymph gl a n d Th e s m a ll l o we r end is b e nt f o r w a rd a nd

.

fits i nt o the an gle o f u n i o n o f the j ugul a r a n d exte r na l m a xill ar y v ei n s ; it l ies on

t he sub ma xill a r y gl an d The p ar o tid d u ct l e a ves th e l o we r p a r t of the deep f a ce ;
.

i n its c o u r se i t r esembles th a t o f the h o r se but i t p i e r ces th e cheek o pp o si te the

,

fifth uppe r cheek t oo th .

The s ub m axi l l ar y gl a nd is v e r y l a rge an d i s p a l e yell o w i n c o l or I t is c o ve r ed

,
.

t o a s ma ll exte n t by the p a r o tid I ts ge n e r a l f o r m r esembl es th a t o f th e h o r se

.
,

but i ts l o we r (o r a n te r i o r) e n d is l a r ge a nd r o u n d ed a nd is sep a r a ted by a s ma ll ,

i nte r v a l o nl y f ro m the gl a n d o f the o the r S ide This p a r t ca n b e d isti n ctly felt i n

.

t h e l ivi n g a n im a l a n d is r el a ted exte r n a l ly to a l ar ge subm a xi ll a r y ly m ph gl a n d

,
.

The d uct le a ves the m id dl e o f th e supe r fi ci a l f a ce o f th e gl a n d c ro sses the styl o ,

hy o id eus a nd th e i n te r m ed i a te te nd o n o f t he dig a st r i cus a n d is the n d isp o sed as

'

i n t h e h o rs e .

The s ub li n gu a l gla nd c on sists o f tw o p a r ts The d o r s a l p ar t (G l a n dul a sub .

l i ngu a lis p a r v i c a n al a r i s ) i s l o n g th i n a nd p a le yel l o w i n c o l or I t exte n ds fr o m th e

, ,
.

a nte r i o r pi ll a r o f the s o ft p a l a te a b o ut t o the sy m physis o f th e ja w I t h as n u m e r .

o u s s m a ll t o r tu o us d ucts (D uctus subl i n gu a les m i no r es ) whi ch o pe n betwee n t h e ,

p api ll a u nde r the side o f the t o ngue The ve nt r a l p ar t is s h o rte r an d t hi cke r a nd

.
,
3 90 D I GE STI VE S YS TE M OF T HE ox

fo rs om e dist a n ce The r e a r e submu c o us gl a n ds i n th e fi r st p a r t o f t he tub e

. . Th e r e
is n o te r mi n a l di l a t a ti o n a nd n o p a r t i n the a bd om i n a l c a vity
,

A v ery l a rge med i as ti na l l y m p h g l a n d li es abo ve th e p os t er i o r p a r t of th e ce s o p h a g u s a n d

may ,
i f en l a rged o bs t r u c t i t (Fi g
,
.

THE AB DOMI N AL CAVI TY

'

Th e bd om i na l c a vity of th e ox i s ve r y c a p a ci o us b o th abs o l utely a nd r el a

a ,

t i v e l y a s c o m p a r ed with th a t o f the h o r se Th is i s due to seve r a l f a ct or s Th e

l u mb a r p o r ti o n o f t he S pi n e is a b o ut o n e—
. .
,

f o u r t h l on ge r th a n th a t of the h or se Th e .

t r a n s ve r se di a m ete r b etwee n the l a st r ibs is g r e a ter Th e c o st a l a tt a ch m e nt of th e .

d i a ph ra g m i s a l mo st ve r ti c a l i n d i r ecti on f r om th e l o we r p a r t of th e n i n th r i b to
the ext r e m e uppe r p a r t o f t he th i r tee n t h ; i n f a ct th e a tt a ch m e n t t o th e l a st r ib ,

i s n ot c o nst a nt Thus th e a bd o m e n i s i n c r e a sed a t the expe nse o f t he th o r a x an d

.
,

th e l a st th r ee o r f o u r r ibs e n te r m o r e l a r gely i nt o t h e f or m a ti o n o f the a bd o mi na l

w a l l th a n i n the h or se The fl a n k i s a ls o m u ch m o r e exte n sive Th e i li a on t he
. .
,

o the r h a n d d o n o t exte n d f o r w a r d b ey o n d a t r an sv e r se p l a n e th r o ugh the m i dd le

,

o f th e l a st lu m b a r ve r teb r a Th e epig a st r i c a n d mes o g a st r i c r egi o n s w o u ld b e

.

s ep a ra ted by a pl a n e th r o ugh th e l o we r e n d o f th e te n t h p a i r of r ibs o r th r o ugh th e ,

l ast th or a ci c ve r teb r a Th e ch i ef di ffe r e n ti a l fe a tu r es i n th e a rra ngeme nt of th e

.

pe r i t on eu m wi l l b e desc r ibed wi th t he visce r a .

THE P E LVI C CAVI TY

The pelvi c c a vity is r el a ti vely l on g a n d n a rr o w The i n let is m o r e o bli qu e .

th a n th a t of t he h or se ; it is ellipt i c a l i n o utli n e a n d th e t r a n sve r se di a m ete r is ,

s ma lle r t h a n th at o f the h or se Th e a n t e r i o r (pubi c ) p a r t o f th e fl o o r i s a b o ut

.

h or i z on t a l b ut th e p o ste r i or (ischi a l ) p a r t sl o pes upw a r d a nd b a ckw a rd t o a m a r ked

,

deg r ee ; thi s p a r t i s a ls o d eeply c o n c a ve t r an sve r sely Th e r oo f i s c on c a ve i n .

b oth d i r ecti on s Th e pe r it o n eu m e xt e n ds b a ckw a r d as fa r as the fi r st c o c cyge a l

.

ve r teb r a s o th a t the r et r o pe r it on e a l p ar t of t he c a vity is sh o r t

, .

THE STOMACH
G e n e ra l Ar ran ge m e nt —The st o m a ch o f th e o x i s ve r y l a r ge , a nd o ccupi es
n e a r ly th r ee - f o u r ths o f the a bd o m i n a l c a vity I t fi lls a l l o f th e left h a lf o f the c a vit y .

(with th e ex cepti o n o f the s m a l l sp a ce o c cupi ed by t h e splee n ) a n d exte nds c on

s i d era b l y o ve r t he m ed i a n pl a n e i n t o the r ight h a lf .

I t is c o m p o u n d , b ei ng c om p o sed o f f o u r d ivisi o n s , vi z , ru m e n , re ti c u lum , .

o m a s u m , a n d a b om a s u m l
Th e d ivisi on i s cl e ar ly i n di c a t ed ext e r n a lly by fu rr o ws
.

or c on st r i cti o n s The fi r st th r ee d i v i si o n s m ay b e r eg ar d ed a s p r o ve n t r i cul i o r

.

oes o ph a ge a l s a c cul a ti o n s t he f o u r th bei n g th e st o m a ch p r o pe r (i n th e n a rro we r

,

se nse of th e te r m) The oes o ph a gus o pe n s i n t o th e st om a ch o n a s or t of d om e

.

f o r m ed by th e r u m e n a n d r eti cu lu m a n d i s c o n ti n ued th r o ugh th e l atte r by the ,

oes o ph a ge a l g r o o ve F r om th e ve n t ra l e n d o f the l a tte r a g r oo ve t r a ve r ses th e

.

ve nt ra l w a l l o f th e o m a su m thus givi n g a di r ect p a th t o th e a b o m a su m for fi n ely

,

d ivided o r flui d f ood Th e a b o m a su m j o i n s t h e s m a l l i n t esti n e

Ca p a city —T h e c a p a cit y o f the st o m a ch v a r i es g r e a tly d epe n d i n g o n the a g e
. .

.
,

a nd s i z e o f t h e a n i m a l I n c a ttl e o f m ed i u m si z e it h o lds 30 t o 4 0 g a ll o n s i n l a r ge
.
,

a n i m a ls 4 0 t o 60 i n s m a l l 25 t o 3 5 , The r el at ive S i z es of th e fo u r p a r ts v a r y w ith

.

ag e . I n t h e n e w b o r n c a lf th e r u m e n a n d r eti culu m t o geth e r a r e a b o ut h a lf as

-

1
p o p u l a r ”l a n g u a g e t”h es e a re co n v en i en t l y re g a rd ed a s s o ma ny s t o ma c h s
In ,
a nd t er m ed
a c co r d i n g l y fi rs t “
s ec o nd
,
“
e tc Ot h er n a m es a r e i n c o mmo n u s e e g p a un ch
, .
,
. .
, ,
h o n ey c o m b ,
m a ni fo l d o r m a ny p l i es a nd re nne t o r t r u e s t o m a c h
,
. .
 THE STO MA C H 39 1

l a r ge a s the a b o m a sum ; i n t en or twelve weeks thi s r a ti o is r eve r sed D u ri ng .

this pe r i o d the o m a sum a ppe a r s t o be c o n t r a cted a n d fu n cti o nl ess At f o u r m on ths .

t he r um e n a nd r eti culum t o gethe r ar e a b o ut f o u r ti m es as l ar ge a s the om a su m

a nd a b o m a su m t o geth e r A t a b o ut o n e a n d on e h a lf ye a r s t he o m a su m eq u a ls
.
-

(or n e ar ly so ) the a b o m a su m i n c a p a ci ty Th e f o u r d ivisi on s h a ve n ow r e a ched .

thei r d efi n iti ve r el a ti ve c a p a citi es t he r u m e n c on sti tut i ng a b o u t 80 p er ce n t the , .

,

r eti cu lum 5 p er ce n t t he o ma sum 7 or 8 p er ce n t a n d t he a b o m asum 8 o r 7 p er

.
,
.
,

cen t o f t h e t o t a l a m o u n t
. .

E XT E R I OR A ND R E LA T I ON S

The ru m en o ccupi es a l m ost al l of t h e left h a lf of the a bd o m i n a l c a vity a nd ,

ext e n ds c o n si de r a bl y o ve r the medi a n pl an e ve n t r a l ly a n d i n its m i ddl e I t is s om e .

wh a t c o mp r essed l a ter a l ly a n d may b e desc r ib ed a s h a vi n g t w o su r f a ces tw o cu r v a

, ,

tu r es or b o r de r s a nd tw o ext r emiti es T he pari e tal (or left ) s u rf a c e (F a ci es

,
.

p a r i et a lis ) i s c o n vex a n d i s r el a t ed t o t he di a ph r a gm splee n a nd th e l eft w a l l of , ,

the a bd o me n I t exte n ds f r o m the l o we r p ar t of th e seve n th i n t e r c o st a l S p a ce

.

FI G . 2 88 .
—P J CT ON RO E I or V C A O Co w O
IS ER F N B O D Y WALL L
-
,
E FT SI D E .

Oes .
, p
(E s o h a g us ; R et re c u u m ; b s a n .
, ti l . .
, t i b li nd
er or ; sac b. sp t i os e r or li d s c
b n a s of ru me n ; 0 ,

o v a ry . Th e e l ft k
i d n ey , c o n ce a ed b y th e d o r s a l l f th
sac o m e ru en, is i d i t d by
n ca e d o tt ed li e n . Th e m e d a n i
li ne of th e d i aph g m
ra is do tte d .

a l m o st t o th e pel vi s The v i s ceral (or r igh t ) s ur face (F a ci es v isce r a lis ) is s o mewh a t

.

i rr egul ar a n d i s r el a ted chi efly t o th e om a sum a n d a b om a su m t h e i n testi n e th e

, , ,

liver p a n c r e a s ki d n eys t he ut e r us i n th e fe m a le a n d the p oste r i o r a o r t a an d ven a

, , , ,

c av a The d or sal c ur va tur e (C u r v a tu r a d or s a lis ) i s c o n vex f o ll o wi n g the cu r ve

.
,

f or med b y t h e di a phr a gm a n d sub lu m b a r muscles I t is fi r m ly a tt a ched t o the .

l eft p o r ti o n of the c r u r a of th e di a ph r a gm an d th e sub lum b ar m us cles by pe r i

t on e u m a n d c onn ect i ve tissue The v en tral cu r va tu r e is a ls o c o n v ex a n d li es on
.

the fl oo r o f th e a b d om e n The su r f a ces a r e m a r ked by t he r ight an d l eft l ongi tu d i

.

n al furr o w s (S u l ci l o n git u di n a l es ) whi ch i n di c a te exte r n a lly t he di v i si o n o f the ,

r u m e n i n t o d o r s a l a n d ve n t r a l s a c s The re ti cul ar (o r a n te r i or ) e xtre mi ty (E x

1
.

t r emi t as r et i cul a r is ) is di v i ded ve n t r a lly by a t r an sve r se g r o o ve (S ul cus ru m i n i s

c r an i a l is ) i n t o t w o sa cs The d or s a l sa c i s th e l on ge r of t he tw o a n d cu r ves v en
.
,

tr a l l y o ve r t he r o u n d bl i n d en d o f th e ve n t r a l sa c ,
The fo r m e r o n ly is c on ti n u o us .

I t h as b een cu s o t ma r y to t er m th e s a cs l ef t a n d r i g h t res p ec ti v e l y b u t t h ese d o ,

_
n o t rep re
e t
s n th e r e l a ti o ns as t h ey exi s t i n si tu a nd as t h ey a re p res en t ed on f r oz en sec t i on s .
3 92 D I GE S T I V E S Y S TE M OF T HE ox

with th e r eti cul um a ve nt r a l g r oo ve (S ul cus r u m i n o r eti cul ar is ) bei n g the o nly

,
-

exte r na l li n e o f de m a r c a t i on D or s a lly n o n a tu r a l sep a r a ti o n exists t he r u men

.
,

a n d r eti cul u m t o gethe r f o r m i n g a d o m e li ke vestibu l e (A t r i u m ve n t r i cu li ) on whi ch

-

th e oes o ph a gus te r m i n a tes T he p e lvi c (o r p o ste r i or ) e xtr e mi ty (E xt r e m it a s

.

pelvi n a ) exte n ds n e a r ly t o th e pubis a n d is r el a ted t o th e i n testi n e an d bl a dde r

, ,

a nd the ute r us i n the co w I t is divid ed i n t o d or s a l a n d ve n tr a l b l i n d s a c s (S a ccus

.

c a cus c a ud a lis d ors a l is ve n t r a lis ) by a deep t r a n sve r se g r o o ve (S ul cus r u m i ni s

,

c a ud a l is ) i n whi ch th e l on gitud i n a l fu rr o ws te r mi n a te T he bl i n d s a cs a r e m a r ked .

off f r o m the r e m a i n de r o f the r u m e n by t he d o r s al a n d v e n tral c oronar y gr oo v e s

(S ul cus c or on a r ius d o r s a lis ve n t r a l is ) ,

.

T he l ef t l o ng i t u d i n a l g ro o v e (Su l c u s l o n g i t u d i n a li s S i n i s t er ) b eg i ns a t th e an t eri or t rans v ers e

g roo v e p a s s es s o me w h a t d o rs a ll y a n d b a c k w a r d a n d d i v i d es i n t o t w o g ro o v es
,
T h e v en t ra l .

o ne i s th e c h i e f g roo v e a n d p a s s es b a c k w a r d to t er m i n a t e i n t h e a n g l e o f u n i o n o f th e p os t er i or
b li nd s a cs T h e d o rsa l (a c ces s o ry ) g r o o v e c u r v es d o r s a l l y a n d t h en b a c k w a r d to t er m i n a t e i n
.

t h e d o rs a l c o r o n a r y s u l cu s On t h e r i g h t s u r f a c e t h e re a r e tw o l o n g i t u d i n a l g r oo v es T h e d or s a l on e
. .

i s t h e c h i e f s u l c u s (Su l c u s l o n g i t u d i n a li s d ex t er ) I t ex t en d s i n a cu r v ed d i rec ti o n (th e co n v exi t y

.

b e i n g d o rs a l ) a n d i s c o n ti n u o u s w i t h t h e l ef t l o n g i t u d i n a l g ro o v e b y m ea n s o f th e g roo v es b e t w een
t h e d o rsa l a n d v en t ra l b li nd s a cs a t e a c h en d T h e v en t ra l g ro o v e (S u l cu s a c c ess o r i u s ) c u r v es
.

s o mew h a t v en t ra l l y a n d b a c k w a r d to r ej o i n t h e c h i e f s u l cu s b e t w een th e p os t er i or b li nd sacs .

The r e ti culum is th e s ma llest of t he f o u r d ivisi o n s i n the o x I t is a ls o the .

m o st a nt e r i or a n d li es o n the c on c a ve s ur f a c e of th e d i a ph r a g m so th a t th e m edi a n
, ,

pl a n e di v i des i t i n t o tw o n e a r ly eq u a l p or ti on s I t is s om ewh a t py r if orm .

,

but mu ch c om p r essed f r o m bef or e b a c kw a r d Th e par i e ta l or ph r en i c s u r f a c e .

(F a cies di aph r a gm a ti c a ) is c o n vex a n d l i es a g a i n st the d i a ph r a g m a n d l ive r

1
.

The r umi n a l (or p o ste r i or ) s ur f a c e (F a ci es r u m i n a l i s ) is fl a tte n ed by the p r essu r e

o f the o t he r th r ee c o mp a r tme n ts ; it e n ds d o r s a l ly by j o i n i n g t he w a ll of the r ume n ,

the c on c a ve li n e o f j u n cti o n f or m i n g i n th e i n t e r i o r Of the st om a ch th e l o we r m ar gi n

, ,

o f the l a r ge r u m i no r eti cu l ar o r ifi ce Th e o m a s a l (or r ight ) s u rf a c e is n arr o w and

-
.

"

c on c a ve a n d is c o nn ected with t he om a su m
,
Th e d or s a l cu rva tu r e by its left .

p or ti on j o i n s the r u m e n to f or m the a t r i um an d by its r ight p o r ti on t o u ches the ,

live r The ve ntra l c ur va tu r e l ies on t he ste r n a l p o r ti o n of th e d i a ph ra g m o pp osite

.
,

the S ixth a nd seve n th r ibs The ri gh t e xtr e mi ty f or m s a r o u nd ed cul de s ac

.
- -
,

whi ch is i n c o nt a ct with the l ive r o m asu m an d a b om a sum , ,

.

The o m a sum (Fi g 2 94 ) is ellips o i d a l i n f o r m a n d s om ewh a t c o mp r essed l ate r a lly

.
.

I t i s ve r y cl e a r ly m a r ked o ff f r o m t he o the r d ivisi on s I t is situ a ted a l m o st e n ti r ely .

t o the r ight o f the medi a n pl an e o pp o sit e t h e seve n th t o the el eve n th r ibs

,
The .

p ar i e ta l (r ight ) su rf a c e (F a ci es dext r a ) l i es a g a i n st the di a ph r a gm l ive r an d l a te r a l , ,

w a l l o f the a bd o m e n Th e c on t a ct wi th th e l a tte r exte n ds o ve r a sm a ll ar e a o n ly

.

(ve nt r a l p a r t of seve nth to n i n t h i n te r c o st a l sp a ces ) The vi s c er a l (left ) s ur fa c e .

(F a ci es si n ist r a ) is i n c o n t a ct with th e r u m e n a n d r eti cu lu m The d o r s a l (gr e a te r) .

c urva tu r e is c on vex a n d is r el a ted to t he di a ph r a g m l ive r an d ve n a c a v a The

, , ,
.

v e ntr al (lesse r ) cu rva tur e is c on c a ve a n d r ests o n th e a b om a sum chiefly the j u n c

, ,

ti on wi th the l atte r a ppe a r i n g a s a c o n st r i cti on n e ar th e middle of the cu r v atu r e ;

at its a n te r i or p ar t the r e is a n e c k (C o llum o m a si ) whi ch is th e c o nn ecti o n wi th the

r eti cul um

The ab o m as um (Fi g 294 ) i s a n el o n g a ted py r if or m or fl ask —

.

. sh a ped sa c w h ich ,

l ies for the m ost p a r t on th e a bd om i n a l fl oor t o the r ight o f t h e ve nt r a l sac of the ,

r u m en I ts n a rro w p o ste r i or p a r t is st r o n gly cu r ved the c o n c a vity b ei n g d o r s a l

.
,
.

The pari e ta l (r ight ) s urf a c e l i es a g a i n st the a bd om i n a l w a l l f r om th e seve nt h to t he

twelfth i n ter c o st a l sp a ce The vi s c e ra l (left ) su rfa c e is r el a ted chi efly t o the ve n t r a l
.

s ac o f the r ume n T he d or s a l (l esse r ) cu rva tu r e is c on c a ve an d is i n c o n t a ct wit h the

.
,

o m a su m ; the j u n cti o n o f th e t w o s a cs is i n di c a t ed by a c on st r i cti o n a b o ut f o u r or

I t i s i m p o r t a n t to n o ti c e t h a t th e re ti c u l u m i s s e p a r a t ed f r o m t h e p er i c a rd i u m by a n
‘

i n te r v a l o f a b o u t 1 t o i n c h es (c a 2 to 4 c m ) o n l y s i nc e f o re i g n b od i es w h i c h a re o f t en s w a l
. .
,

l ow ed by c a t tl e l od g e i n th e re ti c u l u m, a nd not rare l y (i f s h a r p ) p er f ora t e th e re ti c u l u m a nd

d i a p h ra g m .
3 94 DIGES I VE T S Y S TE M OF T HE ox

b e h i n d th e p h a g ea l gro o v e a n d a b ou t f ou r to fiv e i n c h es l o w er d o w n Und ou b ted l y f ood

(e s o .

o r w a te r s w a l l o w ed w i t h a mo d era te d eg ree o f f o rc e p a s s es fi rs t i n t o t h e r u men F o rei g n b o d i es .

(w h i c h a re co mmo n l y s w a l l o w ed b y c a t tl e ) a re h o w e v er f o u nd i n t h e r e t i c u l u m , , .

The c ard i a c o ri fi c e i s o pp osi te the seve nt h r i b a li ttl e t o t he l eft of t he m ed i a n ,

pl an e a n d a b o ut fo u r i n ches (c a 1 0 c m ) b el o w t he spi n e ; i t i s not fu nn el sh aped

. .
-
.

The mu c o u s m e mb ran e of the r ume n is b r o wn i n c o l or ex cept on the m a rgi ns ,

o f the pi l l a r s whe r e i t i s p a l e ,
I t is fo r the m o st p a r t th i ckly studded w ith l a r ge
.

p a pill a m a n y of whi ch a r e n e a r ly h a lf a n i n ch (ca 1 c m ) l on g The edges of t he

,
. . .

c hi ef pi ll ar s a n d a l ar ge p a r t of the w a ll o f the mi ddle o f the d or s a l sa c ar e h o weve r , ,

n ot p a pi l l a ted Th e p a pi ll a r y a r r a n geme n t is m o st m a r ked i n th e b li n d s a cs

. .

The p a pi ll a v a r y m u ch i n si z e a nd f o r m ; the l a r gest a r e f o li a te m a n y a r e n a rro w ,

o r fil ifo r m a n d o the r s a r e c o n i c a l o r cl ub sh a ped The m u c o us me m b r an e on th e -

i nn e r w a ll o f the a t r i u m i s fi n el y w r i n kl ed a nd n on—
.
,

p a pi l l a ted whi le a b o ve a n d ,

E 6 . 2 89 .
—
TH AC C AN D
OR I A nr s mo n A B D OM I N A L V I S E R A C or Ox , D EE P DI S S E C I ’ ‘
I ON .

M t
os of th e ru me n h a s bee n m o e d a nd t h e e f w a o f t h e
re v l t ll ti l m
re cu u c u t a w ay . A ft p l m n y
. , Le u o ar

t
a r e ry ; B .
, l ft b
e r o nc h us: V V V p u m o na r y e ns ; b b b r o n c h a
. . .
, l vi . i l l y mp h g l a nd s ; L g . .
,
p t i m e d i ti n l
os e r o r as a

l y mph g l- a nd ; D . , t e r m na i ti o n of d u o d e nu m ; F r u m no -re c u a r fo l d
, i ti l .

exte r na lly i t is p a pi ll a ted The p a pi l l a r y a rr a n ge m e n t a ls o exte n d s o ve r t he ed g e

.

o f the r u m i n o r eti cul a r f o ld a n i n c h o r tw o (ca 2 t o 5

-
.

The oes o ph a g e a l gro o ve (S ul cus oes op h ag eu s ) is a se m i c a n a l whi ch begi ns a t

the c a r di a a n d p a sses d o w n w ar d (ve n t r a lly ) o n th e r ight w a ll of th e r eti culu m to
e n d a t the r eti cul o o m a s a l o r ifi ce I t is a b o ut six or seve n i n ches (c a 1 5 to 1 8
-
. .

c m ) i n l e n gth
. I ts a xi a l d i r ecti o n is p r a cti c a lly ve r ti c a l b ut it is twisted i n a spi r a l
.
,

f as hi on ; thus i ts thi cke n ed edges o r l ips p r oj ect fi r st b a ckw a r d the n to th e l eft , ,

a n d fi na lly f o r w a r d The twi st i n v o lves ch i efl y the l eft l ip a n d the r el a tive p o si

.
,

ti o ns o f t h e lips is r eve r sed at the ve n t ra l en d .

The m u c o us m e m b ra n e o n the lips o f the oes o ph a ge a l g r oo ve is b r o w n a nd

w r i n kl ed li ke th a t o f the a t r i um ; i n th e b o tt o m o f the g r oo ve i t is p a l e li ke th a t
, ,

of the oes o ph a gus m a r ked by l on gitud i n a l f o lds a n d p r ese n ts p o i n ted h o r n y p a pi l l a

, ,

o n th e l o we r p a r t .

Th e re ticul o-o m a s a l o r ifi c e (Osti u m r eti cu l o omas i c u m) is situ a ted i n the r ight -

 T HE STO MAC H 3 95

w a l l o f th e r eti cul u m a b o u t fi ve o r si x i n ches a b o ve the b o tt o m o f the l a tte r I t .

i s ro u n ded a n d is li m ited bel o w a n d l a te r a lly by the j u n ct i o n o f t h e lips of the

,

oes o ph a ge a l g r oo ve .

I n the r eti cu lum the m u c o us memb r a n e is ra i sed i n t o f o lds a b o u t h a lf a n i n ch

high whi ch i n cl o se f o u r fiv e or six sided sp a ces (C ellu l a r eti culi ) ; this pecu li a r
,
-

arra nge m e n t suggested the sci e n t ifi c n am e a n d a ls o the p o pul a r te r m h o n ey ,

”
c om b Th ese cells a r e sub di vi ded by s m a lle r f o lds a n d th e b o tt om s a r e studd ed
.
,

with p o i n ted h o r n y p a pi l l a Th e cells g ro w sm a l le r a n d g r a du a lly d is a ppe a r n e a r

.

the oes o ph a ge a l g r oo ve a nd th e edge of th e r u m i n o r eti cu l a r f o ld ; a n i n ch o r tw o -

f r om t he l a tte r the m u c o us memb ran e h as t he p a pi ll ar y ar r a n ge m e n t o f the r ume n .

R OM P H OT OG R AP H
FI G . 2 90 .
—R T CU L UM
E I OF Ox , F .

T h e s pe i m e n w as u t l o ng t h g
c te va t u a nd l i d op n b y fl ti ng t h nt e i
o a e re a r cur re a e re ec e a r or w a ll C i s th e
ti l o mas l o i fi e T h e pi l t i t f t h (e p h g a l
.

ca d i
r aThe w p i n ts t o t h
a r ro o e re cu -
o a r c s ra w s o e so a e g ro o v e w as of

ity p tl y nd ne b y fl ti ng t h w ll ; i ts li ps a d w n p t h o w i ng o m o f t h p li
.

—
.

ne c e ss ar u o re ec e a re ra a ar , s s e e ec u ar b i rd c l a w li k e
p pi ll i n t h e l o w e pa t
a a r r .

At the r eti cul o - o m a s a l o r ifi ce t he r e a r e peculi a r h o r n y p a pi ll a whi ch a r e cu r ved ,

a n d r esembl e the cl a ws o f a sm a l l bi r d
'
.

The c a vi ty o f th e o m a su m i s o ccupi ed t o a c on side ra bl e exte n t by a b o ut a

hu n d r ed l on g itud i n a l f o lds the l a mi n a (L a m i na o m a si ) whi ch sp r i n g f r om the
d o r s a l an d l a te r a l w a l ls The l a r gest of these a d o z e n o r m o r e i n n umb e r—h a ve
.
,

— ,

a c o n vex a tt a ch ed edge a n d a ve n t r a l f r ee sli ghtly c o n c a ve edge whi c h r e a ch es

, , ,

t o withi n a sh o r t di st a n c e o f th e ve n t r a l w a l l o f th e s a c I f th ese are d r aw n a p a r t .

o r a c r o ss secti o n i s m a d e it wi ll b e see n t h a t t he r e is a sec o n d o r de r o f sh o r te r

-
,

l a m i n a an d a thi r d o r de r sti ll sh or te r ; fi n a lly t he r e i s a se r i es of ve r y l ow f o lds

, ,

o r li n es The f oo d is p r essed i n t o th i n l a ye r s i n the na rr ow sp a ces betwee n the

.

l am i n a (R e cessus i n ter l am i n a r es ) a n d r educed t o a fin e st a te of divisi o n b y b ei n g ,

g r o u n d d o w n by t he n u m e r o us r o u n ded h or n y p api l l a whi ch stud the su r fa ces of

the f o lds The ve nt ra l w a l l o f th e o m a su m f or m s a g r o o ve (S ul cus o m a si ) whi ch
.
,
3 96 DIG E S T I V E SYS T E M OF T HE ox

c o nn ects th e r eti cul o o m a s a l o pe ni ng w it h t he om a s o a b o m a s a l o pe n i n g ; i t i s

- -

a b o ut th r ee or f o u r i n ches (ca 8 t o 1 0 c m ) l o n g a n d is di r ected b a ckw a r d a n d a . .

,

li ttl e d o wn w ar d an d t o the r ight I t i s f r ee f r om l e a ves b ut m ar ked usu a l ly by . ,

slight f o lds a nd sm a l l p a pi ll a ; it f or ms a di r ect p a th f r o m th e r eti cul um t o th e

a b o m a sum for flui d a n d fi n ely divided f o o d I n the n eck o f the o m a sum the r e are .

thi ck f o lds a nd a n u m be r of the pecul i ar p a pi l l a a l r e a dy m e n ti on ed as o ccu rr i n g

,

i n the l o we r p ar t o f the oes o ph a ge a l gr o o ve The o m a s o a b o m a s al ori fi c e (Osti um .

—
o m a s o a b om a si c u m ) i s o v a l
- a n d i s a b o ut f o u r i n ches (ca 1 0 cm ) l o n g
,
I t is . . .

b o u n ded i n f r on t by a t hi ck muscul ar pi ll ar w hi ch f a des o ut

a b o ve o n the l a te r a l w a l ls o f the o m a sum L ate r a lly ther e .

a re t w o f o lds (Va l vul a te r mi n a les ) whi ch p r o b a bly p r eve n t ,

r egu r git a ti o n o f t h e c on t e n ts o f th e a b o m a su m .

The c a vi ty of the a b om a s u m i s d ivi ded by a c ons tr i c

ti o n i nt o tw o a r e a s Th e fi r st of these (fu n dus gl a n d r egi on ) .

is li n ed with a s o ft gl a n dul ar m u c o us memb ran e whi ch f or ms ,

a b o ut a d o ze n l a r ge S l ightly spi r a l f o lds (P li c a spi ra l es ) ,

.

T h e sec on d p ar t (pyl o r i c r egi on ) is m u ch n arr o we r an d re

’
se m bles i n appe ar an ce th e c orr esp on di n g r egi on o f the h o r se s
st om a ch A s m a ll c ar di a c gl an d z o n e s u rr o u n ds th e o m a s o
.

a b o m a s a l o r ifi ce Th e pyl or i c or i fi ce is s m a ll an d r ou n d
S tru ctu r e —The s e r o u s c oa t i n vests a l l o f th e f r ee su r
. .

— fa ce of the st o m a ch Th e su r f a ce o f th e r ume n whi ch i s .

F I G.291 M n U S C U L AT U E
a tt a ch ed to th e d or s a l a b d om i n a l w a ll i s o f c o ur s e u n c o ve r ed
.

O CE O H
F S P AGEAL ,

G OOV AN D A
R a s wel l as t h e a dj a ce n t a r e a t o whi ch th e splee n i s a tt a ch ed
E D

J A C N T PA T O
.

r r o ws a r e b r i dged o ve r b y th e pe r it on eu m a n d supe r
E R F

S T OMA C H
The fu
fi c i al muscl e—
O or x

S EE N FROM W T H
,

fib er s a n d c o n t a i n fa t a n d (i n m o st c a ses )
I

A FT R E MO V A L b r an ch es of the g a st r i c a r te r i es Th e l e s s er o m e n tu m p a sses
,

IN ER
.

M M E

BRAK E
f r o m the visce r a l su r f a ce o f t h e li ver to th e r ight (p a r iet a l )
.

(E ph g ; b i
a ,
f a ce of the o m a su m a n d t h e pyl o r i c p or ti on of th e a b o m a sum
so a us , h
.

ne r m l l y f ti
u sc u a r The r e is a f o l d b etwee n t h e v e n t r a l cu r v a tu r e o f the o m a su m
a er o a r

u m: d ti l —m l i
re
a n d th e d o r s a l cu r v a tu r e of t he a b o m a su m
cu o o as a or
Th e r ea t o m e n
g
,

fi ; ce m
e, e l f li p f
’
u sc e o s o
.

tu m is fo r med b y th e pe r it o n eum l e a vi n g t he st om a ch a l o n g
,

g v ; a l w
ro o e d f
, o er en o

m l f l g li p w hi h t he left l o n git udi n a l a n d p o ste r i or t r an sv er se fur r o ws an d the

usc e o ar er , c

v d th
e s a ro u n ti l e re cu o
r ight su r f a ce o f th e r u m e n b el o w th e l on gitudi na l fu r r o w , a ls o
cur

Om l ifi i p t d
asa or ce n ar an

s p d r ea st i th oui the ve nt r a l cu r v a tu r e o f t he a b om a su m I ts sup er fi ci a l (v en

n e n ne r .

m l l y f th ti
u sc u a r a
t r a l ) p ar t i s a tt a ched o n th e r ight t o the du o de n um whi le th e
er o e re

l m i p t: h l w
,
cu u n dar o er e n

l f m ll li p deep (d o r s a l ) p a r t b le n ds wit h th e m esen te r y I t c on ce a ls

,

f m
.
o u sc e o s a er

w hi h c i p t n v the g r e a te r p ar t o f t h e i n t esti n e o n th e r i ght si de wi t h the

ar cu r es
,
a ro u n d th ti l m l ex cepti on of t h e d u o d en u m a n d c o ver s th e ve n t ra l s a c o f the
e re c u o -o as a

or ifi ce d i i p t
an s n ar c on
,

ti n u ou sw it h t h i m r u m e n a l m o st e n ti r ely
e n ne r I t i s n o t l a ce li ke a s i n the h or se
us .
-
, ,

l
cu ar l y Of t h m l and c o n t a i ns a l ar ge a m o u n t of fat i n a n i m a ls i n g o o d c o n di
a er e o asa

v d th m m;
epi pl o i c f o ramen (of Wi n sl o w ) is a l m o st s a gitt a l
g ro o e an e o asu
'
t, i n ne r m l l y f
ti on
u sc u a r
The a er o
.

re ti l m
cu u (E ll b g i n di r ecti o n en er er

B m A t d H ti )
. .

au , na .

The mu s cu l ar c oa t of th e r um e n c onsists o f a n extern a l

. au s e re .

l o n gitu di n a l an d a thi cke r i n te r n a l ci r cu l ar l a ye r Th e ,

.

l a tte r f or m s th e bul k of the chi ef pi l l ar s whe r e i t i s a b o ut on e h a lf t o o n e i n ch ,

-

(c a 1 t o 2 cm ) thi ck S c a tte r ed b u n dles o f st r iped m uscl e fib er s ra d i a te fr o m

. . .
-

the c ar di a i n th e w a l l o f the a t r i um .

T he mu s cu l a r c o a t o f th e re ti cu lu m c on si sts o f tw o chi ef l a ye r s whi ch b egi n

a nd end a t the oes o ph a ge a l g r oo ve ; they p a s s i n a ci r cul ar or o bl i qu e f a shi o n
a r o u n d th e s a c the fibe r s o f the t w o l a ye r s c r o ssi n g e a ch o th e r a t a n a cute a n gl e
,
.

The w a lls of th e cells c on t a i n a ce n t r a l muscul a r l a ye r Th e lips of th e oes o ph a ge a l .

g roo ve c o nt a i n a thi ck l a ye r o f l on git udi n a l fibe r s whi ch ar e l a r gely c on ti n u o us a t ,

o r c r o ss e a ch o the r bel o w the r eti cul o o m a s a l o r ifi ce The b o tt o m o f t he g r o o ve -

.
 398 D I G E S T I V E SYS T E M OF T HE ox

Th e s mal l i nte s ti n e h as a n a ve r a ge l e n gth o f a b o u t 1 30 feet (c a 4 0 m ) a n d . .

a d i a m ete r o f a b o ut t w o i n ches (ca 5 t o 6 .

The d u o d e nu m is a b o ut t h r ee o r f o u r feet (c a 1 m ) i n l e n gth I t p a sses for . . .

w ar d t o t he V isce ra l su r f a ce of the li ve r ; he r e it f or m s ve n t r a l to the r ight ki d n ey a n ,

S—
,

sh a ped cu r ve The n ce it r u n s b a ckw ar d a l m o st t o th e exte r n a l a n gl e of t he i liu m

.
,

whe r e i t tu r ns o n itself p a sses f o r w a r d a l o n gsid e o f the te r mi na l p a r t of the c o l on

, ,

a n d j o i n s the m ese n te r i c p a r t (j ej u n u m ) u n d e r the r ight k id n ey I t is a tt a ched t o .

th e live r by the lesse r o m e n tu m t o the a b o m a su m by th e g r e a t om e n tu m a n d to

, ,

the te r m i n a l p ar t of th e c o l o n Th e b i l e d u ct .

o pe n s i n th e ve n t r a l p ar t o f the S S h a ped cu r ve -
,

a b o ut tw o feet (c a 60 cm ) f r om th e pyl o r us . . .

Th e pan c re a ti c d u ct o pe n s a b o ut a f oo t (c a 30 .

c m ) fu r the r b a ck . .

Th e r e m a i n de r o f th e s m a l l i n testi n e i s a r
ra n ged l n n u m e r o us ve r y cl o se c o i ls i n c o n t a ct ,

chi efly with the r ight f a ce o f th e ve n t r a l sac o f

the r u m e n fo r m i n g a s o r t o f fest oo n a t the edge
,

o f th e mese n te r y I t is n ot subj ect to m u ch .

v ar i a ti o n i n p o si ti on b ut a few c o i ls may find ,

thei r w a y behi n d the b li n d sacs of th e r ume n

to t he l eft sid e .

The or ifi ces of th e p a n c r e a ti c du ct a n d th e
bi le duct a r e o n p a pi l l a n o di ve r ti cul um bei n g ,

p r ese n t The r e ar e pe r m a n e n t t r a n sve r se f o lds

.

o f th e mu c o us m e m b r a n e (P l i c a ci r cu l ar es ) .

D u o de n a l gl a nds (o f B r u nn e r ) o c cu r i n the fi r st
fiftee n feet or m o r e (4 t o 5 i n testi na l gl a n ds
’
th r o ugh o ut P eye r s p a tc hes a r e l a r ge r a n d
.

m or e d isti n ct th a n i n t h e h o r se a nd v a r y ,

gr e a tly i n S i ze a n d n umb e r ; i n a du lt c a ttl e

ther e a re eightee n to f o r ty ; i n c a lves twe n ty ,

to fifty eight They usu a lly h a ve th e f o r m o f

-

C l o se t o the i l e o—
.

n a rr o w b a n ds c a c a l v a lve
.

the r e is a lw a ys a p a tch a nd i n m o st c a ses ,

the r e i s a ls o a p a tch o n th e c a c a l si de o f
th e v a lve .

The l a rg e i nte s ti n e i s m u ch s m a ll e r i n
c a li b e r th a n th a t o f th e h o r se h as n o b a n ds , ,

a n d is n o t s a c cul a ted M o st o f i t is si tu a ted .

‘

betwee n th e l a ye r s o f th e c o mm o n m ese n te r y .

Th e c a c u m i s a b o ut 2 0 t o 30 i n ch es (ca 50 .

to 60 cm ) l o n g 4 t o 5 i n ches (ca 1 0 to 1 2 cm )
.
,
.

293 —
.

F IG . . P E Y E R S P A T C H ES O S MALL I
'
F W i d e a n d h a s a c a p a ci ty Of ab o ut 2 % g a ll o n s
N ,
Ox ( b t fi n t l iz )
(c a 9 tO 1 0 li te r s ) I t b egi n s o pp o site th e
T l-
I TI N E
S O F a ou a u ra s e .
. .

l o wer p a r t of the el eve n th r i b a n d exte n ds ,

upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d a g a i n s t the r igh t fl a n k ; i ts r o u n d ed b li nd en d is f r ee ,

a n d l i es n e a r o r i n th e pelvi c i n let .

Th e c o l on i s a b o ut 3 5 feet (ca 1 0 m ) l o n g ; i ts d i amete r i s a t fi r st a b o ut th e

. .

s a me as th a t o f the c a cu m but d i m i n ishes to a b o ut tw o i n ch es (c a 5

, I ts .

c a p a ci ty is a b o ut 6 to 8 g a ll o n s (c a 2 5 to 30 l ite rs ) With th e excepti o n of i ts

. .

fi r st a nd te r mi n a l p a r ts i t i s a rr an ged i n d o ub le el lipti c a l c o i ls betwee n th e l a ye r s

,

o f the m ese n te ry ; the a dj a ce n t p a r ts a r e the r efo r e a lte rn a tel y ce n t r ipet a l a n d

ce nt r ifug a l (G y r i ce nt ri p e t a l es e t c en t r ifu g a l es ) Th e fi rst p a r t (A ns a p ro xi m a lis ) is
.

m a r ked o ff f r o m the c a cum o n ly by th e i le o c a c a l o pe ni n g ; i t f or m s a n S S h a ped

- -
 T HE LI V E R 399

FI G . 2 94 .
—P n0 J E c r I O>I OF V C A
IS ER or B U LL ON B
D Y WALL R H T S DO -
, IG I E .

P . Py lo rus ; G b . .
, ga ll b l d d ; R K
- a er . .
,
rig h t kid ne y ; L K l f t ki d
. .
y; P
, ( b v d d
e m) p
ne .
, a o e uo enu a n c r eas ;
BI .
. u ri n a r y b l ad d er : V . s .
, v i l se mi n li ;
es c u a a s 8 .
g .
, b ul b o -
t h l (C w p ) g l d C t l tt h m t
u re ra o er s
'
an . os a a ac en a nd

medi a n l i n e o f d i a p h ra g m a re i nd i t d b y d tt
ca e o ed li n es .

Ca u d a te l obe

Coro na r y l i g a ment (cu t)

Gal l -bi ad d er

P os ter i or r c n a c a va.

Hep a ti c ve i ns

(E s op h a gea l n otch
Fa i cif or m l i ga me nt (c u t)

FI G . 2 95 .
—L
'
1VER or Ox , PA RI EI ’ ‘
AL S U FA C
R E ; HA D N D
R E E in t
si u.
4 00 D I G E ST I V E S YS T E M OF T HE OX

cu rve a nd is c onti nued by th e spi r a l p a r t (A ns a spi r a lis ) The c o i ls o f this a re .

a tt a ched t o e a ch o the r by c o n n ecti ve ti ssue a n d a r e b est see n f r o m th e i nn e r side

, .

The b o wel g r a d u a lly di m i n ishes i n c a l ibe r a n d the t e r m i n a l p a r t (An s a d ist a lis )

,

l e a ves th e spi r a l m a ss p a sses f o r w a r d t o the g r e a t m ese n te r i c a r te r y a n d tu r n s

,

b a ckw a r d b etwee n t he du o de n u m a n d th e i n iti a l sigm o i d p a r t F r o m the ve nt r a l .

su r f a ce of th e r i ght ki d ney it p a sses b a ckw a r d f o r ms a n S sh a ped cu r ve n e a r the ,

-

pelvi c i n let a n d j o i ns th e r ectu m ; this p a r t is a tt a ched t o t he sub l u m b ar muscles

,

by a sh o r t m ese n te r y a n d is a ls o a tt a ched t o t h e d or s a l p ar t o f th e du o d e n u m
, .

The r e ctu m is s o m ewh a t sh o r te r th a n th a t o f t h e h o r se a nd is u su a lly c o ve r ed ,

with pe r it on eu m as fa r b a ck a s th e fi r st c o ccyge a l ve r teb r a Th e r et r o pe r it on e a l .

p a r t is su rr o u nded by a q u an tity of fat Th e a n us i s n ot p r o mi n e n t . .

Ca ud a te l obe
Rena l i mpr es si on

4 rea o f a l l a ch me nl to d i a
phrag m (no np er i l on ea l )

Cor o na r y l i ga ment

P os ter i or vena ca va

Hepa ti c vei ns

(E s op ha gea l n o tc h

FI G . 2 96 .
—L I VER L E FT MA R GI NAL V W ; H A D N D
IE R E E in t
si u .

The s er o u s c oa t is o f c o u r se a bse n t on th e a dh e r en t su r f a ces o f t he spi ra l p a rt

o i the c o l o n T h e r e i s a l a r ge a m o u n t o f fa t i n the m ese nte r y
. The l o n gi tud i na l .

mu s cul ar c o a t is eve n ly di st r ibuted c o n sequ e ntly the r e is n o s a ccul a ti o n o f th e

,

b o wel The r e is a v a lvul ar m u c o us f o ld at th e i le o c a c a l o r i fi ce A P eye r s p a tch

’
-
. .

o ccu r s i n the begi n n i n g o f the c a cu m a n d on e i n t h e fi r st p a r t o f th e c o l on .

.

THE LI VE R
The li ve r l ies a l mo st e n ti r el y to th e r ight o f th e m edi a n pl a n e I ts l o n g a xis .

is di r ected o bliq uely d o w n w a r d a nd f o r wa r d a b o ut p a r a llel wit h t he m ed i a n pl a n e

, ,

a n d c o r r esp o nds t o the cu r v a tu r e o f the r ight p o r ti o n o f th e d i a ph ra gm I t is l ess .

exte nsi ve but thi cke r th a n th a t o f th e h o r se I ts a ve r a ge weight i s a b o ut 1 0 to

, .

1 2 p o u nds (c a to . kg ) .
4 02 D I G E ST I V E S YST E M OF T HE ox

i n cre as e i n s i z e a nd d i s p l a c e th e a b o mas u m f ro m c on t a c t w i t h t h e l i v e r (4 ) S h a l l o w g roo v es fo r .

t h e S s l i a ped p o r ti o n o f t h e d u o d e n u m (I m p res s i o d u o d en a li s ) m a y b e f o u nd a b o v e a n d ex t er n a l
-

to t h e p o r t a l fi s s u r e (5 ) T h e f oss a of t h e g a l l b l a d d er (Fo s s a v es i ca fel l ea ) i s d i s ti nc t w h en

.
-

t h a t o r ga n i s f u ll I n t h e c a l f t h e o m as a l i m p res s i o n i s s ma l l a nd t h e a b o m a s a l o ne l a r ge i n
.
,

co r res p o n d en c e w i t h t h e r e l a ti v e s i z es o f t h es e t w o s a cs .

Th e p or ta l fi s su re is a wel l d efin ed r o u n ded dep r essi on situ a ted d o r s a l t o the

-
,

o m a s a l i m p r essi o n I t c o n t a i n s besid es the vessels a n d duct seve r a l l a r ge hep a ti c

.
, ,

ly mph gl a n ds A b o ve a n d e x te rn a l t o i t a p a r t of the p an c r e a s i s a tt a ched

. .

The d o rsal b or d er i s sh o r t a nd thi ck ; it exte n ds b a ckw a r d a sh o r t di st a n ce

~ Ro u n d
l i g a me n f
Umbi l i c a l
fis s a r e

FI G . 2 98 .
—L INB D AW N
R I G orV LI O ER or x ,
V C AL S U FA C
IS ER R E or SO FT S P C I M N
E E .

L g
. .
, H p ti l y mph g l
e a c -
an d t p t l fi
s a or a s s u re .

bey o nd the u ppe r p art o f the l a st r i b I t p r esen ts th e l a r ge thi ck qu a d r il a te ra l .

, ,

c a ud a te l o b e , a n d a d eep d ep r essi o n fo r the r ight kid n ey a n d a d r e na l .

The v e ntr al b o r d e r i s sh or t a n d thi n a n d h as n o i n te r l o b a r i n cisu r es .

The r igh t (or exte r n a l ) b o r d er is m a r ked by a s m a ll umbi li c a l fissu r e i n wh ic h ,

the li g ame n tu m te r es i s a tt a ch ed i n the y o u ng subj ect .

The l e ft b o r d e r p r ese n ts th e oes o ph a ge a l no tch bel o w its m iddl e A b o ve th is .

I t i s p r a cti c a lly m edi a n i n p o siti o n a n d l o dges th e p o ste r i o r ve n a c a v a wh ich is

, ,

p a r ti a lly e m bedd ed i n th e gl a nd B el o w the n o tch the b o r de r exte n ds a n i n ch o r

.

t w o (c a . to 5 c m ) t o the left o f th e m ed i a n pl a n e o pp o site the v e n t ra l thi rao f

.

the sixth r i b .

The r e i s n o l eft l a te r a l li g a m e n t Th e f a l ci fo r m lig a m e n t is usu a lly p r ese nt

.
,
 T HE LI VE R 4 03

but th e lig a m e n tu m te r es i s f o u n d o n ly i n y o u n g subj ects T he lesse r o m e n tu m .

le a ves the li ve r a l ong a li n e ext e n di n g f r om the (E s o ph a ge a l n o t ch t o the p o r t a l

fissu r e Th e o nl y di sti n ct l o b e i n the a dult is t he c a ud a t e (P r o cessus c a ud a tus )
—
.
.

A gall b l a d d er (Vesi c a fe l l ea ) is p r ese n t T hi s is a pe a r sh a ped s ac f o u r t o .

-
,

si x i n ch es (ca 1 0 to 1 5 c m ) l o n g wh i ch li es p ar tly on th e v isce ra l su r fa ce of th e

. .
,

live r (to whi ch i t is a tt a ched ) b ut l a r gely o n the a bd o mi n a l w a l l a t th e l owe r p ar t

,

o f the eleve n t h or twelft h i n t e r c ost a l sp a ce I t ma y b e r eg ar d ed as a dive r ti cul um .

o f th e bil e d u ct nl a rged to f o r m a r ese r v o i r for t he bi l e I ts n eck is c o nti n u ed by

-
,
e
.

the cy s ti c d u ct (D u ct us cysti cus ) whi ch j o i n s t h e h ep a ti c d u ct a t a n a cut e an gle

,

Ca ud ate l obe of l i ver P a n cr eati c d uct

FI G . 299 .
—PAN C A RE S or Ox G AT
S —
R O LN T E S T IN A L U FA C W T
S R E , I E RE LAT D O AN
E RG S .

Th e po s it i o n o f
-
so me of th e la l y m ph g l
rg er a nd s is i d i ted b y d tt d li
n ca o e ne ; a s o l th i t g l d
e n ra an ul a r c o u rs e o f

th e p a nc r ea ti d
c t P ob
uc . r e is p as s ed t h g h pi p l i f m
ro u e o c o ra en ( f Wi
o l ) ns o w .

j ust o utsid e o f t he p or t a l fissur e t o f or m wi th i t the bi le d u ct (D u ctus ch o led o chus )

,
- .

The l a tte r i s sh or t an d en t er s the sec on d b e n d o f the S S h a ped cur ve of the du o -

d enum i e a b o ut t w o feet (c a 60 c m ) f r o m t he pyl o r us

,
. .
,
. S eve r a l s m a l l d uc t s
. .

(D u ctus h epa to c y sti c i ) o pe n di r ec t ly i n t o t h e g a ll b l a dde r

- -
.

I n t h e n ew b o r n c a l f th e li v er i s r e l a ti v e l y m u c h l a r g er t h a n i n th e a d u lt
- T h e v is c er a l .

su r f a c e p r es e n t s b e l o w t h e p o r t a l fi ss u r e a l a r g e r o u n d ed e m i n en c e w hi c h i s c au ed b y t h e
, ,
s
,

p res en ce i n t h e u n d er l yi n g g l a nd su b s t a n c e o f a l a r g e v eno u s s i n u s i n t o w h i c h t h e u mb i l i c a l a n d
po r t a l v ei n s em p ty A l a rg e v ess e l t h e d u c tu s v eno s u s l ea d s f r o m t h i s s i n u s d i r ec t l y to t h e
.
, ,

po s t eri o r v ena c a v a J u s t ext ern a l t o t h i s e l e v a ti o n is a s m a ll b u t di s t in c t l o b e a b o u t t w o

.
.

inch es l o ng (Pr o c ess u s T h e u m b i li ca l fis s ur e i s d ee p a n d p ar ti a l l y di v i d es th e g l a n d

i n t o t w o c h i e f l o b es .
4 04 D I G ES T I V E SYS T E M or T HE ox

THE P AN CRE AS
Th e p an c r e a s of the o x is i rr egul a r ly qu a d r i l a te r a l i n f o r m a nd li es a l most ,

e n ti r ely t o th e r ight o f th e m edi a n pl an e I t s weight is a b o ut th e s a m e as th a t o f

.

the h o r se I ts d o r s a l su r f a c e is r el a ted t o the c r u r a of t he di a ph r a gm t he c oeli a c

.
,

a nd a n te r i or m ese n te r i c a r te r i es a n d th e live r I t is a tt a ched t o th e l ive r a t a n d

,
.

exte r n a l t o the p o r t a l fissu r e a nd t o th e c r u r a o f the di a p h r a gm B etw ee n these

,
.

a dhesi o n s i t is f r ee a n d f or m s the ve n t r a l w a l l o f the epi pl o i c f o ra m e n (of Wi n sl o w ) .

On the r ight sid e it e xte n ds b a ckw a r d bey o n d th e c a ud a te l o be o f th e li ve r betwee n

th e l a ye r s o f the m es o du o d e n u m ; h e r e i t is i n c on t a ct with th e u ppe r p a r t o f
th e fl a n k at the lu m b o c o st a l a ngl e a n d is r el a ted a b o ve to the r ight ki d n ey a n d
-
,

by its ve n t r o l a te r a l b or de r t o th e ve n t r a l p a r t o f the d u o de n u m Th e g a st r o
-
.

Hi l us
A rea o f a tta ch men t to r u men
(non -per i to nea l )

P os l er i or bord er

L i ne of p er i to n ea l re flecti o n

Fro . 3 00 —S P L E E N or 0x; V IS C L R A L S
‘

U FAC
R E .

i n testi n a l or ve n t r a l su r f a ce is i n c o n t a ct w i th t he d o r s a l cu r v a tu r e of t he r u m e n
a nd the i ntesti n e The p or t a l vei n p a sses th ro ugh th e gl a nd The l eft ext r e m ity
.
.

is sm a ll ; the r ight o r p o ste r i o r is wid e and t hi n an d is o fte n d i vi d ed i n t o tw o

b r a n ches The d u ct l e a ves th e p o ste r i or p a r t o f th e v e nt r o l a te r a l (o r r i ght )
. -

b or de r a n d e n te r s the du o d e n u m a b o ut twelv e i n ches (ca 30 c m ) fu r the r b a ck . .

th a n the bi le duct -
.

THE S P LEE N
The spl ee n h as a n el ong a ted elli pti c a l o utli n e b o th ext r emiti es b ei ng thi n
, , ,
r o u n d ed a n d si m i l ar i n si z e
, .

I t s a ve r a ge weight i s a b o ut 30 o u n ces (c a 800 t o 900 o r a b o ut {7 p er .

ce n t o f th e b o dy weight I ts le n gth i s a b o ut 1 6 t o 2 0 i n ch es (c a 4 0 t o 50
.
-
.
.
 Dors a l cu r va tu re o f ru men

FI G . 30 1 ; . T MAC H
S O or S H P
EE , LE FT V I E W.

F ro m p h o to g ph
ra of s pec i me n h a rd e n e d in si
'

tu . Th e re ti l m i s om ew h t c o nt
cu u s a ra c ted . A rro w p o i nt s p os t h
f
.

r or i fu r ro w be tw ee n b li nd s cs a .

r u men

P ro . 3 02 —
S T MA C H
O or S H P R IG H T V I E W
E E ,

F ro m ph o to g r a ph of s p im
ec en h a r d e ne d m s i ‘u D tt d li i d i t p iti
o e ne n ca es os on o f s pl ee n.
 D I GE ST I V E S YSTE M OF T HE S HE E P 4 07

The s a li var y gl and s r ese m ble t h o se o f th e o x i n ge n era l b ut the p a ro ti d duct ,

c r o sses the s u rf a ce o f th e mas sete r m uscle a nd o pe ns o pp o site the thi r d o r f o u r th ,

cheek t oo th .

Th e to n sil is b e a n sh a ped a n d a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (ca 1 2 mm ) i n le n gt h I t

-
. . .

d o es n ot p r o j ect i nt o the f a u ces The m u c o us memb r a n e of th e l a tte r p r ese n ts tw o

.

deep a nd ver y n arr o w t ons i l l ar si n uses on eith e r si de .

F IG . 3 03 .
—C H P T H OU H
R OS S -S E CT IO N OF S E E , R G N N T H T HO AC C V T B A A
I R I O V W ER E R , NT E E I R I E .

1 C di
, ifi ; 2
ar ac or g lg v ; 3
ce ni
, oes o ph a ea ro o e , ru I — ti l
no r e i fi : 4 mi
cu ar or ti l f l d ; 5 d
ce . l
ru no -r e cu a r o , o rs a sa c

of m
ru ; enb dy f i t h th
o i v t b ; 7 v
o n n o ra c c er e ra , e na h mi z y g : 8
e a t : 9 p t i m d i ti l l y m ph
os . aor a ,
os e r or e as na

gl d; 10 10
an , f d i ph g m ; 1 1 p t i
, c ru r a o av ra , os er o r e na c a v ; 1 2 p t l v i ; R I i g h t l g ; L l l ft l g ; S
a , or a e n . . , r un . e un ,

spl ( t v y b li q l y ) ; L li v ; R
ee n cu er o ti l m (p t
ue , er , re cu u i
os e r o r w a ll ) A w p i t t ti l m l n fi
. rr o o n s o re c u o-o as a o
'

ce .

The f or ni x o f t he ph ar yn x p r ese nts a medi a n pli c a ted f o ld whi ch is a c on ti n u a

t i on of the septum n asi The ph ar y n ge a l or ifi c e o f th e E ust a chi an tub e h a s t he
.

f or m of a c r esc en ti c S l it pl a ced a b o ut on a l evel w it h the i nfer i or n a s a l m e a tus

,
.

T he r e ar e tw o l ar ge l y m ph gl a n ds a n d a n umb er of h aem ol y m p h gl a n ds a b o ve the

ph a ry nx .

The (e s oph a gu s h a s a l u m e n of a b o ut a n i n ch whe n m o de r a tely dist e n ded :

o the r w ise i t r esembles t h a t of the ox .
4 08 D I G E ST I V E S Y ST E M or T HE S HE E P

Th e s to m a c h I s li ke th a t o f the ox i n its ge n e r a l ar ra n ge m en t I ts a ver ag e .

c a p a ci ty is a b o ut f o u r g a l l o n s (c a 1 5 l ite r s ) Th e c ar d i a c openi n g is o pp o si te th e
. .

middl e o f th e eighth i nte r c o st a l sp a ce ; i t is j ust to the l eft of the m edi an pl a n e a n d

a b o ut tw o t o th r ee i n ches (c a 5 t o 7 c m ) be l o w the ve r teb r a l c o l um n
. . The v e n t r a l .

sa c of the r u m e n is r el a tiv el y l a r ge r a n d exte n ds fu r the r t o the r ight o f th e m edi an

pl a n e th a n i n th e ox T he r e ar e n o c or on ar y pil l a r s i n th e d o r s a l sac b ut its u pper

.
,

p a r t is p a pill a ted The p a pi l l a o f the r u m e n ar e r el a tivel y l arge a n d s o m ewh a t

.

t o n gu e l ike ; the l ar gest a r e a b o ut a f o u r th o f a n i n ch (ca 6 mm ) i n l e n gt h

-
The . . .

r e ti cu lum is r el a tively l ar ge r th a n i n the o x I ts ve n t r a l p a r t cu r ves m o r e b a ck

.

w a r d and less t o the r ight th a n i n the ox Th e p a r i et a l sur f a ce exte n ds f o r w ar d as

.

F IG . 3 04 .
—A B D M NAL V C A
O I IS ER OF S H P
EE , S UP F C AL V N T AL V W
ER I I E R IE .

fa r as th e sixth r i b o r i n te r c o st a l sp a ce a nd is r el a ted t o the di a ph ra gm an d liver

,
.

The fu n dus li es o n the ste r n a l p a r t of the d i a ph r a g m a n d i n c o n t a ct with the a b o

m a sum The oes oph ag eal gr oo ve is d isp o sed m u ch li ke th a t o f the ox a n d is a b o ut
.
,

fo u r t o five i n ches (c a 8 t o 1 0 c m ) l o n g The o m a s um is mu ch s m a l l e r th a n the

. . .

r eti culu m i ts c a p a city b ei n g o n ly a b o ut o n e pi n t I t is o v a l a nd c o m p r essed .

l a te ra lly I t i s situ a ted a l m o st e n ti r ely t o the r ight o f th e medi an pl a n e o pp o sit e

.
,

to the n i n th a n d te n th r ibs highe r th a n i n the o x a n d h as n o c o n t a ct with the

I t is r el a ted o n th e r ight to the l ive r a n d g a ll —
, ,

a bd o mi n a l w a ll . bl a dde r o n the l eft ,

to the r ume n a n d bel o w to th e a b o m a sum

, The l a m i n a a r e l ess n umer o us th a n
.

i n th e o x ; i n the n e c k whi ch c o nn ects th e o m a sum with the r eti cul u m they h a ve

 410 D I G E STI VE S YSTE M or T HE PIG

tw o chi ef l o bes The c a ud a te l o be is p r is m a ti c a n d bl u n t p o i n ted The n eck o f

.
-
.

the g a l l bl a dd e r is l o ng The bi le-du ct j o i n s the p a n c r e a ti c du ct to f o r m a c o m m on

-
.

d uct (D u ct us ch o l ed o chus c o mm u n is ) whi c h o pe n s i n t o the du o de n um a b o ut o n e

f oo t (ca 30 cm ) f r o m the pyl or us
. . .

The pan c r e a s is a rra nged a s i n th e ox I ts du ct u n ites with t he bi l e d uct .

-
.

The spl e e n (Fi g 3 0 1 ) is s o mewh a t t r i a n gul a r with th e a n gl es r o u n ded off

. It, .

weighs a b o ut th r ee o r f o u r o u n ces (c a 1 00 gr a ms ) I ts l e n gt h is a b o ut five i n ches

. .

(ca 1 2 to 1 3 c m ) a n d i ts g r e a test width a b o ut f o u r i n ches (ca 1 0

. . The p a r i et a l .

su rf a ce is c o n vex a n d is r el a ted to the di a ph r a g m t o w hi c h r a th e r m o r e th a n the ,

a n te r i or thi r d is a d h e r e n t Th e visce r a l su r f a ce is c o n c a ve a n d its a n t e r i o r h a lf is

.

a tt a ched t o the d o r s a l cu r v a tu r e o f the r u m e n Th e d o r s a l e n d or b a se is a tt a ch ed

.

Ga l l - bl a dd er P os ter i or ven a
ca va

Umbi l i ca l fis s u r e

306 .
—L I v E R OF S H P
E E , P A RIE TAL SI
'

R FA C E ; I I A R DE N E D
‘

to t he l ef t c r us o f the d i a ph r a g m u n d e r the l a st tw o o r th r ee r ibs The hi lus is a t .

t he p oste r i or b a s a l a n gle Th e ve n tr a l e n d is n arr o w e r an d t hi nn e r th an the b as e ;

.

i t i s s i tu a ted o pp o site the n i n th a n d te n th r ibs a b o ve thei r mi ddles .

DI GE STIVE SYSTE M OF THE PI G

THE MOU TH
Th e ri m a o r i s i s exte nsive t h e a n gl es of the m o ut h b ei n g S it u a ted fa r b a ck
,
. .

The up per lip is thi ck a n d s h o rt a n d is bl e n ded with t he s n o ut ; the l o w er

,

l i p is s m a l l a nd p o i n ted Th e l a bi a l gl a n ds a re few a n d s m a l l
. .

The m u c o us memb r a n e o f the ch e e k s is sm oo th The b u cc a l gl an d s a r e .

 T HE M OU T H 411

c o m p a ctl y arr an ged i n tw o r o ws o pp o si te th e chee k teeth Th e par o ti d d uct .

o pe ns o pp osite th e f o u rth or fifth cheek t oo t h .

The h ar d pal a te is l o ng a nd na rr o w ; it is m a r ked by a m edi a n fu rro w o n e a c h ,

side o f w hi c h a re twe n ty o r m o r e r idges On its a n te r i o r p a r t t he r e is a t r i a ngul a r .

i n cisi ve p a pi ll a at whi ch the n as o p a l a ti ne du cts o pe n

,
-
.

T he s o ft pal a te i s ve r y t hi ck I ts di r ecti on a l m ost c o n ti n u es t h a t o f t he h a r d .

p a l a te i e i t is n e ar ly h or i z o n t a l
,
. . I t ext e n ds t o t he mi ddle o f t he o r a l su r f a ce
, .

I t h as a m edi a n p r o l o n g a ti o n t e r med t he uvu l a

l
o f i l
the ep g o tt i s . T h e or a l .

su r f a ce p r ese n ts a m edi a n fu rr o w o n eithe r side of whi ch a n o v a l ra ised a r e a , ,

FI G . 3 01 —T N U O G E OP P I G .

1 Ap ; 2 d ex 0 rs u m; 8 r oo t; 0 i fi ce f d t f li ng l g l nd ;
or s o uc s o ua a s b p pill a f
a o ro o t : v ll t p pill (n t
c, a a e a a o

fi
, , , , ,

re a ll y so d i ti t
s nc as in g u r e ) ; I( f li t p pill ; f ng i f m p pill
o a e a a e, u or a a ; pi g l tti
e o s (p ll d b k ) ; 9 m d i n
u e ac e a

B u m A n t d H ti )
—
, ,

g l o s s o -e p i g l tti f l d
o c o .
(E ll e n b e rg e r a , a . . a us e re .

m ar ked by ume r o us c r ypts ; these el ev a ti ons a r e the to n s i l s

n T o nsi ll a r tissue .

a ls o o ccu r s i n t he l a te r a l w a lls o f th e f a u ces .

The t o n gu e is l o ng a n d n arr o w a n d the a pex is thi n T w e or th r ee v a ll at e .

The fu ngif or m p a p il l a a r e sm a l l a n d ar e m o st n u m e r o us
'

p a p il l a a re p r ese n t .

l ate r a lly T he fil i form p a pi ll a a r e s o ft an d ve r y s m a ll On t he r oot the r e ar e

. .

s oft l on g p o i n ted p a pil l a di r ected b a ckw a r d FOli at e p a pi ll a a r e a ls o p r ese n t

, , ,
. .

Ther e is a wel l m a r ked m edi a n gl o ss o ep igl o tti c f o ld o n eit he r S ide o f whi ch is

- -
,

a dep r essi o n (Va llecul a epi gl o tti c a ) Th e f r e n um li n gu a is d o uble . .

The d e ntal f o r m ul a of t he pig is :

3 1 4
2 I —C —P —M = 44
3 1 4

T h e e p i g l o tti s i n th e p i g s ee ms to b e c o ns ta n tl y
1
r e tr o v e l a r . Th e pi g f r equ e n tl y b r ea t h es
t hr ou g h t h e m o u t h , a nd t h i s i s n o d o u b t p os s i b l e o n l y w h en t h e so f t p a l a t e I s ra i s ed ; I t s ee m s

p ro b a b l e t h a t i t i s a l so s h o r t ened .
4 12 D I G E S TI V E S Y ST E M OF T HE PI G

Th e f or mul a for the temp or a r y teeth is :

Dc Dp 32

The u pper i n c i s o r s a r e sm a ll ; they a r e sep ara ted fr o m e a ch o the r by sp a c es ,

a nd f r o m the c a n i n es by a l a r ge r i n te r v a l Th e fi r st i n cis o r s a r e the l ar gest ar e

.
,

c o n ve r ge n t a n d h a ve n o di sti n ct n eck
,
The sec o n d a r e n arr o we r a nd s o m ewh a t
.

s ma lle r The thi r d (c or n er ) i n cis or s ar e m u ch s ma lle r are fl a tte n ed l a te r a l ly

.
, ,

a n d h a ve th r ee sm a l l emi n e n ces o n the c r o w n .

The l ow er i n c i s ors a re a l mo st h or i z o n t a l a nd a r e c o n ve r ge nt a n d cl ose t o

gethe r The fi r st a n d sec o n d a r e a b o ut eq u a l i n si z e p r i s m a ti c a n d d eeply i m
.
, ,

FI G . 3 08 .
—S K U LL or PI G A BO UT A Y E A AN D A HAL F
R OL D S CU L P T U R E D
, To S H OW T HE E MB DD D PA T
E E R S OF
T HE TE E TH .

11—
3, l i
nc s o rs ; C, i
c a n nes ; PI- 4 p em l
, r o a rs ; 111 1 —
3 , mo l a rs .

pl a n ted i n the jaw Th e l a bi a l su r f a ce is slightly c on vex t he li n gu a l c o n c a ve and

.
,

m a r ked n e a r its ext r e m ity by a r idge The thi r d i n cis o r is mu ch sm a ll er a nd

.

h a s a sh o r t n arro w c r o w n a nd a d isti n ct n eck .

The c an i ne te eth or tusks of the m a l e ar e g r e a tly devel o ped a nd p r oj ect o ut

o f the m o uth The uppe r c a ni n e o f the b o ar may be a b o ut th r ee or f o u r i n ches
.

(ca 8 to 1 0 c m ) l ong Th e c ro w n is c o n i c a l a nd is cu r ved s o mewh a t b a ckw a r d

. . .

a n d o utw a r d ; the emb edded p a r t is cu r ved a nd h as a l a r ge pul p c a vity 1 .

The l o we r c a n i n e m a y r e a ch a l e ngth o f eight i n ches or m or e (ca 20 the c r o w n .

is p r is ma ti c a nd is cu r ved b a ckw ar d a n d o utw ar d i n f r o nt of th e uppe r o ne s o th a t ,

the fr icti o n betwee n th e t w o keeps a sh a r p edge o n the l o we r t oo th I n the sow .

they a re mu ch s m a ll e r .

The ch e e k te e th i n c r e a se i n si z e f r o m bef o r e b a ckw a r d Th ey h a ve (with .

l
Th e c a n i nes o f t h e p i g a r e p er man en t p u l p t ee t h a nd t h ere f o re ca p a b l e o f c o n ti nu ed
g ro w t h a n d a re w it h o u t r oo t s i n t h e s t r i c t s e ns e
, .
414 D I G E S TI V E S Y S TE M OF T HE PI G

The par o ti d gl an d is l a r ge a n d t r i r a di a te I t exte n ds ver y little o n to the m as .

sete r muscl e a nd its uppe r a n gle d o es no t qui te r e a ch the b a se o f the ea r I t is .

p a l e i n c o l or a nd is embedded i n fa t i n an i m a ls i n g o o d c onditi o n On i ts deep

,
.

f a ce ar e sever a l l a rge s u bp a roti d ly mp h gl a n ds s o m e of whi ch a r e o n ly p arti a lly ,

CT ON O M OU T H AN D P HA YN AL R ON O P o
FI G . 310 .
—D ISS E I F
'
R GE E GI F r .

1 H d p l t ; : t
, gar h i g d i ti tl y f g i f m p p ill ; 3 f li t p p ill ; 4 l y m ph d l f ft
a a e
9
, on ue s ow n s nc un or a a ,
o a e a a , no u es o so

p l t : 5
a a e ty l g l m s l t f w hi h
o- p ti h b
os s u s t; hy g l
usc e , o u ; 7 g i gl
o ; S g ci a or on as ee n c u o- ossus en o - o ss u s en o

( fl t d); 1 0
, , ,

h y id
o ; 9 my l h y id
eu s . o- ty l h y i d ; 1 1 g t
o eus f h y id b
re ec ;e 12 t p l ti ; s e- o eus r ea c o r nu o o o ne e ns o r a a
t p l t —
, , ,

13 l v t p l ti ; 1 4 p t y g
, e a or a a ph y g ; 1 5 ty l ph y g ;
, er o hc d ph y g ; 1 7
a a o ar n e us , s o- ar n eus c on ro - ar n eu s ,

st e r no t m h y id
e ; 18
o t ph y g l l y mph g l d : b ll
o- o eus ; b p
re m t id p
ro ar
(E lln ea an s a u a o s s ea a ra

B m A t d H ti )
, , , as o ro cess . en

b g er e r- au ,
na . . aus e re .

c o ve r ed by th e p ar o ti d T h e duct ar ises o n the d eep f a ce h as a c o u r se si mi l ar

.
,

to th a t o f th e o x a n d pe r f o r a tes the cheek o pp o site th e f o u r t h o r fi fth upp e r ch eek

,

t o o th S m al l a ccess o r y gl a n ds (G l an dul a p a r o tide a a ccess or i a ) m ay b e f o u n d

.

a l o n g the c o u r se o f th e d uct .
 T HE M OU T H 415

Th e su b m axi l l ary gl and is s m a ll r eddish i n c o l or a n d ov a l i n o utl i n e ; it is , ,

c o ve r ed by the p a r o ti d I ts supe r fi ci a l f a ce i s c o nvex a nd i s m a r ked by r o u n ded

.
,

p r o mi n e n ces F r o m i ts d eep f a ce a n arr o w p r o cess exte n ds f or w a r d a b o ut tw o or

.

—SA T AL S CT ON O P HA Y N AL R O N
FI G . 3l l . P P A T L Y S C H MAT C
GI
’
1
‘
E I F R GE E GI or IG R E I .

I P l t b ; 2 ph i d b ;
, a a e ph i d l i ;
o ne i pit l b ; 3 pi g l tti ; 4 y t i d ti
, s e no o ne s e no a s nu s oc c a o ne , e o s . ar e no car

l g ; 5 t h y i d til g ;
a e ,
t f t g ; 7 m t h v it y ; 8 i th m f i m ; 9 h d p l t ; 1 0 pt m i ;
ro c ar a e ro o o on ue , ou ca , s us auc u , ar a a e , se u n as

1 1 v,
t l m l f h d;
e n ra ft p l t ; f
u s c es o dg f ; b d l ll f p h y ; f i f ph y ; d
ea a , so a a e a
'
,
ree e e o a , ors a w a o ar nx c, o rn x o ar nx ,

ca vit y f l y ; g o ph y ; f
ar nx ph y ; h p t i pill
e, ,
f
n as o - f t p l t ; i d tt d li i d i ti g
ar nx , o ro- ar nx , os er o r ar o so a a e , o e ne n ca n

l t lb d yb t
a e ra l vity d ph y ; k d it l y g i ; l t
ou n ar e w e e n n as a t ph g ; m E t h i
ca an ar nx , a us ar n s , en r a nc e o oes o a us , us ac an

or i fi ; ph y g l
ce n, ; p t i n i
ar n (A ft
ea E ll b g i L i
r ec e s s i g A tl )
0 , os er o r ar s . er en er er, n e se r n
'
s as .

t h r ee i n ches (ca 5 t o cm ) be n e a t h the m yl o hy o ideus muscl e a l ong w ith t he

. .
-

duct The l a tte r o pe ns n e a r th e f r e n u m l i n gu a b ut the r e is no p a pi ll a

.
, .

The sub l in gu a l gl an d h as an arr a n ge m e n t S imi l ar t o th a t of the ox Th e p os .

E s op ha g u s

P yl or us P yl or u s

FI G . 312 .
—ST MAC H
O or PI G ,
AR TAL S UR FAC
P IE E . FI G . 313 —S T OMA C H OF P I G V I S C E R AL S U R FA C E
. ,
.

Th e o r g a n c o n a ne d t i a ra th er s m ll m at fi g ta ou n o n es a Or g a n w a s fi x e d i n s i tu a n d i s s o m e w h a t c o n t ra c t e d .

a nd h e n ce i s s o m ew ha t t td c o n ra c e .

ter i or p a r t (G l a n d ul a su b li n gu a lis gr an d i e an al ar i s ) is r eddish —yell o w in c ol or a n d ,

.

is a b o ut tw o i n ches (ca 5 cm ) l on g and h a lf a n i n ch w i de ; its p o ste r i or end I s I n

. .
,

r el a ti o n to th e sub m a xi ll a r y gl a n d a n d its d uct Th e a n ter i or p ar t I s much .

416 D I GE S TI V E S Y ST E M OF T HE PIG

l arge r bei ng tw o or th r ee i n ches (ca 5 to 7 c m ) l on g a n d a b o ut twi ce the width

,
. .

a n d thi ck n ess o f th e p o ste r i or p a r t A l l o r m o st o f t he ducts f r o m the p o ste r i o r .

FI G . 314 .
—D I AG RA M ZO N ES OF M UCO U S M MB AN E R E S O T M AC H or PI G .

p a rt u n i te to f or m the d uctu s sub l i n g u al i s m a j o r , whi ch o pe ns n e ar the d u ctus

subm a xill ar is E ight o r t en du ctu s su b l i n gu a l e s mi n o re s c o n vey the sec r eti on
.

fr om the a nter i or p ar t th ro ugh t he fl oo r of the m o uth .

FI G . 315 .
—V I S CE HA L S U FAC
R E OF ST O MA C H OE PI G FI G 3 1 6 —E VE T MA C H o r P F R OM W H I C H
HT E D S O T HE
W H CH
. .
IG ,
l en S E HO U S C OAT H M M M B AN H S B N R M OVE D
g M OV D
I T HE AS BEEN u co u s E R E A E E E .

E E .

O (E ph g so a us ; D d u od e n u m ; Di d i v ti u l
er c l o ng it d i n l fi be ; b i c l a fi b e s ;
u m; a a
’
a u

fib ; ” d i l p ; d fi b w h i h con e t b a h of d i
,
, , , a rs . c r u r r 0.
t
e x e rna
l bl q l b
o i ue i e rs ; c Int n l Ob li q
er a ue e rs c car ac oo e rs

(E lle n b e g e B m A n t
, , c n c .
r nc es ca r ac
f f ld t t d i ve t i c ul m ; p p y l i sp hi n c te ; p p y l o i c p o mi n n e
12
0 0 ; o a e n ra nc e to r u ’
,
, or c r , r r e c . r r- au a
, .

1 a d s ti e r e . )

THE P HAR YN X
The ph arynx p r ese n ts i n i ts p o ste r i or p ar t a m edi a n cul de s a c a b o ut an i n ch - -

a nd a h a lf (ca 3 t o 4 cm
) l o ng wh i ch is si tu a ted betwee n the ve n t r a l st ra i ght
.
.
,

m u scl es o f the h e a d a n d the o r igi n o f the oes o ph a gus I ts l o we r m a r gi n is f o r med .

by th e J u n cti o n of the p oste r i o r pi ll a r s o f the s o ft p a l a te wh i ch c o nt a i n m useu ,

418 D I G E S T IV E S YSTE M OF T HE PI G

c ost a l sp a ce l a te r a lly a n d the u m bi li cus ve n t r a lly Th e l eft p o r ti on is l ar ge a n d .

r o u n ded whil e the r ight p o r ti o n (P a r s py l or i c a ) is s m a ll a n d b e n ds sh a r ply upw a r d

The p a r i et a l su r f a ce is r el a ted to the liver g a ll —

, ,

t o j o i n t h e s m a ll i n testi n e . bl a dde r , ,

FI G . 318 . D A AM
I GR or C E C UM AN D C O L ON
C ilo s o f co on l h v a e b ee n p llu ed a p t mar so ew ha t .

and di a ph r a gm The visce ra l su r f a ce i s r el a ted t o th e i nt esti n e the m ese n te r y

.
,

a n d the p a n c r e a s The g r e a t cu r v a t u r e is r el a ted t o th e di a ph r a gm S plee n a n d

.
, ,

a bd o m i n a l fl o o r The pyl or i c e n d l i es o n th e r ight l a t e r a l l o b e of t he l ive r T h e

. .

3l9 N O D I 'u F OM LA
-
zs I NT
R TN RG E ES I E FI G 3 20 —l L E O C E CAL
- P N N AN D A DJA C N T PA T
O E I G E R

B m A l 1 H ti )
.
. . :

OF l ’
IG .
(E ll e n b e rg e r - au , na . ( . aus e re . C CUM AN D C OLON O P
or E
. F IG .

(I , M m mb
u c o us f el ; b m m m
r a ne o co on , u cous e

b r a ne o f c ae c u m; P y p t h ; d il m l p
c, e er s
’
a c , e o -c ca o en

i ng ; e e n o, eu d f il m ; f f l d (f l ) f il m (A ft
,
o s ren u a o eu . er

P S c h u ma n n )
. .

l eft ext r e mity p r ese n ts a fl a tte n ed c o ni c a l bli n d p o uch the d iv erti c ulu m v e ntr i culi , ,

t h e a pex o f w hi ch p r oj ects b a ckw a r d T he oes o ph a gus j o i ns th e st o m a ch ve r y .

o bl i qu ely a l most i n t he m edi a n pl a n e a nd a b o ut th r ee o r f o u r i n ches (ca 8 to 1 0

, , .
 T HE I NTE STI N E 419

c m ) bel o w the twelfth th o r a ci c ve r teb r a

. The c a r di a c o pe n i n g is sl it l i ke a n d is .
-

b o u n ded a b o ve a nd to t he l eft by a f o l d whi ch c o n t a i ns a thi cke ni n g o f the i nte r n a l

o bliq ue l a ye r o f t h e muscul a r c oa t Th e o pe n i n g i n t o the di ve r ti cu l u m is situ ated
.

a b o ve a nd a l ittl e t o th e left o f the c a r di a ; it is t r a n sve r sely o v a l a n d is b o u n ded ,

(except exte r n a lly ) by a thi ck f o ld whi ch c on t a i n s spi ra lly a rr a nged m uscu l a r

fibe r s The m u c o us m e m b r a n e may be d ivid ed i n t o f o u r r egi o n s Ove r a qu ad r i
. .

l a te r a l a r e a a r o u n d t he c a r di a (a b o ut o ne i n ch o n the r ight a n d tw o o r t h r ee i n ches

.

o n t he l eft sid e o f the o r ifi ce ) it is oes o p h a ge a l i n ch a r a cte r a n d p r ese n ts a n u m be r o f ,

f o lds A sh ar p l i n e o f de m ar c a ti on sep a r a tes t his f r o m th e r est of the mu c o us

.

memb r a n e whi c h is s o ft a nd gl a n dul ar Th e sec o n d or c a r di a c gl a n d r egi o n is

,
.

p a le gr a y i n c o l or a nd thi n (c a t o 1 mm ) it ext en ds a b o ut t o th e m i dd le o f
. .

t he st om a ch T he thi r d or fu n dus gl an d r egi o n is r e a dil y disti n guished by its

.

thi ck n ess (c a 3 m m ) a nd i ts b r o w n ish r ed m o ttl ed a ppe ar a n ce

. .
‘
The f o u r th o r
-
.

pyl or i c r egi on is p a l e thi nn e r th a n th e p r ec ed i n g an d p r ese nts a n umbe r of i rr egul a r

, ,

f o lds A t t he p yl o r us t he r e is a r e m a r k a b l e r i dge whi c h p r o j ects f ro m t he w a ll o f

.

t he lesser cu r v a tu r e a nd di mi n i sh es c o n si d er a bly t he S i z e of t he or ifi ce I t i s a b o ut .

a n i n ch a n d a h a lf (ca 3 t o 4 c m ) l o n g a n d n e a r ly h a lf a n i n ch (c a
. . 1 cm ) high . . .

S o meti mes it is g roo ved ; i n o the r c a ses i t h as t he f o r m o f a r o u n ded emi n e n ce

a tt a ched by a pedi cl e t o the w a ll Fi be r s f r o m t he ci r cul a r m uscu l a r c oa t ext e n d
.

i nt o it .

FI G . 32 1 .
—L V
I ER OP PIG , Sor r D P E CI M E N S K TCH E D
E Lo B E s D A W N A PA T
R R .

THE I N TE STINE
Th e mal l in te s ti n e is 50 t o 65 feet (ca 1 5 t o 2 0 m ) l o n g Th e m ese n
s . . .

tery of a b o ut the fir st tw o feet (ca 60 cm ) is tw o t o tw o a nd a h a lf i n ches . .

(ca 5 t o 6 cm ) l o n g ; t his p ar t m ay b e te r med du o de n u m The r e m a i n de r (J eju n o

. . .

i l eu m ) h as a mese nter y a b o ut s i x t o eight i n ches (ca 1 5 t o 2 0 cm ) l o n g whi c h is . .

,

thi ck and c on t a i ns a qu antity o f fa t a n d n u m er o us l a r ge lymph gl an ds at its root ; ,

the r oo t i s a tt a ched i n t he subl umb ar r egi on b ehi n d the st o m a ch an d ble n ds he r e

with t he m ese n te r y o f t h e l a r ge i n testi n e T he s m a ll i n testi n e is a rr a n ged i n cl os e .

c o ils a n d l i es m a i n ly o n the l eft sid e a nd fl oor of the a bd o m e n fr o m t h e st om a ch ,

t o the pelvi s ; s o m e c o ils h o weve r l ie a g a i n st t he r ight fl a n k

, ,
T he o pe n i n g o f t h e .

b il e d u c t is a b o ut o n e o r tw o i n ch es (ca t o 5 c m ) f r o m th e pyl or us a n d th a t
. .
,

of the pan cr ea ti c d uct a b o ut f o u r o r five i n ch es (ca 1 0 t o 1 5 c m ) b ey o n d it

’
P e y se r . . .

I t w i l l b e n o t ed t h a t t h e f u n d u s g l a n d r eg i o n d o es no t e x t e n d u p t o t h e l es s er c u r v a t ur e ;
h e r e t h e c a r d i a c m u c o s a j o i n s t h e p y l o ri c .
4 20 D I GE STI V E S Y STE M OF T HE PIG

pa tch e s a n d s o li tary gl an d s ar e n u me r o us an d ve r y d isti n ct ; t h e p a tches a re usu a lly

b an d l i ke a n d p ro m i n e n t ; the s o lit a r y gl a n ds fo r m p r o j ecti n g n o dules m a r ked by
-

or yp ts .

T h e l ar g e in te s ti ne is ab o ut 1 5 feet (c a 4 to 5 m ete r s ) i n le n gt h a n d is fo r t h e
.
,

m ost p ar t mu ch wide r th an the s m a l l i n testi n e ; it is c onn ected by a mese nte r y

w ith the d o r s a l a bd o m i n a l w a ll betwee n th e kidn eys The c a cu m is cyli n dr ic a l .
,

a b o ut 8 to 1 2 i n ches (c a 2 0 to 3 0 c m ) l o n g a n d 3 t o 4 i ches (ca 8 t o 1 0 c m ) wid e

.
n .
,
. . .

I t l ies a g a i n st th e uppe r p a r t o f the r ight fl a nk i ts bli n d e n d r e a chi n g t o wit hi n ,

a b o ut t w o i n ches (c a 5 c m ) o f the p elvi c i nl et

. . The il eum j o i n s th e c aecum .

o bliquely a n d p r oj ects s o m ewh a t i n t o i ts l ume n The c ol o n h as a t fi rst a b o ut th e .

Hepa ti c
f
a rter y

Hep a ti c d u ct

E s op hag ea l n

FI G . 3 22 .
—L V I ER OF PI G , V S C RAL S U FA C
I E R E .

Pho t o g ra ph of s pe i m
c en h a rd e ned i n s i tu .

s a me c a libe r as th e c aecu m but b ec o m es g r a du a lly sm a lle r M ost o f it is arra n ged

,
.

i n th r ee cl o s e d o ub l e spi r a l c o ils i n t he m ese n te r y i n r el a ti o n chiefly t o the r ight

, ,

fl a n k e xte r n a lly a n d to the s m a l l i n testi n e beh i n d an d t o the l eft On eme r gi n g

,
.

f r o m thi s spi r a l l a b y r i n t h it p a sses f o r w ar d t o the st o m a ch a n d p a n c r e a s a n d the n

,

tu r n s b a ckw a r d ; t hi s te r m i n a l p a r t i s n a rr o w m ed i a n i n p o siti o n a n d cl o sely , ,

a tt a ched by a sh o r t m ese n te r y t o the subl u m b a r r egi o n The r e c tu m is usu a lly .

su rr o u nded by a q u a nti ty o f fat Th e c aecu m h a s th r ee l on gitudi na l muscul a r

.

b a nds a n d th r ee r o ws o f s a ccul a ti o n s w hi c h a r e c on ti n ued a sh or t dist a n ce o n th e

,

co l o n . The spi ra l c ol on h as t w o b a n ds a n d t w o se r i es o f s a c cul a ti o ns whi ch , ,

h o weve r g ra du a lly d i s a ppe a r i n the ce n t r ifug a l p a r t

, .
4 22 D I GE ST I V E S YST E M OF T HE PI G

l at e r a l b o r d e r exte n ds b a ckw ard to th e uppe r p a r t o f th e twelfth i n te r c o st a l sp a ce

o r thi r tee n th r i b The l eft l a te r a l b o r de r is o pp o site the eighth r i b a n d i n te r c ost a l
.

s p a ce . Th e ve n t r a l b or de r exte n ds b a ckw a r d a b o ut as far as the u m bi li cus .

The r e a r e no l a te ra l lig a m e n ts a nd the f a lci for m l ig a m e n t d is a ppe ar s e a r l y .

The g a ll b l a dd er is a tt a ched i n th e fo ss a vesi c ae fel l e m o n t he r ight ce nt r a l l ob e

-
,

a t a c o n side r a ble dist a n ce f r o m the ve n t ra l b o r de r The cysti c du ct j o i n s t h e h ep a .

t ic duct a t a n a cute a ngle i mm ed i a tely a ft er t he e m e r ge n ce of th e l a tte r f r o m th e

p o rt a l fissu r e The b i l e du ct (D uctus ch o led o ch us ) o pe n s at th e p a pill a du o de n i
.

a b o ut o n e o r t w o i n ches (c a to 5 c m ) fr o m the pyl o r us

. . .

Ow i n g t o the l a rge a m o u n t of i n ter l obul ar tissue the l o bu l e s a r e m a pped ou t ,

sh ar ply ; they ar e p o lyhed r a l i n f or m a nd a re 1 t o mm i n di a m ete r Fo r th e . .

s a m e r e a s on the gl an d tissue is m uch less f r i a ble th a n th a t o f th e o the r a n i m a ls ,

f ro m whi ch i t is e a sily disti nguished .

FI G . 3 24 .
—P '
R O.I E C r I ON OF V C A
IS ER OP P I G ON B D Y—
O WALL , LE FT S D I E .

D , C t l li
os a ne o f d i a ph ra g m; U , t
u re e r ; V S . .
, i li
v e s i cu l a s e m na s ; B g . .
,
l
b u b o -u re th l g l
ra a nd ; P ,
pe ni s.

3 25 .
—P J CT N
RO E V C AO P
IO OP IS ER F IC ON B D Y—
OWALL , RIG HT S I DE .

D C t l tt h m t f d i ph
, os a a ac en o a ra g m; 0 , o v a ry .
 D I G E ST I V E S YSTE M OF T HE D OG —H
T E M OU T H 4 23

THE P AN CRE AS

The pan c rea s is el o n g a ted a nd is S it u a ted t r a nsve rsely o n the d or s a l a bd o m i na l

,

w a ll wi th its r ight ext r em ity on the ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f the r ight ki d n ey a n d t h e left

, ,

e n d t o u chi n g t he d o r s a l e n d of t he splee n a n d th e l eft ki d n ey The r ight p or ti o n .

h as tw o l o bes ; th e p o ste r i o r l o b e be n ds a r o u n d th e g r e a t mese n t e r i c ar te r y a n d

th e p or t a l vei n ; the a nte r i o r on e is p o i n ted exte n ds d o wn w a r d a n d f o r w a r d a b o ut ,

i n the m edi a n pl a n e a n d is a tt a ched t o th e p o r t a l fissu r e a n d the du o den u m

,
The .

left p or ti o n is p r is m a ti c a n d r ests m a i n ly o n t h e left s a c o f t he st o ma ch its l eft ,

ext r emity bei n g i n cl uded betw ee n th e l eft k i d n ey a nd the d or s a l en d o f th e splee n .

The p a n c r e a ti c d u c t p asses fr o m the an te r i or l o be

di r ectly t h r o ugh t he d u o de n a l w a ll o pe n i n g a b o ut five ,

o r S i x i n ches (ca t o 1 5 cm ) fr o m th e pyl o r us The

. . .

i nte r l o bul ar tissue usu a lly c o n t a i ns a g oo d d e a l of fat .

THE SP LEE N
The s pl een is l o ng a n d n a rr o w I ts l on g a xi s is .

n e a r ly d o r s o-ve n t r a l i n di r ecti o n a nd is slightly cu r ved ,

t o c o nf o r m t o t he l eft p a r t o f th e gr e a te r cu r v a tu r e o f
t he st o m a ch The d o rs a l end li es un der the ver t eb ra l
.

e n ds of the l a st thr ee r ibs Th e ve n t r a l en d i s sm a lle r

.
,

r e a ches t o th e ve n t r a l a b d o mi n a l w a l l a n d li es a g a i n st ,

t he l eft l o b e o f the li ve r The visce r a l s ur f a ce h as a

.

l on gi tudi na l r i dge on whi ch t h e hil us is situ a ted ; this

di v i des the sur f a ce i n t o n e a r ly equ a l g a st r i c an d i n
t esti n al a r e a s The S plee n i s a tt a ched so l oo sely t o
.

t he st om a ch th a t it m ay b e r eg a r ded as b ei n g i n ter
ca l a t ed i n the gr e a t o me n t um I n l a r ge subj ects i t m a y
.

r e a ch a l e n g t h of 1 5 t o 1 8 i n ch es (ca 38 t o 4 5 c m ) a n d . .

a w i dt h o f 3 t o 4 i n ch es (ca 8 t o 1 0 .

DI GE STI VE SYSTE M OF THE DOG

TI IE MO TH
'
U FI G . 32 6 . OF D OG .

The si z e a nd f o r m o f th e m o ut h v ar y gr e a tly i n
21;
9 1 1

1 g 5 0
differ e n t b r eeds the c a vity b ei n g i n s o m e l o n g a n d
, ; d 0 o r_

n ar r o w i n o t he r s sh or t a n d wid e
,
The r im a o r i s is m; f pig l u i : a
.
ft p pill a su . e o s . so a e

ft fffigl d fi ti pfgi f fgll d:

l l l
ver y exte n sive s o th a t the l a bi a l c omm iss ur e is o pp o
Z
ep ll l os
,
o ' ‘ oo e
site th e thi r d or f o u r t h cheek t oo th Th e li p s ar e thi n b g p m A i t a Hh t i )
.
er er au , n , us ere .

a n d m o b i l e a n d p r ese nt n um e r o us t a ctil e h a i r s
, Th e .

uppe r li p h as a s m a ll cent ra l b ar e a r e a whi ch for m s p a r t of th e m uz zl e and is

, , ,

m ar ked by a c en t ra l gr o o ve th e phi lt r um o r (as i n th e bul l d o g ) a fiss ur e g ivi n g

, ,
-
,

the a pp e ar a n ce of h a r elip The l a te r a l b or de rs o f t he l o we r l ip ar e fl a cci d a nd

.

de n ti cul a ted Th e mu c o us m e m b r an e i s usu a lly pig m e n ted a n d f or m s disti n ct

.

fr e na l a bi or um The l a bi a l gl a n ds a r e s m a ll a n d sc a nty
. .

The c h e e k s a re l oo se a n d c a p a ci o us a n d thei r m uc o us li n i n g is s m oot h a n d

,

m or e o r less pig m en ted Th e p ar o ti d d u ct o pe n s usu a ll y o pp osit e the th i r d uppe r

.

cheek t o o th N e a r the l ast t ooth ar e th e o pe ni ngs o f t he f o u r or five d ucts fr o m

.

the or bit a l gl an d .

Th e h ar d pal a te is wi dest betwee n the f o ur th p a i r of cheek t eet h I t h as .

4 24 D I G E S TI V E S YST E M OF T HE D OG

eight to t en cu r ved r idges o n eithe r side o f the r a phe B eh i n d t he fi r st p a i r o f .

i n ci s o r teeth is t he t r i a n g ul a r i n cisive p a pill a a t w hi ch the n a s o p a l a ti n e du cts ,

-

Ope n . Th e m u c o us m e m b r a n e is u s u a lly pig m e n ted .

The s o ft p al at e is t hick e x cept a t i ts m a r gi ns I n th e r esti n g s ta te o f the p a r ts .

it c o m es i n c o nt a ct wi th t he ora l su r fa ce o f the epi gl o ttis B etw ee n its a n te r i o r .

a n d p o ste r i o r pill a r s o n eithe r S ide is a m a r ked t o n sil l a r si n us i n whi c h a n el on g a ted ,

ton si l is s itu a ted ; this is r eddish i n c o l o r a b o ut a n i n ch l o ng a nd p r o j ects s om ewh a t

, ,

i nt o the f a u ces betwee n t w o f o lds Of m uc o us m e m b r a n e .

The t o n gu e is wid e thi n a n d ve r y m o bil e I t is n o t pigme nted but h as a

, ,
.
,

b r ight r e d c o l o r The uppe r su r f a ce is m a r ked by a m edi a n gr oo ve (S ul cus m edi

.

a n us l i n gu ae ) a n d i s thi c kly beset w i th sh o r t p o i n ted fil i for m p a p i l l w the f r ee e n ds

, , , ,

o f whi ch a r e di r ected b a ckw a r d On the r oo t th e p a pil l a; a r e l on g a n d s o ft :

.

si m i l a r p a pil l ae o ccu r on the l a te r a l w a lls o f the isth m us f a u ci um Th e fu n gif o r m .

p a pill ae a r e s m a ll a nd a re sc a tter ed o ve r the d or su m an d si des o f the t on gu e but

, ,

a r e a bse n t o n the r oo t Th e r e a r e usu a lly tw o or th r ee v a ll a t e p a pi ll ae o n eithe r

.

sid e S m a ll f o l i a te p a pill ae ar e a ls o p r ese n t I n the i nfe r i o r p a r t of th e ti p o f the

. .

t o ngue is the lys s a , a fusif o r m c o r d c o m p o sed o f fib r o us tissue m uscul a r t issue , , .

a n d fa t I n l a r ge d o gs it is a b o ut t w o i n ches (ca 4 t o 5 c m ) l o ng
. . . .

32 7 S K U LL OP A D U LT ST B E R NA D R D OG , S CU L PT U D
RE To S H OW MB DD D P A T
T HE E E E R S OF T HE TE E TH
MI—
. . .

11 —
3, I nc i s o rs ; C, i
c a n nes ; PI 4 p
-
, re mo l a rs ; . 3 m l ,
o a rs .

THE TE E TH

Th e f or mul a fo r the pe r m a n e n t teeth is :

4 26 D I G E ST I V E S YS TE M OF T HE D OG

1
e n d o r at b oth e nds o f the se r ie s The fi r st t o oth a ppe ar s on ly o n ce Th e fo u r th . .

t o o th o f the uppe r r o w a n d the fifth o f th e l o we r r ow a r e m u ch l a r ge r th a n the r est ,

a nd te r m ed s e ct o r i al o r c ar na s s i a l teet h F ro m these th e teeth di m i n ish i n S iz e .

b o th fo r w ar d a n d b a ckw a r d Th e uppe r a n d l o we r teeth d o n ot c or r esp on d b ut .

,

r a the r d o vet a il The teeth behi n d th e sect o r i a l o n es a r e tube r cul a te l e h a ve

.
,
f
. .
,

r o u n ded e m i n e n ces o n the m a sti c a t o r y su r f a ce The othe rs are al l sect o r i a l i n

ch ar a cte r i e h a ve sh a r p —
.

edged p o i n t ed p r oj ecti o n s the mi ddle on e b ei n g t he

,
. .
, , ,

m o st p ro m i n e n t Th e p r e mo l a r s a r e l a ter a lly c om p r essed a n d are sep ar a ted by

.
,

i nte r v a ls f r o m the c an i n es a n d fr o m e a ch o the r except i n t he b r a chyceph a l i c ,

b r eeds The uppe r m o l a rs h a ve wi de s o mewh a t q u a dr a n gul a r c r o wn s a n d th r ee

.
, ,

roo ts The c r o w n of the upp er f o u r th p r e m o l ar (D e n s se ctor i u s ) is di vid ed i nt o

.

tw o p o i n ted l o bes a n d h as a n a n te r o i n te r n a l tube r cle ; i t h a s th r ee r oo ts Th e -

.

FI G . 3 29 .
—D I S S E CT I ON or H AD E OE D OG , S H OW N S A L I V A R Y G D
I G LA N s ETC .

a, Oc u l a r m u s c l e s ; b pt e ry g o id eu s i nt e r nu s (c u t ) ; 0 s ty l g l
o- ; d d ig t i
os s u s ( t) ; g i gl ; as r cus cu e, e n o- os s u s

h y o—
, , ,

f , gen i o -
i
hyo d e us ; g, t h y p h y ng ; g l os s u s ; h , ro - ar e us I
'

, i ph y g ; k t h y h y i d ; l zy g m ti
c r co- ar n eu s , ro - o eu s , o a c

p ro c ess f t e mp o a l ( w n o ff ) ; I p
o r ti d g l nd ; 2 b m
sa , a ro a , su ax ill y g l d ; 3 p t i p t f b li g l g l d ;
ar an , os er o r ar o su n ua an

an er t i o p t f m ; 4 b m ill y d t ; 5 d t
r ar o sa e , su ax ar uc , uc us su b li g n li m j ; 6 p l ti g l d ; 7 b it l
ua s a or , a a ne an s , or a or

zy g o m ti c g l nd ; 8 d ts f 7 ; 9 l
a a , i m l g l a nd ( D t s c o o
uc o , acr a . uc l d d ) (A ft E ll b g i L i i g A tl )
re re . er en er er , n e se r n
'
s as .

c ro w n o f the fi rst l o we r m o l ar (D e n s s ect or i u s ) i s c o m p r essed l a te r a lly an d h as tw o

p o i nted s h ar p edged l o b es b ehi n d wh i ch a r e on e or tw o tub e r cl es ; it h a s tw o r o o ts
,
-
, .

The a ver a ge pe r i o ds o f e r upti o n ar e give n b el o w .

T OO TH ER UPT O N I CHAN GE

to 5 w eek s
1
4 .

4 to 5 w ee k s . 4 to 5 mo n t h s
4 w ee k s .
J
3 to 4 w ee k s . 4 to 5 mo n t h s
4 to 5 m o n t h s
4 t o 5 w ee k s
5 to 6 mo n t h s
.

3 to 4 w ee k s .

3 t o 4 w eek s .

4 mo n t h s .

u pp er 5 to 6 mo n t h s

l o w er to 5 m o n t h s
6 to 7 mo n t h s .

I nc rease i n e
n u m b r a s o o c c u rs , l th e su p er nu mera ry t ee t h b ei n g at e i t h er e nd o f th e e e
s ri s .
 T HE S A L I VA R Y GL A N D S —T HE P H ARYNX 4 27

THE SALI VAR Y GL AN D S

The par o ti d gl a nd is sm a ll I ts uppe r p a r t is wi de a n d is divided i nto tw o .

l o bes by a d eep n o tc h i n t o whi c h the b a se o f the e a r is r eceived ; Th e l o wer en d

is sm a ll a nd o ver l a ps the sub m a xi l l a r y gl an d T he du ct le a ves t he gl a n d a t i ts .

a n te r i or b o r de r c r o sses t he m a ssete r muscl e an d o pe n s i n t o the m o u th o pp osite

, ,

the t hi r d uppe r ch eek t oo th S m a l l a c cess or y gl a n ds (G l a n d u l a} p aro ti d ae a cces .

s or i ae ) a r e s o meti m es f o u n d a l o ng the c o u r se o f th e d uct .

The s ub m a xi ll ar y gl an d is usu a lly l a r ge r th a n th e p a r o tid I n l a r ge d ogs it .

is a b o ut tw o i n c hes (ca 5 c m ) l on g a n d a n i n ch or m o r e (ca 3 c m ) wi de I t is

. . . . .

r o u n ded i n o utl i n e a nd o f a p a l e yel l o w c o l o r I ts upp er p a r t is c o ve r ed by the

'

p a r o tid bu t i t i s o th e r wise supe r fi ci a l a n d is p a lp a bl e i n th e a n gle o f j u n cti on o f

, ,

the j ugul a r and ext e r n a l m a xill ar y vei ns The d u ct l e a ves the deep f a ce o f the .

gl a n d p a sses a l o n g the su r f a ce of the d ig a st r i cus a n d styl o g l o s su s a nd o pe n s i n t o

,
-
,

the m o ut h n e a r th e f r e n u m li n gu ae o n a ve r y i n disti n ct p a pi ll a .

The s ub l i n gu al gl and is di vided i n t o tw o p a r ts Th e p oste r i or p a r t (G l a n d ul a .

subli n gu a lis g r an d i e a na l a r i s ) l ies on th e di ga st r i cus muscle i n i n tim a te r el a ti o n with

. 3 30 .
—
A TTAL
CT ON O P HA Y N G AL AN D LA Y N AL R ON O DO
FI G S GI SE I F R E R GE E GI S E G .

I (E ph g ; 2 l y ; 3 m t h vity ; 4 pi g l tti ; 5 y t i d til g ;

, so a us , ar ft p l t ;
nx p iti , ou ca , e o s , ar e no car a e so a a e os on

of ft p l t w h
so i d; 7 v m ; 8 b
a a e f en i m; 9 t f t g ;
ra se ph y ; b f ni o er as e o c ra n u ro o o on ue a a
’
a
”
ar nx or x of

ll f ph y ; 1 fl
, , , , , , ,

ph y ;
ar p t i
nx c, f ph y
os e r or ; ph y g l
w a f f ft p l t ; l
o ig i
ar nx ( , oo r o ar nx e, ar n ea s ur a c e o so a a e , or n of

ph g ; 0 v ti b l f l y ; h i th m f i m ; i E t hi
e so a us , es u e o p i g; k p t i ar i (A ft E l l
nx , s us auc u ,
u s ac an o en n , os e r o r na r s . er en

b g er in L i
er , i g A tl ) e se r n
'
s as .

the sub m a xi l l a r y gl a n d b ut cl e a r l y sep a r a ble fr o m i t a fte r r e m o v a l o f th e c o mm on

,

fibr o us c a psul e I t h as a p o i n ted a n te r i or p r o cess

. Th e d u c t (D u ctus sub li ngu a lis .

m aj or ) a cc o mp an i es the sub m a xi ll a r y d u ct a n d usu a ll y o pe n s besi de it but i n , ,

s o m e c a ses j o i n s it Th e a nt er i o r p a r t (G l a n dul a subli n gu a l is p ar v i ca n al ari s ) i s

.

l o ng a nd n arr o w ; i t li es on the styl o g l oss u s muscle I t h a s a n u m be r (8 t o 1 2 ) -

.

o f s m a ll d u ct s (D uctus sub l i n gu a les mi n o r es ) s o m e o f whi ch o pe n di r ectly i n t o the ,

mo uth while o ther s j o i n the l a r ge du ct

, .

The orb ital or z yg o ma ti c gl an d (G l a n dul a zyg o m a ti c a ) r ep r ese n ts the supe r i or

m o l ar gl a n ds o f he r bi v o r a I t is p r is m a ti c a n d is S i tu a ted i n the or bit a l r egi o n
. ,

betwee n the zyg o m a ti c a r ch a n d the i n te r n a l pte r yg o i d m uscl e i n c o n t a ct with the ,

per i or bit a I t h as f o u r or five d u c ts (D u ct us zyg o ma ti ci ) wh i ch o pe n n e ar the

.

l ast uppe r cheek t oo th ; on e of the m (c ana l o f N uck ) is a lm o st a s l ar ge as the

p ar otid d u ct ; th e o the r s a r e sm al l .

THE P HAR YN X
Th e f o rn ix is n a rr o w Th e or i fi ces of th e E ust a chi a n tubes a r e s m a l l a n d slit
.

l i ke ; th e e n d o f the t ube c a uses a r o u n ded p ro j ecti on of the m uc o us m emb r a n e

4 28 D I G E S TI V E S YS TE M OF T HE D OG

T us tub i us ) The es ph ge a l o pe n i n g is r el a ti vely sm a ll a n d i s e n ci r cl ed by a

( o r a r o o. a

f o ld o f t he m uc o us m e m b ra n e The h y o p h a r y n geus m usc l e is cle ar ly divided

.
-

i nt o a ke r a t o ph a ry ngeus a n d a ch o n d r o ph a r y n geus
- - .

THE CESOP HAGUS

The (e s oph ag u s is r el a tively wi de an d di l a t a bl e except a t its o r igi n The .

c on st r i cti o n a t i ts or igi n is te r m ed the i sth mu s ce s oph a gi Th e c ar di a c end is .

S lightly di l a ted ; it j o i n s the st o m a ch u n de r th e te n t h o r el eve n th th o r a ci c ve r teb ra ,

S lightly t o t he left o f the m edi a n pl a n e T he m uscul ar tissu e is st r i a ted a n d c o n

.

sists ma i n ly o f tw o l a ye r s o f S pi r a l fibe r s wh i ch c r o ss e a ch o th e r n e a r th e c ar di a ,

h o weve r the fibe r s a r e l o n gitudi n a l a n d ci r cul a r The r e a re muc o us gl a n ds an d

,
.

ly m ph gl a n ds i n the sub m u c o s a th r o ugh o ut .

E s o ph a gu s

Les s er

P yl or u s

331 .
—ST MAC H O OF D OG , P ARI E TAL S U R FA C E .

Or g a n fi x ed in si l u w hen w e ll fi ll e d .

THE S TOMACH
Th e s t oma ch is r el a tivel y l ar ge I ts c a p a city i n a d og weighi ng a b o u t 4 0
.

p o u nds is a b ou t six t o seve n pi n ts .

C o li n es ti ma t es t h e a v er a g e c a p a c i t y a t a b o u t 3 li t er s (c a p i n t s ) w i t h a r a ng e b e t w een
.
,

and 8 li t ers (ca 1 } to 1 7 % p i n t s ) N eu m a y er g i v es t h e c a p a c i t y as 1 00 to 2 50 c c p er k i l o g r a m

.
a . . .

o f b od y w ei gh t (c a
-
o u n c es p er p o u n d ) T h e a v e r a g e c a p a c i t y o f t h e h u ma n s t o m ac h i s es ti
m a t ed a t 3 5 to 4 0 o u nc es —o n l y a bo u t o n e h a l f o f t h a t of a d og of m ed i u m S i z e
. .

-
.

Whe n full it is i rr egul a r l y pyr if o r m The l eft or c a r d i a c p a r t (C o r pus .

ve n t r i culi ) is l a r ge a nd r o u n ded w hi l e the r ight or pyl or i c p a r t (P ar s py l or i ca ) is

,

sm a ll a nd cyli nd r i c a l Whe n e m pty o r n e ar ly so the l eft Sa c is st ron gly c on t r a cted ;

.
, ,

the pyl or i c p a r t is n ot m a te r i a ll y a ffected by v a r i a ti ons i n t he a m o u n t of i ngest a .

The p a r i et a l su r f a ce of th e full st o m a c h is ve r y ext en si v e st r on gly c o n vex , ,

a nd f a ces p a r tly f or w a r d but l ar gely to th e l eft

, I t is r el a ted t o th e l ive r the l eft .
,

p ar t o f the di a ph r a g m a n d t he l eft a n d ve n t r a l a bd o mi na l w a l l as fa r b a ck as a
,

t ra nsve rse secti o n th r o ugh th e sec on d o r t hi r d l u m b a r ve r teb r a .

The visce r a l su r f a ce is m u ch less exte n siv e a n d is c o n si de r a b ly fl a tten ed ; i t

fa ces chi efl y to the r ight a n d is r el a ted to th e i n testi n e p a n c r e a s an d l eft ki d n ey
, , ,
.

The u ppe r p a r t o f th e lesse r cu r v a tu r e is n e a r ly st r a ight a n d ve r ti c a l bu t the ,

l o we r p a r t f or ms a deep n a rr o w a n gl e d ue to the f a ct th a t the pyl o r i c p ar t is

, ,

di r ected S h a r ply f o r w a r d a nd upw a r d .

4 30 DI GE STI VE S Y S TE M OF T HE D OG

th e el eve n th o r twelfth r i b I n t his st a te the r e is no t r a r ely a m a r ked c o nst r i ct i on

.

betwee n the r ight an d left p o r ti o ns .

The l o ngitudi n a l muscul a r fib e r s a r e f o u n d on t h e cu r v a tu r es a n d on t h e pyl o ri c

p a r t T h e o bl i q ue fib er s a r e arr a nged i n tw o l a ye r s : the exte rna l l a ye r is a c on
.

t i n u a t i o n o f t h e l o n gitudi n a l fibe r s o f the oes o ph a gus o n t o the b o dy a n d fu n dus .

The ci r cul a r l a ye r c o ve r s th e w h o le st o m a ch ex cept t h e fu n dus a nd f o r ms a pyl or i c ,

S phi n cte r a n d a n a n t ra l sphi n cte r T h e i n te r n a l o bliq u e l a ye r is a rr a nged a s i n

.

t he h o r se a n d f or m s a si m il a r l oop like c ar di a c S phi n cte r

,
-
,
.

Th r ee r egi ons o f t he m u c o us m e m b r an e exist C a r di a c gl a n ds ar e fo u n d i n a .

ve r y n a rr o w p a l e z o n e a r o u n d t he c a r d i a c o pe n i n g a n d a ls o sc a tter ed a l o n g th e les ,

s e r c u r v a tu r e Th e fu n dus gl a n d r egi on h as a th i ck r eddish b r o w n m u c o us m em

.
,
-

FI G . 335 .
—A B D OM NAL V C I IS ERA OP D OG .

Su pe r fi i l v t l Vi
c a en ra ew a ft er re m o v l
a of th e g re a t o me n t um . F ro m ph o t o g a p h
r of f
or ma li n—
h a r d e ne d j t
s u b ec .

b r a n e whi ch l i n es a b o ut tw o—
, t hi r ds of t he or g a n Th e pyl o r i c mu c o us m emb r a n e .

is thi nne r a nd p a le ; i n the de a d subj ect it i s o fte n st a i n ed by r egu r gi t a ted bile .

THE I N TE STI N E
The i ntesti n e i s sh or t —a b o ut fi ve o r S i x ti m es t he le ngt h o f t he b o dy .

The sma ll i nte sti n e h a s a n a ve r a ge le ngt h o f a b o ut th i rt ee n feet (ca 4 m ete r s ) . .

I t o c c upi es m o st o f the a bd o m i n a l c a vity beh i nd the l iver a n d st o m a ch T he d u od .

e n um begi ns a t the p o r t a l fissu r e a n d p a sses b a ckw a r d a n d upw a r d a t fi r st on t he ,

visce r a l s u r f a ce o f th e live r t h e n i n c on t a ct wit h th e r ight fl a n k N e ar t h e pelvis

, .

i t tu r ns i nw a r d a n d sh a r pl y f or w ar d p a sses a l o n g th e i nn e r b o r de r of the l eft ,

kid n ey a n d j o i ns t h e j ej u n um t o t h e l eft of th e r oot o f th e m ese n te r y Th e

, .

m es o du o d e n u m is giv e n o ff f r o m the c o mm o n mese n te r y ; it is a r el a tively w ide

 T HE I N TE S T I N E 43 1

f old except at the te r mi n a l p ar t H e r e the r e a r e tw o sh o r t fo lds o ne o f whi ch

,
.
,

j o i n s t h e m es o c o l o n ; the o the r p a sses o n t o th e t e r m i na l p a r t of the c o l on The .

fi r st p a r t of the m es o d u o de n um c o n t a i n s the r ight b r a n ch o f the p a n c r e a s I ts .

r oo t is ble n ded w i th t he mes o c o l o n t o f or m a c o mm o n mese n te r y The r e m a i nde r .

o f the sm a ll i n testi n e f or ms n u m e r o us c o ils a n d is a tt a ched b y a wi de m ese n t e r y ,

t o the subl u m b a r r egi o n The pan crea tic an d b i l e d u ct s o pe n i n t o the d u o de n um

.

a b o ut tw o o r th r ee i n ches (c a 5 t o 8 cm ) f r o m the pyl or us ; th e a c c e s s or y pan c r e a ti c

. .

d u c t o pe n s an i n ch or tw o (ca to 5 c m ) fu r t he r b a ck The m uc o us m emb r an e h as

. . .

’
ver y l o ng vi ll i The du o de n a l (B r u nn er s ) gl a n ds o c cu r o nly n e ar t he pyl or us P eyer s
. .
’

p atches ar e n u m e r o us (ab o ut twe n ty i n y o u n g subj ects ) a n d b egi n i n th e d u od e n u m , .

T hey ar e us u a lly ellipti c a l i n o utli n e b ut the l a st on e is b a n d li ke r e a ches t o th e en d

,
-
,

FI G . 336 —
. D P EE D I S S E c rI O N A B D O M NAL V C A O D O (F MAL )
OE I IS ER E G E E .

Bl Bl d da er ; B , b od y ; C , C ’ c o rnu a of u e ru st ; 0 v i ; L K l ft ki d y T h
o a r es ldp t e ne e c on c e a e ar of th e co onl
(F m p h t g p h f f m li —
.
, ,
.

is i nd i a ted
c by d o tted l i n es . ro h d
o o d bj t )
ra o or a n ar ene su ec .

of th e i leum a n d is f o u r to S i xt een i n ches (c a 1 0 t o 4 0 cm ) l on g i n y o u n g d og s (E ll e n

—
. .

1
b e ger ) Ther e is a n il e o c aec a l v a lve
r . The muscul ar c oa t is r el a ti vely thi ck
. .

The l ar ge i nte s tin e is tw o to t w o an d a h a lf feet (c a 60 to 75 c m ) l on g . . .

I ts c a l ibe r is a b o ut th e s a m e as th a t o f th e s m a ll i n test i n e a n d i t h as n either l o n gi ,

t u d i n a l b a n ds n o r Sa ccul a ti o n s .

The c aecum is a b o ut th r ee or f o u r i n ches (c a 8 t o 1 0 cm ) l on g a n d is twisted . .

,

i n a sp i r a l f a shi o n The twist is m a i n t a i n ed by t he pe r i t on eu m w h ich a tt a ches i t

.
,

T h e v a l v e d o es n o t s eem t o b e e ffi c i e n t s i n c e e x p er i en c e s h o w s t h a t r e c t a l i n j e c ti o n s ca n
1
,

b e m a d e to p a ss b e y o n d i t Th i s ma y b e p a r t l y d u e a l s o to t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t er m i n a l p a r t of t h e
i l eu m r un s h or i z o n t a l l y f o r w ar d a n d t h e i l eo—
.

,c w c a l o ri fi c e f a c es I n t o t h e b egi nn i ng o f th e c o l o n .
4 32 D I G E STI V E S YS T E M OF T HE D OG

t o the i leum I t is sit u a ted usu a l ly a g a i n st t h e m i ddle o f the uppe r p a r t o f the r ight
.

1
fl a n k bel o w the du o d e n u m a nd the r ight b r a n ch o f the p a n c r e a s
,
.

The c o l on is a tt a ched to t he subl u m b a r r egi o n by a m ese n ter y the m es o c ol o n , .

I t p r ese nts th r ee p ar ts whi ch c o rr e s p o n d t o the a sce n di n g t r a n sve r se a n d desce n d

, , ,

i ng c o l o n o f m a n The fi r st o r r ight p a r t (C o l o n a sce n d e n s ) is ve r y S h or t I t

.
.

begi ns a t the j u n cti on o f the i l eu m a nd c ae cu m a n d p a sses f or w ar d a l on g the i nn e r ,

su r fa ce o f the du o de n u m a n d the r ight b r an ch o f th e p a n c r e a s till it r e a ch es t h e

pyl or i c p ar t of the st o m a ch ; he r e it tu r ns i n w a r d a n d c r o sses the m edi an pl a n e ,

f or m i n g the t r a nsve r se p a r t (C o l o n t r an sver su m) The th i r d or l eft p a r t (C o l on .

desce n de n s ) p a sses b a ckw ar d i n the subl umb ar r egi o n a l o n g the i nn er b or d e r or

ve nt r a l su r fa ce o f th e left kid n ey ; the n i n cli n es t o w ar d th e medi a n pl a n e a n d j o i ns
2
the r ectu m Th e c a l ib e r of the c o l on .

is ab o ut the s a m e t h r o ugh o ut I t h as .

n o b a n ds n or s a ccul a ti o n s .

Th e mu c o us m emb ra n e of the
c aecu m c on t a i n s n u m e r o us s o lit ar y
gl a n ds ; they a re fo u n d a ls o i n th e fi r st
p a r t o f the c o l on .

Th e r e ctum is a l m ost c om pletely

c o ve r ed wi th pe r it o n eum the li n e of pe r i ,

FI G . 337 .
-C CUM O DO
. E P G . FI G . 33 8 .
—T F R M I N A T I ON
. or II . E UM OF D OG .

I l m; 2 m; 3 l (F m L i A tl C l m; il m; d il p
’
1 , eu , c :D c u , co on . ro e s e r i ng s as . ) (1 , o on ; b , cr
e cu c, eu , e o -c az c a l O en

i ng : i l
e , c rc u a r de p i
res s o n a r o u nd e nd o f il eu m .
(A ft e r

P . Sc h u ma n n ) .

t o n ea l efl ecti o n b ei ng u n de r th e sec o n d o r thi r d c o ccyge a l ve r teb r a A t the j u n c

r .

ti on o f the r ectu m a n d a n us th e mu c o us memb r a n e h as a st r a tified squ a mo us ,

epithel i u m a n d c o nt a i ns the a nal gl an d s A s m a ll o pe n i n g o n eithe r S ide le a ds i n t o

,
.

t w o l a te r a l an a l s acs (S i n us p ai a n a l e s ) ; these ar e usu a l ly a b o ut th e si z e of a h a zel

‘

nut a n d c o n t a i n a di r ty g r a y
, f a tty subst a n ce whic h h as a peculi a r a n d ve r y , ,

u n pl e a s a n t Od or The ski n whi ch l i n es these p o u ch es c o n t a i n s c o i l gl an ds Fu r

.
-
.

the r b a ck the S ki n c o n t a i n s l a r ge seb a ce o us gl an ds a n d peculi ar ci r cu m anal gl and s .

The r et r a ct or a ni m uscle is exte n si ve I t a r ises f r o m the S h a ft o f the i li um the .

,

pubi s a nd the sy mphysis pelvis a n d p a sses upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d t o e nd o n the

, ,

fi r st c o ccyge a l ve r teb rae a nd the sphi n cte r a ni exte r n us The r et r a ct or s t o gether .

,

with the c o ccygei f o r m a s o rt of pelvi c d i a ph ra g m a n a l o go us t o th a t of man

, ,
.

LI VE R THE
The li ve r is r el a tiv el y l ar ge w eigh i n g usu a lly a b o ut 5 pe r cen t o f th e b o dy ,
.

weight I t is d ivid ed i n t o six o r seve n l o b e s by fissu r es whi ch c o n ve r ge a t the p or t a l

.

fissu r e Whe n the gl a n d i s ex a m i n ed i n t he s o ft c o n di ti o n al l the l o bes a r e Visibl e

.
,

o n t he visce r a l su r f a ce b ut usu a lly o n ly f o u r o n the p a r iet a l su r f a ce

,
.

The l e ft l a t era l l o b e is the l a r gest a nd is o v a l i n o utli n e The l e ft c e ntra l l ob e ,

.

E l l e nb e rg er B a u m s t a t e t h a t th e cze c u m m a y r e a c h a l e n g t h o f 2 0 c m i n v e ry l a rg e d o gs
a nd . .

2
Wh en t h e s t o ma c h i s v e ry f u l l , i t p u s h es t h e l e f t p o r ti o n o f t h e co l o n o v er t o t h e r i g h t ,
p ro d u c i ng an a c u t e a ng l e i n p l a c e o f a t r a n s v e rs e b r a n c h T h e t er m i na l p a r t o f th e c o l o n i s t h u s
o b li q
.

ue I n d I rec t I o n .
4 34 DI G E ST I v E S YSTE M OF T HE D OG

the lesse r cur v a tu r e o f the st o ma ch ) whi ch sep a r a tes tw o deep c a vities Th e ,

.

dep r essi o n t o the left of the r idge is o ccupi ed by the b o dy a n d fu n dus o f the st o m a ch .

Th e d ep r essi o n o n th e r ight is s m a ll e r a n d is o ccupi ed by t he pyl o r i c p a r t o f the

,

st om a ch t he o r igi n o f th e du o d e n u m a n d the r ight b r an ch o f th e p a n c r e as T h e

, ,
.

g a ll bl a dde r is n ot visibl e
-
.

Wh en t h e s t o m ac h i s e m p t y a nd co n t ra c t ed t h e v i s c era l s u r f a ce of th e li v er is s t ri ki n g l y
,

d i ff er en t T h er e i s t h e n a s h a l l o w i m p res s i o n fo r t h e l e f t p a r t o f t h e s t o m ac h o n th e l e f t l o b e
.
,

a nd a l a r g e co n v ex a re a r e l a t ed t o t h e s m a l l i n t es ti ne a n d a m ass o f o me n t u m
.
T h e p y lori c .

a nd d u od e n a l i m p res s i o n s a r e n o t m u c h c h a n g ed Th e g a ll b l a d d e r i s vi s i b l e
.
-
. .

The p o rt a l fissu r e i s ve r y deep a n d m ight w el l b e t e r m ed a f oss a I t i s b o u n d ed .

o n the r ight (exte r n a lly ) by the c a ud a te p r o cess on th e l eft (i n te r n a lly ) by t h e ,

p a pill a r y p ro cess o r l o be whi ch is di r ected ve n t r a l ly T h e h ep a ti c ar te r y e n te r s

,
.

a t the d o r s a l en d a n d the p or t a l vei n ce n t r a lly whi l e the bi l e du ct l e a ves at t h e ,

ve nt ra l p ar t The left ce nt r a l l o b e is n ot vi sible an d the r ight

.
,

ce n t r a l on e is l ar gely c o n ce a l ed .

Th e p ar i et a l su r f a ce i s ext r emely c onvex b ei n g a d a pt ed to ,

the di a ph ra gm a n d the a dj a ce n t p a r t o f t h e ve n t r a l w a ll of the

a bd o m e n On i t a l l th e l o b es except th e p a pi ll a r y a r e com
.

p l et el y or p a r ti a lly visi ble The g a l l bl a dde r i s visibl e i n th e -

.

fissu r e b etwee n the q u a d r a t e a n d chi ef p or ti o n s o f t he r ight

ce n t r a l l o b e .

The d o rs a l b or d e r p r ese n ts a r en a l i m p r essi o n on i ts r ight

p or ti on The p o ster i or ve n a c a v a p a sses d o wn w ar d a n d f o r w ar d
.

a t fi r st i n a deep g r o o ve on t h e c a u d a t e l o b e the n l a r gely e m b ed ,

ded i n th e p a r i et a l su r f a ce o f th e r ight l a te ra l l o b e ; i t r ecei ves

t w o l a r ge hep a ti c v ei n s j ust b ef o r e pi e r ci n g th e d i a phr a g m .

The oes o ph a ge a l n o tch is l a r g e a n d is o ccupi ed on th e r ight ,

by the thi ck m a r gi n o f th e h i a tus oesop h ag eu s Th e l eft b o rde r .

is o pp osite to the n i n th a n d t e n t h r i bs ; i t is thi n an d is m ar ked

by n u m e ro us i n de n t a ti o n s Th e c a u d a te p r o cess exte n ds usu a ll y .

a littl e b ey o n d th e l a st r ight r i b b etwee n th e r ight kid n ey a n d ,

the r ight b ra n ch of t he p an c r e a s Th e ve n t r a l b or d er l i es on .

the ve n t r a l a bd o m i n a l w a l l a v a r i a bl e di st an ce behi n d th e
.

F IG 34 l
.
—S PL N .
l h Ol d c a r ti l a ge
EE or
'

DO “ “ C ,
The g al l -b l a d d e r l i es i n th e fo ss a v esi c ae fel l eae b etwee n t h e
sc an .
,

S UM AC tw o p a r ts of the r ight ce n t r a l l o b e ; it d o es n ot r e a ch t o t he v en
‘
E

R id g
d gl t r a l b o rd er o f the l ive r The cysti c d u ct j o i n s t he hep ati c du ct
a l

l eid r .

t
'
v e n ra r e t rs

end . m m a t the l o we r p a r t Of the p o r t a l fissu r e f o r m i n g wi th it t h e bi l e

e ,

duct (D u ctus ch o l ed o c hus ) t h e l att e r p a sses t o t h e r ight a nd

'

"
b g
er i
er .L i i g
n e se r n s

“
o pe n s i n t o th e du o d e n u m a b o ut t w o o r th r ee i n ches (ca 5 t o
as
.
,

8 c m ) f r o m th e pyl o r us . .

Of th e l ig a m e n ts the c o r o n a r y a n d r ight l a te ra l are w el l devel o ped b ut th e

, ,

left l a te r a l a nd f a l cifo r m a r e s m a ll .

THE P ANCR E AS
T h e pan c r e a s i s V-sh a ped ,
c o nsisti n g o f tw o l on g n a rr o w b r an ch es whi ch ,

m eet a t a n a cute a n gl e a b o ve the pyl or us The ri ght b r an c h exte nds b a ckw a r d .

a b o ve the fi r s t p a r t o f the du o de n u m bel o w the c a ud a te l o be o f the li ve r a n d the

,

r ight kid n ey a n d e n ds usu a lly a sh o r t d ist a n ce b ehi n d the l a tte r

, Th e l e ft b r an c h .

p a sses i n w a r d a n d b a c k w ar d on the visce r a l su r f a ce o f the st o m a ch a n d e nds ,

u nd e r t he l eft kid n ey The r e a r e tw o du cts : th e l a rge r o n e u n ites wi th the bi l e

.

duct whil e the s ma ll e r o ne e nte r s the du o de n um a n i n ch or tw o (ca 3 to 5 cm )

, . .

fu r the r b a ck .
 T HE S P LE E N 4 35

THE S P LE E N

Th e s pl e e n is b r ight re d i n c o l o r i n the f r esh st a te I t is s o mewh a t f a l ci for m .

,

l o n g a n d n a rr o w ; the ve nt ra l p ar t is the wi dest I ts p o sit i o n v ar i es i n a cc o r d a n ce

, .

with the full n ess o f th e st o m a ch Whe n th a t o r g a n is m o d e r a tely full the l on g .

a xi s of the spl ee n c o rr esp o n ds t o the d i r ecti o n o f the l a s t r i b I ts p a r iet a l su r f a ce .

FI G . 34 2 —P J CT N
RO E IO or V C A o D O (NI
IS ER r G ALB ) ON B O DY W ALL , L E P r SI D E .

A , C, D , A pi c l a , i
c a rd a c , a nd d i pha ra g ma ti l b f l g ; P p i
c o es o un , e r c a rd u i m; P r , p t t
ro s a e . C t l tt
os a a ac h m e n t a nd

me di
an li f d i ph g m
ne o a ra a re do tt ed .

FI G . 34 3 .
—P R OJ E CTI ON V C A o DO
OF' IS ER r G (F E MAL E ) D Y WALL R H T S D
ON B O , IG I E .

A, C ,D A pi l
, ca , i
ca rd a c , an d d i p h g m ti l b
a ra a c o es o f ri g h t l g; P p i d i m ; L K i g h t k id
u n .
, er c a r u . .
,
r n ey ;
P am r
, ig ht b h f p
r a nc o a nc rea s ; O . ov y; U
ar f t , c o r nu o u e ru s .C t l tt h m t d m d i li
os a a f d ia ph
ac en an e an ne o rag m

a re d o tt ed ; l p t i
a so os e r o r c o n o u r o t f t m h
s o ac .

i s c o n vex a n d li es l a r gely a g a i n st th e l eft fl a n k The visce r a l su r f a ce is c o n c a ve i n .

its l e n gt h a nd is m ar ked by a l o n gi tudi n a l r i dge o n whi ch the vessels a nd n e r ves

, ,

ar e sit u a ted The d o r s a l en d l i es a g a i n st the l eft kid n ey a n d l eft c r us of the d i a

.

p hr a g m . Th e ve nt ra l en d i s a littl e fu r the r b a ck a n d r e a ches t o th e v en t ra l w a l l ,

o f the a b d o m e n I t i s so l oo sely a tt a ch ed by the g r e a t o m e n tu m as to b e r eg ar ded

.

as a n a ppe n d a ge Of t he l a tte r .
 THE R E S PIR AT O R Y S Y S T E M
The o rg ans of r espi r a ti o n (A pp tus espi t o i us ) c o mp ise t he
ara r ra r c a vi ty , r n a s al
1

the ph ary nx , the l ar ynx the tr a ch ea , the b r o n c h i a n d th e lu n g s

, The l u n gs a r e the
, .

cen t r a l or g a ns i n whi ch the exch a n ge of g a ses betwee n th e b l oo d a n d the a i r t a kes

pl a ce ; the o the r p ar ts of the syste m a r e p a ss a ges by w hi ch the a i r p a sses t o and
f ro m the l u n gs The na s a l c a vity o pe n s exte rna lly a t th e n ost r ils a n d c o mm u n i
.
,

c a tes b ehi n d with the ph a r y n x th ro ugh th e p o ste r i or n ar es (C h oa nae ) it c o nt a i n s

the pe r ip he r a l p a r t o f the o lfa ct or y a pp a r a tus w hi ch medi a t es the se n se o f smell
The ph a r y nx is a c om m on p a ss a ge for the a i r a nd f o o d —a r em n an t o f the p r i m itive
, .

e m b r y on i c a rra n ge m e n t ; i t h as bee n d esc r ibed as a p a r t of the di gestiv e tub e .

The l ar y nx is a c o m plex v a lvul a r a pp a r a tus whi ch r egul a tes th e v o l u m e o f a i r p a ss

i ng th r o ugh the t r a ct ; it is a ls o the chi ef o r g a n o f v o i ce The t r a ch e a a nd the .
,

b r o n chi f or m ed by its bifu r c a ti on ar e pe r m a n e n tly Open c o n du cti n g tub es The

, .

th or a x the pleu ra l s a cs whi ch i t c ont a i ns a n d the muscl es wh i c h i n c r e a se o r

, ,

di m i n ish the si z e of th e c a vity a r e a ls o p ar ts o f the syste m The b o n es j o i nts .

, ,

a nd muscl es o f the th o ra x h a ve a l r e a dy bee n d esc r ibed .

Fo r t o p o g r a phi c r e a s o n s tw o d u ctl ess gl a n ds th e th yr o i d a nd the th ym u s , a r e

,

usu a l ly desc r ibed i n this secti o n a lth o ugh t hey ar e i n n o se n se a p ar t o f the r espi ra
,

t ory system .

RE SP I RATORY SYSTE M OF THE HORSE

THE N ASAL CAVI TY

The na s a l c avity (C a vu m n a si ) th e fi r st segme nt o f th e r espi ra t o r y t ra ct is a

, ,

l on g s om ewh a t cyli n d r i c a l p a ss a ge i n cl o sed by a l l the f a ci a l b o n es except th e

, ,

ma nd ible a n d hy o id I t is sep a r a ted f r o m the m o uth ve n t r a lly by the p a l a te

. .

I t Ope n s exte r n a lly a t the no st r i ls a n d c o m mu n i c a tes p o ste r i o r ly wit h the ph a r y n x

,

th r o ugh the p o ste r i or na r es .

The no s tr i l s or a nter i or nat e s (N a r es ) a re s om ewh a t o v a l i n o utli n e an d a r e ,

pl a ced o bli quely so th a t they a r e cl o se r t o get he r b el o w th a n a b o ve They a r e

, .

b o u n ded by tw o al a or wi n gs (Al ae n asi ) wh i ch meet a b o ve an d b el o w f o r m i ng t h e

, ,

c o mmi s s u re s The o ute r a l a is c o n c a ve ; the i nn e r o n e is c o n vex a b o ve c on c a ve

.
,

b el o w The uppe r c o m m i ssu r e i s n arr o w th e l o we r o n e w i de a nd r o u n ded

.
,
If .

the fi nge r is p as sed i n t o the n o st r il a t the u pper c o m missu r e i t e n te r s the s o c a ll ed -

f a l s e no str i l , whi c h le a ds b a ckw a r d t o a bli n d cut a n e o us p o u ch This cul de —

,

sa c .
-
,

the d iv er ti cu lu m na s i , e x te n ds b a ck w a r d t o th e a n gl e of j u n cti o n Of the n a s a l b o n e

a n d the n a s a l p r o cess o f the p r e m a xi l l a The p oste r i o r p a r t Of th e d ive r ti cul u m
.

is bli n d but the f a lse n o st r i l c o mmu n i c a tes b el o w an d i n te r n a lly w ith the vestib ul e
,

o f the n a s a l c a vi ty The exte r n a l Ope n i ng o f th e na s o -l a cr i m al d u ct is see n whe n

.

the n o st r i l is dil a ted ; it is si tu a ted o n the fl o o r o f the vestibu l e pe r f o r a t i ng the ,

ski n cl o se to its j u n cti o n wi th the muc o us m e m b ra n e a b o ut tw o i n c hes (ca 5 c m ) ,

. .

f r o m t he l o we r c o m m issu r e (I t is no t r a r e to fin d o n e o r tw o a ccess o r y o r ifi ces

.

fu r the r b a ck )
S tru ctu re —The s k i n a r o u n d th e n o st r i ls p r ese n ts l o n g t a cti l e h a i r s as well a s
.

t he or di n a r y o n es I t is c o n ti n ued a ro u n d th e a l ae a n d li n es the vestib ul e I n th e

. .

An e xter na l n ose (N as us e x t e r n u s ), s u c h as e x i s t s i n ma n , f o r m i n g a p r oj ec t i o n d i s ti n c t l y
ma r k ed Off f ro m t h e r es t o f t h e f a c e , d o es n o t exi s t i n th e d o mes ti ca t ed a n i m a l s .

4 36
4 38 RE SPI R A T OR Y S YS TE M or T HE H OR S E

in this situ a ti on Th e ve n tr a l b o r d e r i s thi ck a n d r o u n d ed ; it l ies chi efly i n the

.

g roo ve of t he v om e r b ut a nte r i o r ly i t o ccupi es t h e sp a ce betwee n t h e pr em ax

,

i l l a r y b o n es The p o ster i or b or d er is c onti n u o us .

w ith the pe r pe n di cul a r pl a te o the eth f m o id b o en

1
.

The a l a r c ar ti l a ges a r e a tt a ch ed to th e a n te r i or
ext r e m ity by fib r o us tissue i n su ch a m ann e r a s to
a o ll w ve r y f r ee m o veme n t — i n f a ct a n a ctu a l j o i n t ,

m a y be f o u n d The v e n t r a l p a r t of th e c ar til a ge .

is a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (c a 1 t he m iddle p ar t .

a b o ut o n e te n th o f an i n ch (ca a n d the -
.

d or s a l p ar t a b o ut a q u ar ter t o a thi r d o f an i n ch
(ca 6 to 8 mm ) i n t hi ck n ess . . .

The tw o tu r b in a l b o ne s (C on c h ze n a s a les )
p r oj ect fr o m the l a te r a l w a ll an d d ivide th e o ute r
p a rt o f t he c a v ity i n t o th r ee m e a tu s e s —supe r i o r
,

middle an d i nf e r i o r ,
.

The sup er i o r m ea tu s (M e a tus n a si d or s a l is )

is a n a r r o w p a ss a ge b o u n d ed d or s a lly by the r oo f ,

o f the c a vity a n d ven t r a lly by the supe r i or ,

tu r bi na l b o n e ; its p o st e r i or end is cl o sed by th e

j u n cti on of t h e i n n e r pl ate Of t h e f r on t a l b on e
w i th the c r ib r if or m p l a te an d l ate r a l m a ss of the
et h m o i d I t t r a n s mits a i r t o th e uppe r p a r t o f .

F 346
IG — N CA T LA O HO
\ SAL
the o lf a ct o r y r egi o n
R I GES F RS E
.

Th e mi d d l e m e a tu s (M e a tus n a si medi us ) is
. . . ,

D O AL V W (A ft E ll b g
RS I E er en er er

B m A t f K ii tl )
.

au , na
betwee n the tw o tu r bi n a l b on es I t is s om ewh a t
. ur ns er .

l ar ge r t h an th e supe r i o r me a tus an d d o es not ex ,

te n d b a ck so fa r ; it e n ds n e a r th e g r e a t ethm o tu r b i na l a n d the ethm o id a l me a tuses .

S u per i o r
tur bi n a l E th mo S ep tu m betw een
tu r bi n a l S u per i or tu Tb ma l S
mea tu s f r on ta l si n u s es

FI G . 34 7 .
—NA AL CAV TY
CT ON W T H S P I UM R M O D
S I or HO RS E , SA G I I T A L S E
‘ ‘
I I E
’ ‘
E VE .

1 S p i t bi
, l f ld ; 2 l f ld
u er or t i i g til g i
ur p l g ti n f i f i t b i l ; 3
na o , a ar o . con a n n ca r a no u s ro o n a o o n er o r ur na , a r ro w

p i ti g t m m ill y fi
o n n o ; 4 i l vity ; 5 ph i d l i ;
is c - ax ar h m l
s s u ref pt y g i d b , c ra n a ca , s e no a s nu s a u us o er o o ne . Th e
olf t y m
ac or m mb i h d d
u co u s D tt d li i d i t
e t i li m it f
r a ne il d p t f t b i l
s s a e . o e n es n c a e a n er o r o u nc o e ar s o ur na b o ne s ,

w hi h i c l p t f f t l d m ill y i
nc os e ar s o ro n a an ax ar S n u s es .

In its p o ste r i or p ar t is f o u n d t he ext r e m ely narr o w sl it l i ke i n te r v a l by whi ch the

,
-

T h e s e p t a l c a r ti l a g e i s to b e re g a r d ed as a n u n o s s i fie d p a r t o f t h e m es e t h m o i d I t w i l l be .

n o t ed t h a t t h e li ne o f d e ma rc a t i o n b e t w een t h e b o ne a n d t h e ca r ti l a e i s i rreg u l a r a nd v a r i es
g
m th a ge ; e x t e ns i v e os s i fi c a ti o n (o r c a l c i fi c a ti o n ) o f t h e ca r ti l a g e i s c o mm o n l y f o u nd i n o l d a n i ma l s .

T he p r oc es s o f t e n res u lt s i n t h e f o r m a ti o n o f c a l ca r eou s i s l a nd s i n t h e c a r ti l a g e .
 T HE N A S A L CA V I T Y 4 39

m a xil l a r y si nus c o mm u n i c a tes wit h the n a s a l c a vity —the na s o m ax i ll ary fi s s ur e -

(A ditus n a s o m a xi ll a r is ) The fissu r e is n ot v isi ble f r o m th e na s a l si de bei n g co n

-
.
,

c ea l ed b y the o ve r h a ng i n g supe r i o r tu r bi na l A fine fl exibl e p r o be p a ssed o utw a r d .

,

a nd s o mewh a t b a ckw a r d b etwee n the tu r bi n a l b o n es e n te r s the m a xill ar y si n us ; if i n ,

t r o d u ce d a little fu r the r i n th e s a m e di r ecti o n i t usu a lly p a sses t h r o ugh the o r ifice ,

o f c o mmu ni c a ti on betwee n th e m a x ill a r y a n d the f r on t a l si n us a n d e n te r s the l a tte r .

S u per i or mea tus S eptu m n as i La crtma l -

s ac

Di ga s tri cus (a n

FI G . 348 .
— C R OS S -S E CT ON
I OF H ADE OF HO RS E . T HE S E CT IO N PA SS ES T H OU H
R G T HE N T NAL CAN T H
I ER I .

I ,
Myl o-h y o id e us ; 2 , s ty l g l
o- o ss us ; 3 , h y o -g l o s s us ; 4 ,
—
g e ni o g l o s s u s ; 5, li ng ua lp r o c es s o f h y id bo Ao ne . n a r ro w

po i n t s t o t h e n as o -ma xi ll a ry fiss u re .

A sm a l l p a r t of the fissu r e usu a ll y b r i n gs the ante r i or d ivisi o n of th e m a xi ll ar y

si n us i n t o c o m m u n i c a ti o n wit h th e n a s a l c a vity The sp a ces i n cl o sed by the c o i led .

p o r ti o n s Of t he tu r bi na ls a ls o o pe n i n t o the m id dl e m e a tus This p a ss a ge m a y .

b e ch ara cter i zed a s t he si n us me a tus but it a ls o c o n ducts a i r t o t he o lf a ct or y

-
,

r egi on .

Th e inf eri or mea tu s (M e a tus na s i ve n t r a l is ) is situ a ted betwee n the i n fer i o r

440 RE S PI R A T OR Y S Y ST E M OF T HE H OR S E

tu r bi n a l a nd th e fl o or o f the c a vit y I t i s m uch l ar ge r th a n the o the r t w o a n d is

.
,

th e di r ect p a ss a ge betwee n the n o st r ils a n d the ph a r y nx .

The c o mm o n m e a tu s (M e a tus n a si c omm u n is ) is S i tu a ted betwee n the septu m

a nd th e tu r bi n a ls a n d is c o n ti n u o us e x te r n a lly wi th the o the r me a tuses
,
I t is .

ve r y n arr o w d or s a lly but wi de n s ve n t r a lly

,
.

The l a te ra l m a sses o f the eth m o i d b on e p r oj ect f o r w ar d i n t o the p oster i o r

p a r t (fu n dus ) o f the n a s a l c a vi ty (Fig B etwee n t he eth m o tu r bi n a ls Of .

whi ch e a ch m a ss i s c o m p osed the r e a r e th r ee p r i n cip a l a n d n ume r o us s m a ll p a ss a ges ,

the e th moi d al me a tu s e s (M e a tus eth m o id a l es ) .

The p o s teri or nare s (C h o a n ae) a r e t w o ell ipt i c a l o r ifi ces by w hi ch th e nasal

c a vi ty and ph ar y nx c o m m u n i c a te They ar e i n th e s a me pl an e as th e fl oor o f the
.

n a s a l c a vity a n d a r e sep a r a ted f r o m e a c h o t he r by the v o m e r

,
They a re t a ke n .
,

t o geth e r a b o ut tw o i n ches (c a 5 c m ) wi de a n d th r ee t o f o u r i n ches (c a 8 t o

,
. . .

1 0 cm ) l o n g
. .

The na s al muc o u s m e mb ran e (M emb r a n a mu c o s a n a si ) is thi ck highly v as ,

c u l ar , a n d is i n ge n e r a l ,
fi r mly a tt a ched t o the u n de r lyi n g per i o steum a n d pe r i
,

ch on d r i u m I t is c o n ti n u o us i n f r o n t wit h th e ski n wh i ch l i n es th e n o st r ils

.
,

a nd behi n d wi th th e m u c o us memb r a n e Of th e ph a r y nx I t is a ls o c on ti n u ous .

a t th e n a s o m a xill a r y fissur e w i th th e ve r y th i n a n d o n ly sl igh tly v a scu l a r muc ous

-

memb ra n e whi ch li nes the S i nuses I n t he a n ter i or p a r t Of th e c a vity it f or m s

.

p ro mi n e n t thi ck f o lds on t he l a te r a l w a l l whi ch ext en d f ro m the tu r bi n a l ,

b on es to th e n o st r il Ther e a r e usu a l l y tw o s u pe ri o r tur binal f o l d s whi ch u n ite

.

a n te r i o r ly .The uppe r o ne i n cl o ses a t h i n pl a te of c ar til a ge w hi ch is c on ti n u o us

wi th the supe r i o r tu r bi na l b o n e The i nf e ri or tu rb in a l f o l d is cu r ved a nd i n cl oses
.
,

an A
v
sh a ped c a r t il agi n ou s pl a te whi c h p r o l o n gs the i nf e r i or tur bi n a l b on e ; this
fo ld is c on ti n u o us wi t h the a l a r fo ld o f th e n o st r il a nd f or ms wi th i t the uppe r ,

m a r gi n o f the e nt r a n ce f ro m t he t r ue n o st r i l t o the n a s a l c a vity B el o w this the re .

is a r o u n ded r idge p r o du ced by the na s a l p r o c ess Of th e p r em a xil l a The muc o us .

m e m b r a n e o f the g r e a te r p a r t o f the c a v i ty (R e gi o r espi r a t or i a ) i s r ed i n c o l or ,

a nd is c o ve r ed with a st r a tified ci li a ted epi thel i u m I t c on t a i n s n ume r o us a ci n o us .

n a s al gl an d s (G l a ndul a e n a s a l es ) The sub m u c os a c o n t a i n s r i ch ven o us pl exuses

.

whi ch fo r m i n ce r t a i n situ a ti o ns a s o r t o f c a ve r n o us tissu e (P l exus c a ve r n o sus ) ,

c omp o sed Of seve r a l st r a t a o f fr eel y a na st o m o si n g vei n s b etwee n whi ch th e r e a re ,

u n st r iped muscl e fib er s Thi s a r r a n ge m e n t is m o st m a r ked i n the tu r bi n a l fo lds

-
.
,

o n the l o we r p a r t Of the i n fe r i o r t u r bi n a l b o n e a n d the l o we r p ar t o f th e septu m ,

.

On the p oste r i o r p a r t o f the l a te ra l m a ss es of th e ethm o id a n d the a dj a ce n t p a r t

o f the supe r i o r tu r bi n a l a n d the septu m (R egi o Olf a ct or i a ) th e m uc o us m emb r an e

is b r o wn ish yell o w i n c o l o r a n d thi cke r ; it c o n t a i n s th e o lf a ct o r y n e r ve e n di n gs

- -

i n a speci a l n o n cil i a ted epitheli um

-
I n i t a r e n u m e r o us Ol fa cto ry gl an d s (G l a n dul ae
.

o lf a ct o r i ae ) these a re l o n g tubul ar a n d o fte n b r a n ch ed

, , .

The v o m er o na s al o r gan of J a c o bs o n (Or g a n on v o m er on a s a l e ) is situ a ted on

-

th e fl o or of the n a s a l c a vity on eith er si de o f th e ve n t r a l b or de r of th e septu m (Fi g

, .

I t c on sists o f a tubul a r c a r ti l a ge l i n ed w it h mu c o us memb ra n e t o whi ch ,

fi be r s of the Olf a ct o r y n e r ve m ay be t r a ced I ts a nte r i o r p a r t c o mm u n i c a tes .

with t h e n as a l c a vity by a sli t li ke o r ifice -

.

The paran as a l s i n u s e s a r e d esc r ibed i n th e Oste o l o gy .

L AR YN X THE

The l arynx is a sh or t tube w hi ch c on n ects the ph ar y nx a nd t r a c he a I t is a .

c ompl ex v a lvul ar a pp a r a tus whi ch r egul a tes the v o l ume of a i r i n r espi ra ti o n

, ,

p r eve n ts a s pi r a ti o n o f f or eig n b o d ies a n d is th e chi ef o r g a n o f v o i ce , .

I t is si tu a ted p a r tly betwee n the i n te r n a l pte r yg o i d muscles p ar tly i n t h e n e c k ,

44 2 RE SPI R A T OR Y S Y ST E M OF T HE H OR S E

l a mi na is thi ck and slightly c o n c a ve ; t h e p oste r i or b or d e r is thi n a nd i rr egul ar ly

n o tch ed Th e a n te r i or b or d e r o f the a r ch is c on c a ve ve n t r a lly a nd gives
a tt a ch m e n t t o t he c r i c O—
.

thy r o id m e m b r a n e ; l a te r a l ly it is thi cke r a nd gives

a tt a ch m e n t t o t he c r i c o aryt en -

M ed i a n r i d ge L a mi na Oid e u s l a te r a lis mus cl e Th e pos .

t er i o r b o r de r is a tt a ched to the
fi r st r i ng o f th e t ra che a b y a n
el asti c m e m b r an e The i nn e r s u r .

f a c e i s s m ooth a nd is c o ver ed with

mu c o us me m b r an e .

The th yr o i d c ar til a g e (C ar til a g o

thyr e o ide a ) c o nsists o f a medi a n
thi cke n ed p or ti on t er m ed the ,

b o dy an d tw o l a te ra l l a m i na o r ,

w i n gs Th e b o d y f o r ms ve nt ra lly .

a slight p r o mi n en ce (P r o mi n e nti a
l ar yn ge a ) whi ch ca n b e felt but , ,

is n ot visibl e i n t h e livi n g sub

je ct ; it supp o r ts t he b a se o f t he
epigl o ttis w hi ch is a tt a ch ed t o i t ,

l g a m en t
3 50 —
by an l Th e W l ng S
H G C CO D CA T LA O H OR S L
RI I R I GE LAT ALF E EEr ER
“

or l ami n a
. . .

V W IE .
sp ri n g f r o m t he b o dy
on eithe r side a nd f o r m a l ar ge

p a r t of the l a te r a l w a ll o f the l ar yn x E a ch i s a r h om b o i d pl a te p r esen ti n g a .

,

slightly c o n vex o ute r su r f a ce whi ch is divi ded i n t o tw o a r e a s by a n Obl i q ue l i n e

,

(L i n e a o bliq u a) on whi ch the thy r o hy o i d and thy r o ph a r y ngeus muscl es meet

,
- -
.

The super i or (d o r s a l ) b or de r is n e ar ly
st r a ight ; it gives a tt a chme nt t o th e
ph a r y nge a l f a sci a and t he p a l a t o
ph a r y n geus mus cl e a n d b e a r s a c o r n u ,

a t e a ch en d The an teri o r c ornu

.

(C or n u o r a l e ) is a tt a ched t o the
thyr o id c o r n u Of t h e hy o i d b on e ;
bel ow i t is a n o tch whi ch is co n Thyroi d n otc h
,

ve rted i n t o a f or a m e n (F ora me n thy

r eoi d eu m ) b y a fib ro us b an d a n d ,

t ra n smits the supe r i o r l a r yn ge a l n e r ve

t o th e i n ter i o r o f the l a r y n x Th e .

C i Thy roi d f ora

p o st e ri o r c o r n u ( o r n u c a u d a l e ) a r t cu
men
l a tes with the c r ic o i d c ar til age Th e .

i nfe r i or (ve n t ra l ) b o r de r is fused with

the b ody i n f ro n t ; b ehi n d it di ve r ges ,

f ro m its fell o w t o i n cl ose a t r i a n gul ar

sp a ce (I n cisu r a t hy r e o i de a c a ud al is ) ,

whi ch is o ccupied by th e c r i c o thyr o i d -

m e m b ran e The a n ter i or b o r de r is

.

P os teri or cor nu
sl ightly c o n vex a n d is a tt a ched t o the
,
S u rf a ce fo r a r ti cu
hy o id b o n e by the th yr o hy o i d mem -
l a ti o n w i th cr i coi d
b ran e T he pos t eri or b o r d er o ve r l a ps F 3 5 l —T H Y O D C
°
O HO V- IG . . R I A R T I LA G i-
z P RS E , l IN T R A L

th e a r ch o f t he c r i c OI d c ar t i l a ge a nd V w
o

i e .
,

gives a tt a chme n t to th e c r i c o t hyr o i d -

muscl e The i n n e r su r f a ce is c on c a ve a n d is c o ve r ed by m u c o us me m b r an e t o a
.
,

s ma ll exte n t .

The epigl o tti s (C a r ti l a go epigl o tti c a) is situ a ted a b o ve the b o d y o f t he t hy ro i d

 C A RT I L A G E S OF T HE L AR Y NX 443

c ar til a ge a nd cu r ves t o w ar d t he r oo t o f t he t o ngue I t is sh a ped s o mewh a t li ke a .

p o i n ted o v a te l e a f a n d p r ese n ts t w o su r fa ces tw o b or de r s a b a se a n d a n a pex

, , , , .

The or al (or a n te r i or ) s urf a c e is c o n c a v e i n its l e n gth c o n vex t r ans ve r sely ; the ,

ph ar yn ge al (or p o ste r i o r ) s urfa c e h as the r ever se c o nfi gu r a ti o n Th e b or d e r s .

a r e th i n de n ti c ul a ted a n d s o mewh a t eve r ted

, , The b a s e i s t hi ck an d i s a tt a ched
.
,

t o the d o r s a l sur f a ce o f t he b o dy o f t he thyr o i d c a r ti l a ge by el a sti c tissue Fro m .

e a ch side Of it a c a r ti l agi no us b ar
p r oj ects b a ckw a r d ; t hese p r o cesses ”l a r yngea l s urf a ce
c orr esp on d t o the cu n eif or m car
t il a g es Of ma n The ape x is
.

p o i n ted a nd cur ved ve n t r a lly .

N e a r l y a l l o f t he epigl o ttis is
c o ve r ed wi t h mu c o us memb r a n e .

Or a l s u rfa ce
I t l i es s o m eti mes i n f r o n t o f ,

s o meti mes b eh in d t he s o ft p al a te , .

Th e aryt en oi d c ar til a ge s (C a r
t il ag i n es ar yt e n o i de a ) are situ a ted
on ei the r si de i n f r on t of the c r i
,

c o i d a n d p a r tly b etwee n t he a l a
,

of t he thyr o id c a rtil a ge They .

a r e s o mewh a t p y r a mi d a l i n f or m Cu neif or m 177 0 088 8

,

a n d m a y b e desc r ib ed as h a vi n g FI 3 52 —E P L O TT HO R
G HT LAT AL V -w
. . IG IS or RS E , IG ER I I: .

t w o sur f a ces tw o b o r de r s a b as e
, , ,

a n d a n a pex Th e i ntern al s urfa c e is c on c a v o c on vex sm o o th an d c o ver ed by

.
-
, ,

mu c o us m emb r a n e The e xternal s urfa ce i s di vi ded by a r idge in t o tw o ar e a s :

.

th e l o we r fl a t ar e a f a ces o utw ar d an d i s c o ver ed b y th e t h e -ar yt e no id a n d

,

l ate r a l c r i c o ar yt e n o i d mus cl es ; the upp er c o n c a ve ar e a f a ces chi efly f or w ar d

-
,

an d i s c o ve r e d by t he t r ansv er se a r yt e n o i d m u s cl e T h e an teri or b or d er is c on vex .

,

a n d a t the b a se o f t he c a rt i l a ge f or m s a p r o j ecti o n t e r med the v o c al p r o c e s s (P r oc es

s us v o c a lis ) i t is so n a med b ec a use

M us c ul a r 107 0 663 3 i t g ives a tt a chm e nt t o th e v o c a l
or th e -ar yt e n o id lig a m en t w hi ch ,

f or m s the b a si s of th e t r u e v o c al
c or d The po s teri or b or d er is .

st ra ight an d ext e n ds fr om the ,

v o c a l p r o cess t o the f a cet on the

b as e The d or sal b ord er f or ms a .

d eep n o tch wi th the a pex The .

b a s e i s c o n c a ve an d f a ces chiefly
b a ckw a r d ; i t p r ese nts an o v a l ,

c o n c a ve f a cet for ar ti cul a ti on w i th

th e an te r i or b o r der of t he l am i n a of
t he c r i c o id c a r til a ge The ext ern a l .

Voca l pr oces s a n gle o f t he b a se f o r m s a st r o n g

3 53 —
FIG . L . A EEr O CA T LA
E YT E N I DH ORS I NN
R I
e mi n e n ce t er m ed t he mu s cul ar pr o
GE or E ,
ER

V W IE . c e s s (P r o cessus m uscul ar is ) whi c h ,

gi ves a tt a ch m e n t t o the c r i c o
aryt e n o i d muscl es The i n t er n a l an gl e is a tt a ched to its fel l o w b y the t r a nsve r se
.

a r y te n o i d li g a m e n t The ape x (C a r til a g o c o r n i cul a t a ) cur ves upw a r d an d b a c k

.

w ar d f or mi n g wi t h its fell o w t he pitche r sh a ped lip fr o m w hi ch th e c a rtil a ges

,
-
,

d er ive t h e i r n a me .

T h e c r i c o i d an d t hy r o i d c a r til a ges a n d the gr e a t e r p a r t o f the a r yt e n o i d

,

c ar til a ges c on sist o f hy a li n e c a r til a ge The a pi ces a nd v o c a l p r o cesses o f t he

,
.

ar yt e n o i d c ar til a ges a nd t he epigl o ttis (i n cludi n g t he cu n eif o r m p r o cesses ) c o nsist

4 44 RE S PI R A T OR Y S YS TE M OF T HE H OR S E

Of el a st i c c a r ti l a ge ; they S h o w no te n d e n cy t o w ar d o ssifi c a ti o n a t a n y ag e Th e .

thy ro i d a nd c r i c o id c a r ti l a ges r egul ar ly u n d e r g o c on side ra bl e o ssi fic a ti o n ; the

p r o cess b egi ns i n the b o dy o f t he thy r o id a n d ofte n i n v o lves the g r e a te r p a r t of ,

the c ar til a ge .

JOIN T S L I G A M E N T S AN D ME M BRA N E S OF T HE LAR N Y x

'

, ,

The c ri c o -thyro i d j oi n ts (A r t i cul a t i o n es c r i c o thy r e o ide a ) a r e di arth ro ses -

f or m ed by the a pp o si ti o n o f th e c o n vex f a cets o n t h e e n ds o f th e p o ste r i o r c or n u a

Of the th y r o i d c a r til a ge wi t h c o r r esp o n di n g f a cets on th e sides o f the c r i c o i d c a r
ti l a g e. The c apsu l e i s thi n but is st r e n gth e n ed by a ccess ory b an ds d o r s a lly
, ,

exte r na lly a n d i n te r na lly

,
Th e m o veme n ts a r e chi efly ro t a ti on ar o u n d a t ra ns
.

ve rse a xis p a ssi n g th r o ugh the ce n te r s o f th e tw o j o i n ts .

The c ri c o -ar yt en o id j o i n ts (Ar t i cu l a ti o n es c r i c o ar yta noi d ea) ar e a ls o di ar -

t h ro d i al . Th ey a r e f or m ed by th e a p p o siti o n of th e c o n vex fa cets o n th e a nte r i o r

b o r de r of the c r i c o id c ar til a g es wi th th e c o n c a ve f a cets on th e b a ses o f the ar yt e no i d
c ar ti l a ges E a ch h as a ve r y t h i n l oo se c apsu l e , st r e ngt he n ed by a c cess or y bu n d les
.
,

d o r s a lly an d i n te r na lly The m o v em en ts are gli di n g an d r o t a ti o n I n t he f o r me r

. .

the aryte no id c ar ti l a ge glides i n w a r d o r o utw ar d ; i n th e l a tte r it r o t a tes a r o u n d a

l o ngitudi n a l a x is so t h a t the v o c a l p r o c ess swi n gs o utw ar d or i n w ar d
,
.

The th yr o -hyo i d j o i nts (A r ti cu l a ti o n es b y e thyr e o i de a ) are f o r med by th e -

a n te r i o r c o r n u a o f the t hyr o i d c a r ti l a ge a n d th e ext r e m iti es o f the th yr o id c o r n u a

Of the hy o i d b o n e They pe r m i t r o t a ti o n ar o u n d a t r an sver se a xi s p a ssi n g th r o ugh

.

the tw o j o i n ts .

The cri c o -th yr o i d m e mb r an e (L i g a m en tu m c r i c o th y r eoi d eu m ) o ccupi es t he -

thy ro i d no tch a nd ext e n ds b a c kw a r d t o th e a r ch o f th e c r i c o i d c a r ti l a ge I t is .

t r i a ngul a r i n f or m a n d is a tt a ch ed b y its b a se t o th e a n t er i o r b o r de r o f th e ar ch o f
,

the c r i c o i d c ar ti l a ge whi le i ts b or d er s a re a tt a ched t o the m ar gi ns o f t h e thyr o id

,

n o tch . I t is st ro ng tightl y st r etc h ed a n d c o mp o sed l ar gely o f el a sti c tissue

, ,
It .

is r ei n f or ced ve n t r a lly by l o n gitu di n a l fi b e r s d or s a lly by fibe r s wh i c h st r etch a c r o ss

,

the thy r o i d no tch .

The th yr o -h y o i d m emb rane (M emb ra n a b y e thy r e o id e a ) c onn ects the an -

t er i or b or de r o f t he thy r o id c ar til a ge wit h th e b o dy a n d thy r o i d c o r n u a o f th e hy o i d

bone .

The hy o -epigl o tti c li ga m e n t (L i g a me n tu m hy o epigl o tti cu m ) a tt a ches the -

l o wer p a r t of t he or a l s u r f a ce Of t h e epi gl o ttis t o the b o dy o f t he hy o i d b o n e I t .

f o rm s a n el a sti c she a th for th e h y o epi gl o tti c m uscle Ven t r a lly it bl e nds wi th

-
.

the t h e hy o id memb r a n e an d d o r s a ll y it i s n ot well d efi n ed

-
, .

The th yr o -e pigl o tti c l iga m e n t (L ig a me n tu m thyr e o epigl o tti cum ) is st r o n g -

a nd thi ck ; it is c om p o s ed chi efly o f el a sti c tissu e I t c o nn ec ts the b a se o f the .

epigl ottis with th e b o dy a n d the a dj a ce n t i nn er su r f a ce of t h e l a mi na of the t hyr o id

c a rt i l a ge. Othe r fib e rs a tt a c h t h e cu n eif or m p r o cesses s o mewh a t l oo sely t o the
thy r o id l a m i na .

The tr an sv er s e aryt e n o i d li g a m e n t (L ig a m e n tu m ary ta n oi d e u m t r a n sve r su m )

is a sle n de r b a n d whi ch c o nn ects th e i nn e r a n gl es of th e b a ses of the a r yte n o i d
c a r til a ges .

Th e v o c al (or i n fe r i or t h e ar yt e n o id ) l i ga m e n t (L ig a me n tum v o c a le ) f o r ms the

-

b asis of the t r ue v o c a l c or d (Fi g I t is el a sti c a n d is a tt a ched ve n t r a lly t o t he

.

b o dy o f the t hy r oi d c ar ti l a ge a n d th e c r i c o th yr o i d m e m b r a n e cl os e t o its fell o w -

Of the o pp o si te sid e a nd e n d s d o r s a lly o n the p r o cessus v o c a li s of th e ar yte no id

,

c artil age .

The v e n tr i cu l ar (o r supe r i or t hy r o a r yte no id ) li ga m e nt (L ig am e n tum ve nt r i

-

cu l a r e ) is i n cluded i n th e f a lse v o c a l c or d I t c o n sists o f l oo sely arr a nged bu n d les

.

whi ch a r i s e chi efly f r o m the cu n eif or m p r o ce s s a n d e nd o n t he o ute r su r f a ce Of the

p r o cessus v o c a l is a nd a dj a ce n t p a r t of the a r yte n o i d c a r ti l a ge .
44 6 RE SPI R A T OR Y S YS T E M OF T HE H ORS E

I ts c ti on is t o di l a te the r i ma gl o ttidis by r o t a ti n g the ar yte no i d c ar ti l a ge so as t o

a

c ar ry the v o c a l p r o cess a n d c or d o utw a r d

The cri c o -ar yte n o id e u s l a te ra li s (M c r i c o—
.

a ry t a n oi d e u s l a te r a l is ) li es on the
.

i nn e r fa ce o f the thy r o i d l a m i n a t ar i ses fr om th e a n te r i or b o r de r o f the l a te r a l

.

p ar t o f t he ar ch o f the c r i c o i d c a r ti l a ge The fibe rs p ass i n a d o rs a l di r ecti on an d .

c on verge o n th e p r o c essus m uscul a r is o f th e a r yte n o id c ar ti l a ge I t cl oses the .

r i m a gl o tti dis by r o t a ti n g th e a r yte n o id c a r ti l a ge i n w ar d .

The aryte n o i d e u s tr an sv e r s u s (M a ryt a n oi d eu s t r an sve rsus ) is a n u np a i r ed .

muscle whi ch st r etches a c r o ss th e c on c a ve d or s a l su r f a ce o f the ar yten o id c ar til a ges .

I ts fib e r s a r e a tt a ch ed o n ei the r sid e t o th e p r o cessus m uscul ar is a n d th e r idge whi ch

exte nds f or w ar d f r o m it The r ight a nd l eft p ar ts o f the m uscl e meet a t a fib ro us
.

Root of tongu e

S oft p a l a te (cu t)

ll f
o phar ynx

—
A r yten o e p i gl otti c A r yten oi d ca r ti l a ge (a pex )
f ol d
P os ter i or p i l l ar of so f t pa l a te

s op ha gu s (or i gi n )

i d gl a nd

Tra chea

E s op ha gu s

FI G . 3 55 .
—A D T U LA Y N
I S R G I S OF HO RS E E X PO D B Y OP N N P H
SE E I G ARYNx AN D B E GI NN N I G OF (E S O P HAG US A LON G

M D AN D O AL L N
E I RS I E .

1 , Fa l se v oca l c o rd ; 2 , l t lv ti l ; 8 t v
a e ra en r c e , ru e oca l c o rd s ; 4 , r im a g l tti d i s
o .

ra ph e whi ch is c o nn ected wi th th e t r an sver se a ryte n o i d lig a m e n t Fib e rs o f the .

the a r yte n o i d eus m uscl e o ve r l a p i ts a n te r i o r p ar t

-
I t n a rr o ws th e r i m a by .

d r a wi n g the a r yt e n o i d c a r ti l a ges t o gethe r

—
.

The thyr o aryte n o id e u s (M m ve n t r i cul a r is et v o c a lis ) is s itu a ted i n the l a ter a l

.

w a ll o f the l a r y nx c o ve r ed by the l a m i n a o f the thy r o i d c ar ti l a ge I t c o nsists o f

, .

t w o p ar ts betwee n w hi ch the m u c o us memb r a n e Of the l a te r a l ve n t r i cl e p o uches t o

,

for m the s a c c ul e The a nte r i o r pa rt (M ve n t r i cul ar is ) a r i ses f r o m th e a nter i or p ar t

. .

o f the c r i c o th y r o id m e m b r a n e a n d th e ve n t r a l b o r d e r of t he thy r o i d l a m i n a I ts .

fibe r s p a ss upw a r d a nd b a ckw a r d t o e nd p a r tly o n the p r o cessus muscul a r is p a r tly ,

o n th e a r yte n o i d eus t r a n sve r sus m eeti n g i ts fell o w The po s te ri or par t (M v o c a lis )

, . .

h as a m o r e exte ns ive or igi n o n t he c r i c o thy r o i d memb r a n e I ts di r ecti o n c o rr e -

.
 C A VI TY OF T HE L A R Y NX 44 7

s p on d s w ith t h a t Of the t r ue v o c a l c o r d I t is i nse r ted i n t o the o ute r su r f a ce o f

.

the ar yte no i d c a r ti l a ge b el o w the p ro cessu s muscul ar is Th e m uscl e cl oses the .

r i m a a n d sl a cke n s the v o c a l c o r ds Wit h t h e a r yt e n o i deus t ran sve r sus a n d c r i c o

.

a r yt e n o i deus l a te r a lis i t f o r ms a sphi n cte r whi ch cl o ses the e n t ra n ce t o the l a r y n x .

CA VI T Y OF T HE m x

The cavi ty o f t he l ar yn x (C a vu m l ary ngis ) is sm a ll e r th an o n e w o uld expect

f r o m its exte r na l a ppe a r a n ce On l oo ki n g i n t o i t t hr o ugh th e p h a r y n ge a l end tw o
.

f o l ds are see n p r o j ecti n g f r o m its l a te r a l w a l ls These ar e te r med th e v o cal c ord s ,

’

a n d th ey di v i de th e c a vi ty i n t o tw o p o r ti o n s ;

The a di tu s l aryn gi s , o r ph ar y n ge a l a p er tu r e is a l ar ge o b li qu e o v a l o pe n i n g
, , , ,

wh i ch f a ces f or w ar d an d upw a r d i n t o t he ve n t ra l p ar t o f th e p h ar ynx I t is .

b o u n ded i n f r o n t by t he epigl o ttis b ehi n d by t he a r yte n o i d c ar til a ges an d

, ,

B od y of thyr oi d ca r ti l a ge

Wi ng of thyroi d ca r ti l a ge Cu nei f or m p r ocess

ar m u scl e
Voca l cor d s

La ter a l ven tr i cl e

Lar yngea l s a cc u l e

Voca l mu s cl e

Cri co-a r ytenoi d e u s poster i or

mu s c l e

FI G . 3 56 .
—S CT N
E IO OF L A YN X O H O
R F RS E .

Th e p l a ne o f t h e sec ti on is p a ra l l l w ith t h v
e e oc a l c o rd s .

l a ter a ll y b y the aryt en O-epigl o tti c fo lds o f mu c o us memb r an e (P li c a a ry epi

whi ch st etc h b twee the edges o f t he epigl o ttis a n d the a r yt e n o id
g l o tti c a ) ,
r e n

c ar til a ges .

The v e s ti b ul e of th e l ar y nx (Vesti bu l u m l a r y n gis ) i s th a t p ar t of th e c a vity

whi ch exte n ds fr o m t h e a d i tus to t he v o c a l c o r ds On its l a t er a l w a lls a r e the f al s e
.

v o cal co rd s (P l i c a ve nt r i cu l ar es ) e a ch of w hi ch c o n sists o f a fo ld of mu c o us mem

,

b r an e c o ve r i n g the a n t er i or p a r t o f th e th e ar yt eno i d l ig a me n t a nd th e cu n eifor m

-

p r o cess B etwee n t he f a lse a nd t r u e v o c a l c or d t her e is a p o cket l ike dep r essi on

.
-

t er med the l a te r a l v en tri c l e of th e l ar y nx (Ve n t r i culus l a ter a li s l ar y n gis ) This is .

the e nt r a n ce t o t he l ar yn g e al s a c cu l e (A ppen dix ve n t r i cul i l a r yn gis ) a cul de s ac o f ,

- -

t he m uc o us m emb ran e whi ch is a b o ut o n e i n ch (ca 2 to 3 c m ) l on g a n d ext e n ds . .

upw ar d an d b a ckw a r d o n the i n n e r su r f a ce of th e thy r o i d l a m i n a The r e is a .

sm a l l mi d d l e v entr i c l e (Ve n t r i culus l ar y n gis m edi a n us ) a t the b a se o f th e

epigl o ttis .

Th e mi ddl e n arr o w p a r t o f th e c a vity is te r med th e gl o tti s o r rima g l otti d i s

l
.

b a nd s a nd
1
T h e t er m g l o tti s i s c o mm o n l y u s ed t o d es i gn a t e th e i n t e r v a l b e t w ee n t h e v oca l
a ry t en o i d c a r ti l a g es o r t h e s t r u c t u r es t h a t i n c l os e t h a t s p a c e .
448 R E S P I RAT OR Y S YS TE M or T HE H O R SE

It i s b o u nd ed o n eith e r sid e by the t r ue v o c a l c o r d a n d th e i nn e r su r f a ce o f t he ar y

t en o i d c a r ti l a ge The tr u e v o c al c or d s (L ab i a v o c a l es ) a r e si tu a ted behi n d t he
.

f a lse c o r ds a nd the l a te r a l ve nt r i cl es They ext e n d f r o m the a n gle b etwee n t he .

b o dy a n d l a mi nae o f the th y r o id c ar til a ge t o the v o c a l p r o cesses o f t he a r yt e no id

c a r ti l a ges They a r e p r is m a ti c i n c r oss s ecti on a n d thei r fr ee edges l oo k for w a r d
.
-
,

a nd s o mewh a t upw a r d The m uc o us m e m b r a n e o f th e c or d (P l i c a v o c a lis ) is ve r y

.

th i n a nd s m oo th a n d is i n ti m a tely a tt a c hed t o th e u n de r lyi ng lig a m e n t I n

,
.

o rdi na r y b r e a thi n g t he r i m a is s o m ewh a t l a n ce o l a te i n f o r m ; whe n dil a ted it is ,

di a mo n d sh a ped the W i dest p a r t bei ng betwee n t he v o c a l p r o cesses The n arr o w

-
,
.

p a r t of the gl ottis b etwee n the v o c a l c o r ds is te r m ed the gl o ttis v o c a lis (P a r s

i n ter m em br a n a cea ) whi l e the wi d e r p ar t betwee n th e a r yte n o i d c a r ti l a ges is the
,

gl o ttis r espi r a t o r i a (P a r s i nt er ca r ti l a g i n ea ) .

The p o ste r i or c o mpar tm en t of th e l a r y n ge a l c a vity is di r ectly c on ti nu o us with

the t r a che a I t is i n cl osed by the c r i c o i d c a r t il a ge a n d the c r ic o thy r o id m e m b r a n e
.
-
.

I t is o v a l i n f o r m the t ra n sve r se di a m et er b ei n g a n i n ch a n d a h a lf t o t w o i n ches

—
,

( ca . 4 t o 5 a n d the d o r s o ve n t r a l di a m ete r tw o t o tw o an d a h a lf i n ches (ca .

5 to 6
The mu c o u s m e mb ra ne whi ch l i n es t h e l a r y nx (Tu n ic a m u c o s a l ar y ngis ) is
r efl ected a r o u n d the m a r gi n o f th e a d itu s t o b ec o m e c o n ti n u o us wit h th a t o f the

ph ar y n x a n d behi n d i t is c on ti n u o us wi t h th a t wh i ch l i n es the t r a che a I t is

,
.

cl osel y a tt a ch ed t o t he ph ar y n ge a l su r f a ce of the epigl o ttis but elsewh e r e i n the ,

a ditus a n d vestibule it i s l oo sel y a tt a ch ed b y submu c o us tissu e whi ch c on t a i ns

ma n y el a sti c fib ers 1
I t is thi n a n d ve r y cl o sely a dh er en t o ve r th e v o c a l c o r ds
.

a nd the i n n e r su r f a ces o f the a r yte n o i d c a r t i l a ges Th e epi thel iu m is o f t he st r ati .

fied squ a m o us type f r o m th e a d itus t o th e gl o ttis bey o n d whi ch it is c o lu m n a r ,

cili a ted i n ch a r a cte r The r e ar e n u m er o u s mu c o u s gl and s (G l and u l ze l a ry nge ae )

.
,

except o ver th e gl o ttis a n d the p h a r y n ge a l su rf a ce o f the epigl o ttis i n wh i ch situ a ,

ti o ns they a r e s c a n ty .

B l oo d - supply — Thyr o l a r y n ge a l a r te r y
—
-
. .

N er v e -s u pply S upe r i o r l a r y n ge a l a n d r ec u rr e n t l a r y n ge a l n e r ves (f r o m the

.

v a gus ) .

THE TRACHE A

The tra ch ea exte n ds fr om the l a r y n x to the r o o ts o f the l u ngs w h er e i t di vides ,

i nt o th e r i ght a n d l eft b r o n ch i I t i s k ept pe r m a n e n tly o pe n by a se r i es o f a b o ut

.

fi fty to fifty fi v e i n c o m p let e c a r ti l a gi n o us r i ngs e m bedded i n i ts w a ll I t o ccupies

-
.

a m edi a n p o siti o n except n e a r i ts t e r m i n a t i o n wh e r e i t is pushed a little t o t he

, ,

r ight by the a r ch o f the a o r t a I t i s a pp r o xi m a tel y cyli n d r i c a l but its ce r vi c a l

.
,

p o r ti on i s fo r t he m o st p ar t dep r essed d o r s o ve n t ra lly by c on t a ct w ith t he l o ngus -

c o l li m uscle s o th a t t he d or s a l su r f a ce i s fl a tte n ed Th e a v e ra ge c a libe r is a b o ut

, .

t w o t o tw o a n d o n e h a lf i n c hes (ca 5 to 6 -
but i n the g r e a te r p a r t o f the n eck
.

the t r a n sve r se di a m ete r is g r e a te r a n d th e d o r s o ve n t r a l sm a ll e r I t i s i n cl o sed -

.

by a f a sci a p r o p r i a .

I n i ts c e rvi c a l p ar t th e t r a che a is r el a ted d o r s a lly t o th e oes o ph a gus fo r a sh o r t

di s t a nce b ut chi efly t o t he l o n gus c o l li muscl e
, L a t e r a lly i t is r el a ted t o t he .

thy r o i d gl a n d t he c ar o ti d a r te r y the j ugul a r vei n the v a gus symp a th eti c a nd

, , , , ,

r ecu rr e n t l a r y n ge a l n e r ves a n d the t r a che a l ly m ph du cts a n d ce r vi c a l lymph gl an ds .

,

The oes o ph a gus li es o n i ts left f a ce f ro m the thi r d ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a b a ckw ar d .

The ste r no ceph a l i cu s musc l es c r oss i t ve r y o bl iq u ely p a ssi n g f r o m th e ve n t ra l

-
,

su rf a ce fo r w a r d o ve r i ts sid es a n d di ve r gi n g to r e a ch the a n gles o f the ja w

,
The .

o m o hy o i dei a ls o c r o ss i t ve r y o b li qu ely
-
p a ssi n g o ve r the l a te ra l su rf a ces o f the
,

tube a n d c o n ve r gi ng ve n t r a ll y t o the b o dy o f th e hy o i d b o n e The ste r n o thy r o

, .
-

I n s o c a ll e d oed e ma l o tti d i s t h i s l oo s e s u b mu c o u s ti ss u e b e comes i n fi lt r a t ed w i t h fl u i d

1 -
g ,
i n s o me c as es c a u s i n
g oc c l u s mn o f t h e v es ti b u l e .
4 50 RE SPIR A T OR Y S Y STE M OF T H E H OR S E

o f the r i n gs I n th e i n te r v a ls betwee n t he l a tte r i t c o nstitutes the ann ul a r l ig a

.

m e n ts (L i g a m e n t a a n n ul a r i a ) Th e r i ng s o f t he t ra che a (C a r ti l a gi n es t r a che a les )

.

a r e c o mp o sed o f hy a li n e c a r ti l a ge They a r e i n c o mplete d or s a l ly an d whe n thei r

.
,

f r ee e nds a r e d r a w n a p a r t r ese m bl e s o m ewh a t t he lette r C I n the ce r vi c a l p a r t

,
.

the thi n w i de fr ee e nds o ve r l a p whi l e i n t he th o r a ci c p a rt they d o n o t m eet ; h e r e

,

the defi cie n cy i s m a d e up by thi n pl a tes of v ar i a bl e S i z e a n d f o r m e m bedded i n a ,

m emb r a n a t r a n sve rs a Ve nt r a lly the r i n gs a r e a b o ut o n e h a lf i n ch (ca 1 t o

. cm ) -
. .

wide a n d m uch thi cke r th a n d ors a lly Th e fi r st r i n g is a tt a ched to t he c r i c o id

.

c ar til a ge by the c r i c o t r a che a l m e m b r a n e a nd is usu a lly fused d or s a lly with t he

-
,

sec on d r i n g Va r i o us i r r egul ar iti es su ch as p a r ti a l b ifu r c a ti on or p a r t i a l or com

.
,

pl et e fusi o n wit h a n a dj a ce n t r i n g a re c o m m o n Th e a r r a n ge m e n t i n th e te r m i n a l
,
.

p a r t is ver y i rr egul a r Th e mu s cu l ar l ayer (M uscu lus t r a ch e a lis ) c on sists o f nu

.

st r iped fibe rs whi ch st r etch a c r o ss th e d o r s a l p a r t o f t he tub e I t is sep a r a ted f r o m .

the e nds of the r i ngs a n d the m e m b r a n a t r a n sve r s a by a qu an tity o f a r e ol a r tissue .

Whe n i t c ont r a cts the c a libe r o f th e tub e is d i m i n ish ed Th e muc o u s m e mb ran e .

i s p a l e n o r ma lly a nd p r ese n ts n u m e r o us fin e l o n git u di n a l f o lds i n whi ch ar e

, , ,

b u ndles of el a sti c fibe r s The epith eli u m i s st r a tifi ed c o lu mn ar cili a ted

. N u m er .

o us tubul a r mu c ou s gl an d s (G l a n dul ae t ra c he a l es ) ar e p r ese n t .

Bl ood -supply — C o mmo n c ar otid a r te r i es

N erv e - supply —Va gus a n d sy m p a theti c n e r ves
. .

. .

THE B R ONCHI

The tw o b ron chi , r i ght a nd l eft (B r o n ch us dexte r si ni st e r ) are f or m ed by th e , ,

bifu r c ati o n o f th e t ra ch e a E a ch p a sses b a ckw a r d a n d o ut w a r d to th e hil us o f

.

the c or r esp o n di n g l u n g Th e r ight b ro n ch us i s a littl e wi d e r a n d l ess o bliq ue i n

.

di r ecti on th a n th e l eft They a r e r el a ted ve n t r a l ly t o th e div isi on s o f the pul m on

.

a ry a r te r y a n d d o r s a lly t o th e b r a n ch es of th e b r on ch i a l a r te r y a n d t he b ron chi a l

,

ly mph gl a n ds Thei r st r uctu r e is si m i l a r t o th a t o f t h e t r a che a

. .

THE THOR ACI C CAVI TY

Th e th o ra ci c c a vi ty (C a vu m th o r a cis ) i s th e sec on d i n p o i n t o f S i z e o f the b o dy

c a vit ies . I n f or m i t is s o m ewh a t l i ke a t r u n c a t ed c o n e m u ch c o m p r essed l a ter a lly ,

i n i ts a n te r i o r p a r t a n d with the b a se cut off ve r y o b l iq uely

, .

The d o r s a l w a ll or root is f o r m ed by th e th or a ci c v e r teb r ae a n d the lig a m e n ts

a n d m u s cl es c o nn ected with t he m .

Th e l a ter a l w al l s a r e f or m ed by th e r ibs a n d th e i n te r c o st a l m uscles .

The v e ntra l w a ll o r fl oor is f or m ed by the ste r n u m th e c ar ti l a ges of th e ste r n a l ,

r ibs a n d th e mus cles i n c o nn ecti on t h e r ewith

, I t i s a b o ut o n e h a lf as l o n g as the
.
-

d ors a l w a l l .

The p o ste r i o r w a ll , f or m ed by th e d i a ph ra g m i s ve r y o bl iqu e a n d i s st r o n gl y ,

c o nvex .

Th e a nte r i or ap er tu r e or i n l e t (A p e r tu r a th o ra cis c r a n i a lis ) i s r el a tively s m a ll ,

a n d o f n a rr o w o v a l f o r m , I t is b o u n ded d o rs a lly by the fi r st th o ra ci c ve r teb r a
.

a nd l a te r a lly by th e fi r st p a i r o f r ib s I t is o ccupi ed by th e l o n gus c o l l i m us cl es

.
,

the t ra che a (e s o p h a gus vessels n e rves a n d the p r epect or a l ly m ph gl an ds

, , , ,
.

Th e c a vi ty i s l i n ed by th e e n d o th ora ci c f a sci a a nd by th e pl e ur ae .

A l o n gi tudi na l s e ptu m , te r m ed the m e d i a sti n um (S eptu m m edi a sti n a l e ) ex ,

te nd s f r o m th e d o r s a l w a ll to t h e ve nt r a l a n d p o ste r i or w a l ls a n d subdivi des t he ,

c a vi ty i nt o t w o l a te r a l ch a mbe r s whi c h c o nt a i n the l u ngs E a ch o f these ch a m be r s .

i s li n ed by a se ro us m e m b r a n e c a ll ed the pleu r a a n d is c a ll ed a pl e u r a l c a vi ty ,

(C a vu m pl eu rae ) Th e m ed i a sti n u m i s fo r t he m o st p a r t n o t m ed i a n i n p o sit i o n ;

.
, ,

thi s is l a r gel y du e to the f a ct th a t the l a rgest o r g a n c o n t a i n ed i n it th e h e a r t is , ,

 T HE PLE U RE 4 51

pl a ced m or e on t h e left si de ; c on sequ e n tl y the r ight pleu r a l c a vi ty a n d lu ng ar e

l ar ge r th a n t he left P r a cti c a lly a l l the or g an s i n t he th or a x ar e i n t he m edi a sti na l
.

sp a ce with th e excepti o n o f the l u n gs th e p o ste r i o r ve n a c a v a an d the r ight ph r e n i c

, ,

n e r ve The p ar t i n wh i ch the he a r t a n d the pe r i c ar d i um a r e situ a ted t o gethe r

.
,

wi th t h a t a b o ve i t is usu a lly c a lled th e mi ddl e m ed i a sti n a l S p a ce ; the p a r ts bef or e

,

a n d behi n d this a r e te r med th e a n te r i o r a n d p o ste r i o r m edi a sti n a l sp a ces r esp ec

ti v el y .

THE PLE UR ZE

Th e pl eurae ar e tw o se r o us s a cs wh i ch li n e t h e pl eu r a l c a vities a n d ar e r efl ected

a t th e r oo ts o f t h e l u n gs t o i n vest t h o se o r g a n s We the r ef or e di st i nguish par i e ta l .
, ,

a n d v i s c er a l p ar ts o f th e pleu r ae .

L i ga mentu m n u c h ae

S ca p u l a

S p i na l cord

S ym pa th eti c n er ve

S u bcos ta l ves s el s

P u l mon a r y pl eu r a
Cos ta l pl eu ra

B ra c h i u l vess el s

Hu meru s

FI G . 3 58 .
—C R OS S -S E CTIO N or H O AX
T R or N E W - OR B N FOAL .

Tr .
, T ra c h e a ; S ,
l e ft b ra c h i l
a t
a r e ry ; B , b ra c h i oce ph l i
a c t y;
a r er l g . .
, l y m ph g l d
an . P l e u ra i nd i c a te d by re d
li ne .

Th e pari e tal pl e ur a (P l eu r a p a r i et a lis ) l i n es t he c a vity i n w hi ch e a ch lu n g is

situ a ted (C a vu m pl eu r ae ) On th e l a t e r a l th or a ci c w a ll i t is a dh er e n t t o th e r ibs
.

a n d i n t e r c o st a l muscl es a n d i s te r m ed th e c o sta l pl e u ra (P l eur a c o st a l is ) B ehi n d .

it is cl o sely a tt a ched to the di a ph ra gm f or m i n g the d i aphr agm a tic pl e u ra (P l eur a ,

di a ph r a g m a ti c a ) The p a r t wh i ch is i n a pp o sit i on wi t h the o pp osite s ac or c o ve r s

.

th e m edi a sti na l or g a n s is te r med the m e d i a sti n al pl e u ra (P leu r a m ed i a sti n a lis ) ;

 4 52 RE SPI R A T OR Y SYS T E M OF T HE H OR S E

whe r e this l a ye r is a dhe r e n t to the pe r i c a r di u m i t i s d isti n guished a s peri c ar d i ac ,

pl ue r a ( l eu a p er i ca r d i a ca )
P r
l
.

The pl eu r a is r efl ected a t th e r oo t o f the lu ng w hi ch it c o v er s c o ns tituti ng , ,

t he vi s c eral or pu l m o nar y pl e ur a (P l eu r a pul m on a lis ) B ehi n d the r oo t o f the .

l u ng a c o nsi d e r a bl e t r i a n gul a r ar e a is n o t c o ve r ed by the pleu r a the tw o lu n gs b ei n g ,

a tt a ched t o e a ch o th e r by c o nn ecti ve tissue i n t his sit u a ti on .

The l iga m e nt o f th e lu n g (L ig pul m o na l e ) i s a f o ld f or med by th e r eflecti o n

.

o f t h e pleur a fr o m the medi a sti n u m a nd th e d i a p h ra gm t o the lu n g b ehi n d th e ,

S ympa theti c tr u n k

S even th ri b

Lef t va gu s n erve

L ef t phr eni c n er ve

Ri ght p hreni c n erve

P er i ca rdi a c pl eu ra
Fou r th r i b

I nter na l thor a ci c ves s el s

S tern u m

FI G . 3 59 .
—C R OS S - S E CT IO N OF TH O AX O R F B N F OAL
N E W - OR .

A A t
or a ; Br .
, i
b ro n c h ; P -
l .
,
p lm
u y a te i e
o na r r r s; I , l y mph g l nd ; a ig h t t i m ;
r a r u L A
. .
, l ft t i
e a r u m; R V . .
,

i g h t v nt i l ;
r e r c e l ft v t i l
e e n r c e of h eart .

t r i a ngul a r a r e a o f a dhesi o n j ust m e nti o n ed I t is see n wh e n t he b a se o f th e l u n g .

is d r a wn o utw a r d I t c o n t a i ns el asti c tissue especi a lly i n its p o ste r i or p a r t

.
,
.

The r ight pl eu ra f o r m s a speci a l s a gitta l f o l d (P l i c a v en ze cav aa) a b o ut a

h andb r e a dth to the r ight of th e medi a n pl a n e w hi ch i n cl o ses the p o ste r i or ve na ,

c a v a i n its uppe r edge a nd gi ves off a s m a l l a ccess o r y f o ld for the r ight ph r e n i c

n e r ve . Th e f o ld a r ises f r o m th e t h o r a ci c fl oor a n d fr o m the di a ph r a gm b el o w t h e
f or a me n v en ze c a v ae a n d i n te r ve n es betwee n t he medi a sti n a l l o be a nd the b o dy of
,

the r ight lu ng I t is deli c a te a n d l a ce l ike

.
-
.

1
T h e s t u d en t s h o u l d b e a r i n m i nd t h a t t h es e t er ms a re e m p l o y ed s i m p l y as a m a tt er of
c on v e n i e n c e i n d es c r i p ti o n ; a l l t h e p a r t s t h o u g h d i ff e ren tl y n a me d f or m a c o nt i nu ous w h o l e
, , .
 4 54 RE SPI R A T OR Y S YS T E M OF T HE H OR S E

tissue c a used by the a i r p r essu r e i n i ts c a viti es h as bee n r elieved by the ext e r n a l

1
a i r p r essu r e .

The c o l o r v a r ies a cc o r di n g t o th e a mo u n t of bl o o d c o n t a i n ed i n th e lu n g .

D u r i ng li fe th e l u n g h as a pi n k c o l or but i n subj ects wh i ch h a ve b ee n b led for dis

,

secti o n i t is l ight g r a y or f a i nt ly ti n ged wit h r e d I n u n bled subj ects it is d ar k r ed ; .

the depth of c o l or v ar i es a n d is o fte n l o c a lly a cce n tu a ted by g r a vi t a ti o n of bl oo d

,

to the m o st depe n de n t p a r ts (hyp o st a sis ) .

Th e f oeta l lu n g S i n ce it c o n t a i n s n o a i r a n d h as a r el a tively s m a l l bl oo d supply

,
-
,

di ff e r s f r o m t h a t o f a n a n i m a l whi ch h a s b r e a th ed i n th e f o ll o wi n g r espects : (1 )
I t is m u ch s m a lle r ; (2 ) i t is fi r m e r a n d d o es n o t c r epit a te ; (3 ) it S i n ks i n w a te r ; (4 )
it is p a le g r a y i n c o l o r .

I n f or m th e lu n gs a r e li ke c a sts o f the pleu r a l c a viti es i n whi ch th ey a r e S itu a t ed .

Whe n w el l h ar de n ed i n si tu thei r su r f a ces p r ese n t i m p r essi o n s a n d elev a t i o n s

,

Do r 5 a l bo r d e r

FI G . 361 .
—L FT L U NG
E OF HO RS E , C O TAL S U FAC
S R E .

S p im
ec en h a rd e ned i n
'

s z tu .

c orr esp o ndi n g ex a ctly t o th e st r u ctu r es wi t h whi ch they ar e i n c o n t a ct E a ch .

l u n g p r ese nts t w o su r f a ces t w o b o r de r s a b a se a n d a n a pex

, , ,
.

Th e c o sta l (or e x te r n a l ) su rfa c e (F a c ies c ost a lis ) is c on vex a nd l i es a g a i n st the ,

l ate ra l th or a ci c w a l l t o whi ch it is a ccu r a tely a d a pted

, .

The m e d i a sti na l (or i n ter na l ) s u rf a c e (F a ci es m edi a sti n a l is ) is less exte n sive

th a n the c ost a l su r f a ce I t is m o lded o n the medi a sti n u m a n d its c o n te n ts I t
. .

p r ese n ts a l a r ge c a vity a d a pted to th e pe r i c ar di u m a n d h e ar t ; this i s te rm ed

the c a r d i a c i m pr e s s i o n (I m p r essi o c a r di a c a ) a n d is l a r ge r a nd deepe r o n the ,

l eft l u ng th a n o n th e r ight A b o ve a n d behi n d thi s i s th e hi l u s , a t wh i ch the

.

b r o n chus vessel s a nd n e r ves e n te r the lu n gs Th e b r o n ch i a l ly m ph gl a nds a r e

, , .

a l s o fo u n d h ere B ehi n d this th e t w o l u ngs a r e a d he r e n t t o e a ch o the r o ve r a

.

t r i a ngu l a r a r e a A b o ve this i s a g r oo v e for t he oes o ph a gus (S u l cus ce s op h a g eu s )

.
,

w hi ch i s deepest o n th e left l u n g A g r oo ve fo r the ao r t a (S ul cus a o r t a ) cu r ves

.

u pw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d o ve r the hi lus a n d p a sses b a ckw a r d n e ar the d or s a l b o r de r

,

o f the lu n g ; the cu r ved p ar t of the g roo v e for the a o r ti c a r ch is a bse n t o n t he

r ight lu n g o n wh ic h th e r e i s a g r oo ve for the ve n a a zyg os A nte r i o r ly t he r e

, .

1
A e t i d ea o f t h e n a t u ra l f o rm a nd s i z e o f t h e l u n g ca nn o t b e o b t a i ned f ro m a s p ec i men
co rr c
t h i s s t a t e T h e l u ngs s h o u l d be h a rd en ed i n s i tu fo r t h i s p u r p os e
.

In .
.
 T HE L U N GS 4 55

are gr oo ves for th e t ra che a the , an te r i or a o r t a the

, an te r i o r ve na c a v a , an d
o the r vessels .

B r onchi a l a r ter y
1
Br on chu s
I
P u l mon a r y t I P u l mona r y
Li 9a ment of l u n9 fcu tl vei n s a r ter y
t
i mpr ess w n

FI G . 3 62 —a L U NG HO RSE M D A T NAL AN D D AP H A MAT C S U FAC

, E I S I I R G I R ES .

Org a n h a rd e n ed i n s i tu .
(V e no u s i p es i f
m mm
r d
s on vi v t b l t
or c o on o r s o-ce r c o- er e ra s e m) .

P u l mon ar y
ar ter y B r o nc h u s
Gr oove f or ven a a z ygos
L i ga men t Of l u ng (cu t)
l

P u l mona ry vei ns

L i n e of re fl ecti on of pl eu r a

FI G . 3 63 .
—R I G H T L NG U OF HO S R E M D A T NAL AN D D AP H A MAT C S U FAC
, E I S I I R G I R ES .

Org a n h a rd e ned i n s i tu . c, d , Groo v es fo r sup i vi l d d

e r o r ce r lvi ca A w i di t
an o rs a e ns . r ro s n c a e ca n a l fo r p o te
s ri o r

v e na c a v a be tw e en me d i ti ll bas d m i p t f l
na g o e an a n ar o un .

The d o rs al (or sup e r i o r ) b or d e r (M ar g o o btusus ) is l on g thi ck , , a nd r o u n ded ;

i t l i es i n the g r oo ve a l on gside of the b o di es of the th or a ci c ve r teb r a .

Th e ven tr al (or i nfe r i or ) b or d e r (M ar g o a cutus ) is thi n a n d sh or t . It p r ese nts ,

4 56 RE SPI R A T OR Y S Y S TE M or T HE H OR S E

o pp o si te t o the h e ar t the c ar d i a c n otch (I n cisu r a c a r di a c a ) On th e left lu n g thi s

,
.

n o tch i s o pp o sit e t o th e thi r d f o u r th a n d fifth r i bs s o th a t a c o n side r a bl e ar e a o f th e

, , ,

pe r i c ar di u m h e r e l ies i n di r ect c o n t a ct with th e chest w a ll On t he r ight lu n g th e -

.

n o tch is l ess exte n sive a n d i s a n i n te r c o st a l S p a c e f u r th e r f o r w a r d

,
.

The b a s e of th e lu ng (B a sis pul m o n is ) is o v a l i n o utli n e ; its su r f a ce (F a ci es

d i aph r a gm a ti c a) is deeply c o n c a ve i n a d a pt a ti on t o th e th or a ci c su r f a ce o f th e
di a ph ra g m L a te r a lly a nd p o ste r i or ly it is li m ited by a thi n b a s a l b or d e r wh i c h
.

fits i n t o the n a rr o w r ecess (S i n us ph r en i co-c o st a lis ) b etwee n th e di aph r a gm a nd

the chest w a ll The p o siti o n o f th is b or de r o f c o u r se v ar i es du r i ng r espi r a ti on
-
.
, ,
.

I n the deepest i n spi r a ti o n i t m a y r e a ch th e b o tt om o f this r ecess ; i n o r di n a r y

i nspi r a ti on it l i es a b o ut f o u r or five i n ch es (c a 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) fr o m the c o st a l ar ch . .
,

t o whi ch i t is n e ar ly p ar a llel ; i n o r di n ar y expi r a ti o n i t l i es a b o ut twi ce as far f r om

t he c o st a l ar ch .

The ap e x of the l u n g (A pex pul m on is ) is p r ism a ti c n ar r o w an d fl a tte n ed , ,

t r an sver sely I t is p ar ti a lly m a r ked off f r om th e r est o f the l u n g by the c ar di a c

.

n o t ch . I t cu r ves d o w n w a r d a n d is r el a ted i n ter n a l ly t o t h e a n te r i or m edi asti n u m

,

a nd b ehi n d t o the a n te r i or p ar t o f th e pe r i c a r d ium .

I n the h or se th e l u n gs a r e n ot d ivi ded i n t o disti n ct l o b e s b y deep fi ssu r es a s ,

i n m o st m a mm a ls I n the c a se o f th e l eft l u n g the r e is n o l o b a ti o n b ut t he r ight

.
,

l u ng p r ese n ts a m e d i a s tin al l o b e , sep ar a ted f r o m th e b o dy o f t he l u ng by a fissu r e

whi ch f or m s i n its d o r s a l p a r t a c an a l for th e p o ste r i o r ve n a c a v a a n d th e r ight
1
ph r e ni c n e r ve i n cl o sed i n a speci a l f o l d of the r ight pl eu r a
,
.

The r oo t o f the l u ng (R a di x pul mo n is ) i s c o m p o sed of th e st r u ctu r es wh i c h

e n ter or l e a ve th e lu n g a t th e h il us on th e m edi a sti n a l su r f a ce Th ese ar e : (1 ) .

The b ron chu s ; (2 ) t he pul m onar y artery ; (3 ) t he pu lm o nar y ve in s ; (4 ) the b r o n

c hi a l arte ry ; (5) th e pul m o nary n e rv e s ; (6) th e lym ph v e s s e l s , wh i ch o pen i n t o
th e b r on chi a l lymph gl a n ds The b r o n chu s i s situ a ted d o r s a l ly with th e b r on chi al
.
,

a r ter y o n i ts uppe r su r f a ce a n d th e pul m o n a r y a r te r y i mm edi a tely b el o w i t Th e .

pul m ona r y vei n s li e chi efly b el o w a nd beh i n d t h e ar te r y .

Th e l o b u l a ti o n of th e l u n gs is n ot ver y ev ide n t on a cc o u n t o f th e s m a l l a m o u n t
o f i nte r l obu l ar tissue Th e l o bules a ppe ar o n th e su r f a ce o r o n secti o n s as i r r egul ar
.

p o lyg on a l a r e a s o f di ff er e n t si z es
Bro n c h i a l B r an ch e s —E a c h b r o n ch us a t its e n t r an ce i n t o th e lu n g gives off a
.

b r an ch t o the a pex o f the lu n g I t is th e n c o n ti n ued b a ckw a r d as th e m a i n ste m

.

b r o n ch us p ar a llel w it h th e d or s a l b or d er o f th e lu n g gi vi n g off b r a n ches (R ami

, ,

b r o n chi a l es ) i n mo no p o di c f a shi on ; t hese b r a n ch si m i l ar l y a n d r e a ch al l p ar ts o f

the l u n g The r ight b r o n ch us gi ves o ff a speci a l b r an ch t o the medi a sti n a l l o be
. .

The a rra ngeme n t o f th e l a rger b ro nc h i i s no t t h e s a me i n th e tw o l u n gs T h e r i g h t b ron ch u s .

,
a f t er d e t ac h i n g t h e a p i c a l b r a n c h g i v es o ff a l a r e v en t r a l b ra n c h w hi c h S h o r tl y b i f u r c a t es One
g , .

of t h e d i v i s i o ns p as ses v e n t r a ll y i n t o t h e p a r t o f t h e l u n
g b e h i n d t h e c a rd i a c n o t ch (h o m o l o g u e
o f ca rd i a c l ob e ) w hi l e th e o t h e r p ass es d o w n w ard a nd b a c k w a rd i n t o th e l o w er p a r t o f t h e b a s e
, .

Th e s te m b o n c h u s t h e n g i v es o ff t h e b r a n c h to th e m ed i a ti n a l l o b e a n d d i v i d e s a b o u t s i x i n c h es
r s , ,

f r o m t h e h i l u s o f t h e l u ng i n t o t w o n e a r l y e q ,u a l b r a n c h es ; t h e d o rs a l b r a n c h i s a d i r e c t co n
t i n u a ti o n o f t h e s t e m t h e v e n t ra l o n e p as s es i n t o t h e m i d d l e p a r t o f t h e b a s e
, T h e l ef t b ro n c h u s .
,

a f t e r a s h o r t co u s e d i v i d es i n t o t w o n ea r l
r , y eq u a l b r a n c h es Th e d o rsa l b r a n c h ma y b e r eg a rd ed
.

as t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e s t e m
; i t p a ss es b a c k w a r d p a r a ll el w i t h th e d o r sa l b o rd e r o f th e l u n g ,

g i v mg o ff a v e n t ra l b ra n c h m u c h f u r t h e r b a c k t h a n i n t h e r i g h t l u n g T h e v en t ra l d i v i s i on o f .

t h e s t e m b ro nc h u s d i v i d es a f t er a v e r s h o r t co u rs e i n t o t w o b ra n c h es
y , ; th e a n t er i or o n e p a s s es
,

v en t ra ll y i n to -t h e h o mo l o g u e o f th e c a rd i ac l o b e w h i l e t h e p os t er i o r o n e p as s es d o w n w ar d and
,
b a c k w a rd i nto t h e ba s e o f t h e l u n g .

Th e str uctu r e of th e l a r ge r b r o n ch i a l tub es is i n ge n e r a l S i m i l ar t o th at o f th e , ,

t r a che a Thei r w a l ls c o n t a i n i rr egul a r pl a tes o f c ar ti l a ge i nste a d o f r i n gs The r e is

.
.

1
So me a u t h o rs co ns i d e r ea c h l u n g to b e d i v i d ed i n t o a n t er i or a nd p os t er i or l o b es b y th e
c a rd i a c n o t c h , s o t h a t th e r i h t l u n
g g w o u l d h a v e t h r ee l o b es a n d t h e l e f t l u n g t w o l o bes .

I n f oe t a l l u ng t h e l o b u l a ti o n i s mu c h mo re d i s ti n c t P i g m e n t a ti o n o f th e l u n g i s so me ti mes
.

s ee n i n h o rs es a n d i n s u c h c a s es t h e p i m en t i s d e p o s i t ed m a i n l
,
g y i n t h e i n t er l o b u l ar ti ss u e , t h u s
ma pp i ng o u t t h e l o b u l es .
4 58 RE SPI R A T OR Y S Y ST E M OF T HE H OR S E

ti ss u e w h i ch e x te nd s f o r w a rd f ro m t h e i s t h mu s fo r a v a r i a b l e d i s t a n ce ; t h i s i s t er med th e p y ra
mi d a l l o be T h e p os i ti o n o f th e l a t e ra l l o b e i s i nd i c a t ed a pp ro xi m a t e l y by th e j u nc ti o n o f th e
.

ex terna l m axi l l a ry and j u g u l a r v e i ns .

S tr u cture .
—
The gl a n d is e n vel oped by
thi n fib r o us capsu l e , f r o m whi ch a ,

tr a b e cu l w p a ss i nt o th e gl a n d divi di n g it i nt o l o b u l e s
,
Th e l o bu les c on sist o f
. .

n o n c o mmu n i c a ti n g a lv e o l i o r f o ll i cl e s Of v a r yi n g f o r m a n d siz e
-
The a lve o li a r e .

li ned by cubi c a l epi th eli u m a nd c on t a i n a viscid c o l l o i d subst an ce

Bl oo d supply —
.
,

-
The a r te r ies ar e r el a t i vely ve r y l a r ge ; the r e ar e usu a lly tw o
.

thy r o i d ar te r i es wh i ch a r ise f r om th e c ar oti d a n d e nt e r e a ch ext r e m ity o f th e gl a nd

N erve s upply —Th e n e r ves ar e de r ived f r o m th e sy m p a th eti c system
.
,

-
. .

N Odules Of th yr o i d tissu e Of v a r i a bl e S i ze s om eti m es as l ar ge a s a p ea m ay be ,

f o u n d n e a r the a n te r i or ext r e m ity of the l a te r a l l o bes o n t he c o u r se Of th e a n ter i or ,

thyr o id ar te r y or on the t r a che a eve n a t a c o n side ra ble d ist an ce fr o m th e thyr o i d

,

r egi o n They a r e te r med a cc e s s o ry thyro i d s (Gl and u l az thy r e o id ea a ccess or i es )

. .

The p ara thyro id s ar e s m a ll gl a n dul ar b o di es f o u n d i n t he th yr o i d r egi o n .

They a r e p a le r a n d n ot s o de n se a s t h e thyr o id ti ssu e b ut Ofte n c a nn o t b e di ff e r e n ,

ti a te d by th ei r n a ked eye a ppe a ra n ce I n t he h o r se the r e is usu a l ly on ly o n e on

-
.

e a ch si de i n the c onn e cti ve tissu e o ve r th e a n te r i or ext r e m it y Of th e l ate r a l l o b e Of

the thyr o i d They r ese m bl e i n st r u ctu r e e m b r y on i c thy r o i d tissue
. .

THE THY lV
I U S G LAN D

Th e th ymu s is a d uctless gl a n d whi ch h a s a cl o se r ese m b l an ce t o the ly m ph o i d

tissues I t i s wel l devel o ped o n ly i n l a te f oet a l l ife a nd for a few m on ths a fte r bi r th
. .

A fte r this i t u n de r g o es ra pi d a t r o phy f a tty i n fi lt r a ti o n a n d a m yl o i d dege n e r a ti on

, , ,

so th a t i n the a dult i t is r ep r ese n ted by a thi n r e m n a n t i n the l o we r p a r t Of t he

a n te r i o r m edi a sti n u m o r h a s e n ti r ely dis a ppe a r ed I n the n ew b o r n f o a l it is Of a -

g r a yish —
.

pi n k c o l or a n d c o n sists Of tw o l a te r al l ob e s (Fig
,
The gr e a te r p ar t .

Of the gl a n d is situ a ted i n the a n te r i or medi a sti n um b ut t he t w o l o bes a r e con ,

ti nn ed i n t o the n eck by a ch a i n Of l ob u l es wh i ch li e a l on g the c o u r se Of the c a r o ti d

a r te r y exte n di g s o
n m m
eti es a s fa a s the thy o i d gl a d
r r n
1

S tr u ctu r e —The thy m us is i n cl o sed i n a thi n c onn ect ive—

.
,

. tissue caps ul e , a n d ,

c on sists Of sec on d a r y l o b u l e s (L o bu l i t hy m i ) Of v a r yi n g sh a pe a n d siz e h eld t o , ,

gethe r by ar e o l a r tissue a n d fat a n d a l l a tt a ch ed t o a c or d Of a de no i d tissue te r m ed

,

the tra ctu s c e n tr a li s These l o bul es are sub divided i n t o p o lyh ed r a l p r i m ar y

.

l o b ules whi ch a r e c o mp osed Of ly m ph o i d tissue a n d p r ese n t a d a r k v a scul a r c or te x ,

, ,

a n d a lighte r m e du l l a th a t c o n t a i n s Ha ssa l s c or puscles

’
.

Bl oo d - s upply — I n te r n a l th or a ci c a n d c ar o ti d a rt e r i es
N erv e -s u pply —S ymp a th eti c a n d v a gus n e r ve
. .

. .

R E SP I RATOR Y SYSTE M OF THE OX

THE N ASAL CAVI TY

Th e no str i l s situ a ted o n ei th e r si de o f the muz z le a re r el a ti vely sm a ll a n d are

, , ,

m u ch less di l a t a ble th a n th o se Of t he h o r se Th e a l ae a r e thi ck an d fir m Th e . .

s u pe r i o r c o mm issu r e i s n a r r o w T he r e i s n o f a lse no st r i l o r di ve r ti culu m n a si

. .

The S ki n is s m oo th b a r e a n d m o i st a n d the r e i s n o cl e ar li n e Of de m ar c a ti o n b e
, , ,

1
T he er v i c a l p a r t o f th e g l a nd i s v ery v a r i a b l e T h e t h o ra c i c l o be of one s i d e ma y h a v e
c .

n o c e r v i c a l co n ti n u a ti o n ; t h e o t h e r l o b e m a y t h e n g i v e Off a S i n l e p r o l o n g a ti o n w h i c h b i f u r c a t es
g .

T h e t h o r a c i c p a r t i n t h e n e w b o r n f o a l o c c u p i es m os t Of t h e s p a c e w h i c h i s l a t er t a k e n u p b y t h e
-

a p i c es o f t h e l u n g s I t s t w o l o b es a re i n c o n t a c t a nd i ts d ee p s u r f a c e i s m o l d ed on t h e a n t er i o r
.
,

p art Of th e p er i ca rd i u m a nd th e l a rg e v es s e l s .
 T HE LAR Y NX 4 59

twee n it a n d the nas a l m u c o s a The Ope ni n g Of t he naS O l a c r i m a l d uct i s n ot visi

.
-

ble as i t is on th e o ute r w a l l Of the n ost r i l a n d is c on ce a led by t he c a r t il a gi n o us

, ,

p r o l o n g a t i on Of th e i nf e r i or tur bi n a l The r e a r e t w o p ari e tal o r l a te ral c ar ti l a g e s

.

o n eith e r si de ,
u ni ted by fib r o us tissue Th e d or s a l c a rt i l a ges a re t hi n l am i nae
.

whi ch cu r ve o utw a r d a nd d o w nw a r d f r om the d or s a l m a r gi n Of t he sept a l c ar ti l a ge ;

they ar e p r o l on g a ti o ns Of t he n a s a l b o n es a n d c arr y the a l a r c a r t il a ges on th ei r,

a n te r i o r ext r e mi ti es The ve n t r a l p a i r a re l a ter a l c o n ti n u a t i o n s o f th e b a s a l

.

l a mell ae of th e i nf e r i or t ur bi n a ls They l i e a l o ng th e n as a l p r o cesses of t he p r e

.

m a xi l l a ; a n te r i or ly t h ey bec o me th i cke r t ur n a l ittl e upw ar d a n d e a ch b le n ds

, , ,

with t h e c ar ti l a gi n o us p r o l on g a ti on of the uppe r c o i l Of t h e i n fe r i or t u r bi n a l The .

al ar c ar til a g e s a r e o f pecu li a r f o r m The l am i na i s Obl o ng an d cu r ves o utw ar d a n d

.
,

d ow n w a r d f r om t he a n te r i or ext r e m i ty of th e d o r s a l p ar i et a l c ar ti l a ge wi th whi ch ,

it i s c onn ected Th e c or n u sp r i n gs f r o m th e o ute r p a r t Of the l am i n a a n d cu r ves

.

o utw ar d a n d upw ar d i n t o th e o ut e r wi n g Of th e n o st r i l ; it c a rr ies on its ext r e mi ty

a sm a l l t r a n sve r se b a r t hus h a vi n g s o m e r ese m b l a n ce to the fl uke Of a n

,

a n ch o r.

Th e na s al c a vi ty is S h or t wi de a n t e r i o r ly n a rr o w beh i n d I t is n ot c om
, ,
.

pl et el y d i v i ded b y th e sept um whi ch i n ,

its p oste r i or thi r d i s sep a r a t ed f r om t he

fl oo r Of t he c a vi ty by a n i n te r v a l t h a t i n
c r e a ses f r o m b ef or e b a ckw a r d The mi ddl e .

m e a tus i s ve r y n arro w an d d ivides p os ,

t er i or l y i n t o t w o b r a n ch es ; t h e uppe r d vi
i

s i on le a ds to t he et h m o i d a l me at uses an d ,

c o mm uni c a tes wi th th e f r o n t a l S i n us an d t he
c a vity Of t he supe r i or tu r b i n a l An te r i or t o .

t h e di v isi on a r e c om m u n i c a ti on s with the

u pper c a v ity o f t he ve n t r a l t u r bi n a l a nd
t he m ax ill ar y S i n us Th e m a i n f a cts i n
.

r eg a r d t o t h e si n uses w e r e st a ted i n t h e

o ste o l o gy.

THELAR YN X
T he l arynx i s m o r e c o m p a ct th an i n
t he h or se a n d p r ese nts n ume r o us di ffe r
,

e n ti a l fe a t ur es Th e c ri c o i d c ar til a g e is
. F 3 64 —M U ZZL Ox 1 G . . E or .

c o mp r essed l ate ra l ly Th e l a m i n a is n ot 49 N O
. (Af te E ll ,
aS r en

disti n ct ly m ar ked Off f r o m th e ar ch ; it

sl o pes d o wn w ar d a n d b a ckw ar d an d h as a
l ar ge m edi a n r idge Th e thyr o i d c ar til a g e is c o m plet e ve n t r a ll y i e t he l am i n ae
.
,
. .
,

ar e u ni ted t hr o ugh o ut t o f o r m a l o n g pl a t e wh i ch is n o tch ed i n f r o n t a n d behi n d ;

t he l ar yn ge a l p r omi n e n ce is sm a ll a n d is S it u a t ed p o ste r i or ly The height a n d .

t hi ckn ess Of the c a r til a ge i n c r e ase fr o m bef o r e b a ckw a r d The p o ste r i or c o r n u a .

a r e a b o ut a n i n ch l o n g a n d f or m syn des m o ses w it h th e c r i c o id c ar t i l a ge ; th e

,

S h or t a n t e r i o r c or n u a u ni te si m i l ar ly w ith th e hy o i d b on e The e pigl otti s is o v a l

i n o utl i n e a n d its a pex i s r o u n ded ; its b a se r ests on th e t h y r o—
.

hy o i d m e m b r a n e ,

t o whi ch it is ra t h e r l oo sely a tt a ched The cu n eif or m c ar t i l a ges a r e a bse n t .

.

Th e aryt e n oi d c ar til a g e s p r ese n t o nl y sl ight di ff e r e n ces Th e m uscul ar p r o cess .

is well devel o ped a n d th e v o c a l p r o cess is n a r r o w a n d l on g T h e v oc al c or d s

‘

p r o j ect ver y l ittle f r om t he w a ll s o t h at t h e r im a gl ott i di s is w i de ; th e v o c a l

,

lig a me nt i s a tt a ch ed ve n t r a lly t o t h e c r i c o t h yr o i d me m b r an e ; it h as t he f or m Of -

a h a lf t ub e Ope n beh i n d
,
Th e l a teral v en tri cl e s a r e e xtr e m ely sh a ll o w a n d the
. ,

s a ccul es a r e a bse nt Th e t h e a r yt e n o i deus muscl e i s n ot di v ided ; it is fa n

.
-

S h a ped ,
thi ck an d n a rr o w d or s a lly ; ve n t r a lly it is a tt a ched t o the b a se Of t he
, ,
 4 60 RE SPI R A T OR Y S YST E M OF T HE OX

epi gl o ttis the a ngl e Of the u n i o n Of t he thy r o i d l a m i n ae

, , and t he c r i c o-th yr o i d
me m b r an e The h yo epi g l otti cu s muscl e is l a r ge an d b i fid
.
- .

THE TRACHE A
Th e c a libe r Of th e t r a ch e a is r el a tively sm a l l i ts wi dth bei ng a b o ut an i n ch ,

a n d a h a lf (ca 4 cm ) a n d its height o n e a n d a h a lf t o t w o i n ch es (ca 4 t o 5 cm )

. .
. .

Th e r i n gs ar e s m a l le r an d n umbe r a b o ut fi fty I n the n eck thei r fr ee e n ds ar e sep

,
.

Fronta l emi nence

Fronta l s i n us

Gr ea t ethm o tu r bi nal —

S u per i or tu r bi n e

S u per i or mea tu s
M i d d l e mea tus

Hyoi d bon e

M yl o hy
r

Geni o -
Gen i o
Th yr oi d ca r ti l a ge
gl ossas Oi d ens h yoi d eus

CT ON O H AD O COW Fi c .
—S AGIT I AL
’ ‘
SE I F E F .

1 C b l h mi ph
, e re ra; 2 l t l v t i l ; 8 th l m ; 4
e s e re p q d i g m i ; 6 Opti hi m
, a e ra en r c e , a a us , c or o ra ua r e na , c c as a

6 p it it y b d y ; 7 p
, u ar o ; 8 m d ll bl g t ; 9
, o ns b ll m ; 1 0 p i
, e l d ; 1 1 v t l t igh t m l ;
u a o on a a . ce r e e u , s na cor , e n ra s ra u s c es

1 9 ph, y gar l l y mph g l d ; 1 3 y t i d

n ea t il g ; 1 4
an pi g l tti ; 1 6 i i d
, ar til g ; 1 6 v l d ; 1 7
e no ca r a e , e o s , c r co ca r a e . oc a c or ,

p l ti i ; 1 8 ft p l t ; 1 9 E t h i
a a ne s n u s , so p i g; C C C fi t
a a e ,
d d th i d
u s ac vi l v t b ; B
an o en n 1 , 2. 3, rs , sec o n , an r ce r ca er e rae . o .
.

b i ipit l ; S p p ph i d
a s oc c a .
, res e no .

a r ated v ar yi n g i n te r v a l so th a t th e tube is fl a tte n ed and me m b r ano us d or

by a ,

s a lly I n th e th or a x th e e n ds a r e i n a pp ositi o n s o th a t th ey f o r m a r idge d o r s a lly

.
,

Th e t r a che a is a dh e r e n t t o th e r ight l u n g f r o m th e sec on d r i b b a ckw a r d Th e .

bifu r c a ti o n is Opp osi te the f o u r th i n te r c o st a l S p a ce .

THE BR ONCHI
Th e r e ar e th r ee ch i ef b r on ch i Th e b r o n ch us for th e a pi c a l an d the an te r i or .

c ar di a c l ob e Of the r i ght lu ng is det a ched fr om th e t ra che a at a c onsider a bl e dis

t an ce an te r i or t o th e bifu r c a ti on .
4 62 R E SPI R A T OR Y S YSTE M OF T HE ox

LUNGS THE

The di ff e r e n ce i n s i z e betwee n th e tw o lu n gs i s g r e a te r th a n i n the h or se th e ,

r ight l u n g weighi n g a b o ut h a lf as m uch a g a i n a s the left o n e The a ve r a ge wei ght .

Do r ‘
é a l bo r d e r

FI G . S GT —R I G H T L UN G OP Ox , CO TAL S U FAC
S R E .

Org a n h a rd e ned i n it
s u .

FI G . 3 68 .
—R H T L UN G
IG OF Ox ,M D A T NAL A c r
E I S I S PE .

H a rd e n e d in s i tu . 1 , Le ft b ro nc h u s ; 2, p lm
u y v i
o na r ; 3 p lm e ns , u o n a ry a r te ry .

Of the lu n gs is a b out p o u n ds (c a . 3 to 4 they f orm a b o ut fi —

fi Of th e
'

b o dy weight .

T h ey divid ed i n t o l o bes by deep fi s s u r e s (I n cisu r ae i nte r l o b ar es ) Th e

a re .

l e ft lu ng i s divided i n t o th re e l o b e s , n a med f ro m bef or e b a ckw a r d a pi c a l ,

 T HE L U NGS 4 63

car d ac , a nd
i di aph ra gm a ti c The r ight lu n g h as f o u r o r fi v e l o b e s ; the api c a l
.

l o b e i s m u ch l ar ge r th a n t h a t Of the left lu n g a n d o ccupi es t h e sp a ce i n fr o n t of ,

the pe r i c a r d i um pushi n g t h e m edi a sti n u m a g a i n st th e left w a l l ; 1 t he me d i a sti na l

,

l o b e r ese m b les t h a t Of the h o r se wh i le th e c ar d i a c l ob e is Ofte n di vided by a fissu r e

,

i n t o tw o p a r ts Th e a pi c a l l o b e Of the r ight lu n g r e ceives a speci a l b r on chus f r o m

.

th e t r a ch e a Opp o sit e th e th i r d r i b The r ight lu n g i s a dhe r e n t to the t r a che a f r o m

.

th e se c o n d ri b b a ckw ar d .

A p i ca l l obe

Ca r di a c l obe

M edi as l i na l l obe

gma l i c l obe

P os ter i or med i a s ti na l l ymp h gl a n d .

FI G . 3 69 .
—L U N GS AN D H A T E R OF SH P V N T AL V W
EE , E R I E .

S pe i m e n
c h a rd e n e d i n s i tu . S p ace be tw h
ee n t ea r a nd l g w
un s pi d b y p i
as o cc u e i
e r c a rd u m a n d fa t .

T h e i n t er l o b ar fi ss u r es b eg i n a t t h e v e n t r a l m a r g i n o f t h e l u n g a n d p ass t o w a r d th e roo t .

Th os e Of t h e l e f t l u n g li e Opp o s i t e t o t h e f o u r t h a n d s i x t h r i b s T h e d i a p hr a g m a ti c l o b e i s t h e
.

l a rg es t , a nd h as t h e f o r m of a t h r ee-s i d ed p y r a mi d w i t h i t s b as e r es ti n g on t h e d i a p h ra g m T h e .

c a r di a c l o b e i s p r i s m a ti c a n d f or ms t h e p o s t e r i o r m ar g i n o f t h e c a r d i a c n o t c h ; i ts l o n g a xi s co rr e
s p o n d s t o t h e fif t h r i b T h e a p i c a l l o b e of t h e l ef t l u n g i s s m a l l a n d p o i n t ed ; i ts v en t ra l m a r g i n
.

li es on t h e p u l mo n a r y a r t ery a n d t h e a n t er i or a o r t a ; b e l o w t h i s th e s p a c e i n f ron t Of th e h ea r t
i s o c c u p i e d b y t h e a p i c a l l o b e o f th e I i g h t l u n g T h e c a r d i a c l o b e Of t h e r i g h t l u n g i s m u c h l a r g er
.

t h a n t h a t of th e l ef t l u n g , a n d co v er s t h e r i g h t f ac e of th e p er i ca rd i u m , s o t h a t t h e l a tt er h as n o
co n t a c t w i t h t h e l a t er a l w a ll o f t h e t h o r a x .

The l o b u l ati on i s ve r y disti n ct o n a c c o u nt Of th e ext r emely l ar ge a mo unt of

i n te r l o b ul ar tissue .

I t i s t h er e f or e Of t en t er m e d t h e p r eca r d i ac l o b e
1 .
 4 64 R E S PI R A T OR Y S Y S TE M OF T HE PI G

I n the s h ee p th e c o st a l a tt a ch m e n t Of t he di a ph r a gm r ese m b les th at of the

h or se , a nd th e b a s a l p a r t Of t he lu ng c orr esp o n ds th e r et o Th e l o b at i on Of the .

lu n gs r ese m bles th a t Of th e ox , but the l o bul a ti o n is ve r y i ndisti n ct The pl eur a l .

s a cs exte n d u n de r th e fi rst lumb a r ve r teb r a .

THE THY R OI D GLAND

The l o bes Of t he th yr o i d gl a n d a r e m or e exte nsive and p a le r i n c o l or th an i n

th e h o r se ; they exte n d fu r the r f o r w ar d o ve r l a ppi n g the c r i c o ph ar y n geus muscle ,
-

t o a sm a l l exte n t a n d c om e i n c o n t a ct d or s a ll y with the (e s o ph agus Th ey are

,
.

fl a tte n ed a n d h a ve an i r r egul ar l o bul ated su r f a ce I n the y o u n g subj ect the isth

, ,
.

mus is wel l devel o ped bei n g a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (c a 1 to

, cm ) i n w idth . . .

A ccess or y thyr o i ds ma y b e f o u n d a n d p ar a th yr o i ds a ls o o ccu r n e a r the p o s ,

t er i o r ext r e m ity or i nn e r su r f a ce Of the l a te r a l l o b es Of th e thy r o i d .

A pi ca l l obe

Di a p hr a gma ti c
T

f
“
s u r a ce

A p er:
I

Ca rd i a c n otch

FI G . 3 70 .
—R HT L U N IG G OE H P M D A T NAL A P CT
S EE , E I S I S E .

H a rd e n ed t
si u . B, B r o nc h u s ; P . a .
,
p l m o na
u ry t y; P
a r er p lm
.
y v i ;
v . V , u o na r e n . c .
, post i o v
er r e na ca v a ;
L g . .
, b ro n c h i l l y m ph g l
a d - an .

THE THYlV
I US GLAN D
Th e th ymus is p a le a n d d isti n ctl y l o b ul a ted I t is m uch l ar ge r i n the c a lf .

th an i n the f oa l weighi n g at five or six weeks a b o ut 1 5 to 2 5 o u n ces (ca 4 2 5 t o 600

,
.

g ra m s ) The ce r vi c a l p a r t is speci a ll y l ar ge thi ck an d c o mp a ct ; i t exte n ds

.
, ,

t o the thyr o id gl a n d I t u nde r g o es a t r o phy sl o wly a nd r em n an ts Of th e

.

th o ra ci c p ar t Ofte n r em a i n eve n i n a dv a n ced ag e .

R E SPI RATOR Y S YS TE M OF THE P I G

THE N A SA L CAVI TY
Th e no str i l s a r e s m a ll a n d a r e si tu a ted on th e fl at an te r i o r su r f a ce of th e
,

r o str u m or s n o ut (R o st r um sui s
) The l a tte r is a sh or t cyl i n d r i c a l p r o j ecti o n .
,

with whi ch th e uppe r li p is fused a nd i s ci r cu ms c r ibed by a p r o mi n e n t ci r cul a r ,

m ar gi n The ski n on th e s n o ut i s thi n a nd h i gh ly se nsitive ; i t p r ese nts sm a l l

.

p or es an d sc a tte r ed o ve r i t a r e fine sh o r t h a i r s I n the s n o ut betwee n th e n o st r i ls

, .

i s the o s r o stri , whi ch is to b e r eg ar ded a s a speci a l devel o pme n t Of the ext r e m i ty Of

4 66 R E S PI R A T OR Y S YS TE M OF T HE D OG

TR ACHE A AND B R ONCHI

Th e t r a che a is ci r cul a r i n c r oss —

secti o n a nd c on t a i ns thi r ty or m or e r i n gs ,

w hi ch a l m o st m eet d o r s a lly A speci a l b r o n ch us is det a ched fo r the a pi c a l l o b e

.

Of the r ight l u ng as i n the ox ,

.

THE LUN GS (F i g s . 3 24 , 325)

The r i ght lu n g h a s f o u r or fiv e l o b e s , a cc or di ng to whet he r the a pi c a l is sub

divided or n o t The l e ft lu n g r esem bl es th a t o f the ox i n f or m a n d l ob at i Oi i
. The .

l o b ul a ti on disti n ct b ut the i n te r l o bu l a r sept a ar e thi n n e r t h an i n t he o x

,
.

Groove for E soph a gus

(

Trach ea

Di a p hra gma ti c l obe

(ba s e)

A p i ca l l obe

Car d i a c l obe

M ed i a s ti n a l l obe
FI C . 37 i .
—
R HT LUNIG G OF PIG, M D AS T NAL A P CT
E I I S E .

H a r d e ne d in t
si u . B Le ft b ro nc h u s ; V .
, p ul m o n a ry vi ;
e ns p lm y t u o na r a r e ry ; 1, l y mp h g l a nd s .

THE THY R OI D G LAN D

The tw o l o bes Of th e th y r o i d ar e l o n g a nd fl a tte n ed ; they ar e situ a ted cl ose

t ogethe r on the ve n t r a l su r f a ce Of th e t r a ch e a exte n di ng as far f or w ar d as the
, ,

c r i c o id c ar til age Th e gl a n d is d a r k r ed i n c o l or
. .

THE THYM U S

The thymus is ve r y l ar ge exte n di ng t o th e l ar y nx , or eve n t o th e subm a xi ll ar y

sp a ce i n y o u ng subj ects .

R E SPI R ATORY SYSTE M OF THE DOG

THE N A SAL CAVI TY

The no str i l s are S itu ated on th e m u z zl e with whi ch t h e uppe r li p ble n ds Th ey ,

.

a re sh a ped s o m ewh a t li ke a c o mm a w ith th e b r o a d p a r t n ext t o t he septu m a n d ,

t he n a rr o w p ar t di r e ct-ed b a ckw a r d a nd o utw ar d The ski n ar o u n d the n o st r i ls .

is b a r e usu a lly bl a ck a n d i n h e a lth m o ist a n d c oo l Th e m u z z le i s m ar ked by a

, ,
.

m edi a n fu rr o w (phi lt r um ) o r a deep fi ssu r e i n s o m e b r eeds The c a r til a gi no us .

f r a m ew o r k i s f o r m ed esse n ti a lly by the sept a l c ar ti l a ge a n d the p a r i et a l c ar ti l ages

w hi c h p r o ceed f r o m it The sept a l c a r ti l a ge p r oj ects bey on d the p r e m a x i ll a a n d
.
,

i s m uch thi cke n ed a t its ext r e m i ty ; i t gi ves Off f r o m i ts uppe r a nd l o we r m a r gi n s

 T HE L A R YNX 4 67

the tw o p ar i et a l c ar til a ges whi ch cu r ve l a te r a l ly a nd t o w a r d e a ch o the r A

, .

gr oo ved pl a te exte n ds o utw ar d f r o m the sept a l c ar ti l a ge i n the fl oo r of the no str i l ,

a n d a no t he r l a mi na supp o r ts t he a l a r f o ld Of the i n fe r i o r tur bi n a l b o n e .

The l e ngth Of the na s a l c avi ty v ar i es g r e a tly i n di ffe r e n t b r eeds c o rr esp o n d ,

i n g Of c o u r se t o t he l e n gth Of the f a ce
, , T he c a vity i s r oo my but is ve r y .
,

l argely o ccupi ed by t h e tu r bi n a ls a n d the l a te r a l m a sses

Of th e eth m o i d b o n e The m i d d l e m e a tu s is sh or t a n d
.

n ar r o w a n d divides p o ste r i o r ly i n t o tw o b r a n ch es ; the

,

uppe r b r a n ch le a ds t o th e eth m o id a l me a tuses ; the

l o we r b r an ch j o i n s th e i nfer i or me a tus The i nf e r i or .

m e a tu s is ve r y sm a l l i n its m idd le p ar t o wi n g t o the ,

g re a t devel o p m e n t he r e Of th e i nfe r i or tu r bi n a l The .

p o ste r i or p ar t Of the n a s a l c a vity is di vid ed b y a h or i

z o n t al pl a te th e l am i n a t r a n sve r s a lis i n t o a n uppe r
, ,

Olf a ct o r y p ar t a n d a l o we r r espi r a t or y p a r t The Fm 3 7 2 4 1 Cm m x e .

,
-
, 5 AL s s op

si n uses h a ve bee n desc r ib ed (vi de Oste o l o gy ) Do .

c

Upp p i t l til g ; a , er ar e a car a e

b l w p i t l til g ; l , o er ar e a ca r a e c. a ar

til ag (A ft E ll b g i car e . er en er er, n

THE LAR YN X L i ri g A tl ) e se n
’
s as .

Th e l ar y n x is r el a t ively sh or t The l a mi n a Of the .

c r i c o i d c artil a g e is wi de ; the ar ch is gr oo ved l a te r a l ly Th e l a m i n a Of the thyr o i d .

c ar ti l a ge ar e h igh b ut sh or t ; they u n ite ve n t r a lly to f or m t he b o dy on whi ch the r e

, ,

i s a nte r i or ly a m ar ked p r o mi n e n ce a n d p o ste r i o r ly a deep n o tch The Obl iq ue li n e ,

.

o n t h e o ute r sur f a ce o f the l a m i n a i s p r om i n e n t The r e is a r o u n ded n ot ch (Fissu r a .

t h yr e o ide a ) b el o w the sh o r t an te r i or c o r n u a for th e p a ss a ge of th e super i or l ar y n ge a l

n er ve . Th e p oster i or c o r n u is st r on g a n d h as a r o u n ded su r f a ce for ar ti cul a ti o n w ith ,

CT ON O NAS AL R O N O DO
FI G . 373 .
—S ’
A G I T I’ A L SE I P E GI P G .

1 S ki ; 2 p i t l
,
til g ; 3 fl
n ,
f
ar e a l v ity ; 4 l mi t v li ; 5 m
ca r a e m mb ,
fh d
oor o na s a ca . a na ra n s e rs a s , u co u s e ra n e o ar

p l t ;
a a e pp li p ; 7 f t l b ; 8 f t l i ; 9
u er ro n a i l pl t f f t l b ; 1 0
o ne i l v ity ; 1 1 d tt d
ro n a s nu s c ra n a a e o ro n a o ne , c ra n a ca , o e

p i t b i l ; b i f i t b i l : b b" i f i t b i l
, . ,

li i d i ti g nt i li mi t f Ol f t y g i ;
ne n ca n a er o r o ac or re on a . su e r or ur na , n e r or ur na
’
, , n er or ur na

f ld ;
o th m t b i l ; d i b i f m p l t f th m i d : f p i m t : g m i d d l m t ; h i f i
c , e, e o ur na s , cr r or a e o e o , su er o r ea u s , e ea u s , n er or

m t ; i
ea u s ph y g l m t
, nas o - (A ft E ll b g
ar n i L i
ea i g A tl )
ea us . er en er er , n e ser n
’
s as .

the c r i c o i d c ar ti l age The ar yt e no id c ar ti l a g e s ar e r el at ively sm a l l a n d h a ve b etwee n

. ,

th e m a sm a ll i nte raryte n o id c ar t il a g e The e pigl o tti s is qu a d r i l a te r a l ; its l o we r p ar t .

o r st a l k is n a rr o w fitti n g i n t o the a n gle Of the thy r o id c ar ti l a ge

,
The cu ne i f or m .

c artil a g e s a r e l a r ge a n d s om ewh a t c r esce n t sh a p ed ; they a r e n ot bl e n ded w ith th e -

epigl o tt is .

Th e f a l s e v o c al c or d s exte n d fr om the cu n eifor m c ar ti l a ges to the thyr o i d .

4 68 RE SPI R A T OR Y S YST E M o n T HE D OG

Th e tr u e v o c al c o r d s are l a r ge a nd p r o m i n e n t Th e e n t r an ce t o th e l ar ge l a te r a l
.

ve n t r i cle a n d s a ccule is a l o ng sl it p a ra l lel wit h the a nt er i or m ar gi n of th e t r u e

v o c a l c or d .

Th e c r i c o thy r o id m u s cl e is thi ck Th e h y o e p i g l o tt i cu s is well devel o ped

- .
-
,

a n d i s d o ubl e a t its hy o id a tt a ch m e n t The a n te r i or p a r t o f th e th yr o-ar yt e n o ideus

.

a r ises o n th e cu n eif o r m c a r ti l a ge H e n ce Le sbr e h as suggested th e n a m e cun e o

.

a r yte n o ideus fo r it .

THE TRA CHE A AN D B R ON CHI

Th e t r a che a is ve r y slightly fl a tte n ed d or s a lly I t c on t a i ns f o r ty t o f orty fi v e .
-

U sh a ped r i ngs ; the e n ds o f th e r i n gs d o n o t m eet d o rs a l ly so th a t h e r e th e w a l l o f

-
,

th e t r a che a i s me m b r a n o us a n d is c o mp o sed o f a l a ye r of t r a n sve r se s mo o t h

m uscle fibe r s o utside o f th e r i n gs t h e fib r o us m e m b r a n e a n d t h e mu c o us m e m b r a n e
-
, ,
.

The ste m b r on chi d i ve r ge a t a n o btuse a n gl e a n d e a ch d ivi des i nt o tw o b r a n ch es ,

bef o r e e nte r i ng t he lu n g Th e a n te r i or b r an ch g o es t o th e a pi c a l a n d c ar di a c
.

l o bes the p oste r i o r o n e to the di a ph r a g m a ti c l o be supplyi ng a ls o the m edi a sti n a l

, ,

l o be of t h e r ight l u n g Th e a n te r i or b r a n ch o f the left b r o n chus c r o sses u n de r the

.

pu l m o na r y ar te r y .

THE LUN G S

The l u ngs (Figs 3 4 2 3 4 3 ) di ffe r i n sh a pe f r o m th o se o f th e h or se a n d ox i n

.
,

c o n f or m i ty wi th the sh a pe o f t he t h or a x wh i ch is r el a tively ve r y w i de i n th e d o g ;
,

t h e l a te r a l th or a ci c w a l ls a r e st r o n gly cu r ved a n d th e c o st a l su r f a ce o f th e l u n gs
,

is c orr esp o n di ngly c o n vex The r e is n o c a r di a c n o tch o n th e l eft l u n g a lt h o ugh

.
,

a s m a l l p a r t o f the pe r i c a r di u m i s n o t c ov e r ed by t h e lu n g a t th e l o w est p a r t of

the fifth a nd sixth i n te r c ost a l sp a ces On th e r ight si de th e c ar d i a c n o tch is

.

o pp o site the f o u r th a n d fifth i n te r c o st a l sp a ces E a ch lu n g is divi ded by deep .

fissu r es i nt o thr e e l o b e s — api c a l , c ar d i a c , an d d i aph r a gm a ti c ; th e r i gh t l u n g h as

i n a dditi on a m e di a sti n a l l o b e Th e a pi c a l l o be o f th e r ight l u n g is c on si de r a bly
.

l a r ge r th a n t h a t o f the left Th e l a tte r is o fte n m or e or less fused wit h t he c ar di a c

.

l o be Var i a bl e a ccess o r y l o b es m ay be f o u n d On a cc o u n t of th e s m a ll a m o u n t of
. .

i nte r l ob ul ar tissue th e l o bul a ti on is n ot d isti n ct .

THE THY R OI D GLAN D

Th e l ater al l o b e s o f t he th yr o id gl an d a r e l on g a nd n arr o w a n d h a ve a fl at ,

t e n ed ell ips o i d a l f or m ; they ar e pl a ced on t he l a ter a l su r f a ces o f th e t r a che a n e ar th e

,

l ar y nx Th e ext r e m iti es a r e s m a ll th e p o ste r i or o n e o fte n bei n g p o i nt ed Th e

.
,
.

i sthmu s is i n c on st a n t a nd v ar i a bl e ; i n l a r ge d ogs i t usu a ll y h as th e f o r m of a gl and u

l a r b a n d w hi ch ma y b e n e a r ly h a lf a n i n ch (c a 1 c m ) w id e ; i n s m a l l d o gs it is . .

usu a lly a bse n t .

A cc e s s ory thyr o id s ar e f r eq u e n t ly p r ese n t ; th r ee or f o u r may be f o u n d o n

eithe r side as well as a m ed i a n on e n e ar th e hy o id b on e
, .

T h e p ara thyr o id s , a b o ut t h e si z e o f m i l let or h e m p seed a r e f o u r i n n u m be r ,

usu a l ly T w o a re pl a ced o n th e deep f a ce o f th e thy r o i d l obes ; the o th e r s ar e

.

pl a ced l a te r a lly n e a r th e a n te r i or extr e m i ty o f th e thy r o id .

THE THYM US
The thymus is r el a ti vely s m a ll a n d is si tu a ted a l m o st e nt i r ely i n th e th or a x
,
.

The l eft l o be is m u ch l a r ge r t h a n th e r ight a n d exte n ds b a ck as fa r a s t he sixth

,

r ib a t th e ti m e o f i ts g r e a t est si z e A cc or di n g t o B a u m th e gl a n d i n c r e a ses i n si ze
.

d u r i ng th e fi r st t w o weeks a fte r bi r th a n d a t r o phi es r a p id ly i n the n ext t w o o r

,

th r ee m o n t hs T r a ces o f i t are p r ese nt at tw o or th r ee ye ar s o f ag e a n d m ay be

.
,

f o u nd eve n i n ol d subj ects .

4 70 T HE URI NAR Y OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

upper p ar ts o f th e l a st t w o o r th r ee r ibs a n d th e tip o f th e fi r st l u m b ar tr a n sve r se

p r o cess The d o r s a l (o r supe r i or ) s ur f a c e (F a ci es d o r s a l is ) is st r o ngl y c o n vex ;
.

i t is r el a ted chi efly to the di a ph r a g m but a ls o t o a s m a ll exte n t p o ste r i o r ly ,

t o th e ps o a s m uscles I n well h a r de n ed speci me n s especi a lly th o se f r o m thi n

.
,

subj ects i m p r essi o n s o f t he l a st tw o r ibs a n d th e tip o f t he fi r st l u m b a r t ran sve r se

,

p r o cess are usu a ll y visi bl e The ve n tra l (or i nfe r i or ) su rf a c e (F a ci es ve n t r a lis ) is

.

i n ge n er a l slight ly c o n c a ve a n d is r el a ted t o th e l i ve r p a n c r e a s c ze c u m a n d r ight

, , , ,

a d r e n a l ; i t ei the r h a s n o pe r it o n e a l c o ve r i n g o r On ly a n a r r o w a r e a exte r n a lly is s o ,

c ov e r ed The i nte rn al b or d e r (M ar g o m ed i a l is ) is c o n vex a n d r o u nded ; it i s

.

r el a ted t o the r ight a d r e n a l a n d th e p o ste r i or ve n a c a v a I t p r ese n ts a b o ut its .

middl e a deep n o tch t h e h i lu s (Hi lus r e n a lis ) ; this is b o u n d ed by r o u n d ed

,

m a r gi ns a n d le a ds i n t o a sp a ce te r med the r e na l s in u s (S i n us r e n a l is )
,
The ves .

FI G . 3 75 .
—D A A M
I GR T I ON D O SAL R E LATI ON S o r K ON Y S o r H O S
or P OS I R I E R E .

A rea s o f d i t e l ti i l o ed b y c nti n u li n : p t o f s k l t n w h i h v li th k i d y b u t a re n o t in
L I—
re c r a o n s a re nc s o uo s es ar s e e o c o er e e ne s

t t w it h t h e m a i nd i t e d b y d tte d li
c o n ac re 1 1 1 l mb
ca t n ve s
o p esnes . .
, u ar ra s r e ro c e s s .

sels a nd n e r ves r e a ch th e kid n ey at t he hi lus a n d the si n us c o n t a i n s t h e pelvis or ,

di l a ted or i gi n o f th e u r ete r Th e e xte rn a l b o r d e r (M ar g o l a te r a l is ) i s ro u nd ed

.
,

a nd is thi nn e r th a n the i n te r n a l o ne I t c o n sists of t w o p a r ts a n te r i o r a n d .

,

p o ste r i o r wh i ch m eet at a n exte r n a l a n gle ; t he a nt e r i o r p a r t fits i n t o th e r e n a l

,

i mp r e s s i o n o f the l ive r The du o d e n um cu r ves a r o u n d the exte r n a l b o r de r Th e

. .

ante ri or e xtr e m i ty (E xt r e m it a s c r a n i a lis

) t hi ck a n d r o u n ded lies i n the r e n a l , ,

imp r es s i o n of t h e live r The p o ste r i or e xtr e mi ty (E xt r e m it a s c a ud a l is ) is thi nn e r

.

a n d n arr o we r

The l e ft kid ne y (R en si n iste r ) i s b e a n sh a ped I t is c on side r a bly l o nge r a nd -

.

n a r r o we r th a n the r ight o ne a n d is situ a ted n e a r e r the m ed i a n pl a n e a n d fu r th e r

,

b a c k s o th a t the hi lus o f the left ki d n ey is a b o ut o pp o si te t o th e p oste r i or ext r emity

,

o f the r ight o n e I t lies usu a lly u n d e r the uppe r p a r t o f the l a st r i b a n d t he fi r st

.

tw o o r th r ee lumb a r t r a n sve r se p r o cesses Th e d or s al su rf a c e is c o nvex a nd is .

,
 T HE KI D N E YS 4 7]

rel a ted t o the left c r us o f th e d i a ph r a g m the ps oa s m uscl es a nd the b a se o f th e , ,

splee n Th e ve n tral s urface is c on vex a n d i rr egul ar ; t h e g r e ate r p ar t Of it i s

.

c ove r ed by the pe r it o n eu m I t is i n r el a ti on wi th th e o r igi n o f the s m a ll c ol o n the

.

R i gh t a d rena l

Lef t a d r ena l

u r eter

Lef t u r eter

FI G . 3 76 .
—K DN Y AN D A D NAL
I E S RE S or Ho R s E ,
D O AL V W
RS IE .

H a r d e ned in si ut . Im p i
r ess o n Of s e v t
en een th ri b o n r i g h t ki d n e y i i di
s t d by
n ca e s l
ma l c r o ss .

Ur eter s

R ena l rei n

A nteri or mese nteri c R en a l a r te ri es

a r ter y (s tu mp )

FI G . 377 .
—K DN Y AN D A D NAL
I E S RE S or HO RS E . V N T AL V W
E R I E .

H a rd e n e d in t
si u . Le ft r e na l vei n (no t m a r k e d ) i s s ee n c u r vi ng ro u n d p t i os d e r o r en of l ft
e a d r e na l .

term i n a l p a r t o f th e du o d e n u m the left a dr e n a l , ,

a nd t he left extr e m i ty of t he
p an c r ea s Th e i nterna l b o r d er is l on ge r st r a ighter
.
, , an d thi cke r th a n th a t of th e r igh t
4 72 T HE U RI N AR Y OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

kid n ey I t is r el a ted to th e p os te r i o r a o r t a the a d r e n a l a n d the u r ete r The

.
, , .

e xte rn a l b o r d er i s r el a ted ch i efl y to the b a se Of th e spl ee n The a n ter i o r e xtr e mi ty .

exte n ds a lm o st to t he s a c cus c aecus o f th e st om a ch ; it is r el a ted t o the l eft en d of

the p a n c r e a s a nd th e sple n i c vessels Th e p o s te ri or e xtr e mi ty is usu a lly l ar ge r
,
.

th a n the a n te r i or one .

T h e fo r m Of t h e l e f t ki d ne y i s v a r i a b l e I n s o me cas es i ts ou tli ne i s S i m i l a r t o t h a t o f th er i g h t
.

ki d ne y b u t i ts v e n t ra l s u r f ac e i s co n v ex a nd i s o f t en m a r k ed b y s ev era l f u rro w s w h i c h di v erge

,

f ro m t h e h i l u s I n w e l l h a rd ened S pec i me ns t h e t h ree a rea s o f th e d o rsa l s u r f a c e a r e o f t en d i s

.
-

ti n c t T h e p s oa s a rea i s fl a t p a ra ll e l w i t h th e i nn er b o r d er a n d w i d ens b eh i nd T h e d i a ph rag

, ,
.

m a ti c a r ea i s s ma ll a n d co n v ex ; i t i s c resc en ti c a n d is c o n fi n ed t o t h e a n t e r i o r p o l e T h e s p l eni c .

a rea c o n v e x a nd ex t e r n a l i s o f t e n so ex t e n s i v e a n d d i s ti n c t as r ea l l y to c ons t i t u t e a t h I rd s u r f a c e
, ,
.

Fixa ti o n — Th e kid n eys a r e h eld i n p o siti o n ch i efly by th e p r essu r e of a dj a ce n t

.

o r g a n s a n d by th e r e n a l f a sci a Th e l a tte r is a speci a l d evel o p m e n t o f th e sub

.

pe r it o n e a l tissue wh i ch splits i n t o tw o l a ye r s t o i n cl o se th e ki d n ey t o geth e r with

, ,

the pe r i r e na l fa t or c a psul a a dip os a On a c c o u n t of its r el a t i o n s wi th th e l ive r .

,

Rena l cres t
s u bs ta n c e

M ed u l l a r y s u bs ta nce
.

R ena l a r ter y

Ureter
3 78 .
—F R ON TAL (H OR I Z ON TAL ) CT ON O K DN Y
SE I HO F I E or RS E .

The re n a l vei n is mo
re vd A l g
e . ar e a c c es s o r y r e na l t y t d th p t i p l S ti
a r er e n e re e os e r o r o e . ec o ns t i
o f a r er es in
li ti g l y b tw
mi n a er e ee n c o r ti c l
a an d m d ll y
e u b t
ar w h it i fig
su s a n c e a re e n u re .

p an c r e a s a n d th e b a se o f th e c aecu m the r ight kid n ey is m uch m o r e st r o n gly

, ,

a tt a ched th a n th e l eft o n e I t is the r ef o r e n o t su r p r isi n g th a t th e l a tte r v a r i es

.
, ,

s o m ew h a t i n p o si ti o n ; its p o ster i or p o l e ma y be f o u n d ve n t r a l t o the thi r d o r f o u rt h

lu mb a r t r a n sve r se p r o cess The p osi ti on o f th e r igh t kid n ey see ms t o be ve r y
.

c o nst a nt e x cludi n g i ts m o veme n ts d u r i n g r espi r a ti o n

W e ight a nd S iz e —Th e r i ght kid n ey i s usu a l ly on e or t w o o u n ces h e a vi e r th a n
.
,

t he l eft Th e a ve r a ge w eight of th e r i ght kid n ey i s a b o ut 2 3 to 24 o u n ces (c a

. .

7 00 t h a t o f th e l eft a b o ut 22 t o 2 3 o u n ces (c a 670 Th e r el a ti on Of

th e weight o f b o th kid n eys t o th e b o dy wei gh t is a b o ut 1 300—
.
,

350 -
.

C h a u v e a u g i v es as a n a v er a ge 750 g ra m s fo r t h e r i g h t ki d n ey a nd 7 1 0 g r a m s fo r th e l e f t , .

E l l e n b e r g er a n d B a u m (2 4 c a s es ) g i v e t h e r i g h t ki d n ey a s v a ry i ng b e t w een 4 3 0 a nd 84 0 g ra ms ;
a n d t h e l e f t b e t w een 4 2 5 a n d 780 ; t h i s i s a n a v e ra g e o f 63 5 g ra ms (a b o u t o u n c es ) fo r t h e
r i g h t ki d n ey a n d g ra ms (a b ou t 2 1 % o u n c es ) fo r t h e l e f t T h ey g i v e th e r e l a ti o n o f th e
w e i g h t o f b o t h ki d n ey s to t h e b o d y w e i g h t as 1 : 2 55—
, .

34 4 I n a P erc h ero n m a r e w e i g h i n g a b o u t
- .

2 0 0 0 p ou n d s th e r i g h t ki d ney w e i g h ed 4 p o u n d s 3 o u n c es a n d t h e l e f t o n e 4 p o u n d s I n a h o rs e ,
.

o f m ed i um s i z e t h e r i g h t ki d ney i s a b o u t s i x i n c h es (ca 1 5 c m ) i n l e n g t h a b o u t t h e s a me i n w i d t h . .
, ,

a nd a b o u t t w o i n c h es (c a 5 c m ) t h i c k T h e l e f t ki d ney i s a b o u t s e v e n i n c h es (c a 1 8 c m ) l o ng
. . . . .
,

f o u r to fi v e i n c h es (ca 1 0 to 1 2 c m ) w i d e a nd tw o to t w o a nd a h a l f i nc h es (c a 5 to 6 c m ) t h i c k
. .
,
. . .
 4 74 T HE URI NARY OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

d uct I t l ies i n th e si n us of t he kid n ey a n d i t is fu n n el sh a ped b ut fl a tte n ed d o rs o

.
,
-
,

ve n t r a lly Th e r e na l c re st (P a pi ll a c o m m u n is ) p ro j ects i n t o the o ute r p a r t o f

.
1

the pelvi s i n t he f or m o f a h or i z ont a l r idge w ith a c o n c a ve fr ee edge The t ubules .

o f the m idd l e p ar t of th e m edul l ar y subst a n ce o pe n o n th is c r est i n t o the pelvis .

The tubul es f r om e a ch en d o f the ki d n ey d o n ot o pe n i n t o the pelvi s p r o pe r (R eces

sus m edi us ) bu t i n t o t w o l o n g n arr o w di ve r ti cul a (R ecessus te r mi n a les ) whi ch
, , ,

p r o ceed f r om i t t o w ar d th e p o l es o f the kid n ey Th e w a ll of t he pelvis c o n sists .

o f th r ee l a ye r s The e x te r n a l fib r o u s c o a t o r a dve n titi a is c o n ti nu o us with th e

.

s u pp or ti n g tissue Of th e kid n ey The mu s cu l ar c o a t c o n sists o f l o n gitud i na l a n d

.

ci r cul ar fiber s The muc o u s c o a t d o es not c o ver the r e na l c r est n or is it c on ti n ued

.
,

Col l ecti ng tu bu l e

Gl omeru l us

Ven a a rc i or mi s
f

L a r ge c o l l ec ti n g
tu bu l e

P a pi l l ar y d u ct

FI G . 380 .
—D I AG R AM MAT I C S CH M E E or U N F OU
RI I ER S T UB U L ES AN D BL OO DV - E SS E L S or KI DN Y
E .

D ra w n in p tf
ar ro m th e d e s c r i pti fG l
o ns o o u be w (B oh m D a v i d o l’f
. , a nd H u be r ) .

i n t o the d ive r ti cul a o f the pelvis I t h a s a yell o wish ti nge a n d p r ese n ts n u m e r o us

.
,

fo lds I t c o n t a i n s gl a n ds (G l an d ul ae pelvis r e n a lis ) w h i ch sec r ete the th i ck m u cus

.

a lw a ys f o u n d i n the pelvis .

R e n a l Tu b u l e s — Th e p a re n c h y ma o r p ro p e r su b s t a nc e o f th e ki d ney i s co m p os ed o f th e
s ma l l re n a l o r u ri ni f e ro u s tu b u l e s
(T u b u li re na l es ), w h i c h a re v e r y c l os e t o g e t h er a nd h a v e a
c o n : p li c a t e d co u rs e E a c h t u b u l e b eg i n s i n a t h i n-w a ll ed , s p h e r i ca l d i l a t a ti o n o r c a ps u l e , w h i c h 1 8
.
-

i n v a g i na te d to re ce i v e a t u f t o f l oo p ed c a p i l l a r i es t er med a g l ome ru l u s ; t h es e t w o s tr u c t u res

co ns ti t u t e a r e n a l (o r M a l p i h i a n ) c o r u s c l e
g p ; t h e c o r p u s c l es a re v i s i b l e a s mi n u t e re d o r d a r k
s p o t s i n t h e c o n v o l u t e d p a r t o f t h e c o r t ex S u c c eed i n g t h i s i s a s h o r t n a rro w ne c k , b ey o n d
.

w h i c h t h e t u b u l e b ec o m es w i d e a n d co n v o l u t ed
,
f o r mi n g t h e p ro xi ma l c o n v o l u ted tu b u l e , a nd
en t e rs t h e ra d i a t e p o r ti o n o f t h e co rte x I t t h en g ra d u a l l y n a rro w s a n d e nt ers t he i n te rmed i a t e
O

z o ne ; b eco mi n g v er y na rro w a nd nea r l y s t ra i g h t , i t d escen d s fo r a v a r i a b l e d i s t a n c e I n t o th e med u l

l a ry s u b s t a n c e , t u r n s s h a r p l y u p o n i t s e l f a nd re t u rn s to t h e co r t ex f o r m i ng t h u s th e l oo p o f
, ,

Hen l e , w i t h i ts d es c e nd i n g a n d as c e nd i n g li mb s I n t h e c o n v o l u t ed p a r t o f t h e co r t ex , i t Wi d ens
.

T he cr set is the e lt
r su of fus i on of th e p a p i l l a} or a p i c es of th e p y ra m i d s i n th e em b r y o .
 T HE U R E TE R S —
T HE URI NARY B L A DD E R 4 75

a nd b ec o mes t o rt u o u s , co n s ti t u ti ng th e d i s t a l c o n v o l u t ed t u b u l e T h e t u b u l e t h e n n a rro w s , .

e n t e rs a m ed u l l a ry r a y , a nd o p ens w i t h o t h er t u b u l es i n t o a s t r a i g h t c o l l ec ti ng t u b u l e ; t h i s p a s s es
a xi a ll y t h ro u g h a p y ra mi d , a n d U n i t es w i t h o t h er c o ll e c ti n g t u b u l es to f or m th e re l a ti v e l y l a r g e
p a p i ll a ry d u c t s , w h i c h o p en i n t o t h e ren a l p e l v i s
—
.

S tr o ma T h e i n t e rs ti ti a l ti s s u e f o r ms a r e ti c u l u m t h ro u g h ou t w h i c h s u pp o rt s t h e t u b u l es
—
a n d b l o o d v es s e l s
.

I t i s v ery s c a n t y i n t h e c o r t ex , m u c h m o re a b u nd a n t i n th e m ed u l l a , i n w h i c h
. .

i t i nc reas es i n a mo u n t t o w a rd t h e p e l v i s .

B l oo d -s upply — Th e kid n eys r eceive a l ar ge a m o u n t of bl oo d th r o ugh the

.

re n al a r t eri e s B r a n ch es of these e nt e r at t he hi l us a n d on t he ve n t r a l su r f a ce of
.

th e gl an d a n d r e a ch th e i n te r m edi a te z o n e w he r e t hey fo r m a n a st om o ti c a r ches

, ,

(Ar t e r i ae ar ci for m es ) F r om these ar cif or m ar te r i es b r a n ches p a ss i n t o t he c or tex

.

a n d m ed ul l a Th e c or ti c a l b r a n ches (Ar te r i ae i n ter l o bul a r es ) h a ve i n ge n e r a l a

.

r a di a l c o u r se b etwee n t h e c or t i c a l l o bules a n d give off sh o r t l a te r a l b r a n ches e a ch

, ,

o f w h i ch e n ds as t h e aff e r e n t ve s s e l (Vas a ff e r e n s ) of a r e n a l c or puscl e The bl oo d .

is c arr i ed fr om t he gl om e r u lus by a s m a lle r e ff er e nt ve s s e l , whi ch b r e a ks up i m

m ed i a te ly i n to c a pi ll a r i es whi ch f o r m n etw o r ks a r o u n d th e tub ules Th e me d u l .

l ar y b r a n ch es d esce n d i n t he p yr am i ds f or mi n g i n the m bu n dl es of st r a ight twi gs

,

(A rter i o l ce r ect ae)

‘
.

The ve i n s c or r esp on d i n ge n e r a l t o t h e ar te r i es I n the supe r fi ci a l p ar t o f .

th e c or tex th e ve i n s f or m st a r li ke figu r es e n ae stel l a t ae ) by the c o n ve r ge n ce of

-

seve ra l s m a l l ra di cles t o a c omm o n t r u n k .

L ymph Ve s s e l s — Th ese may b e divi ded i nt o t w o sets c a psul ar o r supe r fi ci a l , ,

a n d p a r e n chy m a t o us o r d eep

N erve - s u pply —Th e n er ves a r e de r i ved f r o m th e r e n a l pl exus o f th e sym

.

p a th eti c an d f or m a pl exus ar o u n d th e vessels

, .

THE U R E TE R S
The ur e ters ar e t h e n arr o w p ar t o f th e exc r et or y du cts of th e kid n eys E a ch .

be g i n s at the r e n a l pel vis a n d te rm i n a tes at th e bl a dd e r I t is a b o ut t o i n ch (ca . .

6 t 0 8 m m ) i n di a m et e r a n d i ts a ve r a ge l e n gt h is a b o ut 2 8 i n ches (c a 7 0
.
,
The .

a bd o mi n al part (P a r s a bd o m i n a lis ) o f e a ch u r ete r e m e r ges ve n t r a l ly fr o m th e hi lus

o f the ki d n ey a n d cu r ves b a ckw a r d a n d i n w a r d t o w a r d th e l a te r a l f a ce o f the

,

p o ster i o r ve n a c a v a (r ight side ) or th e p oste r i or a or t a (left si de ) Th ey the n p a ss .

a l m o st st r a ight b a ckw ar d i n the subpe r it o n e a l t issue o n t h e su r f a ce o f t he ps o a s

m i n o r c r o ss th e exte r n a l i li a c vessels a n d e n t er the pelvi c c a vity

, ,
Th e pe lvi c .

part (P ar s p elvi n a ) p a sses b a ckw a r d a n d a li ttl e d o w n w a r d o n t h e l a te r a l w a l l o f

the pe lvi c c a vi ty tur ns i n w ar d a n d pi e r ces t h e d or s a l w a l l o f t he bl a dde r n e ar the
, ,

n eck .

I n the m a le the pelvi c p a r t e n te r s the u r o ge n i t a l f o ld a n d c r o sses the v as

defe r e ns I n t he f em a le th e u r ete r is situ a ted i n the gr e a te r p ar t of its c o ur se i n
.

th e d or s a l p ar t of t he b r o a d l ig a m e n t of t he ute r us .

Th e w a l l o f t he u r ete r is c o m p o sed o f th r ee c o a ts The o ute r fib r o u s c oa t .

(Tu ni c a a dve n titi a ) i s c om p o sed of l oo se fib r o us tissu e The mu s cul ar c oa t .

(Tu n i c a m uscul ar is ) c o nsists of i nn e r a n d o ute r l a ve r s o f l o n gitudi n a l fibe r s w i th ,

a st r a tum o f ci r cul a r fi be r s b etwee n the m Th e mu c o u s m e mb r an e (Tu n i c a .

m u c o s a ) is c o ve r ed wi th t r a n siti o n a l epit hel i u m ; gl a n ds (G l a n dul ae muc os a

u r ete r is ) r ese m bli n g th o se of t he r e na l pel v i s o cc ur i n t he fi r st t h r ee or f o u r i n ches
o f t he u r ete r .

THE UR I NAR Y B LAD DE R

Th e uri nar y b l a d d e r (Vesi c a ur i n a r i a ) (Fi gs 2 70 27 1 2 72 ) d i ffe r s i n f or m si z e .
, , , ,

a n d p o siti o n a c c or di n g t o the a m o u n t o f i ts c o n t e n ts Whe n e m pty an d c o n t r a ct ed .

i t is a de n se pyr if or m m a ss a b o ut t he siz e of a fist l ies on th e ve nt r a l w a l l of th e

, , ,

pelvi c c a vity a nd d o es n ot r e a ch t o th e i nlet Whe n m o de r a tely filled i t is o v o i d

,
.
,
4 76 T HE URI N AR Y OR G AN S OF T HE H OR S E

in f o r m a n d exte n ds a v ar i a bl e dist a n ce a l on g th e ve n t r a l ab d o mi na l w a ll
,
I ts .

physi o l o gi c a l c a p a city v a r ies g r e a tly but m a y b e esti m a ted a pp r oxi m a tely at ,

a b o ut th r ee or f o u r qu ar ts .

r r m r e
1
The an te i o r r o u nded b li n d e n d i s te ed th e v t x ; on its mi ddl e i s a m ass
e

o f ci c a t r i ci a l tissue (C e n t r u m ve r ti cis ) a vesti ge o f th e u r a chus wh i ch i n the fce t u s

, ,

f or ms a t ubul a r c o nn ect i o n bet w ee n the bl a dd e r a n d the a ll a n t o is Th e b o dy or .

mi ddl e p a r t (C o r pus vesi c ae ) is r o u n ded a n d is s o m e w h a t fl a tt en ed d o r s o ve n t r a lly

,
-
,

except w he n diste n d ed I t p r ese n ts t w o su r f a ces d or s a l a n d ve n t r a l the f o r m e r

.
, ,

bei ng the m or e st r o n gl y c o n vex especi a l ly i n its p ost e r i o r p ar t i n fr on t of th e eu

,

t r an ce o f th e u r ete r s 2
The p o ste r i or n arr o w ext r e m ity t h e ne c k (C o llu m vesi c ae)
.
, ,

j o i ns the u r et h ra .

The r e l a ti o n s of the b l a dde r v a r y a cc or di n g t o t h e deg r ee of full n ess o f th e

o r g a n a n d a ls o di ffe r i n i m p o r t a nt r espe cts i n th e t w o sexes
,
Th e ve nt r a l su r fa ce .

l ies on the ve n t r a l w a ll of t he pelvis an d exte n ds f or w ar d on th e a bd o m i n a l w a ll as

,

the bl a dde r fi lls The d or s a l sur f a ce i n th e m a l e is r el a t ed t o t he r ectu m t he

.
,

u r oge nit a l f o ld the te r m i n a l p a r ts o f th e v a s a defe r e n ti a th e vesi cu l ae se m i n a les

, , ,

a n d the p r o st a te ; i n th e fe m a le i t i s i n c o n t a ct i n ste a d with the b o dy o f th e , ,

ute r us a n d the v a gi n a The ve r t ex of the f ul l bl a dde r i s r el a ted to c o i ls o f th e s m a ll

.

i n testi n e a n d s m a l l c o l o n a n d t o th e pelvi c fl exu r e of th e l ar ge c o l o n

Fix ati o n —D ispl a ce m e n t of t h e bl a d d e r is li m ited ch i efl y by th r ee pe r it on e a l
.
,

f olds te r m ed th e m i ddle a nd l a te r a l li g a m e nts (Figs 2 57

,
Th e midd l e li ga .
,

m e nt (P li c a u m bi li c a lis m edi a ) i s a m ed i a n t r i a n gul ar f o ld f or m ed by the r efl ecti o n ,

o f t he pe r i t o n eu m f r o m t he ve nt r a l su r f a ce of the bl a dde r on t o the ve n t r a l w a ll o f t he

pelvis a nd a bd om e n I n t h e n ew b o r n an i m a l i t is ext e n sive a n d r e a ches to t he u m

.
-

b i l i cu s ; i n t he a d ult it is usu a lly m uch r edu ced i n le n gt h r el a t ivel y I t c o n t a i n s el a s .

ti c a n d m uscul ar fib er s i n its p o ster i o r p a r t Th e l a te ra l li ga m e nts (Pl i cm u mbi l i c a l es .

l a te r a les ) st r etch f r o m t h e l a te r a l a sp ects o f the bl a dde r t o t he l a te r a l pelvi c w a lls .

E a ch c o nt a i n s i n its f r ee edge a r o u n d fir m b a n d t h e r o u n d o r umb il i c a l li g am e n t

, ,

(L i g u m bi li c a l e s te r es ) ; t his i s t h e r e m n a n t of the l a r ge f oet a l umb il i c a l ar te r y

. .
,

the l u m e n of w hi ch i n th e a d ul t i s v e r y s m a l l Th e r et r o pe r it o n e a l p a r t of th e .

bl a dde r is a tt a ch ed t o th e su rr o u n d i n g p a r ts by l oo se c o n necti ve t issu e i n w hi ch ,

the r e i s a q u an tity of fat I t i s evid e n t th a t t h e p oste r i or p a r t of th e bl a dd e r

'

h as a de finite fixed p o si ti o n whi l e i ts a n te r i o r p a r t is m o v a bl e

S tr u ctu r e —The w a l l o f the b l a dd e r c o n sists of a p ar ti a l pe r it on e a l i n vestme n t
, .

.
,

the m uscul ar c oa t an d th e m u c o us l i n i n g ,
.

The s e r o u s c o a t (Tu n i c a ser os a ) c o ve r s th e gr e a te r p ar t of th e d or s a l su r f a ce ,

f r o m wh i ch i t is r efl ected i n th e m a l e to f or m the u r o ge n it a l f o l d ; i n th e fe ma le

i t p a sses o n t o th e v a gi n a f o r m i n g th e vesi c o— ge n it a l p o u ch Ve n tr a l ly th e pe r i
,
.

t o n e u m c o ve r s o n ly th e a n te r i o r h a lf o r less o f th e bl a dde r a n d i s r efl ected p o ste r i ,

o r ly o n t o the pelvi c fl o or .

Th e mu scu l ar c oa t (Tu n i c a muscul ar is ) is r el a tively thi n wh e n the bl adde r is

ful l. I t is u n st r iped p a le a n d n o t cl e a r ly di vi ded i n t o l a ye r s but h as r a the r a
, , ,

plexif o rm arr a n ge m e n t L o n git udi n a l fibe r s o ccu r o n th e d or s a l a n d ve nt r a l s u r

.

f a ces but l a te r a l ly they bec om e o bl i q

, u e a n d d ecuss a te wit h e a ch othe r A d is .

t i n c tl y ci r cul a r a rr a n geme n t i s f o u n d a t th e n eck wh e r e the fibe r s fo r m a s ph i n cter ,

(A nn ul us u r eth r a l is ) .

Th e mu c o u s c o a t (Tu n i c a m u c o s a ) is p a le a n d t hi n I t is i n ge n e r a l a tt a ched .

by a highl y el a sti c sub m u c o s a to the m uscul a r c o a t a nd f or m s n u m e r o us f o lds ,

whe n t he o r g a n is e m pty a nd c on t r a cted I t is m o dified d o r s a lly i n the vi ci n i ty .

o f t he n eck o ve r a t r i a n gul ar a r e a te r m ed the tri g o n um v e s ic ae ; the a n gles of this

,

sp a ce li e at the or ifi ces o f th e t w o u r ete r s a nd the u r eth r a wh i ch a r e cl ose t ogethe r ,

.

T h i s i s c o m m o n l y t e r m ed t h e
‘
f u nd u s by v e t er i n a r i a n s , but i s n ot t h e h o mo l ogu e of th e
f u n d u s o f t h e h u m a n b l a d d er .

2
This w ou ld c o rr s e p o nd to th e f u nd u s v es i cze of ma n .
4 78 URI N AR Y OR G A N S OF T HE ox

and th e i nn er o ne i s i n co n t a c t w i t h th e p os t er i o r v en a ca v a T h e an t er i o r mesen t er i c a rt ery .

i s n e a r l y a l w a y s m o re o r l es s e n l a rged as a r es u lt o f v e r mi n ou s a r t e ri t i s and t h e f o r m a nd d eg ree

.

o f c u r v a t u re Of t h e l e f t a d re n a l s ee m t o v a r y i n c o nf o r m i t y W i t h t e co
h n d i t i o n o f t h e a r t ery
‘

S tr u ctur e .
—Th e fib rou s c apsu l e a d he r es i nti m a tely to t he su r f a ce of th e o r ga n .

I t c on t a i n s el a sti c fibe r s a n d i n its deep p ar t u n st r iped muscle fib er s ,

F r om it -
.

tra b ec u l ze p a ss r a d i a lly i n t o the subst a n ce b le n di n g w ith the fin e supp or ti n g r eti ,

cu l u m The par e n c h ym a c o n sists o f a c or ti c a l a nd a m ed ull ar y p or t i on The

.
.

c orti c a l sub stan c e (S ubst a n ti a c or ti c a l is ) is r e d b r ow n i n c o l o r a n d is cle ar ly -

,

d ist i n guish ab l e f r o m t h e yell ow m e du ll ar y s ub stan c e (S ubst a n t i a medul l ar i s )

- .

A l a r ge c e ntr a l v e i n (Ve n a ce n t r a lis ) is visi ble on c r o ss

secti on s .

T h e c e l l s o f t h e c o r t e x a r e a r r a n g e d i n c h a i n s o f o n e o r tw o
r ow s . I n t h e p er i p h e ra l p o r ti o n t h e c e l l s a r e Of h i g h c y li nd r i ca l
s h a p e , a n d t h e c h a i n s f or m co nn e c ti n g l o o p s ; G un t h er h a s p ro
p os ed t h e n a m e z on a ar cu a t a fo r t h i s p a r t , i ns t ea d o f t h e u su a l
—
t erm z o na g l omeru l a ri s M o re d ee p l y t h e c h a i ns a re d i s ti nc t l y
.

p a l i s ad e lik e , a nd t hi s reg i on i s c a ll ed t h e z o n a f as c i cu l a t a N ex t .

t o t h e m ed u ll a i s t h e z on a r e ti c u l a r i s , i n w h i c h t h e c h a i n s f o r m
a ne t w o r k . T h e c e l l s i n t h es e tw o z o n es a r e p o l yg o na l a n d co n
t a i n a b ro w n p i g men t .

T h e c e ll s o f th e m ed u l l a a r e a r r a nged i n i r reg u l a r g ro u p s o r
f or m s h ea t h s a r ou n d t h e v e i ns T h ey r ea c t to c h ro m i c s a lt s b y
— .

as s u m i n g a y e l l o w o r y e ll o w b r o w n co l o r , a n d a re t er med c h r o ni a f
fin c e ll s ; t h ey S h a r e t h i s p e c u li a r i t y w i t h c er t a i n c e ll s o f t h e s y m
p a t h e ti c g a ng li a a nd p ara ga n g li a , w i t h w hi ch t h ey a re p ro b a b l y
re l a t ed g e ne ti ca ll y T h e a lk a l o i d a d r en a li n a pp ea rs to b e f o rm ed
.

i n t h e m ed u ll a r y c e ll s .

Ve s s e l s an d N e rv e s —Th e a d r e n a ls r ecei ve a r el a
l ti v el y
a r ge bl oo d supply th r o ugh th e a d r e nal ar te r e s
A M E N“ B O D Y O
-
Fm . 381 ? F i
HO ; H m o m S RS E (A a sup r ar e n a les ) wh i ch ar i se f r o m t he r e n a l art e r i es
o z n i. EC .
,

T ON R D U C D
I
o r f r o m th e a o r t a di r ectl y
E E
Th e v e in s te r mi n ate i n th e .

1 0 9 .
1 ? 2 9“ 8 m l p o ste r i or v e n a c a v a an d th e l eft r e n a l vei n
50 9 ' °° °a
The lym ph
b t ; 3 m d ll b t
.

su s a nc e y ; e u ar su s a n ce

F ro v e s s e l s g o t o th e r e n a l ly m ph gl a n ds Th e n u m e r o us
,

4 ,b l d oo ]i
w es se ti ( m n se c on ,
.

L i i g
e se r n A tl ’
d s d ) nerv e s
a s . re are
u ceder i ved fr o m th e symp a theti c syste m
.

th r o ugh t he s o l a r a n d r e n a l pl exuses Th e fiber s .

f or m a r i ch i n te r l a ce m e n t especi a lly i n th e medull ar y subst an ce G a n gl i on cells

, .

a r e f o u n d chi efly i n the medull a b u t a ls o o c cu r i n th e deepe r p a r t o f th e c or tex , .

UR I NAR Y ORGANS OF THE OX

Th e ki d n eys ar e su pe r fici a lly divi ded i n t o p o lyg o n a l l o bes by fissu r es o f v ar i
a bl e d epth Th e l o bes v ar y i n si ze a n d a r e c omm o n ly a b o ut twe n ty to twe nt y
’

.
,

fiv e i n n u m b e r Th e fissu res a r e fi ll ed wi th fa t
. .

Th e r i ght ki d n e y h as a n el o n g a ted ell ipti c a l o utli n e a n d is fl a tte n ed d or s o ,

ve n t r a l ly I t l i es ve nt r a l t o the l a st r i b a nd the fi r st tw o or th r ee l u m b ar t r a n sve r se

.

p r o cesses The d or s a l su r f a ce is r o u n d ed a n d is i n c on t a ct chi efly with t h e sub

.
,

lu m b ar m uscl es The ve n t ra l su r f a ce i s less c o n vex a n d is r el a ted to t he l ive r

.
, ,

p a n c r e a s du o de n um an d te r mi n a l p a r t o f t he c o l on The h i l us is S itu a t ed on th e
, ,
.

a n te r i o r p a r t o f this su r f a ce n e a r th e i nn e r b or de r The i n te r n a l b or de r i s n e a r ly .

st r a ight a nd l i es p a r a l lel with the p oste r i or ve n a c a v a Th e ext e r n a l b or de r is

. .

c o n vex The a n te r i o r ext r e m ity o c cupi es the r e n a l i m p ressi o n o f t h e l ive r a n d is

.
,

c a pped by th e a d r e n a l b o dy .

T h e l e ft k i d n e y o ccupi es a r e m ar k a ble p o si ti o n a n d wh e n h a r de n ed i n s i tu , ,

di ffe r s st r on gly i n f o r m f r om the r ight on e Whe n the r ume n is ful l i t pu shes the .
,

ki d ney b a ckw a r d a n d a c r os s t h e m edi a n pl an e s o th a t i t is si tu a ted on the r igh t ,

 URI NA RY OR G A N S OF T HE ox 4 79

side behi n d a n d a t a l o we r level th a n t he r ight ki d n ey I t the n li es usu a lly u nde r

. .

the thi r d f o u r th a n d fifth lumb ar ve r teb r a

, ,
Whe n the r u m e n i s n ot ful l th e left .
,

kid ney may li e p a r tly to t he left o f th e medi a n pl a n e I t h as th r ee su r f a ces The . .

d or s a l su r f a ce is c on vex a nd p r ese n ts on its a nte r o exte r n a l p a r t t he hi l us whi ch

,
-
,

Ope ns o utw ar d Th e ve n t r a l su r f a ce is r el a ted to the i n testi n e Th e thi r d fa ce

. .

E xter na l bor d er

A n teri or extre mi ty

Ureter Re na l a r ter y

FI G . 382 .
—R I GB T KI DN EY OF Ox , V N AL E TR FA C E .

Org a n h a rd e ned i n s i t u . Fa t h as b ee n re mo vd f m fi
e ro ss u r es be tw ee n l o b es .

is o fte n m o r e or less fl a tte n ed by c o nt a ct wi th th e r ume n a n d m a y b e te r m ed t he ,

r um i n a l su r f a ce Th e a n ter i o r ext r e m ity i s s m a l l t he p o ster i or l ar ge a nd r o u nded

.
,
.

Th e p r ec ed i n g s t a t em en ts re f er to th e a d u l t s u b j e c t a n d a re b as ed o n i n v es ti g a ti o ns m a d e o n ,

li v i n g s u b j ec ts a nd s t u d i es o f f ro z en s ec ti o ns a nd m a t er i a l h a rd ened i n si tu I n th e you ng
,
.

ca l f t h e ki d ney s a re a l mos t s y mm e t r i c a ll y p l ac ed b u t as t h e r u men g ro w s i t p u s h es t h e l e f t ki d ney

,

to t h e r i g h t a n d b a c k w a r d pa ri pa ss u I t a l s o u su a l l y cau s es a ro t a t i o n o f t h e k i d n ey s o t h a t t h e
.
,

p r i ma ry d or s a l s ur f a c e co mes to l i e a l mos t i n a s ag i tt a l p l a ne F u r t h er th e g l a n d i s b en t so t h a t .
,

t h e h i l u s i s l a r g e l y c l o s ed u p a nd f a c es o u t w a r d (t o t h e r i g h t ) I n v ery fa t s u b j e c t s t h e t hr ee .

s i d ed a pp ea ra n c e o f t h e ki d n ey m a y b e ab s en t a n d a b o u t o n e-t hi rd o r mo r e m a y r em a i n to t h e l e f t
,

o f t h e m ed i a n p l a n e e v en w h er e t h e r u m en i s p r et t y w e l l fi ll ed
,
.

The ki d n eys ar e embedded i n a l a r ge a mo un t of pe r i r e n a l fa t . Th e wei ght

Ren a l a r tery

FI G . 3 83 .
—F R 0 NTAL SE CT ON I OF KI DN Y E OF Ox .

L Lo bes o f c o rt e x ; P , p pill
a a ; C ,ly ca x ma j o r : c
’
, ca ly c es mi no res .

Of a k i d n ey i s a b o u t 20 t o 2 5 o u n ces (ca 57 0 t o 700 left on e bei n g usu a lly

. th e
a n o u n ce or m o r e the h e a vi er The tw o f or m a b o ut .
per ce n t of th e b o dy weight .
-
.

T h e r i g h t ki d ney meas u res a b ou t 8 to 1 0 i n c h es (c a 2 0 t o 2 5 c m ) i n l en g t h 4 to 5 i n c h es (ca -

,
. .
.

_
1 0 to 1 2 c m ) i n w i d t h a n d 2 A ; t o 3 i n c h es (c a 7 c m ) i n t hi c kn es s Th e l e f t ki d ney i s o n e o r
.

.
1 . . .
,

t w o i n c h es (c a 2 to 5 c m ) s h o r t er b u t i t s p o s t er i or p a r t i s m u c h t hi c k er t h a n t h e r i g h t o n e
. .
,
.

S tr u c tu re .
—Th e h il us is equ iv a l e n t
t he hi lus a n d si n us o f th e ki d n ey Of t h e to
h or se ; i n the r i ght k i d n ey it i s a n ext e n sive ell ipti c a l c a vity i n th e left a deep , ,

fissur e . The pel v i s is abse n t The ur eter begi n s a t t he j u n c ti o n Of tw o w ide

. ,
4 80 URI NARY OR G A N S OF T HE ox

thi n w a ll ed tubes t he c al yc e s ma j ore s ; the a n te r i or c a lyx i s usu a lly th e l ar ger

-
,
.

E a ch c a lyx m a j o r gi ves Off a n u m be r o f b r a n ches a n d these divid e i n t o seve r a l ,

fu nn el sh a ped c al yc e s mi n ore s , e a ch Of wh ich e m b r a ces a r e n a l p a pi l l a

-
The .

sp a ce n ot o ccupi ed by the c a lyces a n d vessels is fil led wit h fa t .

On secti o n th r o ugh the kid n ey t h e re n a l pyr a mi d s a r e e a si ly m a d e ou t The .

bl u nt a pex o f e a ch py r a m i d th e p ap i l l a r ena li s , p r oj ects i nt o a c a l yx mi n or On

, .

e a ch p a pi ll a a re s m a ll o r ifi ces (F ora mi n a p apill ar i a ) by whi ch th e ter m i n a l r e n a l

tubu les (D uct us p a p i l l a res ) Ope n i n t o th e c a lyx The r e n a l c o l u m n s ar e m u ch .

m or e disti n ct th a n i n t he h or se .

A t th e hi l us th e r e n a l a r te r y is d o rs a l th e vei n i n th e mi ddle a n d th e u r ete r , ,

ve nt r a l ; a q u a n tity Of fa t su rr o u n ds th ese st r u ctu r es i n t he h i l us .

Th e ki d n eys of the sh e e p a r e be an sh a ped a nd s mo o th wi th o ut a ny supe r fi ci a l -

,

l o b a ti on Th e s o ft o r g a n is r egul ar ly elli pti c a l i n f or m with c on vex d o r s a l a n d

.
,

ve n t r a l su r f a ces a n d r o u n ded e x t r e m i ties ; i ts l e n gth is a b o ut t o 3 i n ches (c a .

5 to 8 its wi dth a b o ut l /l é to 2 i n ches (c a 4 t o 5 a nd its th i ck n ess a li ttle .

FI G . 3 S4 .
—I{ I DN E Y OF S H EE P , VE N T E A I . V W
I E . 3 85 —K DN Y I E OF S H E E P ,
H OR I Z ON TAL S E CT I O N .

V L B ra n c hes o f r e na l v ei n . 1 C ti l
, or ca t
s u b s a nc e ; 2 , m ed u ll a ry t a nc
s u bs e:

8 , re n a l t; 4
c r es , re n a l p lvi e s ; 5 , t
u re e r .
(F m L i e
ro e s r

i ng s
‘
A tl a s ,
re d u ced ) .

m o r e th a n 1 i n ch (c a 3 p o siti o n th ey r ese m bl e th o se Of th e ox except th a t

. In ,

the r ight o ne is usu a lly a little fu r th e r b a ck a n d l ies u n d e r th e fi r st t h r ee lumb ar ,

t ra n sve r se p r o cesses The a ve r a ge w eight o f e a ch i s a b o u t f o u r o u n ces Th e

. .

hi lus is i n the m i dd le Of the i nn e r b o r de r Th e r e is a r e n a l c r est or c o m mo n p a pil l a .

f o rm ed by the fusi on o f twelve t o S i xtee n py ra m ids .

th e r u m n i s f u , t h e
e f
l e t ki e (w h i c h i s a tt a ch ed b y a s h o r t mese n tery ) u s u a ll y
dn y ll
l i e s e n t i re l y to t h e r i g h o f t h e m d i a n p a n
t e l e u n d e r t h e t h i r d f o u r t h a n d fi f t h l u mb a r t r a n s
, , ,

v ers e p ro c es s es T h e p ri mi t i v e d o rsa l s u r f ace li as b eco me v en t ro med i a l a nd i s s o mew h a t

.
-
,

fl a tt ened by c o n t a c t w i th t h e ru men .

The u r e te r s a re i n ge n e r a l li ke t h ose of th e h o r se except i n r eg a r d t o the

, , ,

fi rs t p a r t o f the l eft o ne w h i ch h a s a peculi ar c o u r s e i n c on f or m ity with th e r e ma r k

, ,

a ble p o s 1 t i o n Of th e kid n ey I t begi n s a t th e ve n t r a l p a r t of the hi l us (whi ch f a ces

.

t ow a r d th e r ight ) cu r ve s upw a r d a n d i n w a r d o ve r th e o ute r a spect Of the kid n ey

,

to i ts d o r s a l su r f a ce c ro s s es the m ed i a n pl a n e a n d r u n s b a ckw ar d o n th e left sid e

, ,
.

Th e b l a dd e r i s l o nge r a n d n a rr o we r th a n th a t o f th e h o r se a n d exte nds fu rt he r ,

f or w ar d o n the a bd o m i n a l fl oo r The pe r it o n e a l c o a t exte n ds b a ckw ar d fu r the r

.

th a n i n t h e h or se .
4 82 U RI NARY OR G A N S or T HE PI G

FI G . 3 88 .
—K m N r-
:Ys OF P I G i n
'
s z tu , V N T AL V W
E R IE .

C . u .
,
H p ti
e a t
c a r e ry : M . a .
, g as t r o -spl i t y
e n c ar er .

Cor ti ca l s u bs tan ce

M ed u l l ar y s u bs tan ce
Ca l yx maj or

P el vi s

P a pi l l a:

Ur eter

Ca l yces mi nor es

Fro . 389 S E CTI O N or KI DN EY

 U R I NARY OR G A N S o r T HE D OG 4 83

on ei the r si de of th e fi r st f o u r lumb ar ve r teb r ae (Var i a ti on s i n p ositi o n a r e no t r ar e

.

a nd i n v o lve th e left kid n ey o fte n e r th a n th e r igh t The f o r m e r h as bee n fo u n d .

n e ar the p elvi c i n let ) Th e exte r n a l b or de r lies a g a i n st the fl a n k p a r a l lel w ith the

.

edge o f th e l o n gissi m us m uscle The p oste r i o r ext r emi ty usu a lly l ies a b o ut m i d
.

w a y betwee n the l a st r i b a n d th e exte r n a l a n gl e o f the i l iu m Th e a nte r i or ex .

t r emi ty of th e r ight kid n ey usu a lly exte n ds a s far f or w a r d as th e l a st r i b but h as ,

n o c o n t a ct wi th the l i ve r .

Th e w eight of the kid n ey of a medi um si z ed pi g is a b o ut seve n to n i n e o u n ces-

(2 00 t o 2 50 g ram s ) Th e r a ti o of th ei r c o mbi n ed wei ght t o t h a t o f the b o dy is

1 50—
.

a b o ut 1 200
S tr u ctur e —Th e h ilus is a b o ut i n th e mi dd le of the i n n er b or der
.

. The pelvis .

is fu nn el sh a ped a nd d ivi des i n t o tw o c a lyces m a j o r es whi ch p a ss i n a cu r ve for

-
, ,

w ar d a n d b a ckw ar d r espectively a n d give off s om e eight t o twelve sh or t c a lyces

,

mi n or es ; e a ch o f the l a tte r c on t a i n s a p a pi ll a So m e p a pill ae ar e n arr o w a nd c on i ~

c a l a n d c orr esp o n d t o a si n gl e p yr a mi d ; o th er s ar e wide a n d fl a tte n ed a n d r esult

, ,

fr o m the fusi o n of tw o or m o r e p yr a mids ; s o me p r o j ect di r ectly th r ough the w a l l

o f the pelvi s with o ut the f o r m a ti on of a c a lyx The r e n a l pyr a m ids ar e disti n ct .
,

b ut it i s a pp ar e n t th a t s om e a r e c o m p o u n d t e f or m ed by fusi o n of p r i m itively,
. .
,

sep ara te pyr a mids Th e r e na l a r te r y e n te r s th e ve nt r a l p a r t of the h i l us a nd the

.
,

u r eter l e a ves i t d or s a l ly .

The o n l y spe ci a l fe a tu r e i n r eg ar d t o th e u re te r is th a t it is at fi r st r el a tively

W i de a n d gr a du a lly dimi n ishes i n c a li be r .

Th e b l a d d e r is r el a tivel y ve r y l ar ge ; whe n full it li es chi efly i n the abd omi ,

nal c a vi ty I t is a lm o st c o mpl etely c o ve r ed with per it o n eum

. .

UR I NAR Y OR GANS OF THE DOG

The ki d neys ar e r el a ti vel y l ar ge for m i n g a b o ut fi g to afi of the b o dy weight
,
-

th e weight o f th e ki d n ey o f a m ed i u m si z ed d o g is a b o ut tw o o u n ces (c a 50 to 60
-
.

gr a ms ) They ar e b o th b e an sh a ped th i ck d or s o ve n t r a lly w ith a r o u n ded v en

.
-
,
-
,

t r a l sur f a ce an d a less c o n vex d o r s a l su r f a ce ; th e su r f a ces a r e s mo o th .

Th e ri ght ki d ne y (Fi g 3 4 3 ) is n ot subj ect to m u ch v a r i ati on i n p ositi on ; i t

.
.

i s sit u a ted usu a l ly u n de r the l a st r ib a n d the fi r st th r ee lu m b a r tr a nsver se p r o cesses .

I ts a n ter i o r p a r t li es i n the deep r e n a l i m p r essi o n o f th e l ive r ; its p o ste r i o r p ar t is .

r el a ted t o the sub l u m b ar m uscles d o r s a ll y a nd th e p a n c r e as an d du o de n u m

,

ve nt r a l ly .

The l e ft ki d ne y (Fig 3 4 2 ) i s subj e ct to s om e v ar i a ti on i n p o siti on ; thi s is due

.

t o the f a ct th a t i t is l oo sely a tt a ch ed by th e pe r it on e u m a nd is a ff ected by the d e ,

gr ee of ful l n ess of the st o m a ch Whe n the st om a ch is n e ar l y e m pty the kid n ey

. ,

usu a lly l i es u n de r the t r a n sver se p r o cesses o f the sec o nd th i r d a n d f o u r th lu m b ar , ,

ve r teb r ae s o t h a t i ts a nt er i or p o l e is o pp o site t o th e h i lus of the r ight kid n ey A s

,
.

the st om a ch fills it push es the left ki d n ey b a ckw ar d so th a t th e a n ter i or p o l e of ,

the l a tte r ma y b e o pp o sit e th e p o ster i o r p o le of th e r ight kid n ey The d o r s a l .

su rf a ce i s r el a ted t o th e subl u m b a r m uscles Th e ve n t r a l sur f a ce is i n c on t a c t .

with th e te rm i na l p ar t of the c o l o n (C o l o n desce nde n s ) Th e exte r na l b or d e r i s .

r el a ted t o the spl ee n a n d the fl a n k Th e a n te r i or ext r e m ity t o u ches t he st o ma c h

.

a n d th e left ext r e m ity of th e p a n c r e a s .

T h e e x t er na l b o r d er o f th e l ef t ki d n ey h a s co ns i d era b l e co n t a c t w i t h th e fl a n k , a n d h e n c e
i t may b e p a l p a t ed m o re or l ess d i s ti n c tl y i n t h e li v i n g a ni ma l a b o u t h a l f -w a y b e t w een t h e l as t
r i b a n d th e c res t of t h e i li u m .

S tru c tu r e .
—Th e h i l us i s in the mi ddle of the i nn e r b o r de r a nd is ,
r el a tively
4 84 U RI N A R Y ORG A N S or T HE D OG

wi de C o r tex li m iti ng z o n e a n d m ed ul l a a r e cle ar ly defi n ed On f r ont a l secti o n s

.
, ,
.

i t is see n th a t the m ed ull a r y subst a n ce f or m s a h or i z on t a l r e n a l c r est l i ke th a t o f

t he h or se but wit h the i m p o r t a n t d i ffe r e n ce th a t cu r ved r idges p r o ceed d o r s a lly
,

a n d ve n t r a lly f r o m the c r est s o m ewh a t l i ke b utt r esses S ecti o n s a b o v e or bel o w

.

the r e na l c r est o fte n ou t these r idges i n su c h a m a nn er as t o give the a ppe ar a n ce

o f c o n i c a l p a pi l l ae a n d thus te n d st r o ngly t o p r o du ce a f a lse i m p r essi on
,
The .

pelvis is a d a pted to this arr a n ge m e n t of the m edu ll ar y subst a n ce I t i n c l o ses a .

ce n t ra l c avity i nt o whi ch the r e n a l c r est p r oj ects a n d is p r o l on ged o utw ar d

,

betwee n the r idges fo r m i n g c a vi ti es for the l a tte r th us simul a ti n g the a ppe ar an c e

, ,

o f c a lyces wh i ch d o n o t exist .

The u re ter s p r ese n t n o speci a l fe a tu r es .

Th e b l a dd e r is a bd o m i na l i n p o si ti o n the n eck lyi n g at th e a n te r i or b or de r o f

,

th e pubi c b ones I t is r el a ti vely l a r ge a n d whe n ful l th e ve r tex m ay r e a c h t o t h e

.
, ,

umbi li cus I t h as a p r a cti c a lly c o m pl ete per it o n e a l c o a t

. .

THE ADR E N AL S

The r ight a d r e na l l ies betwee n t he an te r i or p ar t o f the i nn er b o r de r o f th e kid

n ey a n d the p o ste r i o r ve n a c a v a . I t i s s om ewh a t p r i sm a ti c a nd is p o i n ted a t
,

e ithe r e n d .

The l e ft a d re nal li es a l o n g the p o ste r i o r a or t a fr o m the r e n a l vei n f or w ar d

, ,

b ut is not i n c o n t a ct with the kid n ey I t is el o ng a ted an d fl a tte n ed d or s o ve n t r a l ly

.
-
.

(The r e is a fu rr o w on th e ve n t r a l su r f a ce for th e vei n whi ch c r o sses it ; th e p ar t i n

f r on t o f this fu rr o w is disc o i d a nd may b e t a ke n for th e e n ti r e o r ga n i n a fa t
,

subj ect ) .

The c o r tex is p a le yell o w i n c o l o r t he medull a d ar k br o wn

, .
4 86 T HE M A LE GE N I T AL OR G ANS OF T HE H OR S E

is th e visce r a l l a ye r of th e se r o us e n vel o p o f the c o r d an d testi cle ; t hi s is r efl ected

f r o m t he a tt a ched b o r de r o f the gl a n d le a vi n g a n u n c o ve r ed a r e a a t whi ch the v essels ,

a n d n e r ves i n th e spe r m a ti c c o r d r e a ch the testi cle B e n e a th this ser o us c ove r i n g is .

the tu ni c a a lb ugi n ea a st r o ng c a psule c o m p o sed of de n se wh ite i n el asti c fib r o us tis s ue

,

a n d u n st r iped m uscle fib e r s Fr om th e d eep su r f a ce of th is t u n i c del i c ate m em

-
.

b r a no u s s e pta (S eptul a testis ) p a ss i n t o the gl a n d d i vidi n g i t i n t o pyr a m id a l ,

sp a ces the b a ses o f whi ch a r e pe r iph e r a l A t the a n te r i or p a r t of th e a tt a ched

,
.

b or d e r of th e test icl e c o n n ective tissu e a n d s m oo th m uscle fi be r s p a ss i n t o th e -

subst a n ce of th e gl a n d f o rm i ng t he m e d i a sti n u m te sti s ; f r om t his th e sept a

,

r a d i a te Th e m edi a sti n u m c o n t a i n s a n etw o r k of fin e c a na ls the re te te sti s ;

.
,

U NAL R ON S TALL O N w
Fro . T
3 90 .
—N
T C L E X PO D I G I E GI or I , rr B ES I ES SE .

T ti l ; b
a .
a
’
t m p d d fl t d;
, es c es t i v g i li
, s c ro u mm i p d nd fl t d ,
o e ne an re ec e c, u n ca a na s co un s ,
o e ne a re ec e

d li g m t f pi d i d y mi ;
, a en t i v g i li p p i (m
o e hi m ) : f
s d f
c, ; t il f pi d i d y m i : h b d y
u n ca a na s ro r a es o r c u . v as e e re ns a o e s , o

of m ; 1 h d f
sa e m ; k d i g it l f
1 ea i pi d i d y m i d i ; l p m ti v l h w i g t h g h t i
o sa e a oss a o r s nu s e s s er a c e ss e s s o n ro u u n ca

B m
, , .

v g i li p p i ; m p m ti t y ;
a na s ro p p ;
r a , ph e;
s p p ti l i fi
er a (A ft cE ll b g
a r er n, re u ce n
’
,
ra o, re u a or ce . er en er e r- au ,

T p An t d P f d
o . a )
.. . er es .

i t is t ra ve r sed by bl oo d vessels wh i c h r a di a te o n the sept a t o the d eep f a ce of the

-

tu n i c a a lbugi ne a f o r mi ng a d el i c a te n etw or k —th e s o c a l led tu n i c a v a scul os a

,

-
, .

The sp a ces i m pe r fectly m a r ked o ff by the sept a c o n t a i n t he par e n chym a te sti s ,

whi ch c o nsists o f s e mi n if e r o u s tub u l e s (Tub uli se m i nife r i ) supp o r ted by l oo se ,

i n te r tub ul a r c o nn ective t issue The t ubul es ar e c o l lected i n t o s m a ll ma sses or .

l o bul e s (L o bu li testis ) Th ey ar e a t fi r st ve r y t o r tu o us (T u bu l i c on t or ti ) ; to
.

w a r d t h e a pex o f the l o bul e th ey u n ite w ith o th e r tubul es f o r m i n g l a r ge r st r a igh t ,

t ubules (Tubu l i r ecti ) ; th ese p a ss i n t o the m ed i a sti n um testis w h e r e t hey f or m ,

th e re te te sti s Fr o m t h e l a tte r a n u m be r (c a 1 5 t o 20 ) o f l a r ge r e ff ere n t tub u l e s

. .

(Va s a eff e r e n ti a ) pi e r ce th e a lbugi n e a a n d e n te r t he he a d of th e epididymi s .

.

The e pid idymi s is c o ve r ed by the tu ni c a v a gi n a lis p r o p r i a a nd a thi n a lbugi n e a .

 T HE S C R OT U M 4 87

I ts h e a d c ons ists Of l o b ul e s (L obuli epididy m idis ) e a ch o f w h i ch c o nsi s ts o f a ,

c o i led tub ul e o r c o n u s v a s c ul o s u s w h i ch su cceeds a v as efl er e ns B y the u n i on , .

o f th ese t ubul es i s f o r m ed a si n gl e t ube the du ct o f th e e pid idym i s (D u ct u s e p i d id y ,

midis ) wh i ch by i ts c om plex c o i ls f or m s t he b o dy an d t a i l o f th e epid idy m is a nd

, , ,

ter m i n a tes i n the v a s defe r e n s Th e t ubul es a n d th e c o i ls of t he duct o f th e

epididymis a r e h eld t ogeth e r by c onn ective tissu e a nd u n st r i ped muscle —
.

fib e r s .

The tubul es a nd d u ct a r e li n ed with ci l i ated epith eli u m an d th e d uct h as a mus ,

.

c u l a r c oa t wh i ch c o n sists of l o n gi tudi na l a n d ci r cu l a r fi be r s

Ve s s e l s a n d N e r ve s —The t esti cl e i s r i chly suppli ed wi th bl o o d by the sp er

.

m a ti c ar te ry , a b r a n ch of the p oste r i or a or t a Th e ar ter y desce n ds i n the a n te r i or .

p ar t Of t he spe r m a ti c c o r d a n d is ve r y t or tu o u s n e ar th e test i cle ; o n r e a chi n g th e

,

a tt a ched b o r de r o f th e gl a n d it p a sses b a ckw ar d i n a fl e x u o u s m a nn e r givi n g ,

b r a n ch es t o th e testi cl e an d epidi dymis t ur ns ar o un d the p o ste r i o r ext r e m ity , ,

FI G . 391 HT T T
.
—R IGAN D S M ESC OR D or
I CL E PE R
'‘
AI I C Fro . 3 92 —R H T
TI C L E AN D S P E R M I I C C O D o
IG TE S ‘
A
'’
R r

HO I N C LORS ED x T UN CA V
,
m
SE 1 I ac u u s . H O S E X PO D R E ,
S E .

T c. i v g i liu n ca mm ni ; g p mi
a na s co u s ro n e nc e E te
a
’
l f e o f tes ti l ; t ni vag i
x rn a s ur a c c e c. u ca n

fl ec ted ; d li g me t f epi di d y mi ;
, ,

ca use d b y t i l f p i di d y mi s : p
a o e m t t m c re as e r e x e r nu s us ah s
c t a d u n re a n o s e,

B m T p A t d Pf d )
, .

l
c e .(A ft E ll b g er en er e r- au . o . na . . er es . me c h i u m ; g t a il h b od y
s or i h d f p i d i d y mi ; k
. , , , , ea o e s .

d i g it l f s a oi n us pid i d y m i d i ; l spe m ti c v l
s a or s e s . r a es s e s

sh wi ng t h r o u g h t ni
o v g i li p p i ; u d ofca a na s ro r a 771 , en

sp m ti t y D tt d li i d i t po iti
er a c a r er . fo e ne n c a es s on o v as

d f e e r e ns n th e i d f m
o o hi m r(A ft s E ll n
e o es o r c i z er e

B m T p A nat (l P f d )
.

b g —
er er au , o . . . er es .

an d u ns f or w ar d o n th e fr ee b or de r t o t he ant e r i or ext r e m ity I t is p ar ti a ll y

r .

emb edded i n the tu ni c a a lbugi n e a an d det a ch es l a ter a l b r an ch es whi ch a sce n d i n ,

a t or tu o us f a s hi o n o n e a ch su r f a ce of t he testi c le ; t hese give o ff s m a l l b ra n ch e s

whi ch e nte r the gl a n d on t h e sept a .

Th e s pe r m a ti c v e i n s on l e a vi ng th e testi cle f or m the pam pin i f orm pl e xu s ,

ar o u n d the ar t e r y i n th e spe r m a ti c c o r d Th e vei n whi ch issues fr o m this plexus .

usu a lly j o i n s th e p o ster i or ve n a c a v a o n th e r ight sid e th e left r e n a l vei n on th e ,

l eft si de .

The n e r ve s , de r ived f r o m the r e n a l a n d p oste r i o r m ese nte r i c plexuses f or m ,

the s pe r ma ti c pl e xu s ar o u n d t he vessels .

THE SCR OT M U
The s c r o tum , i n whi ch th e t esti cl es a n d th e l ower p a r ts o f th e spe r m a ti c c or ds
ar e situ a ted is s om ewh a t gl o b u l ar i n f or m but is c om m o n ly a s y m m et r i c a l s m ee
, , ,
4 88 T HE M A LE GE NI TAL OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

on e testi cl e—m or e o fte n th e l eft—is the l a r ge r a n d m or e depe n de nt I t v ar ies .

i n f o r m a nd appe ar a n ce i n the s a m e subj ect a cc o r di n g t o the c o n diti o n of i t s sub ,

cut a ne o us muscul a r tissue The l a tte r c o n t r a cts o n exp o su r e t o c o ld s o th a t th e

.
,

sc r ot um is d r a w n up a n d bec om es thi cke r a n d wr i n kl ed ; whe n r el a xed u n de r th e

i n fl ue n ce of h e a t or f a tigue o r f r om debi lity i t bec omes s m oo th and pe n dul o us
, , ,

w ith a c o n st r i cti o n or n eck supe r i or ly I t c o n sists o f l a ye r s wh i ch c o rr esp o n d

.

with th o se o f the a bd o m i n a l w a ll ; c on sid e r ed f r o m with o ut i n w ar d these ar e :

(l ) The s k i n , whi ch i s thi n el a sti c usu a lly bl a ck i n c o l o r a n d s m oo th an d o i ly
, , ,

to the t o u ch I t p r ese n ts sc a tte r ed sh o r t fin e h a i r s a n d is a bu n d a n tly suppli ed

.
,

with ve r y l a rge seb a ce o us a nd swe a t gl a n ds I t is m ar ked ce n t r a lly by a l ong i tu .

d i n a l fu rr o w i n whi ch is a l i n e th e r aph e s c ro ti ; thi s i s c o n ti nu ed f or w ar d on th e

, ,

p r epu ce a n d behi nd o n the pe r i n eum .

(2 ) The d ar to s (Tu n i c a d ar t o s ) i s r eddish i n c o l o r an d is cl o sely a dh er e n t to

th e ski n except supe r i or ly I t c on sists o f fibr o el a sti c t issu e a n d u n st r iped m uscl e
.
-
.

Al o n g the r a phe i t f or m s a m edi a n p a r ti ti o n th e s e p tu m s c r o ti , whi ch di vi des th e ,

s c rotu m i n t o tw o p o u ch es D o r s a ll y th e septu m div ides i n t o tw o l a ye r s wh i ch

.

dive r ge o n ei the r si de of the pe n is to j o i n th e a b d o m i n a l tu n i c At the b o tt om .

of the sc r o tu m fibe r s c o nn e ct the d a r t o s cl o sel y with th e t u n i c a v a gi n a lis a n d the

t a i l o f the epi didy m is c on stituti n g the s c r o tal l igam e nt

,
1
E l sewhe r e the d ar t o s .

is l o o sely c o nn ected with the u n der lyi ng tu n i c by ar e o l ar ti ssue wh i ch c on t a i n s

no fa t .

(3 ) The sc r o t a l f a sci a , whi ch i s a pp ar e ntl y de r ived fr o m th e o bl i qu e

a bd om i n a l m uscles .

I t h as b een c u s t o m ar y to d es c r i b e t h ree l a y ers o f f as c i a , i n conf o rm i ty w i t h th e accou n t s

g i v en i n t e x t b oo k s o f h u ma n a na t o my
-
T h es e a r e : (1 ) t h e i n t er co l u m n a r o r s p er m a ti c f as c i a ,
.

d er i v ed f ro m t h e ma r g i n o f t h e ex t e r na l i ng u i n a l ri n g ; (2 ) th e c r emas t er i c f asc i a , d er i v ed f ro m th e
q
i n tern a l Ob li u e m u s c l e ; (3 ) th e i n f u n d i b u li f o r m f a s c i a , d er i v ed f ro m t h e f asc i a t ra ns v ers a li s .

T h e fi rs t tw o c a nn o t b e d i s ti n g u i sh ed by d i ss ec ti o n a n d th e t h i r d i s (i n th e s c ro t u m ) f u sed w i t h
t h e p a r i e t a l p e r i t o n eu m o f t h e t u ni ca v a g i n a li s
,
.

l a ye r o f th e tu ni ca va gi n ali s —This is a fibrO-se r o us sac wh i ch

(4 ) Th e pari e tal .

i s c o nti n u o us with the p ar iet a l pe r it on eum o f th e a bd o me n at th e i n ter n a l

i ngui n a l r i n g I t is thi n a b o ve but is thi ck i n i ts sc ro t a l p ar t wh e r e i t is st r e n gth
.
, ,

e n ed by fib r o us tissu e (L am i n a fib r os a ) de r ived f r om th e t ran sve r s a lis f a sci a I t .

wi ll be desc r ibed fur the r u n de r the c a pti o n tu n i c a v a gi na lis 2 .

THE VAS D E FE R E NS

T hi s tube (D u ctus defe r e ns ) exte n ds f r o m th e t a i l o f th e epidi dymis t o th e

ej a cul a t or y du ct I t p a sses upw ar d i n th e i n gu i n a l c a na l i n cl o sed i n a f o l d de ~

t ac h e d f r o mthe i nn e r su r f a ce o f th e m es o r chi um n e a r the p o ste r i or (a tt a ched )

.
,

b or de r o f th e l a tte r A t the v a gi n a l r i n g it sep a r a tes fr o m th e o th e r c on stitu e n ts

.

o f the spe r m a ti c c o r d a n d tu r n s b a ckw ar d a n d i n w a r d i n t o the pel vi c

,
c a vi ty
(Fi g . For s o m e d ist a n ce i t l ies i n th e f r ee edge o f th e u r o ge n i t a l f o ld by ,

wh i ch i t is a tt a ched t o th e l o wer p ar t o f th e l a te r a l w a ll of the pelvis I n i ts .

fu r the r c o u r se (o ve r the d or s a l su r f a ce o f th e bl a dd e r ) i t l e a ves th e edge o f t h e f ol d

a nd i n cli n es i n w ar d betwee n its l a ye r s c om i ng i n c o n t a ct w ith the i nn e r f a ce o f
,

the vesi cul a se m i n a l is Ove r the n eck o f the bl a dde r th e tw o v a s a li e ve r y

.

cl ose t o gethe r fl a n ked l a te r a lly by th e n ecks of t h e vesi cul ae se m i n a les an d

, ,

h a vi ng the ute r us m a sculi n us betwee n them They the n d is a pp e ar u n de r th e .

i sth m us oi the p r ost a te an d a r e c o n ti n ued th r o ugh the w a ll of the u r et h r a by the

,

e j a cu l a to ry du cts Th e l a tte r a r e f o rm ed i n the u r eth r a l w a l l by th e u n i o n of th e

.

1
T hi s is a r em n a n t o f th e gu b e r na c u l u m t es ti s o f th e f oet u s .

T h e t u n i c a v a g i n a li s i s n o t a p a r t o f t h e s cro t u m i n th e s t r i c t o r n a rro w s ense o f t h a t t erm ,

bu t i nc l u d ed h ere o n p ra c ti ca l g ro u nd s
0

18 .
4 90 T HE M AL E GE NI TAL OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

L i ke th e a bd o m i n a l pe r it o n eum o f w h i ch it is a n ev a gi na ti o n i t c o nsists o f tw o
l a ye r s —p ar iet a l a nd visce r a l T he p ar i e ta l l aye r , o r tu ni c a va g i nal i s c o mm u n i s
, ,

(s r e fl exa ) l i n es the sc r o tu m bel o w ; its n a rr o w t ubul a r p a r t l i es i n the i n gui na l

.
, ,

c a n a l a n d is di r ectly c o n ti n u o us with the p ar iet a l pe r it o n eu m o f th e a bd o m e n

a t th e i n te r n a l i n gui n a l r i n g The c avity o f th e tu n i c a v a gi n a l is (C a vu m v a gi n a le )
.

is a di ve r ti cul u m of the ge n e r a l pe r it o n e a l c a vity with whi ch it c o m m u n i c a tes ,

th r o ugh th e va gi n a l r i ng (A nn u lus v a gi n a lis ) I t c o n t a i ns n or m a l ly a s ma ll qu an .

tity of se r o us fl uid The p ar iet a l l a ye r is r eflected f ro m th e p o ste r i or w a ll o f the

.

i n gui n a l c a n a l a r o u n d the st r u ctu r es o f the c or d f o r mi n g th e m e s or chi um , a fo ld ,

a n a l o g o us t o the m ese n te r y o f the i n testi n e The vi s c era l l ayer , or tu ni c a .

va gi na li s propr i a , c o ve r s the spe r m a ti c c o r d testi cl e a n d epidi dy m is , , .

Th e e xte rn a l c re m a ste r mu s cl e (M c r em a ste r exte r nus ) l ies o n th e o ute r a nd .

p oste r i or p a r t o f the tu n i c to the sc r o t a l p ar t o f wh ich i t is a tt a ched

, .

C on f u s i o n h as a r i s en f ro m t h e u se o f th e t er m i n t er n a l a bd o m i n a l or i ng u i n a l r i ng i n tw o
.

s ens es T h e t e r m i s u s ed to d es i g na t e t h e u pp e r o r a bd o m i n a l o p e n i n g o f t h e i n g u i n a l ca n a l
.
,

bu t i t i s a l s o a pp li ed to th e u pp er o p en i n g o f th e c a v i t y o f th e t u n i c a v a g i na li s I t shou l d .

S p er ma ti c vess el s a nd n er ves

P a ri eta l l a yer f
o tu ni ca
va gi n a l i s

Vi s cera l l a yer of tu n i ca
va gi n a l i s o r m es orc h i u m

Crema s ter i n ter nu s

Va s d ef er ens

F I G 3 93
.
—D A A M
I GR OF C —CT N
R OS S S E IO OF S P E R M A 'I C O D AN D T U N CA VA NAL S ;
‘
IC R I GI I L ATT ER RE P R ES E NT DE AS

D T ND D IS E E .

onl y be a p pli ed to t h e l o p en i n g o f th e c a na l th e s u b pe ri ton e a l r i n g T h e pe ri to n e al

a b d o m na i , .

ri n
g a t w h i c h t h e c a v i t y o f t h e t u n i c a v a g i n a li s Op ens i n t o t h e g ene r a l p er i t o nea l sac i s d i s ti n
g ms h e d b y t h e n a me va g i n al r i ng I t i s p l a ced a b o u t fo u r o r fiv e i n c h es (c a 1 0 to 1 2 c m ) f ro m
. . .

th e l i n ea a l b a a n d a b o u t tw o o r t h r ee i nc h es (c a 6 to 8 c m ) i n f ro n t o f t h e i li o p ec ti n ea l e m i n en c e
, . .
- .

I n s t a ll i o n s i t W i ll u s u a l l y a d m i t t h e en d o f th e fi n g e r r ea d i l y b u t i t m a y b e a b n o r m a ll y l a rge a nd ,
a ll o w a l o o p o f b o w e l to en t er t h e c a v i t I n t h e g e l d i n g i t i s s ma ll er a n d
y o f th e t u n i ca v a g i n a li s .

s o me ti mes p a r ti a ll y oc c l u d ed I n ma n t h e c a v i t y i s a l m os t a l w a y s o b li t e ra t ed ear l y exc e p t i n

.

,
i ts s c ro t a l p o r t i o n t h u s a b o l i s h i n
, g t h e v a g i na l r i n g .

DE SCE N T OF THE TE S TI CLE S

D u r i n g e ar ly foet a l life th e testi cl e is situ a ted a g a i nst th e d o r s a l w a ll of the

a bd o mi na l c a vi ty i n c o n t a ct with the ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f the c o rr esp o n di n g kid n ey
, .

As g r o wt h p r o ceeds it g r a d u a lly m ig ra tes f r o m th is p r i m itive p o si ti o n a n d fi na ll y ,

p a sses d o w n t h e i n gu i n a l c a n a l i nt o th e sc r o tu m P r evi o us t o i ts desce n t th r o ugh .

the a bd o mi na l w a ll the testi cl e is suspe n d ed by a f o ld o f pe r it o n eu m te r med ,

the m e s or ch i u m Thi s f o ld c o n t a i n s the vessels a n d n e r ves o f the testi cl e i n its

.

a n te r i or b o r d e r I n i ts p o ste r i o r edge is the el o n g a ted t a i l o f th e epi d idymis

.
,

a n d tw o c o r d s o f fib r o us tissu e a n d u n st r iped muscle On e o f th ese c o r ds is sh or t .

a nd c o nn ects th e t a il o f the epidid y m is with th e testi cl e

; l a te r i t bec o mes sh o r te r ,
 T HE V E S I CU LAE SE M I N A LE S 4 91

and is te r m ed the l ig a m e n t o f th e epid idy m i s The o the r c o r d th e gub e rn a culu m .

,

te s ti s , exte n ds fr o m t he t a i l of the epi didy m is t o th e subpe r it o n e a l tissue i n the

vi ci n ity o f th e futu r e v a gi n a l r i n g The d e f e r e nti a l f o ld (P li c a d uctus d efe r e ntis )
.

is gi ve n o ff f r om the i n ne r f a ce o f th e m es or ch i u m a n d j o i n s t he ur o ge n i t a l fo ld ,

p o ster i or ly Th e b o dy o f the epi didy m is a t this ti m e l i es i n t he edge o f a n o bl iqu e

.

f o l d f or m ed by the o ute r l a yer of the mes or ch ium A fte r the m i ddle o f f oet a l l ife .
,

a p o u ch o r dive r ti cul u m o f the pe r it o n eu m the p ro c e s su s va gi n al i s g r o ws d o w n w a r d

, ,

thr o ugh the i ngu i n a l c a n a l c a r r yi ng with it c r e m a ste r fibe r s de r i ved f r o m the

,

i n te r n a l Obl iqu e muscl e a n d a l a yer f r o m th e t r ansve r s a lis f a sci a I t is a ec o m .

p a ni e d by a n i n gui n a l exte n si o n o f the gube r na cu lum testis Th e l a tter ble nds .

b el o w with the subcut an e o us t issue wh i c h l a te r b ec o m es the d ar t o s The t ai l o f .

t he epidi dy m is fi r st e n te r s the p r o cessus v a gi n a lis f o ll o wed by th e testi cle with its ,

mes o r chi u m whi ch desce n ds withi n this dive r t i cu lu m of t he pe r it on eu m u n ti l i t

,

r e a ches the sc r o t um Th e v a s defer e n s a n d i ts f o l d desce n d sy n chr on o usly wi th

.

the epi di dy m is a n d testi cle .

T h e m e ch a ni ca l f a c t ors co ncerned i n th e mi g ra ti o n o f t h e t es ti c l e a r e ma t t ers o n w h i c h

m u c h u n c e r t a i n t y s ti l l exi s t s T h a t t h e g u b ern a cu l u m exer ts su fli c i e n t t r a c ti o n to g u i d e t h e
.

e p i di d y mi s a nd t es ti c l e to th e i n g u i n a l c a n a l s eems p l a u s i b l e T h e i n t er na l i n gu i na l r i n g m a y
.

c o ns ti t u t e a l oc u s mi n o r i s res i s te n t i ae i n th e a bd o mi n a l w a l l es p e c i a l l y a f t er th e d es c en t o f th e
,

p ro c ess u s v a gi na li s P r o g res s i v e s h o r t en i n g o f t h e g u b erna c u l u m w as f o r m er l y co n s i d er ed to b e

.

t h e c h i e f c a u s e o f th e d es c en t t h ro u g h t h e a bd o mi n a l w a ll I n c re as e i n th e i n t r a a bd o mi na l
.
-

press u re i s p ro b a b l y a n i m p o r t a n t f ac t or .

th e f o a l the desce n t o f the testi cl es i s o fte n c o mplete a t bi r th b ut i t fr e

In ,

q ue ntly h a ppe n s th a t o n e t esti cle or b o t h m ay b e r et a i n ed i n th e i n gui n a l c an a l or

i n the a b d o m en for s o me m o n ths I n o th e r c a ses th e testi cle m a y r etu r n i n t o the
.

c an a l or a bd o men si n ce i n the y o u n g fo a l t he v a gi na l r i ng is l ar ge a n d the testi cle

,

s m a l l a nd s o ft a n d n ot yet cl o sely a n ch or ed by the sc r o t a l l ig a m e n t I n r ar e c a ses

,
.

the desce n t m ay b e c o m pleted as l a te a s th e f o u r th ye a r (pe r s on a l o bse r v a ti o n ) .

I nd e fi ni t e r e t ent i o n o f o ne t es ti c l e o r b o t h i n t h e a bd o mi n a l c av i t y o r i ng u i na l c a n a l i s n o t r ar e
i n h o rs es ; t hi s co nd i ti o n i s t er m ed c rypt orc h i s m A bd o m i n a l re t e nti o n i s t h e m o r e u s u a l f o r m
.

o f c r y p t o r c hi s m i n a d u l t h ors es , i n g u i na l r e t en ti o n b e i n g u s u a ll y t e m p o ra ry T h e re t a i n ed .

t es ti c l e i s us u a ll y , b u t n o t a l w a y s , s m a l l , t h i n , so f t , a n d fl a b b y , a n d i s no n-s per mi og e n i c The .

p ro c es s u s v a gi n a li s a n d t h e i n g u i n a l p a r t o f t h e g u b e rn acu l u m a r e u su a ll y p res en t , b u t m a y be
ru di m en t a r y T h e li g a me n t o f t h e e p i di d y m i s a n d t h e co rres p on d i n g p a r t o f t h e m eso r c h i u m
.

ar e o f t en so l o n g t h a t t h e t a i l of t h e e p i di d y mi s m a y b e s e v er a l i n c h es di s t a n t f rom th e t es ti c l e .

T h e a bd o mi n a l p a r t o f t h e gu b er n a c u l u m m a y b e 8 t o 1 0 i n c h es (ca 2 0 t o 2 5 c m ) l o n g , a nd t h e . .

li ga men t of t h e e p i d i d y mi s mu c h e l o ng a t ed (1 0 t o 1 5 c m i n l eng t h accord i ng to Venner h ol m) ;

.

t h u s t h e t es ti c l e m a y h a v e a w i d e ra n g e T h e v a g i n a l r i n g i s s o m e ti m es c l os ed
. .

I n ma n y m a mm a ls t h e t es ti c l es n o r m a ll y r e m a i n i n th e a bd o m i n a l c a v i t y ; s u c h a n i m a l s a r e
t er med tes ti con d a , a nd i n c l u d e t h e e l e p h an t , so me i ns ec ti v ora , h y ra x s l o t h s , a n t-ea t ers , a rma d i l l os ,
,

a n d c e t a c ea I n o t h ers t h e t es ti c l es d esc en d p er i o d i c a ll y d u ri ng t h e p er i o d o f ms tru m a n d t h en

.
,

r e t u r n i n t o t h e a bd o me n , o r t h ey m a y b e ex t ru d ed a n d r e t ra c t ed v o l un t a ri l y ; t hi s i s t r u e o f mo s t
r od en t s , m a ny i ns ec ti v o r a (m o l es , s h r e w s , h ed g e h o g ), a n d b a t s .

THE VE SI C UL AE S E MI N ALE S

Th e ve s i c ul a s e mi na l e s (Fig 394 ) ar e tw o el on g a ted a n d s omewh a t py r if o r m

.

s a cs wh i ch l i e o n eithe r si de of the p o ste r i o r p a r t o f th e d o r s a l su r f a ce o f the bl ad

,

d er . They a r e p ar tly i n cl o sed i n th e u r o ge n it a l f o ld a nd a r e r el a ted to the r ectu m ,

d o r s a lly Thei r l o n g a xes ar e p ara ll el with the v as d efe r e nt i a a nd c on ve r ge pos

.

t er i or l y .E a c h c o n si sts o f a r o u n ded bli n d en d th e fu nd u s , a m iddle slightly , ,

n a rr o we r p ar t th e b o dy , a n d a p o ste r i o r c o n st r i cted p a r t the ne ck or duct

, ,
.

I n the st a lli o n th ey a r e a b o ut six to eight i n ches (c a 1 5 t o 2 0 c m ) l o n g a n d thei r . .

,

gr e a test d i am ete r is a b o ut t w o i n ches (c a 5 cm ) i n the geldi n g they ar e usu a lly . .

1
much sm a lle r .

S o m eti m es o ne v es i c u l a o r b o t h a re v er y l a rg e i n th e ge l di ng T h e w r i t er h a s s ee n f o u r .

h
cas es i n t h e d i sse c ti n g r o o m t h r ee o f w h i c h w e r e b i l a t e ra l t h e o t h er u n i l a t era l . T e v e
s i c u l a re
.

s em b l ed t h e u r i n a ry b l a d d e r i n a pp ea ra n c e a nd c o n t a i n ed a b o u t a q
, ,

u a r t o f t hi c k a m b er c o l ored
-
,

s ec r e ti o n .
4 92 T HE M A LE GE NI TAL OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

Th e vesi cul ae ar e for the m o st p a r t r et r o pe r i t on e a l b ut th e fu n dus exte n ds

, , ,

f o r w a r d i n t o the u r o ge n i t a l f o ld a nd he n ce h a s a se r o us c o ve r i ng The n e c k or .

d u c t (D u ctus exc r et o r ius ) dips u n de r the p r o st a te a nd usu a lly u ni tes wi th the ,

end o f th e v a s defe r e n s t o f or m the e j a cu l a t o ry du ct

S tr u c tur e —Th e w a ll excl usive o f the p ar ti a l se r o us c o a t c o n si sts of a fib r o u s

.

.
, ,

B u l bo-u r ethr a l (Cow per ) gl a nd

’
s

FI G . 3 94 .
—I N T E R NAL GEN TAL I OR G AN S OF TAL LI ON D OR S I Vi E w
S . A . .

On l e ft i d
s e u re th l
ra m u sc l e h as b e e n re mo vd v e o er l
b u b o- u et h
r l g l a nd C o a o f te
ra . rnu u ru s m as cu li nu s a re ia
d i c a te d i n u ro g e nit a l f l d
o .

ad ve ntiti a , a middle mu s cu l ar c o a t , a nd a mu c o u s l i n i ng Th e mu scu l ar c o a t .

i s thi ckest a t th e fu n dus a n d c on sists of tw o pl an es o f l o n gi tud i na l fibe r s w ith a

,

ci r cul ar l a ye r betwee n th e m Th e m u c o us m emb r a n e is th i n a nd is a rr anged i n

.
,

n u m e r o us f o l ds whi ch f o r m a n etw o r k ; th e sp a ces so i n cl o sed p r ese n t the o pe n

i ngs o f tub ul o-a lve o l ar gl a n ds Th e epith eliu m i s c o l u mn ar . Th e b l oo d - su pply .

i s de r ived f r o m th e i nte rna l pudi c ar tery .

4 94 T HE M A LE GE NI TAL OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

a b o ut tw o i n ch es (c a 5 c m ) i n le n gth a n d a n i n ch o r m o r e (c a 3 c m ) i n w idth
. .
,
. . .

I n th e gel di n g th ey a r e a b o ut t he si z e of a n a ve r a ge h a z el n u t .

S tru ctu r e —They r ese m b l e t he p r o st a t e i n ge n e r a l st r uct u r e but t he i n te r

.
,

s t i t i a l tissue is much less a bu n d a n t especi a lly i n r eg a r d t o its muscul ar ele m e n ts

I n th e pe r iphe ra l p a r t t he r e a r e st r iped m uscl e —

.
,

fib er s E a ch gl a n d h a s six to .

eight e xc re tory du cts (D uctus exc r et or ii ) whi ch Ope n i n t o the u r eth r a on a se r i es

o f s m a ll p a pil l ae behi n d the p r o st a ti c d ucts a n d cl o se t o the medi a n pl a n e Th e .

b l oo d - supply c om es f r o m th e i nt ern a l pudi c a rt ery

THE P E NI S

The p e ni s , the m a le or g a n of c o pu l a ti on i s c o mp o sed esse n ti a l ly of er ectil e ,

tissue a n d i n cl o ses t he ext r a pelvi c p a r t of t he u r eth r a I t ext e n ds f r o m th e i sch i a l

,
.

a r ch f o r w a r d bet w ee n the thighs o n t o th e u m bi li c a l r egi on o f t he a bd o mi n a l w a ll .

I t is supp o r ted by the f a sci a pe n is a n d th e ski n a n d its pr es c r o ta l p or ti o n is situ a t ed ,

Deep a r ter y (f ro m i nter na l p u d i c)

Dors a l (fr om
a r ter y Cor on a gl a nd i s
exter n a l p u d i c )
.

Col l u m g l a nd i s
P roc d ors a l i s g l a n d i s
.
x

pr ocess

R etr a ctor peni s mu s cl e

FI G . 39 5 .
—P N E IS OF HO RS E , L AT AL V W
ER I E .

in cut an e o us p o u ch th e p r epu ce or sh e a th
a ,
I t i s cyli n d r i c a l i n f or m but m u ch
.
,

c om p r essed l a te r a lly i n the g r e a te r p a r t o f its exte n t .

I n th e qi e e n t s t t e i t
u sc a is t ab o u 20 i n c h es (ca 50 c m ) l o n g ; of t h i s
. .
, a b ou t6 to 8 i n c h es
(c a . 1 5 to 2 0 cm .
) i s f r ee i n t h e p rep u ce . I n e r ec ti o n i t i ncrea s es 50 p e r c e n t . or m o re i n l en g t h .

I t m ayb e di vided i n t o a r oo t a b o dy a nd a te r m i n a l e n l a r ge m e n t the gl an s

, , , .

The r o ot (R a di x pe n is ) i s a tt a ch ed to the l a te r a l p a r ts o f t he ischi a l ar ch by

t w o c r u r a , wh i ch c o n ve r ge a n d u n ite bel o w the a r ch (Fi g The u r eth r a p a sses .

o ve r the ischi a l a r ch betwee n th e c r u r a a n d cu r ves f o r w a r d t o be c o m e i ncor p or

,

a ted with the pe n i s .

The b ody (C or pus pe n is ) begi ns at th e j u n cti o n of th e c r u r a an d c on stitutes

th e bul k of the or g a n A t i ts o r igi n i t is a tt a ched t o the sy m physi s isch i i by tw o
.

st r on g fl a t b a nds t he s usp e n s ory l ig am e nt s of t he pe n is (L ig a m e n t a suspe n s or i a

,

pe n is ) whi ch ble n d wit h the te n d o n o f o r igi n of th e g r a cil es m uscles (Figs 4 51

, .
,

This p a r t o f th e pe n is is fl a tte n ed l a te ra lly for the m ost p ar t but bec o m es ,

r o u n ded a n d s m a lle r a n te r i or ly I t p r ese n ts f o u r su r f a ces

. Th e d o r s a l su r fa c e o r .

d or su m p e ni s is n arr ow a n d r o u n ded ; o n it a re the d or s a l a r ter i es a n d n e r ves

,

o f the pe n is a n d a r i ch ve n o us pl exus Th e v e ntral or ur e th r a l s ur fa c e (F a ci es

.

u r eth r a l is ) is ro u n ded a nd a l o n g i t r u n s the u r eth r a e m bedd ed i n th e deep

, ,

ur e th r al g roove o f the c or pus c a ve r n o sum Th e l a te ral s u rfa c e s a r e h igh a n d .

fl a tte n ed except a n te r i or l y whe r e they a r e l owe r an d ro u n ded

, , .
 T HE PE NI S 4 95

The gl an s pe ni s is th e e nl a r ged f r ee en d of th e or g a n I t is m a r ked off f ro m .

t he b o dy by a f a i n tly m ar ked ne ck (C o llu m gl a n dis ) I n fr on t of this is a p r om i .

n e n t ci r cul ar r idge the c orona gl an di s , whi ch i s n ot ched bel o w

, The b a s e of t he .

gl a n s is r o u n ded a n d ext e n ds f ur the r b a ckw ar d d or s a l ly t h an ve n t r a lly ; it i

m ar ked i n its l o we r p a r t by a deep dep r essi on th e f o s s a gl a n di s , i n whi ch the ,

u r eth r a p r o t r udes for a b o ut an i n ch (ca cm ) a s a f r ee t ube th e u r eth r a l

. .
,

pro c e s s (P r o cessus u r et h r az) c o ve r ed b y a t hi n i n tegume n t

, T he ur ethr a is thus .

su rro u n ded by a ci r cul ar f o ss a whi ch o pe n s supe r i or ly i n t o t h e ur e thr al s in u s , a

,

b i l o c ul ar d ive r ti cul u m li n ed by th i n bl a c k ski n This di ve r ti culu m is fil led s om e.

ti m es w ith a c a se o us m a ss of seb a ce o us m a tte r a n d ep it heli a l d é b r is .

S tr u ctu r e — T he pe ni s c o n sists esse n ti a l ly o f tw o e r e cti le b o di es the c o r pus ,

c a ve r n o sum pe n i s a n d th e c or pus sp o n gi osu m .

The c orpu s c a v ern o s u m p e ni s f or ms the g r e a te r p ar t of the bul k o f t he pe ni s

except a t its f r ee ext r e m ity I t ar i ses f r om e a ch si de of t he is chi a l ar ch by a eru s ,
.

whi ch is e m bedded i n the isch i o c a ve r n osus m uscl e B el o w t he ischi a l ar ch t h e c r ur a

-
.

fus e c om pl etely t o f or m t h e l a ter a ll y c o mp r essed b o dy of th e c or pus c a ve rn osu m ;

this p r ese n ts ve n t r a lly th e u r e th r al gr oo v e (Sul cus ur eth r a lis ) wh i ch c on t a i n s th e ,

ur eth r a an d c or pus sp o n gi o su m A n .

t er i or l y th e c o r pus c a ve r n o su m div ides

,
Dor s u m p en i s
i nt o t hr ee p r o cesses a l on g ce n t r a l on e
, ,

wh i ch is c a ppe d by t h e gl an s p en is Tr ab ecu lw
a n d tw o sh or t b l u n t l a te r a l o n es The .

c or pus c a ve r n os u m is i n cl osed by t he
tu ni c a a lbu gi n e a , a t hi ck c apsu l e of
fib r o us tissue whi ch c o n t a i n s m an y Corp u s Tu n i ca
ca ver nos u m a l bu gi nea
el asti c fib er s an d s o me u n st r iped
m uscle . E xt er n a lly th e fib er s a r e
chi efly l ongit udi n a l ; i n t er n a ll y th ey
ar e m a i n l y ci r cu l ar a n d a r e l oo se r i n
U r ethra
arr an ge m e n t N u m er o us tr a b e cu l ae
.
Cor pu s
p a ss i n w ar d fr o m th e tu ni c a n d f or m s p on gi osu m

a sp on ge l i ke f r a mew or k i n the i n
-

t er i or o f th e co r pus c a ver n o sum ,

w hi ch i s t hus di v i ded i n t o n u m er o us
R etractor pen i s mu s cl e
sp a ces (C a ver n ae ) Th ese sp a ces m a y
396 — B
.

T
h C O CT O N OD T o
e P N o HOR S S -S E I or r E IS r RS E
b e r eg ar ded a s gr e a t ly e nl ar ged c a pil
.
. .

l ar i es ; t h ey c o n t a i n b l oo d ar e li n ed ,

w ith fl a t e n d o th eli a l cells a n d a r e d i r ectly c o n t i n u o us wi th th e vei n s o f the pe n is

,
.

Th eir w a lls ar e c om p o sed ve r y l ar gely o f u n st r iped muscle E r ecti on i s p r o du ced by .

di ste n ti on Of these sp a ces wi th b l oo d ; at other ti m es t he sp a ces ar e mer e slits .

I n m a n t h er e a r e tw o d i s ti n c t co r p o ra c a v er nos a , s e p ara t ed b y a c o m p l e t e s e p t um p eni s ,

—
excep t i n t h e mi d dl e p a r t o f t h e org a n , w h ere t h e s ep t um i s co m p o sed of v er ti ca l t ra b ecu l ae , b e
t w een w hi ch a re s l i t li k e i n t er v al s ; t h r ou gh t h e l a t t er t h e b l oo d -s pa ces o f t h e tw o c or p o r a ca v er
nosa co mm un i ca t e I n th e h ors e n o d i s ti n c t s e p t u m exi s t s ex ce p t n ea r t h e r oo t , b u t i n t h e pr oxi
.

m al an d di s t a l p arts of th e cor p us c a v ern os um t h er e a re v er ti c a l t ra b e c u l ae .

Th e c orpu s sp on gi o sum or c orp u s c a v ern o sum u r e th r ae f or ms a tub e ar o u n d

th e ur ethr a a n d is m u ch e n l ar ged a t its f r ee e n d to f o r m th e b ul k of the gl an s pe n is ;
,

th r o ugh o ut the r e m a i n der of its c o ur se it i s p r a cti c a lly u n if or m i n si z e a nd d o es ,

n o t f or m a ny ve r y disti n ct b ulb (B u lbus ur ethr ae ) a t its o r igi n as i n m a

n an d .
,

m an y an i m a ls Th e gl an s h as b ee n desc r ibed i n p ar t ; it sh o u ld b e n o ted th a t

.

th e c or pus sp on g i o su m ext e n ds b a ckw ar d d or s a l ly a dist an ce of a b o ut f ou r i n ches

m th e m i ddle p o cess f th e c or pus c a ve r n o su m pe n is f o r m i n g th e
(c a . 1 0 e ) o n . r o ,

p r o cessus d or s a l is gl an di s Th e ur eth r a l p r o cess i s c o ve r ed by a th i n l a yer of

.

c o r pus sp on gi o su m .
4 96 T HE M A LE GE N I T AL OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

In st r u ctu r e the c or pus sp on gi osum h as a ge n e r a l r ese m bl an ce to th e c or pus

c a ve r n o sum but the t r a b ecul a a r e fi n e r a n d m or e el a sti c I n t he gl an s t he t r a be
,
.

cul a ar e highly el a st i c a n d the sp a ces ar e l a r ge a n d ver y exte nsib le ; the l a tte r ar e

,

c o n ti n u o us at th e ext r e m ity o f the p r o cessus d or s a l is with l ar ge vei n s on th e d o r su m

pe n is The r e is a p ar ti a l septu m gl a n dis The ski n c o ve r i ng the gl an s i s thi n
.
.
,

d estitute of gl an ds a n d r i chly suppl ied wi th n e r ves an d speci a l n e r ve e n di n gs -

Ve s s e l s an d N er v e s —The pe n is is suppli ed with bl oo d by t h r ee ar te r i e s , viz

.
,

.
,

the i n te rna l pudi c , o btu ra tor , a n d e xtern al pud i c Th e v e in s f or m a r i ch pl exus .

o n th e d or sum a n d si des of th e p e n is whi ch is d r a i n ed b y t he e xtern a l pud i c an d

,

o btur a t o r v e i n s ; f r o m the r oo t th e bl oo d is c arr i ed b y th e in terna l pu d i c ve i n s .

The lymph ati cs r u n with the vei n s a n d g o to the i n gui na l an d lu m b ar gl a nds .

Th e n e r ve s a r e de r ived ch i efly f r o m the pud i c n e rv e s an d th e pe lvi c pl e xu s o f the

sy m p a theti c .

MU SCLE S OF THE P E NI S (F i g s 1 83 , 4 5 1 , 4 52 4 56) . ,

1 The i s ch i o c av ern o su s (or er ect or p e n is ) is a sh or t bu t st r on g p a i r ed muscle

.
-
,

whi ch ar ises f r o m the tube r i sch i i a nd the a dj a cen t p ar t of the s a c r o sci a ti c lig am en t -
,

a n d is i n se r ted o n th e c r us a n d a dj a ce n t p ar t of th e b o dy o f the pe n is I t is s o me .

wh a t fusif or m i n cl oses th e c r us a s i n a sh e a th an d i s situ a ted i n a deep dep r essi on

, ,

i n th e se m i m e m b r a n o sus muscl e I t p ul ls the pen i s a g a i n st the pelvis a n d a ssists

.
,

i n p r o du ci n g and m a i n t a i n i n g e r e cti o n by c o mp r essi n g the d or s a l vei ns of th e pe n is

I ts bl oo d supply is de r ived f r om th e o btu r a t or a r te r y a n d th e n e r ve —
.

-
supply f r o m ,

the pudi c n e r ve .

2 The re tr a ctor pe n i s i s an u n st r i ped muscl e wh i ch a r ises o n the ve n t r a l s u r

.

f a ce of th e fi r st t w o or th r ee c o ccyge a l v er teb ra I t di vi des i n t o t w o fl a t b an ds

.
,

h a lf a n i n ch or m or e (c a cm ) i n w i dt h wh i ch p a ss d o wn w ar d o ve r the sides o f
. .
,

the r ectu m t o meet bel o w the a n us H e r e the r e is a decuss a ti o n of fi b er s thu s f o r m

.
,

i n g a s or t o f suspe n s o r y a pp ara tus for th e p o ste r i o r p a r t of th e r ectum a n d the a n us .

F r o m the decuss a ti o n the muscl e p a sses for a sh or t di st an ce b etween super fi ci a l

a n d deep l a ye r s o f th e b ulb o — c a ve r n o sus an d th e n a l o n g th e ven t r a l su r f a ce of th e
,

pe n is t o whi ch i t is l oosely a tt a ch ed
,
N e a r th e gl a n s pe n is i t spl its up i n t o bu n dl es
.

whi ch p a ss th r o ugh the bulb o c a ve r n o sus an d ar e a t t a ched t o th e tu n i c a a lbugi n e a

-
.

B el o w the a n us the muscl e is a tt a ch ed t o th e sp hi n cte r a n i exter n us On the .

pe n is the t w o m uscl es ar e i n ti m a tely u n ited to e a ch o th e r Th ei r a cti on is t o .

wi thdr a w the pe n is i n t o the she a t h a fte r e r ecti on or p r o t r usi on Th e p r o xi m a l .

p ar t w o uld d r a w the a nus upw ar d a nd f o r w a r d a nd supp o r t i t du r i n g d efec a ti o n .

THE P R EP UCE
Th e pr e pu ce(P r a p u ti u m) p o pul ar ly c a ll ed the sh e a th
,
is a d o uble i n ,

v a g i n at i o n of the S ki n whi ch c o n t a i n s a n d c o ve r s th e f r ee or p r e sc r o ta l p o r ti o n o f

th e pe ni s wh e n n ot e r ect I t c o nsists o f tw o p ar ts exte r n a l a n d i n te r na l The

.
,
.

ext er n a l p ar t or she a th exte n ds f r om th e sc r o tu m f o r w ar d cl ose t o th e u m b i li cus ,

wh e r e th e exte r n a l l a ye r is r efl ected ve n t r a l ly an d l a te r a lly f o r mi n g th e thi ck ,

m a r gi n of the p r e puti a l ori fi c e (Osti u m pr a pu t i al e ) ; d o r s a l ly i t i s di r ectly c on ti n u

o us with the i n t egu m e n t o f th e a bd o m i n a l w a l l I t is m a r ked by a med i a n raph e
.

pra pu ti i , a c o n ti n u a t i o n of t h e sc r o t a l r a ph e A t t he l o we r m ar gi n of th e p r e
.

put i a l or i fi ce the r e ar e o fte n i n the st a lli on t w o p a pi ll a whi ch a r e r udi m e n t a r y ,

te a ts or n ipples Th e i nte r n a l l a ye r p a sses b a ckw ar d f r o m the p r eputi a l o r ifi ce

.

a dist a n ce o f a b o ut six t o ei ght i n ches (c a 1 5 t o 2 0 l i n i n g t h e c a vity o f th e ex

.

te r n a l p r ep uce a n d is th e n r efl ected f or w ar d u n t il it a pp r oa ches the o r ifi ce whe r e

, ,

i t is a g a i n r efl ected b a ckw a r d I t th us f o r ms withi n th e c a vity o f th e sh e a t h a sec

.

on d a ry tub ul ar i n v a gi n a ti o n the p r epu ce p r o pe r i n wh i ch the a n te r i o r p a r t of

, ,
4 98 T HE MALE GE NI TAL OR G A N S OF T HE H OR S E

th e pel vis tu r ns ar o u n d th e isch i a l a r ch f or m i n g an a cute a n gle an d p a sses for w ar d

, , ,

i n cl osed i n the c or pus sp o n gi o su m I t may the r ef or e b e di vided i nt o tw o seg .

, ,

m e n ts pelvi c an d ext r a pelvi c

,
.

The pe lvi c part (P ar s pelvi n a ) i s f o u r o r fi ve i n ches (c a 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) l on g . . .

At its or igi n it is n o t d isti n guish a bl e f r o m th e n eck o f t he bl a d de r i n si z e o r st r uctu r e ;

i n f a ct n o li n e o f dem a r c a ti o n exists betwee n th e tw o B ehi n d the p r o st ate th e .

tube di l a tes t o a p o te nt i a l width o f tw o i n ch es or m or e (ca 5 to 6 N e a r th e

ischi a l a r ch betwee n the bulb o—
.

,
u r eth r a l (C o wpe r s ) gl an ds i t c o nt r a cts a g a i n ’
, ,

f or mi n g the i sth mu s u re thr a I t is r el a ted d o r s a lly t o th e r ect u m a n d th e p r o st a te

.
,

ve n t r a lly to the i n te r na l o bt u ra t or m uscl es a nd l a te r a lly t o th e bu lb o u r eth r a l ,

-

La tera l l obe of pros tat e

Col l i cu l u s s emi n a l i s

Or ifice of u teru s ma s cu l i nu s

Du c ts of bu l bo-u rethr a l
’
(Cow p er s ) gl a nd s
Du cts of u r eth ra l gl a n d s

FI G . 398 .
—P E Lv rc U T H A AN D
RE R P OS T E R I OR P A T R or B LADD ER or HO RS E Se V N T RALL Y AN D L A I D
E OP E N .

c . d .
,Ej l t
ac u a o r y d uc t s .

’
gl an ds I t i s i n cl osed except a t i ts or igi n by the u r eth r a l (Wils on s ) muscle
.
, ,
.

1
B e n e a t h thi s is a r i ch ve no us pl exus f o r mi n g a s or t of e r ecti le tis s ue ,
.

The e xtrap e l vi c par t (P a r s c a ve r n os a ) p a sses b etwee n th e t w o c r u r a o f the

pe ni s a nd r u n s a l o n g th e gr oo ve o n th e v e n t r a l su r f a ce of th e c o r pus c a ve r no su m
pe n is i n cl o sed by th e c orpus sp o n gi osum a n d th e b ulb o-c a ve r no sus muscl e I t
, .

p a sses th r ough th e gl a n s pe n is a n d p r o j ects f or w ar d a b o ut a n i n ch i n th e fo ss a

gl a ndi s a s a f r ee tube th e pro c e s s u s u r e th r ae ; thi s p ar t is c o ve r ed by a del i c a te
,

i ntegu m e nt u n d e r wh i ch th e r e is a thi n l a ye r of e r ecti le tissue

, .

1
I t h a s b een t
c u s o ma ry p el v i c p a r t o f th e u re t h ra i n t o p ros t a ti c a nd mem
to d i v i d e th e
b r a n o us p a r t s T h es e t e r ms a pp l y w e l l i n h u m a n a n a t o my b u t h a v e n o s p e c i a l v a l u e i n c o m
.
,

p a r a ti v e a n a t o m y I n t h e h o rs e a p r os t a ti c p a r t h a rd l y ex i s t s u n l ess w e as s u m e t h a t i t a n d t h e
.
,

ne c k o f t h e b l a d d e r t o g et h e r a re o n l y a b o u t a n i n c h i n l e n t h
g T h ere i s no me mb r a no u s p a r t i n .

t h e s e ns e i n w h i c h t h a t t e r m i s u s e d i n r e g a r d t o m a n .
 T HE M A LE U R E T H R A 4 99

The l u men o f th e t u b e i s l a r g el y o b li t era ted i n th e i n a c ti v e co n d iti o n o f th e p a r ts W h en .

mo d era t e l y d i s t en d ed i ts d i mens i o ns i n a h o rs e o f m ed i u m s i z e a re a s f o l l o w s : A t i ts o r i g i n t h e
d i a me t e r i s a b o u t h a l f a n i n c h (1 to T h e p e l v i c d i l a t a ti o n a t i ts w i d es t p a r t me a s u re s o n e
a n d a h a l f to tw o i n c h es (ca t o 5 c m ) t r a ns v ers e l y a n d a b o u t a n i n c h (2 to 3 c m ) v e r ti c a ll y ; i t
. .
, .

i s e lli p ti c a l i n c r os s se c ti o n w h e n f u l l y d i s t en d ed
-
T h e i s t h m u s a t t h e i s c h i a l a r c h i s a li ttl e
.

s m a l l e r t h a n t h e i n i ti a l p a r t B ey o nd t h i s th e l u m e n i s a b o u t o n e-h a l f to t h ree f o u r t h s o f a n
.
-

i n c h (c a . c m ) i n d i a m e t e r a n d i s f a i r l y u n i f o r m to t h e g l a n s p e n i s
.
,
Here t h ere i s a s li g h t
.

f u s i f o r m d i l a t a t i o n (Fossa n a v i c u l ar i s ) b ey o nd w h i c h th e t u b e co n t ra c t s
,
.

Th e o pe n i n g f r om t he b l a dde r i nt o th e u r eth r a is te r m ed th e i n terna l u re thr a l

orifi ce (Ori fic i u m u r eth r ae i n te r n u m ) ; i t is cl o sed except du r i n g u r i n a ti on The .

te r m i n a l o pe n i n g is th e e xte rn al ur e th ral or ifi c e (Or i fici u m u r eth r ae exte r n u m ) or

me a tus u r i n ar i us The tw o o r ifi ces of t h e e j a c u l a to ry d ucts a r e si tu ated d or s a lly
.

on eith e r sid e o f th e c o ll i cu lus semi n a lis a b o ut tw o i n ch es (ca 5 c m ) b ehi n d th e

, . .

i n te r n a l u r eth r a l or ifi ce ; th ey a r e slit li ke a n d cl o se t o gethe r Th e s m a l l or i fice

-
.

o f the ute r us m a s cu li n us is pl a ced ce n t r a ll y o n th e c o l li cu l us i t is i n c o nst a nt Th e .

o r ifi ces o f th e pr o s ta ti c d u c t s a r e o n tw o g r o ups o f sm a ll p a pi ll ae pl a ced l a te r a l t o ,

t he o pe n i n gs o f the ej a cul a t or y ducts Th e d u c ts of th e b u l b o -u re th ral (Cow per s )

.
’

gl an d s o pe n on tw o l a te r a l se r i es of sm a l l p a pi ll ae a b o ut a n i n ch (c a cm ) ,
. .

fu r the r b a ck a n d cl ose t o t he m edi an li n e Th e s m a ll or ifi ces of the u r e th ra l

.

gl an d s a r e situ a ted l a tera l ly i n the wide pelvi c p o r ti o n

S tru c tu r e —Th e mu c o u s m e m b ra ne c o n t a i n s a n u n usu a l ly l ar ge a m o u n t of
.

fin e el a sti c fib er s a n d i n its pel v i c p a r t th e r e a r e a lve o l a r gl an d s (G l a n dul ae u r e

,

th ra les ) The epi t h el i u m i s at fir st l i k e th a t o f t he b l a d d e r the n b ec om es cyli n d r i c a l

.
, ,

a n d i n th e te r m i n a l p a r t is st r a tifi ed sq u a m o us I n th e d or s a l w a ll the mem b r an e.

f or m s a m ed i an r idge th e u re th ra l c re s t (C r i st a u r eth r a l is ) ; th is ter m i n a tes a b o ut

,

tw o i n ches f ro m t he i n te r n a l u r eth r a l o r i fi ce i n a r o u n ded elev a ti on th e c o ll icu lu s ,

s e mi nali s , o n th e sides o f whi ch th e ej a cul a t o r y du cts o pe n .

At the o r igi n o f th e u r eth r a the r e is a l a y e r o f ci r cu l ar u n str i pe d mus cl e fib er s -

o utside o f th e mu c o us c o a t B ey o n d th is t he l a tte r is i n cl o sed by a l a ye r of ere ctil e

.

ti s s u e , c om p o sed o f plexuses o f vei n s supp or t ed by t r a becul ae o f el a sti c a n d s m oo th

m uscul a r tissue Th is i s c on ti n u ed b y t h e c or pus sp on gi o su m Outside o f th e
. .

e r ectil e t issue the r e is a c o nti n u a ti on of t h e i n t r i n si c u n st r iped muscul ar c oa t ,

c on si sti n g o f exter n a l a n d i nte r na l l o n gi t ud i n a l st r a t a with a l a ye r of ci r cul ar ,

fibe r s b etwee n the m .

E xcept a t i ts o r igi n a n d te r m i n a ti o n th e u r eth r a is p r o vid ed with a c o n ti nu o us

l a ye r of st r i ped m uscl e pl a ced o utside o f th e e r ecti l e tissue Th is is desc r ibed as
,
.

c o nsi sti n g of tw o p ar ts or m uscl es .

(1 ) The ur e th ral (or Wi ls o n s ) m u s cl e (M u r eth r a lis ) c o n sists of d o rs a l

’
.

a n d ve n t r a l l a ye r s of t r a n sve r se fibe r s o n the wide pelvi c p a r t of the u r e

th ra an d c o ve r s th e bulb o u r eth r a l (C o wpe r s ) gl a n ds I t is a c om p r ess or of the
,
-
’
.

pelvi c p ar t of the u r eth r a a n d the bulb o u r eth r a l gl an ds B y its f or cible c o ntr a e

-
.

ti o n i t pl a ys a n i m p o r t an t r 61e i n th e ej a cul a ti on of th e se m i n a l flu id an d a ls o i n ,

ev a cu a ti n g th e l a st o f th e u r i n e i n mi ctu r iti on 1 .

()
2 Th e b u l b o -
ca vern o s u s mu s c l e (or a ccel e r a t or u r i n ze ) is th e c o n ti n u a ti o n

o f the u r eth r a l m uscle o n th e ext r a pel vi c p ar t of th e u r eth r a ; i t exte nds f r o m the

i schi a l ar ch t o th e gl a ns pe n is A t th e r oot of th e pe n is i t is th e thi ckest a n d
.
,

f or m s a c om pl et e l a ye r of ci r cu l a r fibe r s w hi ch i n cl o se th e c or pus sp on gi osu m a n d

the u r et h r a B ey o n d this i t di m i n ishes ve r y g r a du a lly i n th i ck n ess an d c on sists
.
,

o f fibe r s whi ch ar ise on a medi a n ve n t r a l r a ph e a n d cu r ve ar o u n d th e c o r pus

sp o n gi o su m to en d on th e t u n i c a a lbu gi n e a o f th e c or pus c a v e r n o sum I ts a cti on .

is to empty the extr a pelvi c p a r t of th e u r eth r a .

T h e i s c h i o -u r e th r a l m u s c l e s (Fi g 4 52 ) a re s ma l l b a n d s w h i c h a r i s e o n th e i s c h i a l a r c h a n d
.

c r u ra of th e p eni s a n d p as s f o r w a rd to b e c o m e l o s t o n t h e v en t ra l l a y e r o f t h e u re t h ra l mu s c l e .

Th ey m a y as s i s t i n er ec ti o n o f th e p e n i s b y exer ti n g p r ess u re o n t h e d o rs a l v e i n s .

1
The t t emen t o f t en ma d e t h a t i t a c ts as a s p h i n c t er o f t h e b l a d d er
s a is h y p o t h es i s
a of

d ou b t f u l p l au s i b i li t y I n m a t er i a l h a rd e n e d i n s i l u i n w h i c h th e i n t e r n a l
.
,
u re t h r a l o r i fi c e lS

ti g h tl y c l o s ed th e u re t h ra l m u s c l e a p p a ren tl y t a k es no p a r t i n t h e c l os u re
,
.
500 M A LE GE NI T AL OR G ANS OF T HE ox

MAL E GE NI TAL OR GANS OF THE OX

The s c r o tum is situ a ted s o m ewh a t fu r th e r f or w ar d th an i n th e h or se I t i s .

l o ng pe n d ul o us a nd h as a wel l m a r ked n ec k Th e ski n he r e is usu a lly flesh c o l

, ,
- .
-

or ed but i n s o m e b r eeds is m o r e o r l ess pigme n ted ; i t is sp a r sely c o ve r ed with

,

sh o r t h a i rs J ust i n f ro n t of i t a r e f o u r (s o metimes onl y tw o ) r ud i m e n t ar y te a ts

. .

The te sti cl e s ar e r el a tively l ar ge r th a n th ose o f the h or se a n d h a ve a n el o n ,

g a ted o v a l o utli n e Th e l o n g a xis is ve rti c a l

,
. Th e i nn e r su r f a ce is s o mewh a t .

fl a tte n ed .

At es t i c l e o f a n ad u l t b u l l meas u res o n th e a v era ge abou t f ou r or fiv e i nc h es (1 0 to 1 2 cm .

)
l eng th exc l u s i v e of t h e ep i d i d y m i s ; W i t h t h e l a tt er th e l eng t h i s a b ou t s i x i n c h es (1 5
.

in ,
Th e

Ves i cu l a semi n li s
a

B od y f
o

Tu n i ca va gi n a l is
(op ened )

S p er ma ti
Vas d ef erens
u r eth ra l or i fice

Tes ti cl e
E p i d i d g mts

Ta i l

F I G 3 99
. .
—G N AL V
E ER I E \V o r GE N TAL O AN
I RG S OF B U LL .

w i d t h i s a bo u t tw o a nd a h a l f to t h ree i nc h es (c a 6 to 8 . a nd th e a n t ero - p os t er i o r d i a m
e ter a bou t th e s a me T h e w e i g h t i s ab o u t n i ne o r te n o u n ces (ca
. . 2 50 to 30 0 g ra ms ) .

The tu n i c a a lbugi n e a i s th i n The p ar e n chy m a is yel l o wish i n c o l or The

. .

medi a sti n um testis d escen ds f r o m th e a nte r i o r p ar t o f th e u ppe r ext r e m ity deeply

i nt o th e gl a n d as a n a xi a l st r a n d a b o ut 5 mm i n th i ck n ess T he v a s a effe r e nti a . .

le a ve a t t h e uppe r e nd of t he m edi a sti n u m .

The e pid idymi s is ve r y cl osely a tt a ch ed t o th e t esti cl e Th e he a d is l o ng ; .

i t cu r ves o ve r th e uppe r ext r e m i ty a n d n e a r ly h a lf w a y d o w n the a n te r i o r b or de r

o f the testi cle The b o dy i s ve r y n arr o w a n d li es a l on g the o ute r p a r t of th e p o s
.
,

t er i o r b or de r o f th e testi cle t o wh i ch i t is a tt a ch ed by a n a rr o w pe r it o n e a l f o ld
,
.

T h e t a i l is l a r ge a n d is cl o sely a tt a ch ed to the l o we r ext r e m ity of th e testi cl e .

T h e spe r m a ti c c or d a n d the tu n i c a va gi na li s a r e mu ch l on ge r th a n i n t h e h or se ;
the ext r a— i n gui n a l p a r t o f th e c or d is ab o ut eight t o t e n i n ches (20 to 2 5 cm ) i n l e ngth . .

The c r e m a ste r e xte r n u s i s w ell devel o ped a n d a l mo st c om pletely i n cl o ses th e tu n i c

,

t o t h e n eck o f th e s c r o tu m ; it d o es n o t e x t e n d s o far d o w n as i n t he h o r se but is ,

i n se r ted a b o ut a t the level of th e uppe r p o le of the testi cl e Th e va gi na l r i ng is .

502 M A LE GE NI T AL OR G A N S o r T HE ox

(1 0 fl a nk ed a n d o ve r l a pped by th e vesi cul ae se m i n a l es Th ey f o r m am pul l a: .

a b o ut f o u r or five i n ches (1 0 t o 1 2 c m ) l o n g a n d h a lf a n i n ch to c m ) wide

. .
,

the m uc o us li n i ng of whi ch is pli c a ted They th e n p a ss u n de r t he b o dy o f th e .

p r o st at e a n d u n ite wi th t h e d ucts of the v es i c u l ze se m i n a l es t o f or m th e ej a cul a t or y

ducts The l atte r h a ve sli t li ke o pe n i n gs o n ei the r side of t h e c o ll icul us se m i na l is
.
-

The v e s icu l ae s e m i na l e s a r e n ot bl a dd e r li ke s a cs a s i n the h or se b ut ar e -

, ,

c o mp a ct gl a n dul a r o r g a ns with a l o bul a ted su r f a ce I n th e a dult t hey .

m e a su r e a b o u t f o u r o r five i n ches (c a 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) i n l e n gth t w o i n ches . .

,

(5 cm ) i n wi dth i n thei r l ar gest p ar t a n d a n i n ch or m or e (ca 3 c m ) i n

.
, . .

thi ck n ess Th e d or s a l su r f a ce o f e a ch f a ces u pw ar d a n d i n w ar d a n d is

.

p ar ti a lly c o ve r ed with pe r it on eum Th e ve n t r a l sur f a ce f a ces i n th e o pp o site .

di r ecti on a n d is n o n— pe r it on e a l E a ch .

m a y b e r eg a r d ed as c o n sisti n g o f a
ve r y t hi ck w a ll ed s a ccu l a ted t ube be n t -
, ,

o n itself i n a t o r tu o us m a nn e r Thi s .

tub e if st r a ighte n ed ou t w o uld b e , ,

a b o ut t en i n ch es (2 5 c m ) i n l e ngt h . .

T hey a r e c o mm on ly u n symmet r i c a l i n
si z e a n d sh a pe S h or t b r a n ches a r e .

o fte n give n o ff f r o m th e chi ef t ube .

FI G . 4 OI .
—AN T E R I OR E XT R E M I I ’ ‘
Y or PE N I S OF B U LL ,
FI G . 4 02 .
—C no s s -S E CT O N I OF PE LV C U T H A
I RE R or

L E FT V W I E . ( A ft er Bbhm ) .
Bum

I , P ro s t t
a e g l a nd (p a rs d i sse mi na t a ) ; 2 u ret h ra : ,

3 , u re th a l r mu s c l e; 4 , a p i
o ne u r o s s . T h e l u men o f th e
u re th ra is b l k
ac .

The exc r et o r y d uct o r n e ck j o i n s t h e o ute r side of t he v as defe r e ns at a n a cute

a ngle t o f o r m the ej a cul a t or y du ct .

T he t t e o f th e v es i c u l a i s m as k ed b y a t h i c k c a p su l e o f fi b rou s ti s s u e a nd u ns t ri ped
s ruc u r
m u s c l e w h i c h m a i n t a i ns i t i n i ts b en t co nd i ti o n a nd a l s o s en d s t r ab ecu l ae b e t w een t h e a l v eo li
,
.

T h ere i s a c en t ra l ca n a l i n t o w h i c h t h e s ec r et i o n f o r med i n th e a l v eo li p a s ses T h e c a v i ti es (c e n t ra l .

c a n a l a nd a l v eo li ) a re li ned w i t h co l u m n a r e p i t h e li u m On a c cou n t o f t h i s s t r u c t u r e t h e t er m.

g l a n d u l ze v es i c u l a res i s p re f err ed b y so me a n a t o m i s t s .

The pro sta te i s p a l e yel l o w i n c o l or a n d c o n sists o f t w o p a r ts The b o d y ,

.

(C o r pus p ro st a t es ) i s a m a ss wh i ch st r etch es a c r o ss the d or s a l su r f a ce o f the n eck

o f the bl a dde r a n d th e o r igi n of th e u r eth r a I t m e a su r es a b o ut an i n ch a n d a .

h a lf (c a to 4 c m ) t r a n sve r sely a nd a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (c a 1 t o
. .
,
c m ) i n widt h . .

a n d thi ck n e s s Th e par s d i s s e rni na ta su r r o u n ds th e pel vi c p a r t o f the u r eth r a ;

.

d o r s a l ly i t f o r ms a l a ye r a b o ut h a lf an i n ch (c a 1 0 to 1 2 mm ) thi ck bu t ve nt r a lly . .
,

i t i s q ui te th i n I t is c o n ce a l ed by the u r eth r a l (Wi ls on s ) m uscl e ; h e n ce i t o fte n ’

esc a pes n oti ce but is ve r y evide n t o n c r o ss —

.

,
se cti o n (Fi g Th e pr o sta ti c .

d ucts o pe n i nt o th e u r eth r a i n r o ws betwee n t w o f o lds o f t he muc o us memb r an e

whi ch p r ocee d b a ck w a r d f r o m the c o ll i cu lus se m i n a lis .
 M ALE GE N I T AL OR G A N S OF T HE ox 503

Th e uteru s m a s c ul i n u s a ppe a r s t o b e a bse n t f r eq ue ntly E lle n be r ge r .

st a tes th a t i t o pe n s betwee n the ej a cu l a t o r y d ucts whi le M ar ti n s a ys th a t ,

it usu a lly h as t w o or i fices a t the c o lli culus b ut th a t it ofte n u n i tes w it h ,

t he v a s a d efe r e n ti a .

The b u lb o ure thr al (C o wper s ) gl an d s ar e s o m ewh a t s m a l le r th a n i n th e

-
’

st a l li o n They a r e l i a bl e t o esc a pe n oti ce si n ce t hey a r e c o ve r ed by a thi ck l a ye r ,

—
.

o f de n se fi b r o us tissue a nd a ls o p a r ti a lly by the bu l b o c a ve r n o sus muscl e E a ch .

h as a si ngl e d uct wh i ch o pe n s i n t o t he u r eth ra u n de r c o ve r of a f o ld of the mu c o us

m emb r a n e .

The pe n i s is cyli n d r i c a l a n d i s l o n ger a n d of ver y m uch s m a lle r di a m ete r

,

th a n i n t he h or se J ust behi n d th e s c r o tu m it f or m s a n S-sh a ped cu r ve the

.
,

s i gm o i d fl e xu r e thus a b o ut o ne f oo t is f o lded up wh e n t he pe n is is ful ly r et r a cted .

Th e fl exu r e is e ff a ced du r i n g e r ecti o n Th e gl a n s pe ni s is a b o ut t h r ee i n ch es (ca. .

8 c m ) i n l e n gt h
. I t is fl a tte n ed d or s o ve n t ra lly an d its ext r e m ity is p o i nted a n d
.
-
,

twisted Th e e xte rn al ur e thr a l o rifi ce i s situ a t ed a t t he end of a g r oo ve f ormed

.

by this twi st ; i t is onl y l ar ge e n o ugh to a d m it a p r o b e of medi um si z e E ve n i n .

the n o n e r ect st a te th e pe n is i s r em a r k a b ly de nse an d fir m The tu ni c a a lb ugi ne a

-
.

i s ve r y thi ck an d i n cl oses the ur eth r a I n th e fi r st p a r t as far as th e fi r st cu r ve

, .
, ,

the r e is a t hi ck m edi a n s e ptu m pe ni s B ey o n d t his th e r e is a c en t r a l a xi a l r o d o f

.

d e nse fib r o us tissue fr o m wh i ch n ume r o us st r o n g t r a b ecul ae r a d i a te Th e er ecti le .

ti ss u e is s m a l l i n am o u n t s o t h a t th e or g an u n de r g o es ve r y littl e e n l ar geme n t i n
,

er ecti o n .

T h e len g t h o f th e -p eni s i n th e a d u l t i s a b o u t t h r ee f ee t (ca 90 T h e cru ra a r e fl a tt en ed .

l a t eral l y Th e su s p enso ry l i ga men t s a re a tt ac h ed to th e v en t ra l r i d g e o n th e s y m p h y s i s T h e

. .

b o d y i s s om ew h a t fl a t t e n ed d o rs o- v en t ra l l y bey o n d t h e fi rs t c u r v e Th e ext rem it y o f t h e g l a ns .

i s u nsy mm e t r i ca l , th e u r e t h ra l o r i fi c e b e i n g s i t u a t ed v e n t ro-l a t er a ll y T h e g l a n s co n t a i n s littl e .

er ecti l e ti s su e, a nd h en ce u n d erg oes li ttl e enl a r gem en t i n erec ti o n .

The b u lb o -ca ve rn o s u s mu s cl e p r ese n ts seve r a l r e m ar k ab l e fe a tu r es I t i s for .

th e gr e a te r p a r t a n i n ch or m or e (ca 3 cm ) i n th i ck n ess but its l e n gt h is on ly . .

,

six t o eight i n ches (1 5 t o 2 0 I t is c o ve r ed by a st r o n g a p o n eur o sis a n d is ,

di vided by a m ed i an r ap hé i n t o tw o l a te ra l h a lves except at its o r igi n I t d i m .

i ni s h es i n S i z e f r o m behi n d f o r w ar d and its a n te r i o r ext r e m ity is p o i n ted

,
.

The i s ch i o -ca v ern o s u s mu s c l e r ese m b les i n ge n er a l th a t o f th e h o r se but is ,

fl atte n ed l a te r a ll y I t is c o ve r ed by a cl ose a p on eu r os is
. .

The re tr ac to r pe n i s muscl e r esembl es th a t of the h or se i n o r igi n I ts tw o .

p ar ts are a b o ut a n i n ch (ca 2 to 5 c m ) a p ar t on th e r o o t o f th e pe n is wh er e th ey li e
. .
,

i n a gr oo ve o n eithe r si de o f the bu lb o c a ve r n o sus They the n c om e cl o se t ogethe r -

.

a n d p a ss o n eithe r side o f the ve n t r a l c u r ve o f the sigm o id fl ex u r e Fur the r .

f o r w ar d they l ie a l o ng th e ve n t r a l a spect o f th e pe n is a n d en d a b o ut five or si x ,

i n ches (ca 1 2 to 1 5 cm ) beh i n d t he gl an s

. . .

The pr epu c e is ve r y l on g a n d n arr o w I ts o r ifi ce is a b o ut tw o i n ches (c a . .

5 c m ) behi n d the u m bi li cus ; i t is o n ly l ar ge e n o ugh t o a d m it a fi n ge r r e a dil y a n d

.
,

is sur ro u n ded by l on g h a i rs The c a vity of t he sh e a t h i s a b o u t fiftee n i n ches

.

(35 to 4 0 c m ) l o n g an d a l ittle o ve r a n i n ch (ca 3 cm ) i n di a mete r The li n i n g

.
,
. . .

m emb ra n e f o r ms l o n gi tu di n a l f o lds ; it is c o ve r ed wit h sq u a m o us str a tifi ed ep i th e

lium an d h as c o i led tub ul ar gl a nds The pe n i le l a yer is gl a n dl ess an d is r eddish
, .
,

i n c o l or I t p r ese nts l ym ph n o dules i n its p o ste r i or p ar t

. .

The r e ar e tw o p a i r s of preputi a l mu s cl e s wh i ch a r e de r iv a tives o f th e pa nn i cu

l u s c a r n o sus The a n t er i or p a i r the protra cto r s of th e p r epu ce (M m praep u t i a l es
.
,
.

c r a n i a les ) ar e t w o fl at b a nds tw o i n ches or m or e (5 to 6 cm ) i n width whi ch ar ise

, ,
.
,

cl o se t o geth er i n th e xi ph o id r egi on a b o ut eight i n ches (2 0 cm ) in f r on t of the ,

.

p r epu ti a l o r i fi ce T r a ced b a ckw a r d they dive r ge le a vi ng th e umbi li cus a n d

. ,

a n a r e a a b o ut one a n d a h a lf i n ches w i de f r ee a n d the n u n ite behi n d the p r eputi a l ,

or i fi c e They dra w t he p r ep uce f o r w ar d The p oster i o r p a i r the re tra cto r s o f

. .
.
,
504 M ALE GE NI TAL OR G A N S OF T HE PI G

th e p r epu ce (M m p r a p u t i a l es c a ud a l es ) ar ise i n th e i n gui n a l r egi o n an d c o n ve r ge

.
,

o n the a n te r i o r p a r t of the p r epuce Th ey d r a w t h e p r epuce b a ckw a r d

. .

T h es e mu s c l es a re s u b j e c t to a g o od d ea l o f v a r ia ti o n T h e re t ra c t o r m a y b e a b s en t M a ny
. .

fi b ers co me i n f ro m t h e p a nn i cu l u s o n e it h e r s i d e , d i p u nd er t h e p ro t ra c t o r , a n d a re i nser t ed I n to
t h e s ki n j u s t b eh i nd t h e p re p u ti a l o p e n i ng T h e h o mo l o gu e o f t h e p ro t rac t or 1 8 p res en t I n th e
.

c ow .

The u re thr a i n its pelvi c p a r t is a b o ut five i n ches (1 2 cm ) l on g a n d i s o f .

,
’
r el a tively s m a ll a nd u n i f or m c a libe r Th e u re th ra l (Wils on s ) mu s cl e i n cl o ses the
.

t ube ve nt r a lly a n d l a te r a l ly ; it is ve r y t hi ck c r esce n ti c i n c r oss secti on and is ,

-
,

c ove r ed by an a p o n eu r o sis D or s a lly t he a p on eu r o sis i s th i ck an d the m uscl e

.
,

a bse n t I nside o f these t he p a r s disse m i n a t a o f t he p r o st a te su rr o u n ds t h e u r eth r a

.

as far b a ck a s th e bulb o u r eth r a l gl a n ds - The c o ll i cu lu s s e mi na li s i s sh or t but

.
,

p r om i n e n t ; f r om i t t h e u r eth r a l c r est exte n ds f or w ar d t o t h e t r ig on um vesi c ae .

The ext r a pelvi c p a r t h as a n e nl ar ge m e nt th e b u lb , a t its o r igi n ; i t th e n g r a du a lly

,

P rocess us u rethr a? P r oces s u s u rethra:

Ga l ea gl andi s
Ga l ea gl and ts
Corona gl a n d i s

P r epu ce
PTe pt 1 cc
R a p h e p ra’ pu ti i

FI G . 4 03 .
—A : R I OR
N T I~ A T
P R OF N
PE IS OF R AM .

A . R ghi t id s e ; B, l ft id
e s e . (A ft er B bh m ) .

d i mi n ishes i n d i a m ete r a n d is r el a tively ve r y sm a l l a t i ts t e r mi n at i o n Othe r

,
.

fe a tu r es h a ve b ee n m e nti o n ed i n p r eced i n g p ar a gr a phs .

I n the r a m the u r eth r a l ies i n a g r oo ve o n th e ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f th e c o r pus

c a ve r no sum I ts te r m i n a l p ar t p r oj e cts c o mm on ly 3 t o 4 c m bey on d th e gl a n s
. .

pe n is f o r mi ng a twisted p r o cessus u r eth r a}

, .

MALE GE NI TAL OR GANS OF THE PI G

The s c ro tu m is situ a ted a sh or t dist a n ce f r o m th e a n us an d i s not s o sh ar pl y ,

defi n ed f r om th e su rr o u n di n g p a r ts a s i n th e o the r an i m a ls .

Th e te sti cl e s a r e ve r y l a r ge a n d ar e s o ft i n textu r e Th ei r l on g a xis is a lm o s t .

ve r ti c a l the fr ee b or de r bei n g p oste r i o r a n d th e t a i l o f t h e epi didy m is d or s a l

, .

Th e med i a sti n u m testis i s wel l d evel o ped Th e epi di dy m is i s cl o sel y a tt a ch ed to .

the testi cle a nd th e t u n i c a v a gi n a lis ; th e t a i l is speci a lly l ar ge .

Th e sp e r m a ti c c o r d is n ecess a r ily ve r y l on g (2 0 t o 2 5 c m i n a b oar o f mediu m .

si z e ) Th e v a s d e f e re n s i n its testi cul a r p ar t i s fl exu ou s an d i s cl osely a tt a ched

.
,

t o th e tu n i c a v a gi n a lis ; i t f o r m s n o a m pu ll ae Th e c r e m a ster e xte rn u s i s wel l .

devel o ped a n d exte n ds t o ab o ut th e m i ddle o f the sc r o t a l p a r t o f th e tu n i c

, .
5 06 M A LE GE NI T AL OR G A N S OF T HE D OG

The p re pu c e h a s a n a rr o w or i fi ce a ro u n d whi ch the r e a r e a n u m b e r o f sti ff h a i r s

,
.

Th e c a vity is p a r ti a l ly di vi ded by a ci r cul a r f o l d i n t o a p oste r i or n ar r o w p or ti on

a n d a m uch wide r a n te r i o r p o r ti o n The li n i n g m e m b r a n e of the p o ste r i o r p a r t is
.

p a pi ll a ted a n d is i n cl ose c on t a ct w i th the pe ni s I n th e d or s a l w a l l of t h e wide p a r t

,
.

the r e i s a ci r cul a r o pe n i ng whi ch l e a ds i n t o a cul -de s a c the pr e puti al d ive rti cu lum -
,
.

Th is p o uch i s o v o i d i n f or m (whe n d iste n ded ) a n d v ar i es g r e a tly i n si ze i n di ff e r e n t

,

subj ects I t exte n ds fo r the m o st p ar t b a ckw a r d o ve r th e n a rr o w p ar t of t he

.

p r epuce I ts c a vi ty is p ar ti a lly divi ded by a n ar r o w m edi an septum I t c ont a i n s

. .

usu a lly dec om p osi n g u r i n e a n d m a ce r a t ed epithel iu m whi ch h a ve a ch ar a cte r isti c ,

a n d ve r y u n pl e a s a n t o d o r C on c r em en ts h a ve b ee n f o u n d i n it
. .

Oeh m k e f o u nd t h a t a cas t o f t h e p ou c h i n a Yo r k s h i re b oar w ei g h i ng a b o u t 500 p o u n d s

meas u red 9 c m i n l eng t h 1 2 % c m i n b r ea d t h a n d 6 c m i n h ei g h t
.
,
.
,
T h e o p e n i n g i n t o t h e p re
. .

p u ce w i l l a d m i t t w o fi ngers i n th e a d u l t b u t i s o rd i n a ri l y c l os ed b y fo l d s of th e li n i ng memb r ane

,
.

T h e s ac i s m u c h s m a ll er i n a n i m a l s w h i c h w e r e cas t r a t ed y o u n g a n d t h e o p eni n g i s v er ti c a l a n d
,

f u r t h er b a c k ; i n t h e m i t i s o f t en em p t y o r co n t a i n s o n l y a lit tl e c l ear u r i ne T h e p o u c h i s co v ered .

b y a l a y er o f s t r i p e d m u s c l e w h i c h i s ma i n l y d er i v ed f ro m th e h o mo l o g u e o f t h e p r o t r ac t o r o f th e
p re p u c e o f ru m i n a n t s .

The u r e th r a h a s a ve r y l o ng pelvi c p or ti o n (c a 1 5 t o 1 8 c m l o n g i n the a dult ) ; . .

it is i n cl osed (wit h the p ar s di sse m i n a t a of t h e p r o st a te ) by a th i ck ur e th r a l mu s cl e .

The r e is a d isti n ct b ul b a t the r oo t o f th e pe n is Th e pe n i l e p ar t i s of s m a l l c a libe r

.
,

a n d is su rr o u n d ed by e r ectil e tissu e w hi ch h o weve r d o es not exte n d to the , ,

extr emity o f t he pe ni s .

MALE GE N I TAL ORGAN S OF THE DOG

The s c ro tum is si tu a ted a b o ut h a lf w a y b etwee n t he i n gui n a l r egi o n a n d t he
a n us . The ski n c o ve r i n g i t is pig m e n ted a n d i s c o ve r ed sp a r sely wit h fine h a i r s .

Th e r a ph e is n ot ve r y d isti n ct .

The te sti cl e s ar e r el a ti vel y s m a l l an d h a ve a r o u n d o v a l f o rm The l o n g

,
-
.

a xis is o b li que a n d is di r ected upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d

,
Th e medi a st i n um test is .

i s ce nt r a l a n d is well devel o ped The epid idym is is l ar ge a nd is cl o sely a tt a ched

.
,

a l o n g the o ute r p a r t o f the d o r s a l b o r de r o f th e testi cl e .

Th e s pe rm a ti c c or d a n d th e tu ni c a va g i nal i s a r e l o n g ; t hey c r oss t he sid e o f

the pe n is ve r y o bl iq u ely Th e uppe r e n d o f the tu n i c is s o m eti m es cl o sed s o th a t
.
,

t he r e i s the n n o v a gi na l r i n g Th e v a s a d efe r e n ti a h a ve ve r y n a rr o w a m pul l ae

. .

Th e v e s i cul a: s e mi n a l e s a r e a bse n t ; h e n ce the r e a r e n o ej a cul a t o r y du cts .

Th e pr o sta te i s r el a ti vely l a r ge ; it i s yell o wish i n c o l or de n se i n st r u ctu r e , ,

a n d l i es a t th e a n te r i or b or de r o f th e pub is I t is gl o bul ar a n d su r r o u n ds t he
.
,

n eck o f the bl a dde r a n d th e u r eth r a a t th ei r j u n cti o n A f a i n t medi a n fu rr o w .

i nd i c a tes a d ivisi o n i n t o t w o l a te r a l l o bes Th e c a psul e a n d st r o m a c o n t a i n a l a r ge

.

a m o u n t o f u n st r i ped m u scl e Th e ducts a r e n u m er o us

. Lo bu les o f p r o st a ti c .

tissu e (p ar s d isse m i n a t a ) a r e a ls o f o u n d o n the u r eth r a fu r the r b a ck The gl a n d .

is subj ect t o m uch v a r i a ti on i n siz e a n d is o fte n e n l a r ged especi a lly i n o l d subj ects
'

, ,
.

The uter u s m a s cul i n u s i s a v e r y s m a ll s a ccul e (U t r i c ulus p r o st a ti cus ) o fte n ,

diffi cult to fin d .

The b u lb o -u r e th r al (C o wpe r s ) gl an d s a r e a bse n t ’

.

The p e ni s p r ese n ts seve r a l speci a l f e a tu r es I n its p o ste r i or p a r t the r e are tw o .

disti n ct c o r p or a c a ve r n os a sep a r a ted by a m edi a n septu m pe n is

, I n its a n te r i o r .

p ar t th e r e is a b on e the o s pe ni s , whi ch i n l a r ge d o gs r e a ches a l e n gth o f f o u r

,

i n ch es (c a 1 0 c m ) o r m or e I t is r eg ar ded a s a c o n ti n u a ti o n f or w ar d o f th e c or pus
. . .

c a ve r n o su m Ve nt r a l ly i t is g r o o ved for th e u r eth r a ; d or s a l ly i t i s c o n vex a nd

.
,

a n te r i o r ly i t bec o m e s s m a lle r a n d h a s a cu r ved fib r o us p r o l o n g a ti o n The gl an s .

pe ni s is ve r y l o ng exte nd i n g o ve r the e nt i r e le n gth o f the o s pe n is ; p o ste r i o r ly i t

,
 M A LE GE N I TAL OR G A N S OF T HE D OG 507

f or ms a r o u n ded e n l ar geme nt the b ul b u s gl an di s ; a nt e r i or ly it is cyli n d r i c a l , ,

sm al le r a n d p o i nted a t the ext r e m ity J ust i n f r on t of th e b ulb us gl a n di s t her e i s

,
.
.

a t hi c k ci r cul a r l a ye r o f gl a n ds f or mi n g the ann u lu s gl an dul ar i s (S ch m a lt z ) , .

The tw o d or s a l vei ns ar ise fr o m the b ulbus gl an dis p a ss b a ckw a r d o n t he d or su m ,

pe ni s a n d u n ite a t t he ischi a l ar ch A sm a l l mus cl e (M c o mp r ess or ve n ae d or s a lis

,
. .

p e ni s ) ar ises f r o m th e t ub er ischi i on eit he r side ; t he t w o c o n ve r ge on t h e d o r sum

p e ni s n e ar t he bu lbus gl an di s Th ey c om p r ess t he d or s a l vei n s an d may a ls o te n d
.
,

t o el ev a t e the pe n i s an d t hus assist i n c o pul a ti o n T he o the r m uscles off er n o .

fe a t ur es w or th y o f speci a l desc r ipt i on .

The pre pu c e f or ms a c om pl ete she a th a r o u n d th e ante r i or p ar t of th e pe ni s .

T h e o ut er l a ye r is o r di n ar y i n tegu m en t Th e i nn er l a ye r h as t he ch ar a cte r of a .

FI G 4 05
. .
—E X T NAL GTAL OR GAN S OF MAL E D OG V N T R O
ER E NI ,
E ~ FI G . 4 06 .
—I xT E R N AL GE I N TAL OR GAN S OP

L T E AL V W O P PA AT ON
A R I E F RE R I . MAL E D OG .

I S ot m ;,
t ni vag i l i ; 2 ep i d i d y mi s ; 3 v ul a
cr u u ca na s , , as c r 1 U i y bl dd ; 2
,
t ; 3
r na r a er . u re e r , v as

p t o f p m ti c c d ; 4 d e fe e n ; 5 p e p u e ; gl n p i ; d f ns ; 4 p t t : th l m l ; '

ar s er a or . v as r s ,
r c a s en s e e re , r os a e o, u re ra us c e

p v s m p e ni s ; 7 b l b g l nd i ; to f b l b lb f th ; b d mi l ll ; b i l i m ; na w a

i n e ti n ; 8 i h i —
c or us ca er n o u , u us a s con ur o u u o u re ra a , a o , u

c a ve l : t b l m ; b ob i hi m (A ft E ll b g
'
bus er c o o m , sc o rn sus us c e a , ace a u u , c, sc u .i L i i g er en er e r, n e s er n s

t o fo a m e n (A ft E ll n b g i n L i e i ng A tl ) A tl )
’
tu ra r r . er e er er , e s r s as . as .

gl an dul ar m u c o us m e m b r a n e ; it i s t hi n a n d r eddish i n c o l or The pe n i le l a yer is .

gl an d l ess I n t he fu n dus of t h e p r ae p u t i a l c av it y t he r e a r e n um er o us l y m ph
.

f o ll i cl es Th e p r o t r a ct or muscl es ar ise i n t he x ip h o i d r egi o n a n d d ecuss ate p os

.

t er i or l y ar o un d t h e ext r e m ity o f t he pe ni s .

Th e p el v i c p ar t of th e ure thr a i s r el a t ivel y l on g I ts fi r st p ar t is i n cl osed i n .

1
t he p r o st a te A t th e i schi a l a r ch t h e u r eth r a h as a well devel oped bi l o bed b u lb ,
.
-

f or m ed by an e n l ar ge m e n t h er e of th e c or pus sp o n gi o s u m I t i s c o ve r ed by .

t h e st r o n g b ut sh or t bul b o c a ve r n osus m uscle The ot he r e r ecti le b o d ies h ave -

.

b ee n d escr ib ed .

The ur e thr al (Wi ls on s ) mu s cl e is ver y st r on g ; it e n ci r cle r the ur et hr a a n d

’

h as a medi an r a ph e d or s a ll y .

1
T hi s i s cli ni c a ll y i m p or t a n t , s in c e en l argemen t of th e p r os ta te may i nt er fere wi t h mi c
t ur i ti on .
 THE FEMALE G ENl TAL ORG ANS
Th e f e m a l e g e ni tal o r ga n s (Or g a n a ge n i t a l i a femi n i na ) ar e : (1 ) Th e t w o
o vari e s the e s se nti a l r ep r o duct ive gl a n ds i n w hi ch th e o v a a r e p r o d u ced ; (2 )
, ,

the ute r i ne o r Fa ll opi an tub e s , whi ch c o n vey t he ov a to th e ute r us ; (3 ) th e uteru s ,

i n w hi ch the o vu m devel o ps ; (4 ) the va gi n a , a di l a t a bl e p a ss a ge th r o ugh wh i ch th e
f oetus is expel led f r o m the ute r us ; (5) t he v u lva , t h e te r mi n a l seg m e n t o f th e ge n it a l
tr a ct whi ch se r ves a ls o fo r t h e expulsi o n o f t h e u r i n e ; (6) th e m am m ar y gl an d s ,
,

whi ch a r e gl a nds o f t he ski n b ut ar e so cl osely a ss o ci a ted fu n cti o n a lly wi th th e ,

ge ne r a tive o r g a ns p ro pe r a s t o be desc r ibed with them .

GE NI TAL OR GANS OF THE MAR E

THE OVAR I E S
Th e ov a r i e s (Ov a r i a ) o f t he m ar e ar e be a n sh a ped a n d ar e m u ch s ma ll e r -
,

th a n the testi cles Thei r si z e v ar ies m u ch i n di ffer e n t subj ects a n d t hey a r e

.
,

FI G . 4 07 .
—AT AN D A D JA C N T S T R UCT U S O MA
L ER AL V W I E or GE N TAL
I OR GAN S E RE F RE .

Th m v l f th
e re th b d mi
o l vi
a o h ll w d t h v i
e o d t
er a t o i kd w na h th y
s c e ra as a o e e o a r es a n u e ru s o s n o n. w e reas e

m ll y i
a r e no r t t it h t h
a f f t h vit y i t h
n co n a c .

p g t b j t I L ft v y ; 2 F ll pi t b :
w e ro o o e ca n e no n - re na n su ec .
, e o ar , a o an u e

3 l ft
, e t i ; 4 ig h t n t i ; 5
c o rn u u e r p . t i; r p ti v g i li t i d
cor u u er t i , th g h
co r us u er or o a na s u er , an os u er . s ee n ro u

w i d w t i v gi ; b d li g m t f t
n o cu n a na ; d li g m t ; 7 v g i
ro a ; S l bi
a en l ; 9
o i m v lv ;
u e ru s ro u n a en , a na , a a v u v ze , r a u a

p i su mm i
er o r c o d i f i mm i f v lv ; 1 0
s s u re . a n ti t l ; 1 1 p
n e r or co iti f v ti b l s s u re o u a , c o ns r c o r v u v az , os on o es u ar

b lb ; [
u v t l ll f b d m ; 1 3 l ft k i d y ; 1 4 l ft t ; I 5 i y b l d d ; 1 6
0
e n ra w a o a o en , th
e ; 17 t m;
ne , e u re e r , u r na r a er , u re ra ,
r ec u

IS , ; 19
a nu s p i d d p i d p t f ph i t
, un a rei xt ; 90
an t t a re i t t di pp
ar s o s nc e r a n e e rnu s ,
re ra c o r a n cu a sa ea r a nc e

un d ph i t ; 2 1
er s p
nc e r y li g m t f . ; 92 l
sus g it d i lm
e ns o rl l y f t m;a en o t a n us
yg ; , on u na usc u a r a er o r ec u rec o -c o c c eu s
t i t
c o ns g i m;
r c t
or v i
va t y w it h v i ( ) d t i ( ") b
n a , u e r o -o h ; b
ar an ar er t i t y, o ar an a
'
an u e r ne a ra n c es ,
u e r ne a r e r
c. um b ili l t y ; 1 i h i m ; p b i ; f ili m (A ft E ll b g i L i i g A tl )
ca ar er ( , sc u e, u s , u . er en er er, n e se r n
’
s as .

no r mal l y l a rge r i n y o u n g th a n i n ol d a n i m a ls ; o ne v ar y i s o fte n l a r ge r th a n

o

the o the r Th ey a re a b o ut t h r ee i n ches (ca 7 t o

. . 8 cm ) l o n g a n d a n i n ch to an i n ch
.

508
51 0 GE NI TAL OR G A NS OF T HE M ARE

the vessels a n d n e r ves e nte r ; this a r e a i s ter m ed th e hi lu s Th e o vul a ti on f oss a .

is c o ve r ed by a l a yer o f c o l u m n a r cell s a r e m n a n t o f t he p r i m itive ge r mi na l e pi th e ,

li u m The str o m a of the o v a r y (St r o ma o v a r i i ) i s a n etw o r k of c o nn ecti ve ti ssu e

.

a n d u nst r iped muscul a r fi be r s I n the deepe r or m edull ar y p or ti o n o f t he st r om a .

(Z o n a v a scul os a ) the m eshes a r e l a r gely o ccupi ed by the n ume r o us bl oo d vessels -

.

I n th e pe r iphe r a l or c or t i c a l p or ti o n (Z o n a p a ren c h y ma to sa ) a r e n u m e r o us ov a
(Ovul a) i n v ar i o us st a ges of devel o p m e nt The im m a t u r e o v a ar e su rr o u n ded by .

f o l li cle cells ; th o se m or e a dv an ced i n devel o p m e n t ar e i n cl osed a ls o by a c o n de ns a

ti o n o f the st r om a ter m ed the th e c a f ol l i cu l i ; wi thi n th e thec a is a q u an tity of
fl ui d the l i q
,
u or f o l l i cu l i These c on sti tute the G r aa fian fo ll i cl e s (F o l li culi oop h or i )
.
,

whi c h e n l ar ge as they m a tu r e bec o m i n g visibl e t o th e n a ked eye as vesi cles with a ,

di a m ete r of a ce n ti m ete r or m or e Whe n full y d evel o ped the f o ll i cl es ar e supe r .

,

fic i a l l y situ a ted a nd o fte n p r o j ect slightly f r o m t he su r f a ce o f the o v a r y

, At .

i n te r v a ls f o lli cles r upt u r e and

thei r c o n t e n ts esc a pe Thi s .

p ro cess whi c h sets f r ee the ,

o v um is te r m ed o v u l a ti o n ; ,

it t a kes pl a ce i n the m a r e
o nl y a t the o vul a t i on f o ss a ,

a nd o ccu r s d u r i n g th e pe r i o ds

o f (e st r um .

A f t e r r u p t u r e o f a fo l li c l e i ts
ca v i t y i s p a r tl y o c cu p i ed by a
b l ood -c l o t , co ns ti t u ti ng w h a t m a y
b e t er med a c o rpu s ru b ru m By .

p ro li f er a ti o n a n d e n l a rg e me n t a nd
f a tt y c h a n ges , t h e f o lli c l e ce l l s a re
t ra ns f o rmed i n t o l u te i n c e ll s f o rm
,

i ng a y e ll o w m a s s k n o w n a s a c or
p u s l u te u m .I f i m p r eg n a ti o n t a k es
p l ace th e a c c o m p a ny i ng i n crea s e i n
,

v as c u l a r i t y of th e o rg a ns ma y c a u se
Fro 4 09 —S C B E M A T I C
N TAT ON o CHAN m O AR o
RE P R ES E I r GES V Y r t h e co r p u s l u t e u m to rea d ] a l a rge
B )
. .

MA R E OM F A D U LT S TAT
PR (A ft
QBT A L T o E . er o rn .
§ I Z ? ; I f i m p r e g na t i o n d oe s Q Ot oc cu r »

Th h g ff t h i fl y t h f b d ( pp i fi g ) d
e c an es a ec c e e re e or er u er n u re an
i t i s m u c h s m a ll er ,a n d I S so o ner
r e p l aced b y s car ti s su e th e cor u s
th t t d f m f th
e ex e n an v d b y g m i l pit h li m
or o e a r ea c o e re er na e e u , p
b i c an s al
1 P it
, er m (b d li g m
o ne u t ) ; 2 li g m t f v y ; 3 fi m b i f
ro a a en a en o o ar r a o
.

I n t h e y ou n g f oa l th e o v a r i es
. ,

F ll pi t b ; 4 g m i l pit h li m ; 5 v l w h i h
a o an u e er na e e u ess e s h th c re a c e
a re l a rg e a n d o v a l i n f o r m
, , ,

v y t t h tt h d b d
o ar a e a ac e or er Th l tte p
a t t h hi l
e r re r es e n s e us
T he .

w h il t h d p d p
e e ee i t th f
e r ess o n a b d
e re e i th v l ti f
o r er s e o u a o n oss a
f ree b o rd er i s con v ex a nd i s co v ered ,

by g erm i n a l e p it h e li u m , w h i c h e x
.

(E ll b g
e n e r eri L in i g A tl )
e se r n
, s as
’

t end s o v er p a r t o f t h e s u r f a ces a l so .

T hi s a rea i s d i s ti ng u i s h a b l e b y i ts
d u l l g ra y a pp ea ra n c e f ro m t h e p er i t onea l su r f a ce , w h i c h h a s t h e u s u a l s moo t h
g li s t en i ng
c h a ra c t e r A s g ro w t h p roc eed s th e o v a ry g ra d u a l l y bec o mes b e n t u n ti l i t as s u mes i ts
.

d e fi ni ti v e c u r v ed s h a p e Th e g er m i n a l e p i t h e li u m i s t h e n li m i t ed to t h e o v u l a ti o n f os s a
.
.

T h e o v a ry mi g ra t es s o mew h a t d u r i n g d e v e l o p men t f ro m i ts p r i mi ti v e p os i ti o n w h i c h i s t h e
s a me as t h a t o f t h e t es ti c l e
,
.

In ol d a n
i m a ls the o v ar i es c om m on ly c onsist l ar gel y o f fib r o us tissu e i n ,

whi ch the r e ar e o fte n cysts of v ar i o us si z es The ov a p r ese n t i n e no rm o us n u m .

,
b er a t bi r th h a ve the n b ee n ext r uded or dest r o yed by ph a g o cyti c a cti o n or d e
, ,

ge n e r a ti o n .

Ve s s e l s a n d N erv e s —Th e ar te r i e s o f t he o v a r y a r e de r i ved f r o m the o var i a n

ar t ery Th e a r te r y i s r el a ti vel y l ar ge a n d is fl ex u ou s ; i t r e a ch es th e a tt a ch ed b o r de r
.
'

o f the o v a r y by p a s si n g betwee n t he l a ye r s o f the m es v

o a r iu m Th e ve i n s a r e .

l arge a nd n ume r o us They f or m a pl exus s om ewh a t li ke th a t of the spe r m a ti c

.

c or d Th e lymph ve s s e l s p a ss to th e lu m b ar gl a n ds Th e n e rv e s a r e d e r i ved fr om
.
.

the sy m p a theti c s yste m th r o ugh the r e n a l a n d a or ti c plexuses Th ey a c c o mp a ny .

the ar te r i a l b r an ches .
 T HE UTE R I N E on F A LL OP I A N T U BE S -
T HE UTE RUS 51 1

THE UTE RI NE OR F ALL OP I AN T B E S U

Th e ute ri n e or Fal l o pi an tu b e s (Tub ae uter i n ae ) a c t as exc r et or y d ucts of th e
o v ar i es si n ce th ey c o n vey t he ov a f r o m th e r ep r o d ucti ve gl a n ds to t he ute r us
, .

Th ey ar e not h o weve r i n di r ect c o n ti n uity wit h th e gl a n ds but r ath e r p a r tl y i n

, , ,
1
c ontiguity with a n d p ar tly a tt a ched to them ,
They a r e tw o fie x u ou s tubes ,
.
,

a b o ut t en t o twelve i n ch es (ca 2 5 to 30 c m ) l o n g whi ch exte n d f r o m t h e ext r e m iti es

. .
,

o f t he uter i n e c o r n u a t o t he o v ar i es E a ch is i n cl o sed i n a pe r it on e a l f o ld de r ived

.
,

f r o m the exte r n a l l a yer o f the b r oa d lig am e n t a n d te r m ed th e m e s o s a lpi nx Th is , .

l ar gel y c o ve r s the o ute r a spect of the o v a r y a nd f o r m s with it a n d th e b r oa d lig a ,

me nt a p o uch c a ll ed th e b ur s a o vari ca Th e uteri ne e xtr e mi ty of t h e tub e co m .

mu n i ca tes wi th th e c a vity o f th e c or n u by a mi n ute or ifi ce th e o s ti u m ute ri nu m , .

The o vari a n or fimb ri a te d e xtr e mi ty is exp a n ded i nt o a fu n n el sh a ped i nf u nd i b u l u m -

.

The m ar gi n of th e l a tte r is sl i t i n t o i rr egul ar p r o cesses or fimb ri ae , s om e of whi ch ,

t he fim b ri ae o var i ca , ar e a tt a ched i n the o vul a ti o n f oss a I n th e ce n t er of the .

fi mb r i a te d ext r e m ity i s a s m a ll o pe n i n g t h e o s ti u m a b d omi na l e , b y wh i ch th e tub e ,

c o m m u n i c a tes w ith th e pe r i t on e a l c a vity Th e t ub e a ppe ar s n or m a l ly t o b e .

a ppl ied t o the o v a r y so th a t the ext r ud ed ov a p a ss i n t o i t a n d a r e c on veyed t o th e

,
2
ute usr .

P ed u nc ul a t ed cys ts , th e h yd a ti d s o f M org a gn i , are o f t en f ou nd on on e or mor e o f t h e

fim b r i ae I n t h e mesos a l p i n x a re b li n d fl e xu o u s t u b u l es , w hi c h c on s ti t u t e t h e pa rooph oron , a
.

r emn a n t o f t h e Wol ffi a n b o d y T h ey are mos t e vi d e n t i n th e y oun g a d u l t , a n d t end t o di s a pp ea r

.

Wi t h i ncr eas i n g a ge N o t un co mm o n l y t h ey g i v e r i s e to c ys t s
. .

S tr u c tur e .
—Th e tub e i s c o ver ed exte rn a ll y by
o t f or m ed by th e a s er ous c a
mes os a lpi nx The ser o us m e m b r a n e is c o n ti n u ed on th e fimbr i ae a nd m eets the
.
,

mu c o us l i ni n g on th em The fib r o u s c o a t o r a dve n titi a is c on ti n u o us with th e

.

fi br o us l a mi n a o f th e b r o a d lig a me n t Th e mu s c u l ar c oa t c on sists ch iefl y of c i r cu

.

l ar fibe r s a lth o ugh l on git udi na l fib e r s o cc u r exter n a lly

, Th e mu c o u s c o a t is .

thi n a nd i s mu ch pli c a ted T he f o lds (P l i c a; t u b ar i m) a r e ch i efly l on gitudi n a l b ut

.
,

i n th e wid e p a r t o f the tub e (A mpull ae t u b m) t h ey ar e ver y c o m plex s o th a t on ,

cr oss secti o n s th e sp a ces b etwee n th e f o lds m a y b e m ist a ken for b r an ch ed tubul ar

-

gl an ds The f o lds are c o n ti n ued on t o th e fim br i m Th e e pith e li u m is a si ngle

. .

l a yer o f c o l um n ar cili a ted cells th e ci l i a p r o du ci n g a cur r e n t di r ected t o w ar d th e

,

ut er us At th e fimb r i ate d ext r e m i ty th is epith eli um p a sses gr a du a lly i n t o th e

.

squ am o us type o f th e se r o us c o a t
Ve s se l s an d N e r v e s —Th e ar te ri e s ar e der i ved fr o m t he uter o -o va r i a n ar tery
.

Th e ve i n s a r e s a tell ites of th e ar ter i es Th e lym ph a ti c s p a ss wit h t he o v a r i an .

vessels t o th e l umb ar gl an ds The n er ves h a v e a simi l ar or igi n t o t h o se of th e

.

o v ar y .

THE UTE R US
The uter u s is a h o l l o w mus cul a r o r g a n wh i ch r ecei ves t h e F a l l o pi an tubes ,

a n te r i or l y a n d o pe n s i n t o th e v a gi n a p o ste r i or ly I t is situ a ted chi efly i n the a h .

d om i n a l c a vity b ut exte n ds a sh or t di st a n ce i n t o th e pelvi c c a vity

,
I t i s a tt a ched .

t o the l umb a r w a ll of th e a bd o m e n a nd th e l a t e r a l w a lls of th e pelvi c c a vity by

tw o f o lds of pe r it on eum te r med th e b r oa d lig am e n ts I t c o n sists o f t w o c or n u a .

or h o r n s the b o dy a n d t he n eck
, ,
.

Th e c o rn u a or h orn s of th e ute r us (C or n u a ut e r i ) ar e sit u a t ed e n ti r ely i n

the a bd o me n They a ppe a r to v a r y c o n sider a bly i n p o siti o n ; c o mm o n ly t hey
.

1
Th e F a ll o p i a n t u b es ma y be r eg a r d ed , both i n t
s ru c u r t e and mo rp h o l ogy , as p ro l on g a ti o ns
of th e ter u s (M c M ur ri c h )
u .

2
T h e a rr a n g em en t i s th e o n l y exc e p ti o n to th e gen era l ru l e t h a t th e sero u s ca v i ti es a re

c l os ed . I n t h i s c a s e t h e m u c o u s me m b r a n e o f th e fim b r i a t ed ex t r e m i t y i s c o n t i n u o u s “d tb th e
a d j a cen t p er i t o n eu m a p e r s i s t en c e o f t h e em b r y o ni c r e l a t i o n s o f t h e M ull en an d u c t
,
.
51 2 GE NITAL OR G A N S OF T H E MA R E

a re p r essed up a g a i nst th e sublu m b ar m uscl es by t he i n testi n e (left p or ti on s o f

l ar ge c o l o n s m a l l c o l o n a n d s m a ll i n t esti n e ) They ar e cyl i n d r i c a l a n d a r e
, ,
.
,

a b o ut t en i n ches (ca 2 5 c m ) i n l e ngt h Th e a nte r i o r ext r e m ity of e a ch f or ms a

. . .

bl u n t p o i n t w hi ch r ecei ves t h e F a ll o pi a n t ube P o st e r i or l y t hey i n c r e a se s o me .

wh a t i h c a libe r c o n ve r ge a n d u n it e wit h t he b o dy Th e d or s a l (or a tt a ched )

, ,
.

b o r d e r is slight ly c o n c a ve a nd is a tt a ch ed to the b r o a d l ig am e n t Th e v e ntr al .

b o rd er is c on vex a nd fr ee .

FI G . 410 .
—G N TAL E I OR G AN S or MA RE ,
V W
D o ns u . IE .

Th e l ft c
ej t p t f th e b d y f t h e u te
o rnu a nd ad a c e n ar o o o r us d th v g i
an e d v lv a p ed p 1
na a n u a a re o en u . .

Ov a y ; r n tub
0
F a ll pi
w ith o i t fi m b i t ed
a d ; S c a v it y
e , c s r a en , o f p ort i ; 4 v i t y f l ft
us u er : 5 ig h tca o e c o rnu ,
r

c o ru uw it h ,it mm i ti w ith t h b d y ; 6 1 ti v g i li s u e
s co u n ca on e o , ) or o a na t i; r t ; 7 b d li g m t f t
os u eri ; , ro a a en o u eru s

8 li g m
, t f ov
a y ; 9 v gi
en o ; I O v lv ;
ar . gl d l m v ti b l e
a na , u a an n es u ar s m j : gl
a o res d l m v ti b l mi ; an u es u a re s no res

I I t ,sv ra n f l d ; 1 2 e t n l et h l p n i g ;
e rs e o . x er la bi a ur ra o e n a v lv ; I 4 g l
u ae lit id i ; ,
j ti a ns f c or s u nc on o

c u r t f m
ra o p s lit i d i i d i t d b y d tt e d li nes ; 1 5
or co r u c or s a n ca e o . i y bl d d ;
ur n r t a v i t y w it h
er a , u e r o -o ar an a r er

o v i n ( ) nd t i e ( ”) b a n h ; b t i n a te y (A ft e
ar a a
'
a u er n a e r c es , u er e r r . r E ll b g i L i
n er i g Atl )
er , n e s er n
'
s as .

W h en
f t u t er u s i s d i s t en d ed t h e co r nu a a re s t ro n g l y c u r v ed b u t t h i s d o es no t rep res en t
a so , ,

t h e n a t u ra l f o r m Wh en fi xed i n s i t“ t h e h o rns a re e i t h e r s l i g h t l y c u r v ed o r n ea r l y s t ra i gh t
. . . .

T h e tw o h o rn s a re co mmo n l y u ns y m me t ri c a l i n l en g t h a nd d i a m et e r i n ma re s w h i c h h a v e bo r ne
y o u ng .

The b o dy o f t he ute r us (C or pu s ut e r i ) is sit u a ted p ar tly i n t h e a bd o me n ,

p a r tly i n th e pelvi c c a vi ty I t is cyl i n d r i c a l but c o n si d e r a bly fl a tte n ed d or s o

.
.
,

ve nt r a lly s o t h a t i n c ro ss sect i o n it is elli pti c a l

, I ts a ve r a ge l e n gth i s a b o ut six
-
.

i n ches (1 5 a n d i ts d i a mete r w he n m o de r a tely d iste n ded a b o ut f o u r i n ches , ,

(1 0 I ts d o r s a l su rf a ce (F a ci es r ec t a l is ) i s r el a ted to t he sm a ll c o l o n a n d rec
51 4 GE NI TAL OR G A N S o r T HE MARE

i n s i z e a n d c o n t a i n m o re m u s c u l a r ti s s u e T h e v es s e l s a re g r ea t l y e n l a rg ed a n d fo r m n e w b r a n c h es
. .

T h e m u sc u l a r coa t i n s p it e o f t h e i n c re a s e i n s i z e a n d n u m b e r o f t h e fi b ers , l s s o m ew h a t t hi n n er ,
,

exc e p t i n t h e nec k T h e mu c o u s m e m b ra ne i s t h i c k er a nd mo re v a s c u l a r ; t h e e p it h e li u m b e
.

c o mes n o n-c i li a t e d a nd s t ra t i fi ed .

THE VAGI N A

Th e v a gi na is the p a ss a ge wh i ch exte n ds h or i z on t a lly t h r o ugh the pelvi c

c a vity f r om the n eck o f t he u te r us to the vulv a I t is t ubu l ar i s ab o ut si x to eight .
,

i n ches (c a 1 5 to 2 0 c m ) i n le n gth a n d whe n sli ghtly diste n ded a b o ut f o u r o r five

. .
, , ,

i n ches (c a 1 0 to 1 2 c m ) i n di a m ete r I ts d il a t a bi l ity a ppe ar s to b e l i m ited on ly by

. . .

the pelvi c w a ll The r e is n o exte r n a l li n e of de m a r c a t i o n b etwee n the v a gi n a

.

a n d the ute r us o r th e vul v a .

I t i s r el a ted d or s a lly t o t he r ectu m ve n t r a lly to th e bl a dd e r a n d u r eth r a a n d , ,

l ate r a lly t o t he pelvi c w a ll The r ect o ge ni t a l p o u ch of th e pe r i t on eu m exte n ds

.
-

betwee n t he v a gi na a n d r ectu m for a dist a n ce of a b o ut tw o i n ches (5 an d

ven t r a lly the vesi c o ge n it a l p o uch p a sses b a ckw ar d s omewh a t less b etwee n th e
-

v a gi na a n d bl a dde r Thus m o st o f th e v a gi n a is r et r o pe r it on e a l an d is s u r
.

r o u nded by a qu a n tity o f l oo se c o n n e ctive tissue a ve n o u s pl exus a n d a v a r i a bl e , ,

a m o u n t o f fa t

S tr u ctu re —With th e except i o n o f th e sh o r t pe r i t o n e a l p ar t a s i n d i c a ted a b o ve

.

, ,

t he p rope r w a ll of the v a gi n a is c o m p o sed of muscul ar a n d m uc o us c oa ts The .

mu s cu l ar c o a t is c o mp osed o f a th i n l a yer o f l o n gitud i n a l fib e r s a n d a th i cke r l a ye r ,

o f ci r cul a r fibe r s ; i t c o n t a i n s a ls o m a n y el a st i c fib e r s The mu c o u s c oa t is highl y .

el asti c a nd is c o ve r ed with a st r a ti fi ed epi th eli u m I t h as n o gl a n ds

,
. .

U n de r usu a l c o n diti o n s th e c a vi ty is p r a ct i c a lly o bl ite r a ted by a pp o siti o n of

t he w a lls so th a t the l u m e n i s a t r a n sv e r se sli t ; th is c on d iti o n is p r on o u n ced w he n
,

the a mpull a of the r ectu m is ful l Th e a n t e r i or en d of th e v a gi n a is l a r gely o ccupi ed

.

by the i nt r a v a gi n a l p ar t of the n eck of the ute r us s o th a t th e c a vity is he r e r edu ced ,

t o a n a n n ul a r r ecess t e r m ed t h e f o rni x va gi n ae Th e p o ste r i or p ar t is d i r ectly .

c o nti n u o us wit h t he vulv a w it h o ut a ny l i n e o f d em ar c a t i on except th e v a lvul ar

f o ld whi ch c o ve r s the exte r n a l u r eth r a l or ifi ce ; i n ver y y o u ng subj ects t his f o ld i s
,

c o n ti n ued o n eith e r side f or m i n g th e hym e n , w h i ch n ar r o ws t h e e n t ra n ce to th e

,

va gi n a (I n t r o i tus v ag i nze ) 1 .

Ve s s e l s a n d N e r v e s — T h e bl o o d supply is de r i ved f r o m t h e b r a n ch es o f th e -

i n te rn a l pu d i c a r te ri e s The v e i n s f or m a pl exus wh i ch i s d r a i ned by th e i n te rn a l

.

pudi c v e i n s The lymph a ti c s p a ss t o t h e i n te r n a l i l i a c ly m ph gl a n ds Th e n er v e s

. .

a re de r i ved f r o m t h e sy m p a theti c th ro ugh the pel vi c pl exus .

THE V U LVA
Th ev lv uu o g ita l s i u s i s t h e ter m i n a l p ar t of t h e ge n i t a l t r a ct
a or r en n I t is .
.
2

c on t i n u o us i n f ro n t w ith the v a gi n a a n d o pe n s exte r n a l ly a t t he vulv a r cleft ,

bel o w th e a n us The r e is n o exte r n a l li n e o f de m ar c a ti o n betwee n th e v a gi n a a n d

.

vulv a The t ub e is a b o ut five i n ches (ca 1 2 cm ) i n l e n gth m e a su r ed f r o m the

. . .
,

exte r n a l u r eth r a l o r ifi ce t o t he i n fe r i or c omm issu r e ; d or s a lly i t i s c on sid er a bly

sh o r te r I t is r el a ted d or s a lly t o th e r e ctu m a n d a n us ve n t ra l ly t o th e pelvi c fl oo r
.

a nd l a te r a ll y t o th e s a c r o—
, ,

sci a ti c lig a m e n t th e semi m e m b r a n osus m uscle a n d th e , ,

i n te r n a l pud i c a r te r y Th e exte r n a l o r ifi ce or vu lvar cl e ft (R i m a vu lv a?) h as the

.

f o r m o f a ve r ti c a l slit a b o ut f o u r t o six i n ches (c a 1 0 t o 1 5 cm ) h igh a n d is m a r gi n ed

, . .
,

{ f o r m a l i n h a rd ened s u b j ec ts t h ere i s f req

In -
u e n tl y a p ro no u n c ed r i n g l ik e co n s t r i c ti o n a t th e -

b eg i nni n g o f t h e v u l v a .

2
T h e t e r m v u l v a i s u s ed h ere i n th e s en s e i n w h i c h i t i s u n d er s t o od g en era l l y b y E ng li s h
a n d F re n c h v e t e r i n a r i a ns I n t h e G er m a n w o r k s i t i s a pp li ed o n l y to t h e l a b i a a n d o t h er s t r u e
. .

t u res a ro u nd t h e ext er na l o r i fi ce o f t h e u r ogen i t a l s i nu s w h i l e th e s i n u s i tse l f i s t er med th e v es ti b u l e

,

o f t h e v a g i na (Ves ti b u l u m v a i n at )
g .
 T HE FE M ALE U RE T H R A 51 5

by tw o p r o m i n e nt r o u n ded f o lds t he l a bi a Th e l a b i a of th e v ulv a (L a b i a vul

,
.

v m) meet a b o ve a t a n a cute a n gle f o r mi n g th e s up e ri o r c o mm i s su r e (C o mm i ssu r a

,

d or s a lis ) wh i ch is a b o ut tw o i n ches (ca 5 c m ) bel o w th e a n us B el o w t h e y u n ite

,
. . .

t o f o r m the t h i c k r o u n ded inf e ri or c o mmi s s ur e (C o mm issu r a ve n t r a lis ) w hi ch l ies ,

a b o ut tw o i n ch es (ca 5 cm ) be h i n d a n d b el o w the i sch i a l a r ch

. . Whe n th e l a bi a .

a r e d r a w n a p a r t a r o u n ded b o dy a b o ut a n i n ch (c a
,
c m ) wi de is see n i n the i a
,
. .
,

fer i o r c o mm issu r e ; this is t he gl an s c li t ori d i s , th e h o m o l o gue of the gl a n s pe n is .

Ove r lyi n g i t is a thi n f o ld t he pr e pu c e of th e cli t or i s (P r aepu t i u m cl it or idis ) At

,
.

'

the a n te r i or e xt r emity o f the ve n t r a l w a ll o f the v ulv a t e a b o ut f o u r or five ,

. .
,

i n ches (ca 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) f r o m th e i nf e r i or c o m missu r e is t h e e xtern al u r e thr a l

. .
,

o ri fi c e or m e a tus ur i n ar i us (Or i fic i u m u r eth r a; ext er n u m ) I t r e a di ly a d m its th e .

fi n ge r a n d is ver y dil a t a bl e I t is c o ver ed b y a f o l d of mu c o us m emb ran e the

.
,

f r ee edge o f whi ch i s di r ected b a ckw ar d

S tr u ctu r e —Th e l a b i a a r e c o ve r ed by th i n pig m e n ted s m oo t h ski n wh i ch i s
.

.
, , ,

r i chly suppli ed with seb a ce o us a n d swe a t gl a n ds Th is i s c on ti n u o us at a dist an ce o f .

a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (c a 1 t o c m ) f r o m t h e f r ee edge w ith a th i n gl a n dl ess m u c o us

. .

me m b r an e B etwee n these i s a l a ye r of st r iped muscl e t h e c on str i ct o r vu lva ;

.
,

t hi s fuses a b o ve with th e sph i n cte r an i a n d e m b r a ces t h e clit or i s bel o w sp r e a di n g

, ,

o ut l a te r a lly a t the i nf e r i o r c o mmissu r e I t c o n st r i cts th e v ulv ar or ifi ce an d ele

.

v a tes th e clit o r is The c o n stri ctor v e s ti b u l i m uscl e e m b r a ces th e vu lv a i n f r on t

.

o f th e p r ecedi n g ; i t is j o i n ed on ei th e r si de b y a b an d of u n st r i ped muscl e whi ch

ar ises f r o m t he fir st a n d sec o n d c o c cyge a l ve r teb r ae a n d is h o m o l og o us wit h t h e ,

p r o xi m a l p ar t of th e r et r a ct or pe n is I t c o n st r i cts the vu l v a U n de r thi s m uscl e

. .

in th e l a ter a l w a l l is a fl a tte n ed o v a l b o dy t he b ulb u s v e stib u li (Fi g

, ,
thi s i s .

a n e r ectil e st r uctu r e h o m o l o g o us wi t h th e c or pus sp o n gi osum ur et h r a o f th e

,

m al e . I t i s a b o ut t w o a n d a h a lf to t h r e e i n ch es (ca 6 t o 8 c m ) l on g a n d a n i n ch . .
,

or m or e (ca 3 cm ) wi de . I t c o ns i sts o f a ve n o us n etw or k i n cl o sed i n a fib r o us

. .

c a psul e an d i s suppl i ed with bl oo d by a l ar ge b r a n ch o f t h e i n te r n a l pud i c ar ter y

,
.

Th e mu c o u s m e m b r a n e o f t he vulv a i s r ed dish i n c o l o r a n d f or m s l on gi tudi n a l ,

and t ran sve r se f o l ds I t p r esen ts ve n t r a l ly tw o li n e ar ser i es of sm a l l p a pil l ae

.

whi ch c o n ve r ge t o w a r d t h e i n fe r i or c omm issu r e ; th ese m ar k th e or i fi ces of th e

du cts of the gl an d ul ae v e stib u l are s mi n ore s On ei th e r side o f th e d or s a l w a l l is a
.

gr o up of ei ght t o t en l ar ge r p r o mi n e n ces o n w hi ch t h e du cts o f t h e gl an du l a

ve s ti b u l are s m a j or e s (of B ar th o li n ) o pe n .

Qui t e exce p ti on a ll y t h er e ma y b e f ou n d o n ei t h er s i d e of th e ur e t h ra l or i fi ce th e o p en i ng of
th e l
c a n a s of G a r t ner (D u c t u s e p o op h o ri l o ng i t u di n a l es ) .

The c li to ri s is th e h o m o l o gue o f the pe ni s I t ar i ses f r o m th e isch i a l a r ch by .

’
tw o c r u ra , whi ch u n i te to f or m a b o d y a s l ar ge a s o n e s l ittl e fi n ge r Th is p r oj ect s .

b a ckw ar d i nt o th e i n fe r i or c o mm issu r e o f t he vulv a c a pped by a s m a l l r o u n ded ,

g l an s . Th e o r g a n is c o mp o sed of e r ectil e tissu e simi l ar t o the c o r pus c a ve r no sum

p eni s Th e i s c hi o -c a v ern o s u s (or e r ect or clit or i dis ) i s a ver y feebl e m uscl e whi ch
.

dep r esses t he cl it or i s Th e vei n s of the clit or is c o m m u ni c a te b y an i n te r medi a te

.

pl exus on eithe r si de with th e bu lb us vestib u l i .

F E MA L E UR E THRA THE
Th e fe m a le ur e th ra (U r eth r a fe m i n i n a ) r ep r ese n ts on l y th a t p a r t of th e c a n a l
o f the m a l e whi ch li es betwee n th e i n te r n a l u r eth r a l o r ifi ce a n d th e ope n i n gs o f
the ej a cul a t or y du cts I ts l e n gt h is a b o ut tw o i n ch es (5
. a n d its lu m e n is

suffi ci e n t to a d m it o f th e i n t r o d ucti o n o f th e fi n ge r ; i t is h o wever c a p a bl e of , ,

r em a r k a bl e di l a t a ti o n if su ffi ci e n t c ar e a n d p a ti e n ce are e x e r cised i n th e p r o cess .

I t li es ce n t r a ll y o n t he pel vi c fl oo r a n d i s r el a ted a n d a tt a ched d or s a lly t o th e

,

v ag i n a .
51 6 GE NI TAL OR G A NS or T HE M AR E

S tr uctur e —Th e i n t r i n si c mu s cu l ar c oa t
c on sists of l on gitudi na l a n d ci r cul ar
l a ye r s of u n st r iped fibe r s B et w ee n these i s a l a ye r o f a r e o l ar tissue w h i ch c o nt a i n s
.

a r i ch v e n o u s pl e xu s The mu c o u s m e mb ra ne is t h r o w n i n t o l o n gitudi n a l f o lds

.

whe n t he c a n a l is cl o sed ; it is highly el a st i c a n d is c ove r ed w i th st r a tifi ed epi th e ,

l iu m .

The u r e th ra l mu s cl e (M c o m p r ess or u r eth r ae) emb r a ces th e u r et h r a an d i s

.

c on ti nued b a ckw a r d for s om e dist a n ce u n de r the c o n st r i ct or vestib ul i I t is .

c ove r ed by a fib ro el a sti c m emb r a n e - .

THE M AMM AR Y G L AN D S

The m a mm ar y gl an d s (G l a n dul ae l ac ti fer ze ) a r e m o dified cut an e o us gl an ds

whi ch a r e so cl o sel y a ss o ci a ted fu n cti o n a lly with t h e ge n it a l or g an s a s t o be con
s i d er e d a ccess o r y t o t he m .

I n the m a r e they a r e tw o i n n umbe r an d a r e pl a ced o n eithe r side o f th e medi a n ,

pl an e i n the i ngui n a l r egi on E a ch gl a n d h as th e f or m of a sh o r t c o n e mu ch com

.
,

p r essed t r a n sve r sely a n d h a vi ng a fl a t i nn e r su r f a ce I t c o n sists of th e gl a ndul ar

,
.

m a ss o r b o dy o f the gl a n d (C or pus m a mm m) a n d th e teat or ni ppl e (P a pi l l a m am

m ae) . Th e b a se is r el a ted t o the a bd o mi na l w a l l t o whi ch it is a tt a ched by ar e ol ar ,

tissue wh i ch c o n t a i n s a ve n o us pl exus th e su pe r fi ci a l i n gui n a l lymph gl an ds

, , ,

a n d a v a r i a bl e a m o u n t o f fa t Th e a pex is c o n stituted by the t e a t whi ch is als o

.
,

fl a tte n ed t r a n sver sely a nd v a r i es i n le n gth fr om o n e t o t w o i n ch es (ca to 5 .

B etwee n th e b a ses o f th e te a ts i s th e i nte r m a mm ar y g r oo ve On the a pex of e a ch .

te a t tw o o r th r ee s m a l l or i fi ces ar e pl a ced cl o se t o geth er ; th ese ar e the ope n i ngs

o f the l a ctife r o us d ucts .

S tr u ctu r e — The ski n o ve r the gl a n ds is t h i n pigme nted ch iefly h a i r less a n d

.
, , ,

supplied with n u m e ro us l ar ge seb a ce o us a n d swe a t gl an ds U n der this ar e tw o .

l a ye r s o f f a s ci a except on the te a ts The s up e r fi ci a l f a sci a p r es en ts n o speci a l .

fe atu r es Th e deep f a sci a c o n sists o f t w o l a mi nae det a ch ed f r o m th e a bd om i n a l

.

tu n i c whi ch desce nd o n eithe r si de o f the m ed i a n pl an e f orm i n g a s e ptu m betwee n ,

th e t w o gl an ds a n d c o n stituti n g thei r lig a me n tum suspe ns o r i um

, .

T h e se l a m i n a e a re s e p a r a t ed b y a l a y er o f a r eo l a r ti ssu e so t h a t i t ,
is p oss i b l e to r emov e o ne

g l a nd i f d i s e a se d b y c a r e f u l d i ss ec ti o n b e t w ee n th e l a y e rs o f t h e s e p t u m .

The gl a n d s ub sta n c e or par e n chyma i s pi n ki sh gr a y i n c o l or and of fi rm e r ,

c onsiste n ce th a n the fa t wh i ch is f o u n d ar o u n d a n d w ith i n th e gl a n d I t is i n cl osed .

by a fibr o el a st i c c a psul e whi ch se n ds i n w ar d n ume r o us t r a b e cu l ze ; these f or m the

-

i nte r stiti a l ti s s u e a n d di vid e th e gl a n d i n t o l o b e s a n d l o b ul e s

, I n the l a tte r a re .

the sec r et ory tub u l e s a n d a lve ol i , whi c h u n i te to f or m the l a r ge r d u cts E a ch l o be .

h a s a duct wh i ch o pe n s a t the b a se o f the te a t i n t o a sp a ce c a lled the l a c ti f er o us

,

s i n u s (S i n us l a ct i fer u s ) ; this is li n ed wi th m u c o us me m b r an e a nd fr o m it tw o ,

(o r thr ee ) l a ctif e ro u s du cts (D uctus l a ctife r i ) p a ss th r o ugh th e ext r e m i ty of the

n ipple These ducts a r e l i n ed with a n on gl a n dul ar m u c o us m emb ra n e wh i ch is
.
-
,

c o ve r ed with st r a tified squ a m o us epi th eli um They a r e su rr o u n ded by u n st r iped .

rn nsc u l a r tissu e the bul k o f th e fibe r s bei n g a rr a n ged i n a ci r cul ar m a nn e r to f or m

,

a sp h i n cte r .

T h e s i z e a n d f o r m o f th e m a mm a r y g l a n d s a re s u b j ec t t o m u c h v a r i a ti o n I n th e y ou n g .

s u b j ec t , b e f o r e p reg n a n c y , t h ey a r e s ma l l a nd c o n t a i n littl e g l a n d ti s s u e D u r i ng t h e l a tt er .

p a r t o f g es t a ti o n , a nd es pec i a l l y d u ri ng l a c t a ti o n , t h ey i n creas e g rea t l y i n s i z e , a n d th e g l a n d

ti s s u e i s h i g h l y d e v e l o ped A f t er l a c t a ti o n t h e s ecret o r y s t ru c t u res u nd ergo m a r k ed i nv o l u ti on ,
.

a n d t h e g l a nd i s m u c h r e d u c e d i n s i z e T h e re l a ti v e a mo u n t s o f g l a n d s u b s t a nc e a nd i n t ers ti ti a l
.

ti s s u e v a ry g rea tl y ; i n s o me c a s es a g l an d o f co n s i d era b l e s i z e con t a i ns li ttl e s ec re t o ry ti s s u e a nd

q
i s c o ns e u e n tl y f u n c ti o n a ll y d e fi c i en t .

Ve s s e l s and N erv e s —Th e t s a r e de r ived f r o m the e xterna l pud i c

a r e ri e

t y , whi ch e n te r s th e gl a n d
ar er at the p o ste r i or p ar t o f i ts b a se Th e ve in s f o r m a .
51 8 GE NI T AL OR G AN S o r T HE c ow

its ll is r e m ar k a bly d e n se a n d may be n e ar ly a n i n ch ca 2 cm ) i n th i ck n ess

w a ,
. . .

I ts l u m e n th e c e rvi c al c an al , is spi r a l a n d is or di n a r i ly tightly cl o sed an d ve r y

, ,

di ffi cult t o dil a te The m u s cul ar c oa t o f t h e uter us i s t hi cke r t h a n i n the m a r e

. .

I t c o n sists of a n ext e r n a l l o n gi t u di na l l a ye r a n d t w o ci r cul ar st r a t a Th e i n n e r .

ci r cul a r l a ye r is a b o ut a f o u r th of a n i n ch (c a 6 mm ) th i c k i n th e ce r vix Th e o the r . . .

l aye r s ar e c onti n ued i n th e va gi n a The .

muc o u s m e m b ra ne o f t h e h or n s a n d b o dy
p r ese nts as a ch a r a ct e r i sti c fe atu r e the
ute ri n e c o ty l e d o n s (C o ty l e d on e s ut e r i n se ) .

These a re o v a l p r o m i n e n ces a b o ut a h u n ,

dr ed i n n umbe r wh i ch ar e eithe r i rr egul ar ly,

sc a tte r ed o ve r the su r f a ce or a r r a n ged i n

r o ws of a b o ut a d o z e n .

I n t h e n o n- g ra v i d u t e ru s t h ey a v er a g e a b ou t
to i nc h (c a 1 5 to 1 8 mm ) i n l en g t h , 4 i n ch
. .

(c a 8 mm ) i n w i d t h , a nd
. . i n c h (ca 2 t o 4 mm ) . .

i n th i c k nes s D u r i ng p reg n a n c y t h ey beco me g rea t l y

.

e nl a rged a nd pe d u nc u l a t ed T h e l a rger o n es t hen .

m eas u re a bo u t 4 t o 5 i n c h es (1 0 t o 1 2 c m ) i n l e ng t h , .

1 to DA i n c h es (3 to 4 c m ) i n w i d t h , a nd 1 i nc h (2 .

to c m ) i n t h i c k n es s
. T h e d ee p f a c e h as a h i l u s
.

a t w hi c h t h e v es s e l s e n t er T h e r es t o f t h e s u r f a c e
.

h as a s p o n gy a pp ea r a n c e , d u e to n u mer ou s c ry p t s
w hi c h rec ei v e th e v i lli o f t h e c h o r i o n .

Th e ute ri n e gl a n d s a r e l on g a n d
b r a n ched The m u c o us memb r an e of th e
.

cer vix i s p a le a nd f or ms n u m e r o us f o lds .

The l at te r ar e arr a n ged i n sever a l se r i es

wh i ch o blite r a te th e lume n At the ex .

t e r n a l o r ifi ce (os ute r i ) th e f o lds (P li c ae

p a l m a tze ) f o r m r o u n d ed p r o m i n e n ces a r
r a nged ci r cul ar l y whi ch p r o j ect i nt o th e .

c avity o f the v a gi na The r e a r e n o gl a nds .

i n the cer vix b ut a th i ck mu cus is sec r eted

,

b y g oblet cel ls .

414 .
—G N TAL O R G A N S
E I or Co w ,
D ORSA L

i g h t te i n
Th e n
r d t h va g i
u nd
r e co r u an e na a

v lv
u p e n d p I L a b i m l ; 2 v nt l
a a re o e u : . u v u vz
e , e ra

c mm i
o e; 3ss u rgl lit i d i ; 4 g l d l a v ti
, a ns c or s , an u es

b l is m j o
u ar po d b y lit i n m
a r, ex m m se s u cous e

b n ; 5
ra e p i g f d t f p di g;
, o en n o b uc o re c e n su

u reth l d i v t i l m ; 7 e te n l u th l pe n
ra er cu u , x r a re ra o

—UT i g: 8
n p i g f o l f G tn ; 9 u t i ;
en n s o c a na s o ar er os er
N C OTY L D ON
, ,

Frc . 4l3 . ERI E E or Co w 10 t i; 1 1 t i; 1 ty l d n ; c o rnu u e r ° co e o s

p co r us u er
.

, .

The fi g u re re p re s e n s t a coty l d f m di
e on o e u m s i ze .
(A ft e r 1 3 F ll pi n t b ; I
,
a o ti m b d m i n l t b ;
a u e ’
, os u a o a e u a)

E ll e nb e rg e r , i L i
n i g A tl
e ser n
’
s as . ) 1 5 ova y
, (F m L ei
r i ng Atl ro d u c ed ) ser
'
s as ,
re .

The b r o a d l i gam en ts a r e n o t a tt a ch ed i n th e subl u m b ar r egi on a s i n t he m ar e ,

but to t h e uppe r p ar t o f the fl a n ks a b o ut a h a n db r e a dth bel o w th e level o f th e ,

exte r na l a ngl e o f the i l i u m T h ey c o n t a i n a c o n spi cu o us a m o u n t o f u n st r i ped

.

m uscl e The r o u n d l iga m e n ts a r e w el l d evel o ped a n d c an be t ra ced d isti n ctly

.
,

t o th e vi ci n i ty o f th e i n te r n a l i n gu i n a l r i n g .

The vagi na i s s om ewh a t l on ge r a n d m o r e r o o m y th a n th a t o f th e m a r e ; its

 GE N I T A L O RGA N S or T HE c ow 51 9

wa ll is a ls o thi cke r I ts a ve ra ge le n gt h i n t h e no n p r eg n ant a n i m a l is a b o ut eight

.
-

i n ch es (ca 2 0 . but i n the p r eg n a nt c o w th e le n g t h i n c r e a ses to t welve i n ches

(30 c m ) or m o r e Th e r ect o ge n it a l p o u ch o f pe r it o n eum exte n ds b a ckw a r d a b o ut
. .
-

fi ve i n ches (ca 1 2 em ) o n the d o r s a l su r f a ce whi le ve n t r a lly the se r o us c o a t o n ly

. .
,

ext e nds b a ckw a r d a b o ut t w o i n c hes (ca 5 .

T h i s g i v e s a m p l e s p a c e d o rs a ll y fo r t h e i n c i s i o n o f th e forni x v a gi n a i n o op h o rec t o my .

th e ve n t r a l w a l l of the v a gi na betwee n th e m uscu l ar a n d m u c o us c oats

In , ,

the r e ar e fr eq ue ntly p r ese n t th e tw o c an al s o f G ar tn e r (D u ctus ep o oph or i l ong i t u

d i n a l es ) Whe n w el l d ev el o ped th ey ma y a tt a i n th e d i a m ete r of a g oose qu il l
.
,

a nd m a y be t r a ced f o r w ar d t o the a n te r i o r p ar t o f t he v a gi n a or eve n fu r th e r .

They o pe n p o ster i or ly n e a r th e ext e r n a l ur ethr a l o r ifi ce .

T h es e t u b es a r e re m n a n t s o f th e Wo l ffia n d u c t s a n d li k e o t h er f oe t a l v es ti g es a re v ery , , ,

v a r i a b l e R od er s t a t es t h a t th e r i g h t ca n a l w as a b s en t i n o v er 52 per cent t h e l ef t i n on l y 22 per

. .
,

c en t . o f t h e co w s e xa mi ned b y hi m
, I n so m e cas es t h ey ma y b e t ra ced i n t h e b r oa d li g a me n t s for
.

a v ar i a b l e d i s t a n c e t o w a r d th e o v a ry Th ey a re o f c li ni c a l i n t er es t i n t h a t c y s t s f r eq
. u en tl y f orm
a l o ng t h e i r c o urs e .

FI G 4 1 5
. . SAGI T I ’ ‘
AL SE CT ONI or P A T
R U O N TAL
or R GE I TR A CT or Co w , S H O W I N G S UB UR E T H RA L
D IVER T CU L UM
I .

The vu l va i kled l a b i a a n d b o t h c omm i ssu r es ar e a cute ; the

h as th i ck wr n ,

l o wer on e i s p o i n ted an d h as on i t a n u m be r of l on g h a i r s ; it li es a b o ut tw o i n ches

,

(5 c m ) b eh i n d a n d a b o ut th e s a me dist a n ce b el o w th e level of th e i schi a l a r ch

.
, ,
.

T h e gl a ns cl ito r i d i s is sm a l l ; t he cr u ra a r e a b o ut f o u r i n ches (c a 1 0 cm ) l o n g a n d . .

a r e fl e xu ou s Th e e xternal u r e thr al o ri fi c e or m e a tus u r i n ar i us is f o u r or fi ve

.

i n ches (1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) f r om th e ve n t ra l c o m m issu r e B e n e a t h it is a bl i n d
. .

p o uch the s ub ur e th ral d iverti cul u m , wh i ch is m or e th an a n i n ch (c a 3 t o 4 cm )

,
. .

l on g a nd r e a di ly a d m i ts th e en d of a fi n ge r
, .

T h e f orm a n d p os i ti o n of t h i s p ou c h s h o u l d b e c a re f u l l y n o t ed o n accou n t o f th e d i ffi c u lt y
i t c aus es i n c a t h e t e r i z i ng t h e b l a d d e r I f t h e c a t h e t er i s p a ss ed a l o n g t h e v en t r a l w a ll of t h e
.

v u l v a (as i n t h e m a r e ), i t w i l l a l w a y s en t er t h e p ou c h i n s t e a d o f t h e u r e t h ra .

Th e gl an d u l a v e sti b ul ar e s m a j o re s (or gl a n ds of B ar th o l i n ) ar e situ a ted o n

t h e l at e r a l w a lls of the vul v a u n de r th e c o n st r i ct or vulv a ,
Th ey ar e little o ver .

a n i n ch (ca 3 c m ) l o n g a n d a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (ca
. . c m ) i n wi dth E a ch h as . . .

a si n gl e duct whi ch o pe n s a b o ut a n i n ch a n d a h a lf (ca 3 t o 4 c m ) l a te r a l to a n d . .

behi n d the ext er n a l u r eth r a l or ifi ce .

Th e ur e th r a of th e c ow is a b o ut f o u r i n ch es (1 0 c m ) i n l e n gt h ; it is n ar r o we r an d .

much less di l a t a bl e t h an th a t of th e m a r e I t is fused d or s a lly with th e w a l l o f th e .

v a gi n a whi l e l a t e r a l ly a n d ve n t r a lly it is c o ve r ed by th e c o n st r i ct or v a gi n a muscl e

,
.

T he m ammar y gl an d s , n or m a lly t w o i n n u m ber a r e p o pul ar ly t e r m ed the ,

u dd er Th ey ar e ve r y mu ch l a r ge r th a n i n th e m a r e a n d t h e b o dy o f e a ch is
. .
,
52 0 GE NI T AL OR G A N S OF T HE C OW

s om ewh a t el lips o i d al i n f o r m but fl a tte n ed t r a n sve r sely Th e b a s e (or d o r s a l

,
.

su r f a ce ) o f e a ch gl a n d is s l ightly c o n c a ve a nd s l o pes o bli q uely d o w n w ar d an d fo r

w a r d i n a d a pt a ti o n t o th e a bd o mi n a l w a ll to w hi ch it is a dhe r e nt ; p oste r i or l y it ,

is i n r el a ti o n t o t h e l ar ge sup r am a m m a r y lymph gl a n ds a nd a qu a n tity of fat .

Th e i nn er su r f a ce is fl at a n d is sep a r a ted f r om t he o t he r gl a n d by a well devel o ped

,
-

d o uble septum The o ute r su r f a ce i s c on ve x F o u r w ell devel o ped te a ts ar e

. .
-

p r ese n t ; t h ey a ve r a ge a b o ut th r ee i n ches (c a 7 to 8 cm ) i n l e n gth I t is cust oma r y . . .

F rc . 416 .
—C a o s s s n c r ro w M A MM A R Y G LA N D S or Co w .

a B od y o f g l a nd ; b, l c ti f
a e ro u s i
s nu s ; c, ca v i ty of t t ; d d c t f te t ;
ea ,
u o a e, i nt er ma m m a r y g ro o v e; f , p tum
se

be tw ee n gl a nd s ; g s u p m mm a y f t
,
ra a r a .

to c on side r the udde r to c o n si st of f o u r q u a r te r s Th er e is n o septum nor Visi bl e .

divisi o n betwee n th e t w o q u ar te r s of th e s a me si de b ut on th e o th e r h an d i n , , ,

je c ti o ns o f fl uids o f d iffe r e nt c o l o r s i nt o the tw o t e a ts o f the gl a n d de m on st r a te th a t

th e c a vi ties d r a i n ed b y the m d o n o t c o mm u n i c a te .

T he i z e a nd f o r m o f th e gl a nd s v a ry g rea tl y ; i n t h e hi g h l y s p ec i a li z ed d a i ry b reed s (e g
s . .
,

Hol s t ei ns ) t h ey o f t en a t t a i n eno r mo u s d i mens i o ns T h e s i z e o f t h e u d d er i s n o t a cer t a i n i nd ex

.

o f i ts p ro d u c ti v it y s i n c e s o me s o ca ll ed
, fl es h y ” u d d ers co n t a i n a v ery l a rg e a mo u n t of i n ter
-
“

s t i t i a l ti ss u e a n d re l a ti v e l y littl e p a ren c h y m a S m a ll a c c ess o ry t ea t s o f t e n o c c u r p o s t er i o r l y ;

.

co mmo n l y t h es e a r e ru d i men t a r y a n d i m p e r f o r a t e (p o l y t h e li a ) b u t so me ti mes t h ey d ra i n a s ma ll ,

a mo u n t o f g a n d s u b s t a n c e (p o l y mas ti a ) S a nso n d es c r i b ed a c as e i n w h i c h t h e re w e re s e v en
.

l .

tea ts a l l g i v m g m i lk
, .
522 GE NITAL OR G A N S o r T HE BITC H
n e n ce s , s o t h a t s om eti m es th e gl a nd h a s a n i r r egul a r m ulbe rr y li ke a spect ; t his ,
-

is due to t he f a ct th a t the r e is ve r y l ittle st r o m a a n d th e l a r ge r G r aafian f o l li cles

p r o j ect f r o m the su r f a ce .

The Fa ll opi a n o r ute r i n e tub e s a re l o ng (c a 1 5 t o 30 a n d less fl ex u ou s th a n .

i n the m ar e Th e fim b r i a t e d ext r e m it y f o r m s a n a m pu ll a a n d h as a l ar ge a bd om i n a l
.

o pe n i ng The ute r i ne en d s h a des i n se n si bly i nt o the sm a ll ext r e m i ty o f the c o r n u

.

o f the ute r us .

The uter u s p r ese n ts seve r a l st r i ki n g fe a tu r es The b o dy is o n ly a b o ut tw o .

i n ches (ca 5 cm ) l o n g The h orn s a r e ext r e m ely l on g a n d fl ex u ou s a n d ar e f r eely

. . .
,

m o v a bl e o n a cc o u n t o f t he l a r ge exte n t of t h e b r o a d lig a m e n ts
,
Th e ext r e m itie s .

1
o f t he h o r n s t a pe r t o a b o ut the d i a mete r o f th e F a l l o pi a n tubes Th e ne c k is .

r e ma r k able fo r its l e n gth (c a 1 5 t o 2 0 c m ) a n d t he f a ct th a t it is d i r ectly c o n ti n ued

. .

by the v a gi n a with o ut f o r m i n g a ny i n t r a v a gi n a l p r oj ect i on (os ute r i ) I t ca n b e .

disti nguished by t he t ra nsve r se f o lds o f its m u c o us m e m b r a n e a nd the t hi ck n ess

o f i ts w a l l .

T h e c h a n g es i n f o r m a n d p os i ti o n of th e u t eru s d u r i ng p regna ncy a re s i mi l ar to t h ose men

ti o ne d l a t e r i n t h e c as e o f t h e b i t c h .

The va gin a is a b o ut fo u r o r fiv e i n ch es (ca 1 0 t o 1 2 c m ) l on g i n a s o w o f m edi um . .

si ze I t is s m a ll i n c a l ibe r a n d h a s a th i ck m u scul a r c oa t whi ch c on sists m a i n ly

.
,

o f ci r cul a r fibe r s The m u c o us memb r a n e is pl i c a ted a n d i s i n ti m a tely u n i ted

.
,

w ith the m uscul a r c o a t .

The vulva is r el a tively l o n g The i nf e r i or c o mmissu r e i s p o i n ted a n d depe n

.

d e nt .The m uc o us li ni n g is pl i c a ted Th er e is a s m a ll sub ur e th r al d iv e r ti cul um

. .

The vesti bul a r gl a n ds a r e s m a ll and v a r i a b le i n n u mbe r Th e vestibul ar bulbs .

a r e littl e devel o ped The c a n a ls of G a r t n e r ma y s o met i m es be tr a ced as fa r a s

.

the o v a r y b ut a r e ofte n d iffi cu lt t o find .

The cli tor i s is l o n g fl exu o u s a n d p o i n t ed ; b e n e a th i t is a cul de —

,

-
,
s ac, .

The u r e th r a is ve r y l o n g ; i ts vul v ar or i fi ce i s n ot c o n ce a led by a v a l vul ar fo ld .

The m a mm ary gl a n d s a r e usu a lly t en or twelve i n n umbe r a n d ar e a rr a n ged ,

i n t w o r o ws as i n the b itch,
E a ch te a t h as c o mm o n ly t w o exc r et o r y d ucts
. .

GE NI TAL OR GANS OF THE B I TCH

Th e ovar i e s (Fi g 330) a r e s m a ll el o n g a t ed o v a l i n o utli n e an d fl a tte ned
.
,
-
,
.

E a ch o v a r y is situ a ted cl o se t o o r i n c o n t a ct wit h the p o ste r i or p o le o f the c orr e

s p o n d i n g kid n ey a n d t hus l i es ve n t r a l t o the th i r d o r f o u r th l u m b ar ve r teb r a
, ,

or a b o ut h a lf w a y betwee n t he l a st r i b a n d th e c r est o f th e il ium E a ch is c o n ce a led .

i n a pe r it o n e a l p o u ch th e b u r s a o var ii wh i ch h as a sl it l i ke o pe n i n g ve n t ra lly
, ,
-
.

The t w o f o lds whi ch f or m thi s p o uch c o nt a i n a q u a n tity o f fa t a n d u n st r iped muscl e .

They are c o n ti n ued to the c o r n u o f th e ute r us c o n sti tuti n g t h e m e s o s a lpi nx a n d ,

the o vari an l ig a me n t Th e su r f a ce o f the o v a r y p r ese n ts p r om i n e n ces c a used by

.

p ro j ecti n g G r a a fia n f o l li cles The r e is n o disti n ct hi l us . .

The Fal l opi a n o r ute r i ne tub e s ar e s m a ll a n d a ve r a ge tw o or th r ee i n ch es (ca .

5 to 8 c m ) i n le n gt h. E a ch p a sses a t fi r st f o r w a r d an d t he n t u r n s b a ckw a r d h a v
.
,

i ng a st ra ight o r o n l y sl igh tly fl e x u ou s c o u r se T he fim b r i a t e d ex tr e m ity lies i n .

the b u rs a o v a r i i a n d h a s a r a t he r l ar ge o pe n i n g Th e ute r i n e o r ifi ce i s ve r y
, .

s m a ll .

The ute r u s h as a ve r y sh or t b o dy a n d tw o l o n g n arr o w h o r n s I n a bitch of .

medi u m si z e t h e b o dy i s a b o ut a n i n ch (ca 2 t o 3 cm ) a n d th e c or n u a five or si x . .

Le s b re s t a t es t h a t th e co r n u a ma y a tt a i n a l e n g t h of 4 5 to 50 e m .
 GE NI TAL ORG A N S o r T HE BITCH 52 3

i n ches (ca 1 2 t o 1 5 c m ) l o n g The h o r n s ar e o f u n ifo r m di a m ete r a r e n e a r ly

. . .
,

st ra ight a n d li e e n ti r ely w it hi n the a bd o m e n T hey dive r ge f r om the b o dy i n the

,
.

f or m of a V t o w a r d e a ch ki d n ey Th ei r p o ster i or p a r ts a re u n ited by the pe r i

.

t o ne u m .Th e n eck is ve r y sh or t a n d is fused d or s a lly wi t h th e v a gi n a I t h a s a .

thi ck m uscul ar c o a t Th e muc o us m em

.

b r a n e o f the ute r us h as l o n g ute r i n e gl a n ds

a n d a ls o sh o r t tub ul a r c r ypts .

Th e b r oa d li ga m e nts c on t a i n fat and

u nst r i ped m u scl e Th ey ar e m uch l o n ge r i n
.

th e m i ddl e th a n a t eit he r en d Th e p o ster i or

.

p a r t is a tt a ched t o t he a n ter i or p ar t of t he
v a gi n a The r o u n d li gam e nts ar e ve r y l o n g
.
,

ext e n di n g t h r o ugh th e i n gui n a l c an a ls a nd ,

t r a ce a bl e a l mo st t o t h e vulv a .

T h e h o r ns o f th e g ra vi d u t e r u s p res en t d il a t a
ti ons or ampu ll a , w hi c h con t a i n th e f oet us es , a nd
a r e s e p ar a t ed b y co n s t r i c ti o n s T h e g ra v i d u t erus
.

li es o n t h e v en t ra l a bd o m i n a l w a ll , an d t o w a rd th e
e nd o f g es t a ti o n ex t en d s f o rw a rd t o t h e s t o mac h
a nd li v er .

The vagi na i s r el a ti vely l on g I t i s n ar .

r ow a nte r i o r l y , an d h as n o disti n ct f or ni x .

The musc ul ar c o a t i s th i ck a n d c o n sists

chi efly o f cir cul ar fib e r s The m u c o us mem
.

b r an e f or m s l o n g i t u d i n a l f o lds The c an al s .

o f Gar t n er a r e usu a lly a bse n t .

The vu l va h as t h i ck l ab i a wh i ch f or m
a p o i n ted i nf e r i or c o mm issur e T he m u c o us
.

li ni n g i s sm oo th On eith e r side of th e ur e
.

t h r al o r i fi ce t he r e is a sm a l l dep r essi o n The .

gl a n dul a v e stib u l ar es m aj or es are a bse n t ,

but th e sm a l ler gl a n ds ar e p r ese n t a n d ,

thei r d u cts o pe n ve n t r a l ly on eith e r si de

—
2
»

o f a medi a n r idge Th e vestibul ar bul bs FI 418 G N I TA L O B '

.
x o n G . . E R GA s r rr c .

V l v v gi d t (i p t) lit
ar e r el a ti vel y l a ge a
r n d j o i d o s a ll y Th e
n r
u a , a na , a n u e ru s n ar a re s

p n Ov i p ed t h w
.

b ; b mo e a ar an urs a sa e o en o s o
c li to r i s h a s a s m a l l p o i n t ed gl a n s b e n e a th
.
, .

th e i g h t v y f t b dy ’
, ; d d h ;
r o ar , c , , o r ns o u e ru s e, e , o

whi ch i s a di ver ti cul u m T he c o r p us c a ve r f t ; f k f t ; f o tu i ; g gi ;

e ru s n ec o u e ru s
’
0 5 u er va na

fi
. , , ,

h hy m ; i vu l v ; k t l t h l i : l
n osu m is a l itt l e m o r e th a n a n i n ch (ca 3 t o
. en , a , ex e rna ur e ra or ce ,

i y bl d d ; m .

th ; l b i v lv ;
u r na r a er u re ra n. n, a a u a o,

4 cm ) l on g i n a subj ect o f m edi u m si z e a n d

,

.
f li t i d i ; p l it i
, ( A ft E ll b g
os s a c i or s , c or s . er en er er, n

is i nfil t r a ted w i th fa t .
L i i g A tl ) e ser n
‘

s as .

The mamm ar y gl an d s ar e usu a l ly t en i n

n u m be r a n d a r e a rr a n ged i n t w o se r i es ext e n di n g f r o m t he p o ste r i o r p a r t o f the
,

pect o r a l r egi on t o t he i n gu i n a l r egi on ; they ar e t her ef or e d esi gn a ted a cc or di n g t o

, ,

l o c a ti on as pe c to r al a b d omi nal , a nd i n gui nal

, Th e te a ts a r e sh o r t an d p r ese n t
.
,

o n t hei r a pi ces s ix t o twelve sm a ll o r i fi ces of th e ex c r et or v d ucts .

 ANG IO LO GY : THE VAS CULAR S Y S T E M
An gi o l o gy i s t he desc r ipti o n of the or g a n s o f ci r cul a ti on of t h e bl oo d a n d
l y mph —th e he ar t a n d vessels Th e h e ar t is th e ce n t r a l h o ll o w m usc ul a r o r g a n
.

whi ch fu n cti o n s a s a su cti on a n d f o r ce pu m p ; the d i ff e r e n ces i n p r essu r e c a used

by i ts c o n t r a cti o n a nd r el a x a ti o n dete r m i ne th e ci r cul a ti on o f th e bl oo d a n d lymph .

I t is si tu a ted i n the m i ddl e m edi a sti n a l sp a ce o f th e th o r a x b etw ee n the tw o lu n gs , ,

an d is i n cl o sed i n a fib r o se r o us s a c
— th e pe r i c a r di u m Th e vessels ar e t ubul ar
-
.

a n d r u n th r o ugh a l m o st a l l p a r ts o f th e b o d
—
y They a r e desig na ted a cc or di n g t o
.

th ei r c on te n ts a s b l o o d a n d lymph ve s s e l s .

The b l oo d va s cu l ar syste m c o n si sts o f : (1 ) th e ar ter i e s , wh i ch c on vey bl oo d

-

fr o m the he a r t to the tissues ; (2 ) th e c a pi l l ar i e s , m i c r os c o pi c t ub es i n th e tissues

whi ch pe r m i t of the n ecess a r y i n te r ch a n ge b etwee n th e b l oo d a n d th e tissues ;
(3 ) the ve i n s , whi ch c on vey the bl oo d b a ck to t he h e ar t
Th e bl oo d —
.

vessels ar e di vi ded i n t o th e pulm o n ary a nd th e syste m i c Th e .

pu l m o nar y ar tery c o n veys the bl oo d fr o m th e r ight ve n t r i cl e o f th e h e a r t t o t h e

lu n gs whe r e i t i s ar te r i a li z ed a n d i s r etu r n ed by th e pulm o nar y v e i n s to the left
, ,

a t r i u m of th e he ar t a n d p a sses i n t o th e l eft ve n t r i cl e
,
Th e syste mi c ar te ri e s .

c onvey the bl o o d fr o m th e l eft ve n t r i cl e a l l o ve r th e b o dy w h e n ce i t is r etu r n ed by ,

the ve na c av a t o the r ight a t r i u m an d p a sses i n t o th e r ight ve n t r i cl e

, .

I t s h o u l d b e no t ed , h o w e v er , t h a t th e l u ng s r ece i v e a r t er i a l b l ood t h r ou g h th e s y s t em i c
b ro n c h i a l ar t er i es .T h i s b l oo d i s r e t ur n ed i n p a r t b y t h e b r o n c hi a l v e i n s to t h e r i g h t a t r i u m
(i nd i rec tl y ), i n p a r t b y th e p u l mo na r y v ei ns t o t h e l ef t a t ri u m .

The te r m p o r ta l syste m is o fte n a ppl i ed t o th e p o r t a l vei n a n d its t r ib ut ar i es

whi ch c o me f r o m th e st om a ch i n testi n e p a n c r e a s an d spl ee n The vei n e n ter s
, , ,
.

the l iver wh e r e i t b r a n ch es l i ke an ar te r y s o th a t th e bl oo d i n this subsid i ar y

, ,

system p a sses th r o ugh a sec on d set o f c a pi l l ar i es b ef or e b ei n g c o n veyed t o the h e ar t

by the hep a ti c vei n s a n d th e p o ste r i or ve n a c a v a .

The ar teri e s (Ar te r i a ) as a r ul e di vid e at a n a cute a n gl e gi vi ng off fi n e r

, , ,

a n d fi n e r b r a n ch es I n s o m e c a ses b r a n c hes c o m e o ff a t a r ight a n gle a n d o the r s

.
,

ar e r ecu rr e n t ,
i e r u n i n a d i r ecti o n Opp o si te t o th a t o f the p ar e n t ste m
. .
,
The .

i n t er co mm u n i ea t i o n o f b r a n ches o f a dj a ce n t a r te r i es i s te r med an a sto m o s i s M o st .

c ommon ly the c o nn ecti o n s a r e m a d e by a n etw or k o f n u m er o us fine b r a n ches

(P lexus v a scul o sus ) R el a tively l ar ge c o m m u n i c ati n g b r a n ch es (R a m i c om mu n i
.

c a n tes ) o ccu r i n ce r t a i n pl a ces ; t hey may b e t r an sver se or i n th e f or m of ar ches .

Wide m eshed n etw o r ks of vessels a r e te r m ed R e ti a va s c ul o s a Te rmi n a l or e nd ar

-
.

te r i e s a r e s u c h a s f o r m is o l a ted n etw o r ks 75 e d o no t a n a st o m o se with a dj a ce n t a r

,
. .
,

te r les A r e te mi ra b i l e i s a n etw or k i n te r c a l a ted i n th e c o u r se o f an ar te r y A

. .

c o ll ate r a l ve s s e l (Vas c o l l a te r a l e ) is on e w hi ch pu r sues a c o u r se n e a r a nd si m i l ar

t o th a t o f a l a r ge r vessel .

Th e ve i n s (Ve n a ) a r e i n ge n e r a l arr an ged l i ke th e a r te r i es but ar e usu a lly o f ,

g r e a te r c a libe r Wh e n a vei n a cc o mp a n i es an ar te r y it is ter m ed a ve n a c o mi ta ns

.
,

o r s a te ll i te v e i n ; i n m a n y pl a ces tw o vei n s a cc o mp an y a si n gl e a r te r y Th e p r i m i .

tive ve n o us t r u n ks d o n o t r u n wi th th e a r te r ies a n d m ost of th e su pe r fi ci a l vei n s

,

(Ve n a cut a n e a ) pu r sue i n d epe n d e nt c o u r ses They a n a st o m ose eve n m or e f r eely

.

th a n t h e a r te r i es a nd l ar ge c o m m u n i c a ti n g b r a n ches a r e ve r y c om m on Th e vei n s
, .

f or m ve r y r i ch pl exuses (P lexus ve n o si ) i n m an y pl a ces S om e vei n s whi ch ar e .

wi th o ut i n depe n de n t w a lls a n d a r e i n cl o sed by de n se m emb r a n es a n d r u n usu a ll y

524
52 6 B L OOD - V A S CU L A R SYS T E M o n T HE HOR S E

r ibs Th e a nte r i o r b o r d e r o f the b a se i s o pp o site t o th e sec on d i n te r c o st a l sp a ce

.
,

a n d the p o ste r i o r b o r d e r is o pp o si te t o th e sixth r i b o r sp a ce Th e b a se i s r el a ted .

t o the gr e a t vessels th e t r a che a a n d its bifu r c a ti o n th e b r o n chi a l lymph gl a n ds

, , ,

t he (e s o ph a gus a n d the v a gus l eft r ecu rr e n t a nd c ar di a c n e r ves

, , ,
.

T h e tw o p ar t s o f th e s e ro u s p e r i c a r d i u m a re , o f c o u rs e , c o n ti n u o u s w ith eac h o t h er a t t h e
li ne o f refl ec ti o n o n to t h e g rea t v es s e l s T h e l a tt er a re c o v e red i n v ary i ng d eg ree b y th e vi s cera l
.

l a y er T h e ao r t a a nd p u l mo n a ry a r t ery a re i nc l osed i n a c o m p l e t e co m mo n s h ea t h as fa r as t h e
.

b i f u r c a ti o n of th e l a tt e r A p o u c h p a sses i nw a r d b e t w een th e p u l m o n a ry a r t ery a n d t h e l e f t

.

au r i c l e , a n d i s co n nec t ed w i t h a n o t h er p o u c h w h i c h p ass es b ac k w a rd b e t w ee n th e r i g h t a u r i c l e
a nd th e ao r t a , t h u s f o r m i n g th e g rea t t r a n s v ers e s i n u s o f t h e p e r i ca r d i u m T h e p os t er i o r v en a .

c a v a i s c o v er e d o n th e r i g h t a n d b e l o w fo r a d i s t a nc e o f a n i n c h o r a li ttl e m o re (ca 3 The .

p u l mo nar y v ei ns rec ei v e p r a c ti ca l l y n o s ero u s c o v eri n g T h e e p i ca rd i u m i s c l o se l y ad h eren t t o

.

t h e m u s c u l a r ti s s u e o f t h e h e a r t , b u t i s a tt ac h ed to th e v ess e l s by l o os e ti s s u e a nd fa t , a nd h e nc e
i s eas il y d i s s e c t ed o ff t h em .

THE HE AR T

The h e ar t (C or ) o ccupi es th e gr e a ter p ar t of the m iddl e m edi a sti n a l sp a ce .

I ts sh a pe i s th a t o f a n i r r egul ar a n d s o m e w h a t fl a tte n ed c o n e I t i s a tt a ched a t .

a r ter i os u m
B r a cl n oce p ha l t c tr u nk
P u l mo n ar y vei n s

l on gi tu d i n a l gr oove

F ro . 4 19 . or Ho u s e , LE FT V W HA D N D i
IE R E E n s i tu

fl
. .

Th e d o tt ed li ne i d i t
n c a es th e li n e o f re i
ec t o n o f th e se ro u s p i d i m T h pi
e r ca r u . e e c a rd u i m a nd s u b e pi i l
c a rd a fa t
ha v e n o t. b een re mo v ed f m th h t
ro e ear .

i ts b a se by the g r e a t vessels but i s oth e r w i s e e n ti r ely f r ee i n th e pe r i c a r di u m I t

, .

p r ese n ts tw o su r f a ces t w o b o r de r s a b a se a n d a n a pex for d esc r i pti o n

, , , .

I n p o s iti o n the h e a r t is de cidedl y a sy m m etr i c a l a b o ut t w o fi ft h s bei n g

t o the ,
-
 T HE H E A RT 52 7

right o f the medi a n pl a n e a n d th r ee fift h s to t he left Th e l on g a xis (fr o m the -

.

middl e of th e b ase t o the a pex ) i s di r ected d o w n w a r d b a ckw a r d a n d s o mewh a t to , ,

the l eft The b a s e (B a sis c o r dis ) is di r ected d o r s a lly a n d li es a l ittle a b o ve th e

.

mi ddle o f th e d or s o ve n t r a l di a mete r of th e th or a x I t is o pp o site to the r ibs f ro m

-
.

the thi r d to th e sixth i n clusi ve Th e a pe x (A pex c or d is ) l ies a b o ve th e l a st seg m e n t

.

o f th e ste r n u m a n d is sep a r a ted by a ve r y sh o r t i n te r v a l f r o m th e ste r n a l p ar t of

,

the di a ph r a g m Th e a nter i o r b o r d e r (M ar go c r a n i a lis ) is st r o n gly c o n vex a n d i s

.

di r ected o bl iq uely d o w n w ar d a n d b a ckw a r d ; its l o we r p ar t is p ar a llel with the

ster n u m Th e p o s te ri o r b o r d e r (M a r g o c a ud a lis ) i s m uc h sh or te r n e a r ly ve r ti c a l
.
.
,

Vena a z ygos
P u l mo na ry f r i gh t

P ul mona r y vei ns
a r ter y 1 l eft br a n c

F xG . 4 20 .
—H A T E R or HO RS E , RI G HT V W H A RDEN E D
IE .

L i ne o f re fl ec ti o n o f se ro u s p icer a rd u i m do tted E p i
. car di d
u rn a n b pi di l f
su e car a at ha v e no t b ee n re mo v ed f ro m
h ea r t . Le ft v e n t i l e
r c is id b ly
c o ns e ra t td con ra c e .

and is o pp o site t o th e sixth r i b or i n te r c o st a l sp a ce Th e su r f a c e s r ight a n d l e ft .

,

(F a ci es dext r a si n ist r a ) ar e c o n vex an d a r e m a r ked by gr oo ve s wh i ch i n di c a te

, ,

the di visi o n o f t he h e a r t i n t o f o ur ch a mbe r s t he t w o a t r i a a b o ve a n d tw o v en

,
,

t r i c l es b el o w Th e l eft su r f a ce (c o ve r ed by th e pe r i c ar diu m ) is i n c o n t a ct w ith

.

the l o wer th i r d o f th e chest— w a l l f r o m th e t hi r d t o t h e fifth i nte r c o st a l sp a ce On .

the r ight side t h e c a r d i a c n o tch of the l u n g i s s m a l le r a n d fu r the r f or w a r d s o th a t ,

the ar e a o f c ont a ct is a t the t hi r d a n d f o u r t h r ibs .

The c or o n ary or a tti c v e n tri cu l ar gr o o ve (S ul cus c o r o n a r ius ) i n d i c a tes the

-

di vi si o n betwee n th e a t r i a a n d the ve n t r i cles I t a l m o st c o m pl etely e n ci r cles th e .

52 8 B L OO D -V A S C U L A R SYS T E M or T HE H O R SE

h e ar t b ut is i nte rr upted by t he o r igi n o f t he pu l m o n a r y a r te r y The l o n gi tu d i nal

,
.

or i nter v e n tr i cu l ar gr o o v e s r ight a n d lef t (S ul ei l o n gitudi n a les si n iste r et dexte r )

,

c orr esp o n d t o th e septu m betwee n t he ve n t r i cl es The left g r oo ve is left —

,

a n te r i o r
.

i n p o si ti o n I t b egi n s a t the c o r o n a r y gr oo ve behi n d th e o r igi n o f the pul m o n ar y

.

a r te r y a n d p a sses d o w n w a r d a l m o st p a ra l lel t o the p o ste r i o r b o r d e r but d o es no t

, ,

r e a ch t he a p e x Th e r ight g r oo ve is r ight p o ste r i or i n p o siti o n I t begi n s a t the

.
-
.

c or o n a r y g r o o v e b el o w t he t e r m i n a t i o n o f the p o ste r i o r ve n a c a v a a n d p a ss es
d o w nw a r d a n d a little b a ckw ar d e n di n g a b o u t a n i n ch a n d a h a lf (c a 3 t o 4 cm )
, . .

P u l mona r y vei ns

P os ter i or ven a ca va

Lef t a tr i u m (s i nu s ven os u s )

FI G . 421 .
—BAS E or H A T
E R or H O R SE W T H L A R G E V
I ESSE LS D
,
o ns “ . V I E W . SPE CI M E N HA R D E N E D i n s i tu .

ab ove the a pex Th e g r oo ves ar e o ccupi ed by th e c o r o n ar y v essel a n d a v ar i a bl e

.

qu a n ti ty o f fa t
S i z e a nd W e igh t —I h h o r ses o f m edi um si z e the h e a r t usu a l ly weighs a b o ut
.

seve n or eight p o u n ds (ca k g ) o r a b o ut .

p e r ce,n t o f t he b o dy -w eight . .

The r e i s h o weve r g r e a t r a nge o f v a r i a ti on i n a pp a r e n tly n o r m a l speci m e ns

, , .

Th e f o l l o wi ng meas u remen t s w ere o b t a i ned i n m ed i u m s i z ed h ea rt s -

i n d i as t o l e :
S a g i t t a l d i a me t er o f b a s e . 25 cm .

G r ea tes t w i d t h o f b a s e . . 1 8 to 20 em .

C i r cu m f er en c e a t co ro na r y g ro o v e . 65 to 70 cm .

D i s t a n c e bet w een o r i g i n o f p u l m o na ry a r t e r y a nd a p e x . . 25 cm .

D i s t a n c e b e t w ee n te r m i na ti o n o f p os t e r i o r v ena c a v a a nd a p e x 1 8 to 20 c m .
530 B L OOD -
VA S C U L A R SY S T E M OF T HE HO R SE

p o ste r i or ve n a c a v a ; th e o r i fice i s p r o vi ded with a s ma l l se m il u n a r v a lve o r v a lve

o f Thebesi us (Va l vul a S i n us c o r o n a r i i ) The m iddl e c or o n ar y vei n h as a sep ar a t e
—
.

o pe n i n g i n s o m e c a ses cl o se t o th a t o f th e c o r o n a r y si n us Th e a tr i o v e n tr i cul ar .

o p e ni n g i s i n the l owe r p a r t a n d l e a ds i nt o the r ight ve n t r i cle I n a dditi o n t o

,
.
.

t h e f or eg o i n g th e r e a r e seve r a l s m a l l o r ifi ces o f t h e ve n ae c o r dis p ar v ae ; t hese

ar e c o n ce a led i n the d ep r essi o n s betwee n t he muscul i p ect i n a t i .

Th e a t r i u m is li n ed wit h a gliste n i n g m e m b r a n e t he e n d o c ar d ium I ts w a lls , .

s moo th except o n t he r ight a n d i n th e a u r i cle (or a ppe n dix ) whe r e it is c r o ssed ,

i n v a r i o us d i r ecti o n s by m uscul ar r idges t he mu s cu l i pe c ti na ti S m a ll b a n ds

, .

exte n d a c r o ss s om e of the sp a ces i n cl osed by th e m uscul i p ecti n a t i Th e l atte r .

t e r m i na te a b o v e o n a cu r ved c r est t he c r i s ta te rmi n a l e s , wh i ch i nd i c at es t h e

,

j u n ct i on of th e p r imitive si n us ve n osus of the emb r y o with th e at r i u m p r o pe r ,

a n d c orr esp o n ds w i th th e sul cus te rm i n a li s e xte r n a ll y Th e Ope n i n gs of t h e ve na . ,

1
c a v ae ar e wi th o ut v al ves A r idge the i te ve o s c est p r oj ects d o w nw a r d a n d
n
. r n n r , ,

f or w ar d f r om t he r o o f j ust i n fr o n t of t he o pe n i n g of t h e p o st e r i o r ve n a c a v a ; i t
te n ds t o di r ect t he fl o w o f b l oo d f r om t he a n te r i o r ve n a c a v a t o th e a t r i o ve n t r i cul ar -

o pe n i n g . The f o s s a ova li s is a n o v a l d ep r essi o n i n t h e sept a l w a l l a t th e p o i nt of

e n t r a n ce of the p oste r i or ve n a c a v a b o u n ded i n te r n a lly by a thi ck m a r gi n (L i m bus
,

f oss ae o v a l is ) The f o ss a is th e r e m a i n s of a n Ope n i n g t h e f ora m e n o v a l e , th r o ugh

.
,

which t he t w o a t r i a c o mm u n i c a te i n t he f oet us .

THE L E F T AT R I UM
The l e ft a tri um (At r i u m S i n ist r u m ) or a ur i cl e f or m s th e p o ste r i o r p ar t o f th e
b a se o f t he he a r t I t li es b ehi n d the pul mo n a r y a r te r y an d t he aor t a a n d a b o ve
.

the l eft ve n t r i cl e Th e a u r i cl e (or a ppe n dix ) e xte n ds o utw ar d a n d f o r w a r d on the

.

left si de a n d its bl i n d en d is b ehi n d th e o r igi n of t h e pul m on ar y a r te r y Th e

, .

pu lm onar y v e i n s usu a l ly seve n or eight i n n u m be r o pe n i n t o t he a t r iu m b eh i n d

, ,

a n d o n the r i ght side Th e c a vi ty o f t h e a t r i u m is s m oo th w it h t he except i on of

.
,

t he a u r i cle (or a ppe n dix ) i n whi ch t he muscul i p ec t i n a t i a re p r ese nt

, I n s om e .

c ases the r e is a dep r essi o n o n t he sept a l w a ll o pp o sit e t h e f o ss a o v a lis b o u n ded ,

a b o ve by a f o ld w h i ch is th e r e m n a n t o f t h e v a l ve o f th e f or a m e n o v a le o f th e f oet us .

The a tri a -ve n tr i cu l ar Op e ni n g is si tu a ted b el o w a n d i n f r o n t ; i t usu a lly a ppe ar s

s ma l le r th a n the r ight on e on a cc o u nt of th e c o n t r a ct i o n o f t h e l eft ve n t r i cl e i n th e
de a d subj ect Th e a pe r t u r es o f s m a l l vei n s o f th e h e ar t ar e f o u n d i n the S p a ces
.

i n cl osed by th e m uscul i pe c t i nat i .

T he e
nu m b r a n d th e emen t o f th e p u l mo n a ry v ei n s a re v a r i a b l e T h ey may b e
a r ra ng .

fiv e to n i ne i n n u m b e r T h e l a rg es t o r i fi c e i s p o s t e r i o r
. Us u a l l y t h ree v e i ns o f c o n s i d e ra b l e s i z e
.

e n t er c l o s e t o g et h e r o n th e r i g h t a b o v e th e p os t er i o r v e na ca v a a n d t h ree o r f o u r o p en c l o s ,

to t h e r i d ge w hi c h p ro j e c t s f r o m t h e roo f a t t h e b a s e o f th e au r i c l e (a pp en d i x) .

THE R IG H T VE N TR I C LE
The ri ght ve n tr i cl e (Ventr i c u l u s dext e r ) c on sti tut es the r ight a n te r i o r p ar t of -

the ve n t r i cul ar m a ss I t f or m s a l mos t a l l o f the a n te r i o r b or de r o f the he a r t but

.
,

d o es no t r e a ch the a pex whi ch is f o r m ed e n ti r ely by t he left ve n t r i cl e I t exte n ds

,
.

f r o m the thi r d r ib to t h e f o u rt h i n te r c o st a l sp a ce o n th e l eft side t o th e fifth r ib ,

a n d sp a c e o n t he r i ght S ide I t is s o m e w h a t t r i a n gul a r i n o utl i n e a n d is se m i lu n a r

.
,

i n c r o ss secti o n
-
I ts b a se f a ces upw a r d a n d a li ttle t o t he r ight a n d i s c o n n ected
.

l a rgely w it h th e r ight a t r i u m w it h w hi ch it c o m m u n i c a tes t h r o ugh the a t r i o

,

ve nt r i c u l a r o r ifi c e ; but its l eft p a r t p r o j ects h ighe r a n d f o r m s t he c on u s ar te r i o s u s ,

f ro m whi ch t he pul m o n a r y a rt e r y a r i s es I t s a pe x is t w o i n ches o r m o r e (c a 5 to
. .

(5 c m ) a b o ve t h e a pex o f t h e he a r t
. On o pe n i n g th e c a vity i t is see n t h a t the t w o
.

o pe n i ng s a r e sep a r a ted by a t hi ck r o u n d ed r idge (C r ist a s up r a ve n t r i cu l a r is ) .

1
T h i s i s t er me d t h e t u b e r c l e o f Lo w er i n h u ma n a na t o m y a n d th e t u b e r cu l u m i nt e r v en os u m
b y G er m a n v et e ri na r y a na t o m i s t s .
 T HE RIG HT V E NTRI C LE 53 1

The a xi s of t he c a vity t a ke n fr o m th is r i dge t o the a pex f or ms a spi ra l cu r ve d o w n

,

w ar d a nd to th e r ight Th e sept a l w a l l is c o n vex an d f a ces o bliq uely f o r w ar d

.

a nd t o the r ight
—
.

Th e ri gh t a tri a ve ntri cu l ar orifi c e (Osti u m ve n o su m dext r um ) is o v a l a n d is

S i tu a ted o pp o si te t o the l o we r p a r ts of the th i r d a n d f o ur th r i bs I t is gu a r ded by .

a tr i c u s pi d val v e (Va lvu l a t r i cuspid a l is ) ; o f t he th r ee l a r ge cusps o f this v a lve o n e ,

is betwee n the a t r i o ve nt r i cul ar o pe n i n g a nd th e c o n us ar te r i o sus o ne i s sept a l

-
, ,

a n d th e thi r d is on t he r ight m a r gi n S m a ll i nt e r med i a te cusps i n te r ve n e betwee n

.

the l ar ge o n es T he pe r iph er a l edges o f t he cusps a r e a tt a ched to the fib r o us r i ng

’

a t the a t r i o ve n t r i cul ar o pe n i n g
-
Th e ce n t r a l edges are i rr egul ar a nd h an g d ow n
.

A nter i or vena

R i gh t ce n tr i c
pa pi l l ar i s

M oder a tor ba nd

R i ght coron a ry a r ter y

FI G . 4 23 .
—S CT N E H E A R T OE H OR S E
’
IO or .

S pec i me n h a rd e ned in t
s i u a nd c u t n e a r l y t ri g h t ng l es t o th ve nt i c l a pt m Th e l e ft ve nt i l e is c o nt
a .
a e r u r se u . r c ra c t ed
but n ot a d m im max uV S eg m e nt o f o ti v l ve
. . a .
, a r c a .

i n t o th e v e n t r i cle ; th ey gi ve a tt a chme nt t o ch o r d ae t e n di n e ae The a u r i cul ar .

su r f a ces a r e s m oo t h The v e n t r i cul ar su r f a ces ar e r o ugh a n d fur nish att a ch m e n t

.

t o i nt er l a ci n g b r a n ch es of th e ch o r d a t e n di n e ae The v a lves a re f o lds of the e n d o .

c ar di um st r e n gth e n ed b y fib r o us tissue a n d at th e pe r iphe r y b y m uscul ar fibe r s

,

a ls o The c h o rd a te n d in e ae ar e a tt a ched b el o w t o th e th r ee mu scu l i pa pil l ar e s ,

.

whi ch p r o j ect f r o m th e ve n t r i cul ar w a ll ; super i or ly t hey divide i n t o b r a n ches

whi ch a r e i n se r ted i n t o th e ve n t r i cul ar su r f a ces a nd the f r ee edges of t he v a lves .

E a ch seg m e n t o f the v a lve r eceives ch or d a t e n di n e ae f r om tw o p a pi ll a r y m uscles .

Of th e l a tte r tw o a r e o n t h e septu m a n d th e thi r d a nd l a r gest sp r i ngs f r o m th e

,

a n te r i o r w a ll .

Th e pu l m onar y ori fi c e (Osti um ar ter i ae pul m o n a lis ) is ci r cul ar a n d is situ a ted

532 B L OOD —
V AS C UL A R SYS T E M OF T HE HO R SE

at the su m mit of the c o n us a rte r i o sus o pp o si te to t h e l o we r p ar t o f th e t hi r d ,

i nte r c o s t a l sp a ce I t is gu a r ded by the pu l m onar y va lve , c o m p osed o f th r ee semi

.

l u n ar cusps (Va lvul es se m i l u na r es a r te r i ae pu l m o na lis ) of these o n e is i n te r na l o n e , ,

exte r n a l a nd the thi r d p oste r i or The c o n vex pe r i ph e r a l b or de r o f e a ch cusp is

,
.

a tt a ched to t he fib r o us r i n g a t t he j u n cti o n o f the pulm o n a r y a r te r y a n d t he c o n us

a r te r i o sus The ce nt r a l b o r de r is fr ee a n d slightly c o n c a ve

.
E a ch c usp c on sists .

o f a l a ye r of e n d o c a r di um o n i ts ve nt r i cul a r su r f a ce a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f th e i n n e r c o a t ,

o f the a r te r y o n i ts a r te r i a l su r f a ce a n d a n i n te r m edi a te l a ye r o f fib r o us tissue

,
.

The uppe r edge o f th e c o n us a r te r i osus f o r m s th r ee a r ch es w it h i nte r m edi a t e

p r oj e cti ng a n gles o r h o r n s t o a l l o f wh i c h th e cusps a r e a tt a ch ed ; a n d th e
,

. ll us c u l i pecti na ti
I

P u l mon a r y a r ter y

Ri ght cor ona r y

a r ter y

A or ti c va l ve Tr i c u s p i d va l ve

Gr ea t cor ona r y
ve i n

a r ter y

Chor d rc tc ndi ncaz

P a pi l l a r y m u s cl e 1
"

F tG . 4 24 .
—S CT N
E IO or H E A R T OF H OR S E S P E C I M E N H A R D E N E D i n i t
. s u.

The sec ti o n i s c u t ne a r ly at r ig h t l
a ng e s to t h v nt i
e e l p t u m a d i vi e w d f
r cu ar se , nm th e i g h t
s e ro r a nd p te i ly
os r or .

ar te r y f or m s o pp osi te e a ch cu s p a p o u ch the si n us o f the pulm o n ar y a r te r y (or ,

o f Va ls a lv a ) .

The w a lls of t he ve n t r i cle (except i n th e c o n us ar te r i osus ) be a r muscul ar r i dges

a n d b a n ds te r m ed tr a b e cu l ae c arn e a
, e These a r e o f th r ee ki nds vi z (1 ) r idges o r.
,
.
,

c o lu m ns i n r el ief ; (2 ) m usculi pa p il l ar es s o mewh a t c o n i c a l fl a t te n ed p r oj ecti o n s , ,

c o n ti n u o u s a t the b a se wi th the w a ll a nd gi vi n g off the ch or d ae te n di n e ae t o th e

t r i cuspid v a l ve ; (3 ) m o de r a t or b a n ds (M uscul i t r an sve r si c o r di s ) whi ch exte nd
f r o m the sept u m t o the Opp o si te w a ll Th e l a tte r a re p a r tl y muscul a r p ar tly .
,

te ndi no us a nd v a r y i n d i ff e r e n t subj ects The st r on gest o n e is usu a lly a b o u t

, .

m idw a y betwee n the b a se a n d a pex a n d exte n ds f r o m the septu m t o th e b a se o f

the a n te r i or m uscul us p a pi ll a r is I t is c on si de r ed th a t th ey t e n d to p r eve n t
.

o ve r diste n ti o n .
534 B L OO D V A S C U L A R SYS T E M
-
OF T HE H O R SE

c o m p o u n d The mo de r a t o r b a nds a r e v a r i ab le C omm on ly tw o o r th r ee l ar ge r

. .

o n es (whi ch a r e o fte n b r a n c hed ) exte n d f r o m th e m uscul i p a p il l a r es t o th e sept u m .

S ma lle r o n es m a y b e f o u n d i n v a r i o us pl a ces especi a l ly a t the a pex The o th e r ,

.

t r a b ec u l ee a re fewe r a n d less p r o m i n e n t th a n i n the r ight ve n t r i cl e .

The i nterv e n tr i cul ar s e ptu m (S eptum ve nt r i cul o r u m ) is th e mu s eu l o memb r a n -

o u s p a r titi o n whi ch sep a r a tes the c a viti es o f th e t w o ve nt r i cl es I t is pl a ced o h .

l iq uely On e s u r f a ce is c o n vex f a ces f or w a r d a n d to the r ight a n d bulges i nt o

.
, ,

the r ight ve n t r i cl e The o th e r su r f a ce wh i ch f a ces i n t o the l eft ve n t r i cl e i s c o n

.
, ,

c a ve a nd l o o ks b a ckw a r d a nd t o t he left The g r e a te r p a r t o f t he septu m is t hi ck .

a n d m uscul a r (S eptu m muscul a r e ) but the uppe r p a r t is t h i n a nd m e m b r a no us

,

(S eptu m m e m b r a n a ceu m ) Th e l a tte r i n t e r ve n es betwee n t he left ve n t r i cle o n

.
,

t he o ne h a nd a n d the r ight ve nt r i cle a n d a t r i u m o n the o the r

,
.

S TR U C T UR E O F T HE HE A R T
The he a r t w a l l c on sists m a i n l y o f pec ul i a r st r i ped muscl e th e m y o c ar d iu m
-
, ,

whi ch is c ove r ed exte r n a lly by the visce r a l p ar t of th e ser o us pe r i c ard i um or

epi c a r di u m a n d is l i n ed by the e n d o c ar di u m
,
.

The e pi c a rd iu m is i n ge ne r a l cl o sely a tt a ch ed t o th e m uscu l ar w a l l but is ,

l oosely a tt a ched o ve r the c or on ar y v essels a n d th e a ss o ci a ted subepi c a r di a l fa t .

I t c o n sists o f a l a ye r o f fl a t p o lyg o n a l cel ls r esti n g on a me m b r a n e o f wh ite a n d ,

el a sti c fibe r s .

The myo c ar d iu m c on sists of pl a n es of fi be r s a rr a nged i n a s o m ew h a t c om pli

c ate d m a n n e r The m uscul ar tissu e of th e a t r i a is a l m ost c om plet ely sep a r a ted
.

f r o m th a t o f the ve n t r i cles by the fib r o us r i n gs ar o u n d th e at r i o ve n t r i cul ar or ifi ces -

.

I n the a t r i a t he m uscl e b a n ds f a ll n a tu r a ll y i n t o t w o g r o ups— su p er fic i a l a n d

d eep Th e f or m e r a r e c o m m on t o b o th a t r i a t h e l a tte r speci a l to e a ch The
.
,
.

s up e r fici a l or c o mm o n fib e r s for th e m o st p ar t b egi n a n d e n d a t th e a t r i o ve n t r i c u l ar -

r i n gs but s o m e e n te r t he i n te r a t r i a l septu m The d e e p or s pe ci a l bu nd l e s a ls o

,
.

f or m tw o sets L oo ped fibe r s p a ss o ve r th e a t r i a f ro m r i ng t o r i n g wh il e a nn ul ar

.
,

o r spi r a l fibe r s su r r o u n d the e n ds o f the v ei n s wh i ch o pe n i n t o the a t r i a t h e a u r i cles , ,

a n d th e f o ss a o v a lis .

The m us cul a r w a ll of th e ve n t r i cl es is mu ch st r o n ge r th a n t h at o f th e a tr i a .

Th a t o f the left ve n t r i cle is i n ge n e r a l a b o u t th r ee ti m es a s thi ck a s th a t o f th e r ight

o ne but is thi n a t the a pex
,
The s up e r fi ci a l fib er s a r e a tt a ched a b ov e t o th e a t r i o
.

ve n t r i cul ar fib r o us r i n gs a n d p a ss i n a S pi r a l t o w ar d t he a pex H e r e they be n d .

up o n themselves a n d p ass deeply upw a r d t o te r m i n a te i n a p a pi ll a r y muscle of the

ve n t r i cle opp osite to th a t i n wh i ch th ey a r o se Th e l oo ps s o f or m ed a t t h e a pex .

c o n s titute a w h or l t he v o rte x c or d i s ,
Th e d ee p fib e r s , a lth o ugh t hey a ppe ar to
.

be p r o pe r t o e a ch ve n t r i cl e h a ve b ee n S h o w n by M a c C a l l u m t o be i n r e a li ty a lm ost
,

a l l c o mm o n t o b o th Thei r a rr a nge m e n t is sc r o l l l i ke They b egi n 0 11 o n e side

.
-
.
,

c u r ve ar o u n d i n the w a ll o f th a t ve nt r i cl e th e n p a ss i n th e septum t o t h e o pp osite ,

s ide a n d cu r ve a r o u n d the o t he r ve n t r i cl e
, The r e is a l a ye r of deep fibe r s whi ch is
.

c o nfi ned to the b a s a l p a r t o f the left ve nt r i cle ; it is a tt a ched t o th e l eft a t r i o ~

ve nt r i cul a r r i ng .

F o u r fib ro u s r i n gs (A n n uli fib r o si ) su rr o u n d t he o r ifi ces a t the b a ses o f the

ve n t r i cles The a t r i o ve nt r i cul a r r i ngs sep a r a te th e m uscul a tu r e o f the a t r i a fr o m
.
-

th a t o f t h e ve n t r i cles Th ose whi ch su rr o u n d the or igi ns of th e pul mon ar y ar te r y

.

a nd a o r t a a r e fest o o n ed i n c o n fo r m ity w it h t h e a tt a ched b o r de r s o f the v a lves .

The a or ti c r i ng c o n t a i n s o n t he r ight side a pl a te o f c ar til a ge (C a r t i l a g o c or d is ) ,

whi ch f r equ e n tl y bec o mes m or e o r l ess c a l cified i n ol d a n i m a ls S o m eti m es a .

s m a ll e r pl a te is p r ese n t o n t h e l eft S ide .

The e nd o c ar d ium l i n es th e c a vities o f t he h e a r t a n d is c on ti n u o us wi th th e

i n te r na l c o a t o f the vessels whi ch e n te r a n d l e a ve the o r g a n I t s fr ee su r f a ce is .
 T HE P U LM O N AR Y AR T E R Y—T HE SYS T E M I C A R T E R I E S 535

sm o o th a n d gliste n i n g a n d is fo r m ed by a l a ye r o f e n d o thel i a l cells T h e l atte r .

r est on a t h i n l a ye r of c o nn ective tissue w hi ch is c o nn ected w ith t h e m y o c a r d iu m

,

by a sube n d o c a r di a l el a sti c tissue c on t a i n i n g v essels a n d n e r ves

Ve s s e l s an d N erv e s —Th e h e a r t r ecei ves its b l oo d suppl y t h r o ugh th e t w o
.

-
.

c o r o nar y art e r i e s whi ch a r ise f r o m the a o r t a o pp o si te t o th e a nt e r i o r a n d left cusps

of th e a o r ti c v a lve M o st o f t he bl oo d is r et u r n ed by the c oronar y v ei n s w hi ch

.
,

o pe n i n t o t he r ight a t r i u m by t he c o r o n ar y si n us 1
A few s m a ll vei ns o pe n di r ect l y .

i nt o th e r i ght at r i u m a n d o t he r s ar e s a i d t o o pe n i n t o t h e l eft at r i u m a n d t he
,

ve n t r i cles Th e l ymph -v e s s e l s f o r m a subepi c ar di a l n etw or k whi ch c o mm u n i c a t es

.

t h r o ugh st o m a t a w it h t he c a vit y o f t he pe r i c ar di u m Ther e i s a less disti n ct .

sube n d o c a r d i a l n etw or k Th e vessels c onv er ge usu a l ly t o tw o t r u n ks w hi ch ac

c o mp a n y t he bl oo d vessels i n t he a t r i o—
.

-
ve n t r i cul ar gr oo ves a n d e n ter th e gl a n ds a t
th e bifu r c a t i o n o f t he t ra ch e a
_
The n e rv e s are de r ived f r o m the va gu s a nd
.

s ym path e ti c t h r o ugh t he c a r d i a c plexus .

THE AR TE RI E S
THE P ULM ON AR Y AR TE R Y

Th e pul m o nar y ar tery (A p ul m o n a l is ) sp r i n gs f r o m th e c on us ar t e r i o sus at t he

.

l eft side of t h e b a se o f the r ight v e n t r i cl e I t c ur ves u pw ar d b a ck w ar d a n d .

, ,

nw a r d a n d di vi des b eh i n d t he a r ch o f the a or t a i n t o r ight a n d l eft b r a n ches

, I t is .

r el a ted i n f r o n t t o t he r ight a ur i cl e (a ppe n dix ) behi n d to t he left a u r i cl e (a ppe n dix ) , ,

a n d i n te r n a lly t o t h e a or t a I t is e n vel o ped wit h t h e l a tter i n a c o m m o n sh e a t h

.

o f th e V isce r a l l a ye r o f t he se r o us pe r i c a r di um N e ar t h e bifur c a ti o n it is c o nn ect ed

.

with th e a r c h o f t he a or t a b y a fib r o us b an d a b o ut h a lf a n i n ch (c a cm ) i n . .

wi dth ; t his is t h e l igam e n tu m arte r i o s um a r em n a n t of t he l a r ge du ctu s ar te ri o su s ,

,

whi ch c o n d ucts m o st o f t h e b l oo d fr om t he pul m on a r y a r t e r y t o t h e ao r t a i n t h e

fce t u s The ar te r y is bul b o us a t its or igi n a n d f or m s th r ee s i n u s e s or p o uches
.
, ,

whi ch c o r r esp o n d t o t h e cusps o f t h e se m il un ar v a lve B ey o n d t his it gra du a lly .

di mi ni shes i n c a l ibe r .

I n a h o rs e o f m ed i u m s i z e t h e a r t ery i s a b o u t s e v en i nc h es (ea 1 7 to 1 8 c m ) l o ng At th e . . .

o r i g i n i t i s a b ou t tw o a n d a h a l f i n c h es (ca 6 to c m ) i n wi d t h ; a t th e b i f ur c a ti o n i t s c a li b er
. .

i s a b ou t o n e and a h a l f i n c h es (c a to 4 .Th e w a l l i s re l a ti v e l y t hi n , es p e c i a ll y a t t h e
o ri g i n .

Th e ri ght b r an ch (R am us d exte r ) of t h e pul m on ar y a r te r y is a l ittl e l on ger a n d

wi de r t h a n t he l eft o n e I t p a sses o ve r the f or e p a r t of t he left a t r iu m a n d b el o w
.

th e bifur c a t i o n of t he t r a che a t o t he hilus o f t h e r ight l u n g a n d e n te r s t h e l atte r

.

bel o w th e r ight b r o n ch us I n t he l u n g i t p a sses t o t he o ute r a n d l o we r sid e of th e

.

ste m b r on ch us a n d a cc om p a ni es i t t o th e b a se of the or g an Th e b r a n ches

-
.

c orr esp o n d t o t h e r a mifi c a ti o n o f t h e b r on chi T he l e ft b ran ch (R a m us si ni ste r ) .

i s ve r y sh or t I t p a sses b a ckw a r d a n d e n te r s t he l u n g bel o w t he left b r o n chus

. .

I t s b r a n ches wit hi n t he l u n g a r e a rr a nged li ke th a t o f th e r ight o n e .

THE S YS TE MI C AR TE R I E S

The a orta is t h e m a i n syste m i c a r t e r i a l t r u n k I t begi ns at th e b ase of the left .

ve n t r i cl e an d is p r a ct i c a lly m edi a n at its o r i g i n I t p a sses upw ar d a n d slight ly .

fo r w ar d b etwee n t h e pu l m on ar y a r te r y o n t he left a n d r ight a t r i u m o n t h e r ight .

I t th e n c ur ves S h a r pl y b a ckw a r d a n d upw a r d a n d i n cli n es s o m ewh a t t o th e left ,

f o r m i n g th e ar c h o f th e a orta (A r cus a or t as) an d r e a ches t he ve n t r a l su r f a ce o f t h e

,

spi n e a t t he eighth or n i n th t h or a ci c ve r teb r a A fte r p a ssi n g b a ckw a r d a l o n g th e .

ve n t r a l a spect o f t he b o d ies o f the ver teb r ae betwee n t he lu n gs it t r a ve r ses the hi a tus

1
Th es e v es s e l s w ill be d escr i b ed l a t er in t h ei r sy s t ema ti c ord er .
 53 6 B L OOD -
V A S CU L A R SYS T E M OF T H E H O R SE

ao rti cus a n d e nte r s t h e a bd o m i na l c a vity w he r e i t l i es bel o w the ve r teb r a l b o di es

,

a nd the ps o a s m i n o r j ust t o th e l eft o f t h e m edi a n pl a n e

,
I t di vides u n de r th e .

fifth l u m b a r ve r teb r a i n t o the t w o i nte r n a l i li a c or h yp o g a st r i c a r te r i es .

Fro m th e b i f u r c a ti o n a s ma l l v es se l t h e m i d d l e s a c ra l a r t ery (A s a c r a li s m ed i a ) s o me ti mes

,
.
,

p a ss es b ac k w a rd o n t h e p e l v i c s u r f a c e o f th e s a c r u m I t b eco mes l os t I n t h e p eri o s t eu m o r j o i ns

.

t h e co cc yg ea l a r t e ry o r i n e xc e p t i o n a l c a s es i s t ra ce a b l e t o t h e s p h i n c t e r a n i e x t e r n u s
,
.

The c a li be r o f th e a o r t a is g r e a test a t its or igi n w hi ch is te r m ed th e b u lb u s

He r e i t f or m s th r ee p o u ch —
,

a or tas . l i ke d i l at a ti o n s th e s i n u s e s o f th e a o r ta (or of ,

Va ls a lv a ) Th ese c o rr esp o n d t o t h e cusps o f t he a or ti c v a lve a n d the c or o n a r y

.
,

a r te r ies a r ise f r o m the left p o ste r i o r a n d a n te r i o r si n uses A t the a r ch th e .

P u l mo n a r y rei ns p u l mo n a r y
a r ter y

Grea t coron ar y vei n

S ma l l cor o na r y vei n
Ri gh t corona r y a r ter y

4 26 .
—CA D A C V ESSE L S
R I orHO R IG H T
RS E , SI D E .

V in
e s ar e b l k
ac ,
t i w h it
ar e r e s e .

d i a mete r i s a b o ut tw o i n ches (c a 5 a n d b ey o n d this i t di mi n ishes g ra du a ll y

.

i n width .

I t is c o n ve n i e n t t o d i vide t h e a or t a i n t o th or a ci c a n d a bd o m i n a l p a rts Th e .

th o ra cic aorta (Ao r t a th or a ci c a ) li es withi n the pe r i c a r d iu m t o the p o i nt o f a tt a ch

m e n t o f t he lig a me n tu m a r t er i os u ni a n d i s i n cl o sed w ith t h e pul mo n a r y a r te r y
,

i n a p ro l o ng a ti o n o f t h e epi c a r di u m B ey o n d this it i s betwee n t h e t w o pleu r a l

.

s a cs I t is c r o s s ed o n t he r i ght by t he oeso l i h a g i i s a n d t r a che a o n t he left by th e

.

left v a gus n e r ve The l eft r ecu rr e nt n e r ve w i n ds a r o u n d t he c o n c a vity o f t he ar ch

.

f r om left to r ight a n d t he ve na a zyg o s a n d th o r a ci c du ct l i e a l on g the d or s a l p ar t

,

o f its r ight f a ce The t ra che a c a uses i t to d evi a te to th e left ; b ut bey on d th is i t

.

bec o m es m edi a n The abd o mi na l a or ta (Aor t a a bd o m i n a lis ) (Fi g 4 50 ) is r el a ted

.
.

a b o ve t o t h e lumb a r ve r teb r ae the i n fe r i o r c o m m o n lig a m e n t a n d t he l eft ps o a s

, ,

m i n o r muscle ; i n t h e h i a tus a o rt i cus i t i s r el a ted t o t h e ci ste r n a chyl i On its .

r igh t is the p o ste r i o r ve n a c a v a a n d o n i ts left the left kid n ey an d u r ete r

, .
53 8 B L OOD - V ASCULAR S YS TE M OF T HE H ORS E

the t r a che a I t di vide s o pp osite t o the se c o nd i nte r c o st a l S p a ce or thi r d r ib i n t o

.

t h e b r a ch i o ceph a li c a n d left b r a ch i a l a r te r ies .

The b ra c hi o c eph a l i c a rt ery (A b r a c h i o ce p h a l i ea ) is d i r ected f o r w a r d a n d a .

l ittl e upw ar d i n the a n te r i o r med i a sti n u m b e n e a t h t he t ra ch e a Opp o site the ,

.

fi r st r i b it gives off the bi ca r o ti d t r u n k a n d is c o nti n ued as th e fi ght b ra chi a l ar tery .

The l a tte r (A subcl a vi a dext r a ) tu r ns d o w n w a r d a n d be nds ar o u n d t h e a n te r i or

.

b o r de r of th e fi r st r i b a n d t he i n se r ti on of th e sc a le n us m uscl e a b o ve th e b ra chi a l
vei n I ts c o u r s e a n d b r a n ches bey o n d this p o i n t w il l be desc r i bed with th e vessels
.

o f the th or a ci c li mb .

Th e l e ft b ra c h i a l ar tery (A s u b cl a vi a si n ist r a ) is l on ge r t h a n th e r igh t o ne an d .

r ises to a h ighe r level I t f o r m s a n a l m o st se m i ci r cu l a r cu r ve t he c o n c a vity bei ng

.
,

—T
H O AC C CAV TY o H O L E I S DE A
O P OG R A a R M O AL O L P I L U N
or T R I I r RS E , E ‘
I , FT E R E V F E ’ ‘
G .

Th i t h fi ft t h e d ig h t n nth ib , t i d P i
ee n d i m ; b th . i an t ; b hie een r s a re re a ne . a er ca r u , o ra c c aor a c, ra c o

ph li f k : d d " d s l t y ; d
,

ce a c
‘

l ll ll b t l t y; , p i
, or ad p vi l t y ; f v t b l t y ;
ar er
'
, su c os a a r er e, c
’
, su e r o r or ee cer ca a r er , er e ra a r er

0 g , l ft b h i l t y : h i f i
’
,
e ra c vi l t y ; i i t
a l th
ar er i t y ; k mm , tid t y ; 1
n er o r ce r ca ar er ,
n e r na o ra c c ar er , co o n c a ro a r er ,

j g l v i ; m b hi l v i ; m i f i
u u ar e n vi l v i ;
, ra c t i v a v ; th i d t;
e n ph g ; ’
, n er o r ce r ca e n n , a n er or e na c a a o, o ra c c uc (E s o a us

q , t l p t f d i ph g m; q t d i
cos a ar o t f m ; q l ft a ra f m ; t i m d i ti l l y mph
’
, en no u s ce n e r o sa e
”
, e c ru s o sa e r , an er or e as na

gl d ;
an t h : t b
s h i l l y m ph g l
s, ra c d ; ea t f l ft l g ; t i m d i ti m ; ” p t i m d i
ro n c a - an s
-
u ro o o e un v , a n er o r e as nu t os er or i e
— p h li ; y
, , .

ns ti m; w l
nu g lli ; t , on l ; z t
us c o v li t m : I l g i i m ; 2 pl i ; 3
:r , s e r no c e a c us , sc a e n u s . r a ns e rs a s c os a ru , on ss us . s en us .

"
spi li t mi p i li ; 4
na s e h mb i d
se ; 5 l
s f t p h i
na v 6s l f t v g : 6 , ph g l r ti ti o o eus , e re n c ne r e: , e a us (e s o a ea c on nua o ns

o f v gi ; 7 1
a l b h Of i g h t v g
4 ; 80 rs a di v ; 9 l ft
ra nc t v ; 1 0 vi l t k f y m p t h ti ;
r a us car a c ne r e e re c u r re n ne r e cer ca ru n o s a e c

I I fi t th
, , , ,

i g g li
rs f y m p th ti ; 1 9 t h
o ra c c i t k f y m p t h ti ; 1 3 b h i l p l
an on o s (A ft E ll a e c o ra c c ru n o s a e c r ac a ex u s er en

B m T p A t l Pf d )
, , , .

b g er e r- au , o . na . i . er es .

ve nt r a l I t is r el ated i n te rna ll y t o th e oes oph a gus t ra ch e a a n d th o r a cic du ct

.
, ,

a nd the lef t v a gus ph r e n i c a n d c a r di a c n e r ves c r o ss u n d e r its o r igi n ,

I t e m e r ges ,
.

f ro m t he th o r a x li ke the a r te r y o f the r ight sid e Th e r e i s thus a diffe r e n ce at fi rst .

betwee n th e t r u n ks o f Opp o site sid es but bey o n d th is thei r c o u r se a n d d ist r ibuti on ,

a r e si m i l a r .

The b r a ch i a l a n d b ra chi o ceph a li c a r te r ies with i n th e th ora x gi ve Off th e d o r s a l ,

s upe r i o r ce r vi c a l ve rt eb r a l a nd i n te r n a l th or a ci c a r te r i es A t the fi rst r ib t hey

, ,
.
.

gi ve off the exte r na l th o r a ci c a n d i n fe r i or ce r vi c a l a r te r i es .

1 The l eft d or s a l o r d o r s o - i nte r c o sta l a rte ry (A c o st o ce r v i c a l is ) p a sses

.
.
.
-

d or s a lly a c r os s t he left f a c e o f th e t ra che a a nd (e s o ph a gus t ow a r d the sec on d

i n te r c ost a l s p a ce T h e r i ght a r te r y a r ises usu a lly by a c o mm on t r u n k with th e
.
 C OM M ON B R A C H I OC E P H A L I C TR UNK OR A N T E R I OR A ORT A 539

s upe r i or ce r vi c a l c r o sses th e r ight f a ce o f the t r a che a a n d h a s n o c o n t a ct w ith the

,

oes o ph a gus B o th det a ch s m a ll b r a n ch es t o th e t r a ch e a ly m ph gl a nds an d

.
, ,

ple ur a a n d d i vide on r e a chi n g the l on gus c o ll i i n t o t w o b r a n ches Of these th e

, .

s ub c o stal ar t e ry (A i nt e r c o st a lis sup r em a ) is th e sm a ll e r I t p asses b a ckw a r d

u n de r the c o st o—
. .

ve r teb r a l j o i nts with the symp a thet i c t r u n k I t gi ves off the .

se c on d thi r d a nd fo u r th i n te r c o st a l a r te r i es a nd e nds a t th e fifth sp a ce whe r e it

, ,
, ,

a n a st o m o ses with the fi r st ao r ti c i nt e r c o st a l a r te r y o r c o n stitutes the fifth i n te r ,

c ost a l a r te r y or dips i nt o t he l o n gi ssi m us m uscle I t a ls o gives Off spi n a l b r an ch es

, .

a n d t w i gs t o th e l o n gus c o l l i a n d th e pl eu r a Th e oth e r b r a n ch (A t r a n sve r s a . .

c o lli ) is the di r e ct c o n ti n u a ti o n o f the t r u n k I t eme r ges t h r o ugh th e uppe r e n d Of .

H AC C CAVI T Y o H O
FI G . 4 29 .
—T OP O AP H Y
R G HT V i w GR OF T OR I r RS E , I E .

Th i t h fi ft t h d i g h t t h i b
e n n , t i d een P i di m; b p t i
, an ve v ; v ee n r s a re r e a n e . a , e r ca r u , os e r o r e na ca a c, e na

a zy g ; os ph g l v i ; d
c
'
,
(e s o t i va v ; f b hi l v i ; g i f i
ea e n vi l v i ; h j g l v i ;
, e, a n er or e na c a a , ra c a e n , n er or c er ca e n , u u ar e n

v tb lvi ; k p i
er e ra r vi
e n lvi ; 1 d lv i ; m t h ;
, su er or ce t f ig h t l g ; ph g ; p
ca e n , o rs a e n , rac ea n , ro o o r un o, oes o a us ,

m d i ti l l b
e as f ig ht l
na g; q m di
o e o ti m ; b r h i l l y mp h g l d ;
un m d i ti l l y mp h g l d ; t t l
, e as nu r, ro n c a an s s, e as na an s , c os a

p t f d i ph g m ; t t d i
ar o a ra t f m ; i t '
t lm l ; l g
en lli ; w p t i d p p t l
no u s c e n e r o sa e u n e rc o s a u sc e v, on u s co os e r o r ee ec o r a

p fi i lp t lm l ; y t
, , ,

m l ;
u sc e t i d pp t lm l ;
w
’
, a n er o r ee e c o raph l i : z l ; 1 5
usc e I , su er c a ec o ra u sc e , s e r n o -ee a c us , sca enu s , ,

right b hi l t y ; 2 d
ra c a vi l t k ;
a r er p i d p , vi l t y ; 8 d
o rs o -c e r l t y ( t) ;
ca ru n su er o r o r ee cer ca a r er , o rs a a r er cu

su b t l t y ; 4 i nt
co s a a r er l th i t y; t
,
l th i t y; 7 i f i
e r na vi l t y ; 8 b i
o ra c c a r e r t id ex e r na ora c c a r er , n e r o r c er ca a r er , c a ro

t k; 1 0
ru n t ; 11 ,
ph g l t y ; 1 2 t h
aor a i d t ; 1 3 i g h t ph i
,
(e s o v ; 1 4 b h i l pl
a ea : 1 5
a r er , o ra c c uc , r re n c ne r e , ra c a e xu s ,

ri ght v g ; a I5
us
”
ph g l ti ti f v gi : ,
ight
ce s o t v ; 17 a ea v i l t k f y mp
con nu a o ns o a r re c u r r e n ne r e , ce r ca ru n o s a

th ti ; 1 8 t h
e c i t k f y m p th ti ; 2 0 i f i
. o ra c c vi l g g li n ; 2 1 fi t t h
ru n o s i g g li n f y m p th ti ;
a e c , n e r o r ce r ca an o , rs o ra c c an o o s a e c

22 ig ht d i
r v ;
ca r l gi im ; 2 4 t
a c ne r v li et m ; 2 5 pi li ; 2 6 m l ti fid ; 27 li g m t m
on ss us r a ns e rs a s cos a ru s na s u us a en u

B m T p A t d Pf d )
, , , , ,

h
n u e ze (A ft
. E ll b g er en er e r- au , o . na . . er es .

the sec o n d i n te r c o st a l sp a c e p a sses a c r o ss th e t r a n sve r s a lis c o st ar u m a n d l ong i s s i ,

mus t o w ar d the w ithe r s an d divi des i nt o seve ra l di ve r gi n g b r a n ches An a nter i o r

,
.

b ra n ch p a sses upw ar d a n d f or w a r d betwee n th e sple n i us a nd c om pl exus an d a n a s

t o moses wi th b r a n ches of t he sup e r i or ce r vi c a l a r te r y ; t he o the r s ar e d ir ected
upw ar d u n de r the se rr a tus m a g n us a n d r h o m b o ideus t o t he wi the r s supplyi n g ,

th e muscles a n d ski n o f th is r egi o n .

T h e l e f t d o rs a l a r t er y so me ti m es a r i ses w i t h th e su p e r i o r c er v i c a l b y a co mmo n t r u n k On .

t h e r i g h t s i d e t h er e m a y b e a co mm o n s t em fo r t h e d o rsa l , s u p eri o r cer v i c a l , a n d v e r t eb r a l ar

t e ri es Occ as i o n a l l y t h e a r t er y a r i s es f ro m t h e a n t e r i o r ao r t a
. S o me ti m es i t e mer g es t h r ou g h .

t h e t hi r d s p a c e T h e s u b co s t a l m a y a r i s e i n d e p en d en t l y b eh i n d t h e d o rs a l o r f ro m t h e s u p er i or
.

c er v i ca l a r t er y .
54 0 B L OOD - V A S CU L A R S YS T E M OF T H E H OR S E

2The sup e r i or o r d e e p c e rvi c a l ar t ery (A ce r vi c a lis p r o fu n d a ) ar ises i n fr o n t

. .

o f th e d o r s a l o r by a c o mm o n t r u n k w ith i t I t c ro sses th e (e s o p h g a u s (left side ) .

,

t he t ra che a (r ight S ide ) a n d the l o n gu s c o ll i a n d e m e r ges f r o m t he t h or a ci c c a vity

, ,

by p a ssi ng th r o ugh the sp a ce behi n d the fi r st c o st o t r a n sve r se ar t i cul a ti o n I n th e -

.

th or a x i t gi ves Off a s m a ll b r a n ch (A m edi a sti n i c r a n i a l is ) t o t he m edi a sti n um an d

.

the pe r i c ar di u m ; a l s o the fi r st i nt e r c o sta l a r te r y (A i n te r c ost a l is p r i m a ) a ve r y .

,

s ma l l vessel wh i c h p a sses d o w n i n t h e fi r st i n te r c ost a l sp a ce A fte r le a vi n g the .

t h or a x the a r te r y p asse s upw a r d a nd f o r w a rd o n the spi n a li s m uscl e a n d the l a m ell ar

p a r t o f the lig a me n tu m n uch ae c o ve r ed by the c o m plexus ,
I ts te r m i n a l b r a n ches .

a n a st o m o se with b r a n ches of t he o ccipit a l a n d ve r teb r a l a r te r ies i n t he r egi o n o f t he

a x is N u m e r o us c o l l a te r a l b ra n ches a re det a ch ed to th e exte n s o r m uscles Of th e

-
.

he a d a n d n eck the li g a m e nt u m n u ch ae a nd t he ski n a nd a n a st o mo ses o ccu r w ith

, , ,

the d or s a l a r te r y a b o ve a n d the ve r teb ra l a r te r y bel o w .

The ar t ery so m e t i me s em e rges t h ro u g h th e s eco n d i n t erco s t a l s p a c e .

The v e r te b ra l ar tery (A ve r teb r a lis ) a r ises f r o m th e b r a chi a l (or b r a ch i o

3 . .

ceph a li c ) Opp osite the fi r st i nte r c osta l S p a ce a nd p a sses u pw a r d a n d f or war d .

On the left sid e i t c r o sses the oes o ph a gus o n th e r i ght th e t r a ch e a E m e r gi n g f r om

,
.

the th or ax i t p a sses b et w ee n the l o n gus c o l l i i nt e r n a l ly a n d the s c a l e n us e xt er n a l l v ,

u n de r t h e t r a n sve r se p r o cess o f the seve n th ce r vi c a l ve r teb r a a n d c on ti n ues a l on g ,

B r a n ches of
Ver tebr a l a r ter y

FI G . 4 30 .
—V T B AL A T Y
ER E R R ER or HO RSE .
(A ft er S c h ma lt z A tl as
, (1 . A t na . d P
. fe rd es . )

th e n eck th r o ugh th e se r i es o f fo r a m i n a t r a n s v er sar i a betwee n wh i ch i t i s c o ve r ed ,

by th e i nter tr a ns v ersal es c o lli E m e r gi n g f ro m the f o r a me n o f th e a xis i t c r o sses

.
,

th e c a psule of the a tl a n t o a xi a l j o i n t an d j o i n s the r et r o gr a de b r a n ch o f th e occ i

-
,

pit a l a r te r y u n de r c o ve r o f the g r e a t o bl iq ue m uscl e o f th e h e a d At e a ch i n te r .

ve r teb ra l f or a m e n a s pi n a l b r an c h (R a m us spi n a l is ) is gi ve n Off wh i ch e n te r s the

ve r teb r a l c a n a l a n d r ei n f o r ces th e ve nt r a l spi n a l a r te r y I t a ls o gi ves o ff se r i es .

of d o r s a l a n d ve n t r a l mu s cul ar b ra n ch e s (R am i m uscu l ar es ) Th e d or s a l b r an ch es .

a r e the l a r ge r ; they supply th e deep exte ns o r m uscl es o f th e h e a d a n d n eck a n d ,

a n a s t o mo se w ith t h e deep ce r vi c a l a n d o ccipi t a l a r te r i es The ve n t r a l b r a n ch es .

suppl y chi efl y the s c a le n us l o ngus c o ll i i nt e rtr ans v er sa l es an d r ectus c a pi tis

, , ,

a n te r i o r m a j o r Th e a r te r y is a cc o m p a n i ed by th e ve r te b r a l vei n a n d a s y m
.

p atheti c n e r v c t r u n k .

I n s o m e c a s es t h e l a s t ce rv i ca l t ra ns v e rs e p ro c es s h as a f o r a me n t r a ns v ers a r i u m t h r o u g h ,

w h i c h th e a r t e ry p a s s es .

The i n te rna l th o ra ci c artery (A th or a ci c a s m a mm ar i a i n te r n a ) i s a l ar ge

4 . . .

vessel w h i ch a r i ses f r o m the ve n t ra l si de of the b r a chi a l Opp o site th e fi r st r i b I t .

cu r ves d o w n w a r d a n d b a ckw a r d bei n g a t fi r st o n th e i nn e r su r f a ce Of the r i b a n d

, ,

th e n c r o s ses the l o we r p a rt o f th e fi r st i n te r c o st a l sp a ce a n d p a sses u n de r the t r a n s

ve r sus th o r a cis m uscl e I t r u n s b a ckw a r d u n de r c o ve r o f th a t m us cl e o ve r the
.

ch o n d r o s te r n a l j o i n ts t o th e eight h c o s t a l c ar ti l a ge w he r e i t d ivides i n t o a ste r na l

-
,

a nd a n te r i o r a bd o m i n a l b r a n che s A t e a ch i nt e r c o st a l S p a ce tw o c o l l a te r a l
.
54 2 B L OOD - V A S CU L A R S YS TE M OF T HE H OR S E

tw o th r ee i n ches (c a 5 to 7 cm ) i n l e ngt h b ut i t m ay v ar y b etwee n on e a nd

or . .
,

eight i n c hes (c a t o 20 .

Th e ri ght c o mm o n c ar o tid art ery p a sses o bl iq uel y f r o m the ve n t r a l f a ce of

th e t r a che a t o its r ight side I n t his p o siti on it r u n s upw ar d a n d f or w ar d an d
di vi des at the c r i c o—
.

ph ar y n geus m uscle a nd un de r th e sub m a xil l ar y gl a n d i n t o

ext er n a l c ar o tid i nt e r n a l c a r o tid a nd o ccipi t a l a r te r i es I t is i n cl osed i n a
, ,
.

fib r o us she a t h a nd is a cc o mp a n i ed d or s a lly by the v a gus a n d sy m p a theti c

,

L AN D N E R V ES O N K HO 431 —V E SS E S F EC RS E

—
. .

M t id — h m
a li ; I t as ph li ;
o o m h y id
u ; d t
e ra th y h y i d ; t h ; f p i
s ) s e r no -c e a cus c, o o- o eus s e r no ro - o eu s e, r ac ea os

p fi i lp t lm l ; h
, , , ,

ti f
on o i i f m til g : fl t i
car n or ca r a l e; i i t ,t n l ; k i
an er o r su ti er c a ec o ra usc e , s c a e nu s , n e r ra s v e rs a e s , ns e r on

o f t vi i ; I i g i f t p zi ; m h m b i d ;
s e r ra us ce r c s ,pl i ;
or mpl n o ; p q t h l m t id
ra e us ,
r o o eus n, s en us o , co ex u s , , ra c e o- as o eu s

p qt d
'
,
’
f, m ; en l g i i m : Ob li q
o ns o piti p t i ; t w i g Of t l ;
sa e r ,
on p tid g l d :
ss us p s , u u s ca s os e r o r ,
n a as u , a ro an v , su ra

spi t ; w
na u s t i d p p t l ; w pi f p l ; y p
, a n er or p l l y m ph g l d ; 1 t
ee ec o ra l m i ll y v i ; , s ne o sca u a , r es c a u ar an s , e x e r na ax ar e n

2 3 j g l vi ; ti d t y p d b y d w i g j g l v i i d ; di g d d di g b h
vi l t y ; 9—
. , u u ar e n c a ro ar er , ex os e ra n u u ar e n as e as c e n n an es c e n n ra n c es

o fi f i vi l t y : 7 ph li v i ; 8 b
n e r o r ce r h
ca f p i
ar er d p ce 14 v t lb
a c h e n ra n c es o su er o r or ee cer ca a r er e n ra ra nc es

B m
. , ,

o f d t v th vi l
se c o n v ; 15 b
o seh f d
en l d i vi i
cer f vi l
ca v (E ll b g
ne r es ,
ra nc es o o rs a s o ns o c er ca ne r es . en er e r- au ,

T p A
o t l Pf d )
. na . ( . er es .

n re ves ve n t r a lly by t h e r ecu rr e nt n e r ve A t th e l ast tw o cer vi c a l ve r teb r ae

, .

i t is i n c o nt a ct supe r fi ci a lly with the j ugul ar vei n b ut fu r the r f o r w ar d th e ,

o m o hy o i deus m u s cle i nte r ve n es betwee n th e arte r y a n d vei n

-
N e a r its ter .

m i n a ti o n t h e a r te r y bec o m es m or e deepl y pl a ced a n d i s r el a ted exte r n a lly t o

the subm a xi ll ar y a n d p ar o t id gl a n ds i n ter na lly t o the oes o ph a gus I n s o m e ,
.

c a ses i t i s i n c o nt a c t ve n t ra lly with th e thy r o id gl a nd especi a lly whe n th e ,

l a tte r i s l a r ge r th a n usu a l .
 T HE C OM M ON C A R OT I D A R T E R Y 54 3 .

Th e l e ft c o mm on c ar o ti d ar te ry d i ffe r s fr om th e r igh t o ne i n th a t i t i s r el a ted

deeply t o the oes o ph a gus w hi ch sep a r a t es ,

i t fr om the t r a che a i n t h e g r eat er p ar t o f

’

its c o u r se .

The c o ll a t e r a l b r a n ches o f t h e c om m o n
c ar o t ids a r e i n t he m a i n s m a ll They com .

p r ise :
1 M u s cul ar b r an ch e s (R a m i m u s cu
.

l a r es ) of v a r i a bl e si z e w h i ch g o t o the ,

ve ntr a l m uscles of t h e n eck a n d th e S ki n .

2 (E s oph a g eal a n d tr a ch e al b ran ch e s

.

(R a mi oes oph a gei et t r a ch e a l es ) Sm a l l .

t w i gs g o t o th e ce r vi c a l ly m ph gl a n ds a ls o .

3 The p aro ti d ar te r y
. This c om es off .

n e ar t he t e r m i n a t i on a n d e n t e r s th e ve n t r a l

p art Of th e p a r o t i d gl a n d I t a ls o suppli es .

the su b p ar oti d ly m ph gl an d s a n d s om etimes ,

se n ds a b r a n ch t o t h e sub m a xill ar y gl a n d .

I t is i n c o n st a n t .

4 The th yr o - l ar yn g e al ar te ry (A t h y
. .

reo i d ea c rani a lis ) Th is the l a r gest col

.
,

l a te r a l b r a n ch of th e c ar o ti d ar ises f r o m ,

th e l a tt er tw o or t h r ee i n ches b efor e i t
di vi des I t cu r ves o ve r t he a n te r i or end
.

of th e th yr o i d gl a n d i n t o whi ch i t sen ds
,

seve r a l b r a n ches I t gives off a l ar yn ge al

.

b r an c h (A l ar y nge a ) wh i ch se n ds t wi gs t o
.
,

th e ext er n a l muscl es o f t h e l ar y nx a nd th e
c onstr i ct or s Of th e ph ar y n x p a sses b etwee n ,

the c r i c o i d a n d t h yr o i d c a r ti l a ges an d sup ,

pl i es the i n t e r n a l mus cl es a n d th e m u c o us
me m b r an e Of t he l ar y n x A sm a l l ph aryn
g e al b ran c h (A ph ar y n ge a a sce n de ns ) r u n s FI 4 3 2 —
.

. CR s -S c r O N CK H G . . o s E I N or E or o Rs E ,

upw ar d a n d f or w ar d t o the c r i c o p h ar yn PA N T H OU H F m C- CAL V E R SS I G R G ir E R VI

T B A ; AN T O V W E R ERI R IE
geus a n d suppli es t w i gs t o th e p o ste r i or
.

,
B h f vi l v ; h l a ,
ra n c es o ce r ca ne r es a
'
, nu c a
p ar t o f the ph ar y n x a n d th e or igi n of th e f t ; b i t t v li m l ; l gi im a , n e r ra ns e rs a s u sc e 0 ,
on ss us

(e s o ph a gus S m al l i n n o m i n a te twigs ar e
.
m l ; d v t b l t y; v t b l v i ; f us c e , er e ra a r er e, er e ra e n ,

v t b l n ; g p i l y v ( pp
er e ra e rv e s na a c c es s o r ner e u er
give n Off t o t he t r a che a th e oes o ph a gus d i vi i
,
); h t v ; i v g —y mp
, s on ,
r ec u rre n
,

ne r e a o s a
,

a n d t he ster no th e -
hy o i deus a n d o m o
-
th ti t k ; k t h l l y m ph d t ; 1 b d y f e c ru n , ra c ea uc , o o

hy oi d eus muscles fi ft h vi l v t b ; l t v p '

f ce r ca er e ra ,
ra ns e rs e ro c es s o

ti d t y ; j g l v i ;
.

m ; m sa e , c a ro a r er n , u u ar e n a,

I n so m e c as es th e t h y ro i d a n d l a r y n gea l p i vi l t y ; t llit v i f ;
su er or cer ca a r er o
’
, sa e e e n o o

ar t er i es a r i s e f r o m th e c a r o ti d s e p ar a t e l y o r b y p pi l d; 1 l m t ; pi l v i ; , s na co r ( . ( u ra a er r , s na e n 3 ,

a s h or t c o mm on s t em A l a ry n g ea l b r a n ch i s
.
li g m t m h m; t h mb id m al ; en u nuc , r o o eu s usc e

o f t e n d e t a c h ed f r o m t h e ca ro t i d i n f r o n t o f th e pl i ; mp l ; w m l t i fid
11 ; z s en us t
'
co e xus u us

t id —
, , , ,

t h y ro l aryn g eal a nd en t ers t h e l a ry n x wi t h t h e t vi i ; y z

—ph li ; I t piti t m j ;
-
h m li ;
s e r ra us ce r c s , n i as o o u e ra s ,

s u p e ri o r l a r y n g ea l n er v e Th e p h a r y n g ea l b r a nc h t s e rno c e a cu s re c us ca s an a or

f req
. .
,

u en tl y co m es di r ec t l y f r o m t h e ca r o ti d 2 m h y id ; 3 . p i l ; 4 t , o o- o eu s , a nn c u u s , s e r no

th h y id ; 6 l g lli : 6 7 t h l e - o eu s ,
on us co , ,
ra c e o

5 The a cc e s s o ry th yr o i d ar te ry (A
.
m t id ; S t p z i ; 9 pi li : 1 0 . as o eu s ,
ra e us , s na s ,

th yr e o i de a c a ud a lis ) i s a n i n c o n st a nt vessel Op h ag ; l l t h w ith til g i

(PS us ,
ra c ea , car a no u s

i g m m mb d m
r n u cou s e r a ne an us
whi ch ar ises f r o m the c ar o ti d a t a v a r i l l y (A ft E ll b g i L i
cu ar a er er en er er , n e se r

a b l e di st a n ce behi n d t h e thyr o l ar y n ge a l i g A tl ) -
n
'
s as .

s om eti m es fr om th e l at te r or f r o m th e p ar o
ti d ar ter y I t se n ds b r a n ch es i n t o th e p oste r i o r p ar t o f th e th yr o i d gl a n d a n d
.

det a ch es s m a l l tr a che a l a n d muscul a r twigs I n s om e c a ses it is dist r ib ute d .

chi efl y or e nti r ely t o the a dj a ce n t m us cles .

54 4 B LOOD -
VA S CU L A R S YS T E M OF T HE H O R SE

THE OCCI P I TAL AR TE R Y

The o ccipital ar te ry (A o cci pi t a l is ) is the sec o n d i n si z e of th e ter m i na ls of .

the c ar o tid I t a r ises u s u a l l y ju s t i n f r on t o f t h e i nt er n a l c a r o tid b ut i n s o me c a ses

. ,

4 33 .
— D E r-
: p D I S S E C P I ON
’
or N nc x or H o ns a .

a a E nd s t
o f s e r no -c e ph li
t i pa t o f o m o h y o i d eu s ; c te o th y h y o id eu s ; d t a h e ;
a cus ; b, a n er or r - s rn - ro - r c a

t m p o f t h e l o—
, , , ,

ph g ; f
e , oes o a us ; g, t
ca r n i if
p a t m jo ; h
or m c til g ar ma t id
a e ; i i n te t ns
,
r ec u s ca . n . a r , s u ra c s o eus ,
r ra

v l ; k m l t i fid ; l
e r s a es , u ; tu vi i ;
us , t m p o f p l n i p l ng i s i m q m p l
m l , s ca e nu s n , s e r ra s c er c s o, o, s u s s e us , , o s us , , co exu s

(m t f w h i h i s m v d ) ;
os o c h mb id re ; 8 t ape zi u ; t
o e p i n li t e m i pi li ; l m ll p t o f l i g c h c ;
r r o o eus r s s a s e s s na s u a e ar ar nu z

p fi i l p t l; z
.
.
, , , ,

v, m t id h m as o li ; w o-nt i d p pec t o l ;
u e ra sp pi t ; y a t e i
, a er or ee p l ra :r , su ra s na u s ,
n r or s u er c a ec o ra , sca u ar

t b i t y : I I ti l p
u e ro s , f
, vi l e t b : 2 2 t n v
ar cu ar p e es f m ; 3 tl ;
r o c e s se s o i ;
cer ca v r e rz
c , , ra s e rs e ro c ss o sa e , a as ax s

4 4 j g l
o
,

c mp
,

yi g
v i (r m i d
an
u u ar

ve ; n
m v d); 5
e n mm e

v g y m p th ti t n k ; 7 7 t a h e l a d m
ne r s
a n

a o s —
ti d t y f m w h i h pi e i m ov d t o h ow t h e c
e r re

l a b nc h f
o

a
e

o ti d t y; 8 e
e c
, co

ru
o n c a ro

, ,
r c
ar er

a n
,
ro

usc u
c

r
a

ra
ec

es o
s re

ca r
e s

a r er ,
a

e t ; 1 0 l ft t a h l l y m ph d t ; I I 1 2 d i g a d de nd i ng b n h f i nf i e vi l te y
vi ; —
c u rr n n c rv e e r c ea - uc asce n n n ra c er or c r
, , , sce es o ca ar r

14 ep h a li 20 v t l b n h f sec nd t v t h v i l n ve ; 2 1 ot f ph ni c ne ve ;
l —t
, c c e n , e n ra ra c es o o o se en c er ca er s ,
ro s o re r

£ 2 th o
, i p t l v ;
ra c c or ecv t e t m g u ; 23 m
o ra ne r es u e v e ; 2 4 m ed i a n n
ne r v e o s rr a us a n s ,
u sc u o c u a n eo s n r , er e

25 l ne ve ;
, u nar d i l e ve ; £ 7
r ill y v ; 2 8 d ra a lb nh f r vi l n v ; 2
, ax y n ve ar ne r e , o rs a r a nc es o ce r ca er es a c c ess o r er

( t) ; 2 9
cu p i d p
, su vi l t y ; 3 0 m
er o r o r l b n h f v e t b l a te y ;
ee ce r ca p t i o ( a to m ti c )
a r er , uscu ar ra c o r e ra r r os e r r an s o

b h
r a nc f c i pit l o t y ; 32 v t b l t y ; 33 m
o c a a r er l b n h e o f o i pit l a te y ; 8 4 b li q s piti s
er e ra ar er u sc u a r ra c s cc a r r o uu ca

v i l ve (A ft e E ll nb g B u m T p
. , ,

p t ; 3 5 bl p
os t
, 3 6 t ig f m d
o . ca l b
. h f th i d
an , w ro o rs a ra nc o r ce r ca ne r . r e er e r- a , o .

A t d s P fe d e )
na . e r s .

wi th th a t ar te r y by a c o m m o n t r u n k o f v ar i a bl e l e ngth I t pu rsues a s o m ewh a t .

fl e xu o u s c o u r se t o th e f o ss a a tl a n tis wh e r e i t d i vid es i n t o a n te r i or a nd p o ster i or ,

b r an ch e s I t i s r el a ted supe r fi ci a lly to the sub m a xi ll ar y gl an d a n d the m as to i d o

.

h u me r a l i s a nd deeply to the guttu r a l p o u ch a n d the r ect us c a pi tis a n te r i o r

,
54 6 B L OOD -
V A S CU L A R S YSTE M OF T HE H O R SE

ar tery , a n d th e s pi nal b r an ch si m il a r ly for ms by u n i on w ith its fell o w the mid d l e

S pin al ar t e ry .

The b a sil ar ar te ry (A b a si l a r is cer eb r i ) p a sses f or w ar d i n th e m edi an gr oove

.

o n th e ve n t r a l su r f a ce Of th e m e d ull a a n d p o n s a n d di vi des i n t o t h e tw o p o ste r i o r

cer eb r a l a r te r i es The c o l l a te r a l b r a n ches o f the b a si l ar a re :

.

1 M edull a r y b ra n ches (R a m i m edull a r es ) t e n o r twelve i n n u m be r d is

.
, ,

tr ibuted t o the m edull a Obl on g a t a .

2 P o ste r i o r ce r ebell a r a r te r ies (Aa ce r ebell i c a ud a l es ) w hi ch p a ss o utw ar d

. .

a r o u n d the m edull a behi n d t h e p o n s t o th e ce r eb el lu m t o whi ch t h ey ar e dist r ibuted ,

a fte r givi n g t wi gs t o th e m edull a a n d p o n s .

3 Th e s m a l l a udit or y a r te r y (A a udi tiv a i n t er n a ) a cc o m p a ni es t he eight h

. .

n e r ve t o the i n te r n a l e a r I t Oft e n a r ises f r om th e p o st e r i o r cer eb ell a r

. .

4 A n te r i or ce r ebel l ar a r te r i es (A a ce r eb ell i n a s a l es )
. Th ese ar e ver y v ar i a bl e
. .

i n nu m be r a n d o r igi n The r e a r e Ofte n t w o or th r ee on eit he r side a n d th ey i r e

.

q ue n tly ar ise fr o m the p oste r i or ce r eb r a ls Th ey p a ss o utw ar d i n f r on t of t he

.

p on s a nd supply the a n ter i or p ar t of the ce r eb ellu m .

The p o ster i or c e r e b r a l ar te ri e s (A a c o mm u n i c a n tes c a ud a l es ) di ve r ge at a n

.

a cute a n gle a n d j o i n the p o ste r i or c o mm u n i c a ti n g b r a n ch es o f the i n t e r n a l c a r o ti d

a r te r i es o n the i n fe r i or su r f a ce of the ce r eb r a l pedu n cles They ar e c onn ected by a .

t r a nsve r se b r a n ch a n d b y a n etw or k Of fin e twigs whi ch f or m o ft e n a r et e mi r a bi l e .

THE I N TE RN AL CAR OTI D AR TE R Y (F i g s 4 34 , 4 3 6 4 3 7) . ,

This ar te r y (A c a r o tis i n te r n a ) is s om ewh a t s m a ll e r th a n t h e o c ci pit a l I t

. .

usu a lly ar ises j ust behi n d t h a t a r t e r y c r o sses its d eep f a ce a nd r u ns upw ar d an d

, ,

f or w ar d o n t he guttu r a l p o uch t o the f o r a me n l a ce r um I t i s cl o sel y r el ated t o .

the v a gus n e r ve a n d th e supe r i or cer vi c a l g a n gli on o f th e symp a th eti c n e r ve fib er s ,

f r o m whi ch a cc om p a n y i t I t is c r ossed exter n a ll y by th e n i nt h a nd twelft h

.

c r an i a l n e r ves a nd t he ph a r y n ge a l b r an c h Of th e v a gus I t p a sses t h r o ugh th e .

i nf e r i or pet r os a l si n us a n d e n ter s th e c a ver n o us si n us withi n wh i ch i t f or m s an ,

S sh a ped c ur ve
-
I t i s c o n n ect ed wit h th e Opp o si te a r t er y by a t r a n sver se b r a n ch
.

(A i nt er car oti ca ) wh i ch li es beh i n d th e pi tuit ar y b o dy i n t h e i n ter c av e rn o us

.
,

si n us A b r a n ch (A ca r o ti co b a s i l ar i s) s o m et i mes c o nn ects i t w it h t h e b a si l a r a r te r y
. . .

I t t he n p e r f or a tes t he d u r a m a te r gi ves Off th e p o ste r i or c omm u n i c a ti n g b r a n ch

, ,

a n d p a sses f or w a r d a n d di vi des a t th e si de Of th e Opti c chi a s m a i n t o a n te r i o r

a nd m iddl e ce r eb ra l a r te r i es .

The p o st eri o r c o mmu n i c a ti n g ar te ry (A c o mm u n i c an s p o st e r i or ) tu rn s b a ck

.

w ar d a nd j o i ns the p o ster i or ce r eb r al I t gi ves o ff t h e d e e p c er e b ral arte ry (A

. .

ce r eb r i p r o fu n d a ) whi ch wi n ds a r o u n d th e ce r eb r a l p edu n cl e a n d i s dist r ibut ed

chi efly t o the mid — b r a i n A s m a l l e r c o ll a te r a l b r an ch i s th e an t e r i or ch o r o i d
.

a r te r y (A ch or i o i de a n a s a l is ) wh i ch p a sses a l o n g t h e Opti c t r a c t a n d is dist r ibut ed

.

i n the ch o ro id pl exus Of th e l a te r a l ve n t r i cle .

The an ter i or c ere b ral ar te ry (A ce r eb r i a n te r i or ) u n i tes w i th th e c orr esp o n di n g

.

b r an ch o f the Opp osit e a r te r y a b o ve t h e Opti c ch i a sm a F r o m t hi s j u n cti on pro .

c ee d s th e ar tery o f th e c orpu s c a ll o s um (A c or p or is c a ll o si ) w h i ch t ur n s a r o u n d t h e
.
,

ge n u o f th e c or pus c a l l o su m e nte rs th e g r e a t l o n gitud i n a l fissu r e d ivides i n t o tw o

, ,

b r a n ches an d i s dist r i b uted to the i n n e r a spect of t he ce r eb ra l h e m isphe r es

,
A .

s m a ll a nter i o r m e ni ng e al b r a n ch (A m e n i n ge a n as a l is ) of th e an t e r i or cer eb r a l is
.

dist r ibuted to the an te r i or p ar t o f th e du r a a n d a ssi sts i n f or m i n g a n etw o r k ,

i n the eth m o i d a l f oss a (R ete eth m o id a l e ) a n a st o m o si n g with th e et h m o id a l b r a n ch

,

o f the Op h t h a l mi c ar te r y .

Th e mi dd l e c e r eb ra l ar tery (A ce r eb r i medi a) p a sses o utw a rd i n th e l ate ra l

.

fissu r e (of S ylviu s ) a nd d ivides i n t o b r a n ch es o n the o ut e r su r f a ce o f t h e h e m isphe r e .

Th e arte ri a l c i r cl e Of Wi ll is (C i r culus a r te r i osus ) (Fig 4 3 4 ) is f or med a t th e .

 T HE E XTE R N AL C A R OTI D A R T E R Y 54 7

i n ter pedu n cul ar sp a ce o f th e b a se of t h e b r a i n by th e u n i on o f th e a nt e r i or c ere

b r a l ar ter i es i n fr o n t by the dive r gi n g p o ste r i or ce r eb r a l ar te r ies behi n d a nd
, ,

is c o mpleted l a te r a ll y by th e j u n cti o n o f th e l a tte r wi th th e p oste r i or c o mm u ni

c a ti n g ar te r i es a n d by the i nte r n al c ar o t id I t i s i rr egul ar ly p o lyg on a l i n ou t . ‘

l i ne.

The c r t er i es a re v e r y v a ri a b l e i n a rra n gemen t a nd t h e f o reg o i n g ac co u n t i s a b ri ef

e eb r a l ar ,

s t a t e m e n t o f t h e mo r e u s u a l d i s p os i ti o n o f t h e l a rg er v es s e l s T h e i n t ern a l caroti d ar tery o f t en .

ari s es w i t h t h e o c c i p i t al b y a c o mm o n t ru n k o f v a r i a b l e l e n g t h .

THE E X TE RN AL CAR OTI D AR TE R Y (F i g s 4 3 6, 4 3 7) .

Th is ter y (A c ar ot is ext e r n a ) b y its si z e a n d d ir ecti o n c o n stitutes th e c on

ar .

t i n u a t i o n o f th e c o mm o n c ar o ti d I t p a sses f or w a r d on th e l a t er a l w a ll o f th e
.

ph ar ynx a t th e l o we r b or der Of th e guttur a l p o u ch c o ver ed by t h e sub m a xi l l ar y ,

gl a n d a nd t he s tl m a x il l ar is dig a st r i cus a nd styl o-hy o i deus muscles

-
I t t he n
emer ges betwee n the s tl —
, , .

h y o i deus an d th e gr e a t c orn u Of th e hy o i d b on e p asses ,

upw ar d on t he l a tte r p ar a llel wi t h t h e p o st e r i o r b or der of t h e l o wer jaw an d te rm i n ,

a tes a b o ut tw o i n ches (c a 5 c m ) b el o w t he te m p or o m a xi ll ar y a r ti cul a ti on by di vi d

. .
-

i ng i nt o super fi ci a l temp or a l a n d i n ter n a l m a xi ll ar y b r a n ches I t is c r o ssed deeply .

n e ar its o r igi n by th e supe r i or l ar yn ge a l a nd ph a r yn ge a l b r an ch es of t he v a gus

n e r ve . J ust b ef or e its e m e r ge n ce its supe r fi ci a l f a ce is c r o ssed by th e h yp o gl oss a l

n e r ve a n d the gl o ss o ph ar yn ge a l n e r ve p as ses o ve r its i nn er sur f a ce at t he ve n t r al
,
-

b or der o f the gr e a t c or n u Th e ch i ef c o ll at er a l b r a n ches ar e t h e m a sset e r i c ex

.
,

ter n a l m a xi ll ar y a nd p o ster i or a ur i cul ar I t a ls o fur ni shes v ar i a ble b r a n ches t o

, .

t h e s ubm a xi ll ar y a n d p ar o ti d gl a n ds t he gutt ur a l p o uch an d th e ph ar y n ge a l , ,

l ymph gl a n ds a s wel l as t w i gs t o s o me a dj a ce n t m uscl es

, .

1 The i nf e ri or ma s s e te ri c or m a xi ll o muscul ar a r t er y (A m a sset er i c a i n fe r i or )

.
-
.

i s gi ve n Off f r o m t h e ext er na l c ar o t i d at its e m e r ge n ce f r om b e n e a th the styl o

hy o i deus I t p a sses d o wn w a r d a n d sl ightl y for w ar d u n der c o v er of th e p a r otid
gl an d an d o ve r t he te n d o n Of i n se r ti on of t h e st er n o—
.

ceph a li cus to th e p o st e r i or
b o r de r of t h e m an d i b le a nd a ppe a r s o n t h e m a ssete r m uscl e i n t o w hi ch i t plu nges ,

a fte r a sh o r t c o ur se o n its su r f a ce I t gi ves b r a n ches a ls o t o the i n ter n a l pt e r yg o i d

.

a n d st l m a xi l l ar is muscles a n d t h e p a r ot i d gl a n d
-
.

2 The e xt e rn al m ax ill ar y , f a ci al or s ubm axi l l ar y ar tery (A m a xi ll ar is ext er n a )

1
.
, .

ar ises f r o m the ext e r n a l c ar o ti d o n t h e i nn e r sur f a ce Of t h e p o ste r i or belly o f the d i

g a st r i cus (Fi g I t r u n s d o w n w a r d a n d f or w ar d o n th e l a t e ra l w a l l of t h e
ph ar y nx a c r o ss t he deep f a ce of t h e stl —
.

hy o id eus t o w ar d t he gr e a t c or n u Of
the hy o i d b o n e a cc o m p a ni e d b y t he gl o ss o ph a r y n ge a l n er ve i n fr on t a nd th e h y
,
-

p og l ossa l n e r ve behi n d After gi vi n g Off t h e li n gu a l a r te r y a t th e p o ste r i or b o r der

.

o f t he g r e a t c or n u it i n cl i n es m or e v e n tr a l l v o n t h e i nn e r su r f a ce o f t he i n t er n al
,

pte r yg o i d m uscl e c r o sses o ver t he h y o gl os s u s m uscle t he h yp o gl oss a l n e r ve t h e

,
-
, ,

sub m axi ll ar y du ct a n d th e i n t er m edi a t e t e n d o n o f t h e di g a st r i cus a n d t u rn s for

, ,

w ar d i n the sub m a xi ll a r y sp a ce He r e i t li es o n th e l o wer p a r t of th e i n te r n a l

.

pte r yg o i d musc l e a n d is r el a ted i n te r n a l ly t o th e sub m a xi ll ar y ly m ph gl a n ds

, ,

a b o ve t o the an t e r i o r b elly o f th e di g a st r i cus a n d bel o w t o th e h om o n y m o us vei n ,

.

At t he a n te r i o r b or de r Of t he m a ssete r i t t ur n s ar o u n d th e l o wer b o r der of th e ja w

a nd r u ns upw ar d on t h e f a ce i n f r o n t o f t h a t m uscle
2
At t he t ur n t he a r t e r y i s .

i n f r o n t t h e vei n i n the mi ddle a n d t he p a r o t i d du ct p o st e r i or

, ,
Th e a r t e r y an d .

vei n p a ss upw ar d a l o n g th e a nt e r i o r b o r de r Of th e m a ssete r u n de r c o ve r of t he ,

f a ci a l p a nni cul us a n d t he zyg o m a ti cus an d a r e c r o ssed supe r fi ci a lly by b r a n ch es ,

B y s o m e a u t h o rs t h e
1 t er m f ac i a l i s a p p li ed to t h e ar t ery o nl y a f t er i t t u r ns a r ou n d th e l o w er
b ord er o f t h e ja w .

2
Th e a rt ery i s c o n v e ni en tl y p l ac e d at i ts i nfl e c ti o n for t aki n g th e p ul s e, i
s nc e i t is su p er
fi c i a l a nd li e s di r e c tl y o n t h e b o ne .
54 8 B LOOD—
V A S C U L A R S YS T E M OF T HE H OR S E

Of th e f a ci a l n e r ve a n d d eeply by th e p a r oti d du ct The a r te r y t e r mi na tes o ve r .

t he l ev ta or l a bi i supe r i o r i s p r o p r i us by di vi di ng i nt o t he d or s a l n a s a l a n d the an gu
l a r a r te r y Of the eye The chi ef b r a n ches Of the exte r n a l m axi l l ar y ar e as f o ll o ws :
.

Th e ph y g l t y (A p a l a t i n a a sce n de n s ) ar ises usu a ll y beh i n d th e

( )
1 a r n e a ar e r .

styl o ph a r y n geus p a sses bet w ee n t h a t m uscle a n d the gr e a t c o rn u a n d r u n s for

-
, ,

w ar d On the l a te r a l w a ll o f the ph ar y nx u n de r t h e el a sti c ph a r y nge a l f a sci a I t i s .

dist r i buted to the s o ft p a l a te ph a r y nx a n d t on si l , ,

.

Th e l gu l t y ( A l i gu a lis ) is a l a r ge b r a n ch whi ch d ive r ges f r o m the

()2 i n a a r e r n .

p ar e n t t r u n k a t a n a cute a n gl e r u n s a l o n g the ve n t ra l b o r de r o f th e g r e a t c o r n u
—
,

Of t he h yo id b o n e a n d di ps u n de r the h y g l os s u s m uscle
o ,
I t the n p a sses a c r o ss .

FI G . 4 35 .
—S UP F C AL H AD O H O S
ER I I MO T H P ANN CU L U
D rs s n c r ro x R m or E F R E . S or T E I S IS a ov a n .

D il t t
a ,
i p i ; b l v t l b ii p i i p p i ; l v t
a a o r na r s su er or l b i li ; d d il t t
, e i
a or a su er or s ro r us c, e a or n as o - a a s , a a or na r s

l t li ; b i t ; f z y g m ti ; g d p
a e ra s e, ucc na o r l b ii i f i i ; h t mp f t t o a g li i ; i m
c us e re s s o r a n er o r s s u o r e ra c or a n u or s as

t l O— i
, , , ,

se t ; k k
er t l i ; I sc u l
u ar s p fi i l ; m z y g m ti
sc u i l i ;
u p t id i l i ;
a u r c u a r es su er c a es o a c o -a u r c u a r s n, a ro o -a u r c u a r s o,

— ph li ; p t d
, . , ,

t y l m ill i ; p t f p; q m h y id '
s e- ax ar s , s e rn o c e ; pl i ; at d
c us f pl i d , en on o '
, o o- o eu s r , s e n us s, en on o s e n tts an

t ra c h l m t i l
e o- ; t as g t p ilii ;
o t eu s bi
, l i i ; p ti d g l d ; w z y g m ti
c o rru a or s u h; ti f m
e rc u , or cu ar s or s v, a ro a n , o a c a rc r , sc u or

car til g ; y pp
a e m mi ,
f u t il ; 1 f i l v ; 2 p i b
e r co l v ; 8 i f i b
s s u re o no s l v ; 4
r , ac a ne r e , su er or ucc a ne r e ,
n er or ucc a ne r e ,

t r a nsv f i l
e rs e v ;5 vi l b
ac a h f f i l
ne r e v ;6 p t i, i l b
cer h f
ca d vi l v ;
ra n c o ac a ne r e , os e r o r au r c u a r ra n c o se c o n ce r ca ne r e
’
7 cu t vi l b
a ne o u s h f m : 8 i f t
c er ca hl ra n c v ; 9 f t l v ; 10 l i m l v ;
o sa e d f
, n ra ro c e a r ne r e ,
ro n a ne r e , acr a ne r e en o

i
tu r c u O- l p lp b l av ; 11 i f i m t i t y d v i ; 12 t v
e ra ne r e , f i l t y d v i ; 13 f i l
n er or as se e r c a r e r an e n ,
r a ns e rs e ac a a r er an e n , ac a

t
tr e r y; 14 i f i l bi l t y ; 1 5 p i l b i l t y ; 1 6 l t l
, n er or a a ar er l t y: 17 d l ,
l t y: 18
su er or a a a r er , a e ra na s a ar er , o rs a nas a ar er ,

an g l t y f th y : 1 9 p t i
u a r a r er o i l e t y ; 20 2 1 j g l v i ; 22 t
e e l m ill y v i ; 2 8
os er o r aur cu a r a r er u u ar e n e x e r na ax ar e n

i g i f m (A ft E ll b g B m T p A t d P f d )
. , , , ,

g re a t i l v i ; 2 4 p ti d d t ; 2
au r cu a r e n , a ro uc or n o sa e . er en er e r- au , o . na . . er es .

the ke r a t o hy o ideus tu r ns i n w a r d u n de r t h e i nter c or n u al j o i n t of the hy o id b o n e

-

a n d r u n s f o r w a r d i n the t on gue b etwee n the h y o— —

, ,

g l os s u s a n d ge n i o gl o ssu s This .

p a r t (A p r o fu n d a li n gu ae ) is fl e xu o u s a n d i s a c c o m p a n i ed by b r a n ches Of t he hyp o
.

gl o s s a l a n d li ngu a l n e r ves I t is the chi ef ar te r y o f the t o ngue a n d an a st o mo ses .

,

wi th t h e o pp osi te ar te r y a n d the su bli n gu a l .

(3 ) Th e sub li n gu a l a rtery (A subl i n gu a lis ) is a s m a l le r vessel whi ch ar ises a t .

t h e a nte r i o r e x t r e m ity o f t he sub m a xi ll a r y gl a n d (Fi g I t p a sses f o r w a r d o n t h e .

a n te r i o r b el ly o f the dig a st r i cus betwee n th e r a m us o f the m a n dibl e a n d th e myl o

hy o ideu s pe rfo r a te s the l a tt e r r u n s a l o ng the l o w e r b o r de r Of t he sub li n gu a l gl a n d

, , ,

an d ra m ifies i n t he mu c o u s m e m b r a n e o f the an te r i o r p a r t Of the fl oo r o f t h e m o uth .

550 B L OOD -
V AS C UL AR S YS TE M or T HE H ORS E

(5) The s upe ri or l a b i al artery (A l a bi a lis supe r i o r ) a r ises fr o m th e f a ci a l i n

.

f r o nt o f the f a ci a l c r est (Fig . I t p a sses f o r w a r d u n de r the di l a t a t o r na r is l a t ~

er a l i s a n d lev a t o r na s o l a bi a lis t o the uppe r li p gives twigs to the uppe r p a r t o f the ,

cheek a nd the l a te r a l n a s a l r egi on a nd r a m i fies i n the uppe r lip a n a st o m o si n g with

the o pp osite a r te r y a n d the p a l a t o—
, ,

l a bi a l .

(6) The l ate ral na s a l ar te ry (A l a te r a lis n a si ) a r ises usu a lly a littl e a b o ve th e

.

p r ecedi ng one a nd r u n s f or w a r d p a r a llel with i t a n d u nde r th e lev a t or n a s o l a bi a lis

,

t o the n ost r i l (Fig . I t supplies b r a n ches t o the l a ter a l na s a l r egi o n a nd th e

n o st r i l .

T h e v es s el i s o f t e n d o u b l e I t m a y a r i s e f ro m th e s u p er i o r l a b i a l a t t h e p o i n t o f b i f u rc a t i o n
.
_

o f th e f a c i a l o r w i t h t h e d o rs a l n as a l f r o m t h e i nf r a or b i t a l a r t er y (as i n t h e o x) I n s o m e c as es .

i t g i v es Off a d o rs a l n a s a l b ra nc h .

(7) The d or s al n a s al arte ry (A d o r s a l is n a si ) ar ises on th e lev a t or l a b i i supe r i

.

o r is p r o p r i us a n d p a sses f or w a r d u n de r t he lev a t or na s o l a bi a lis to th e d o r su m n a si

(Fi g .

(8) The an gul ar ar tery of th e e ye (A an gul ar is o cul i ) r u n s t o w a r d th e i n te r n a l

.

c a nthus o f th e eye whe r e i t an a st o m o ses with the or bit a l b r a n ch (R a mus m a l ar is )

,

o f the i nfr a o r bi t a l a r te r y (Fi g .

I n a dditi on t o the p r ec edi n g u n n am ed b r a n ch es ar e suppl i ed to th e su b ma x il

,

l a r y s a liv ar y gl a n d a n d the subm a xi ll a r y l ymph gl an ds .

3 The p o s te r i o r a ur i c u l ar ar te ry (A a ur i cu l a r is p o ster i or ) ar i ses a t a n a cute

. .

a n gl e f r o m the exte r n a l c ar o ti d j ust a b o ve th e or igi n o f the m a ssete r i c I t p a sses .

upw ar d u n der c o ve r o f the p a r o ti d gl a n d t o wh i ch i t gives b r a n ches a n d divid es , ,

i n t o seve r a l b r an ches whi ch s uppl y th e ski n an d muscl es of the exte rn a l ear (Fig .

The po s te r i or b ranch p a sses t o th e po ste r i or p a r t of t he b a se o f t he ear ,

whe r e it divides i nt o tw o b r a n ch es ; o f th ese o n e (R a mus i nte rm edius ) p a sses up th e ,

c o n vex sur f a ce of the exte rn a l ear to the a pex whi le th e o the r (R a mus m edi a l is ) ,

w i n ds a r o u n d t o the a nte r i o r (i nn e r ) b o r d e r a n d f o r ms a n ar ch w ith th e i n te r ,

medi a te b r an ch The e xterna l b r a n ch (R a m us l a ter a lis ) p a sses u p the p o ste r i o r

.

(exte r n a l ) b o r de r Of the e a r an d f or m s a n ar ch wi th th e i n te r m edi a te b r a n ch .

The d e e p b r an c h (A a ur i cul ar is p r o f u n d a ) e n te r s t h e i n t e r v a l b etwee n th e exte r

.

n al a udit or y c a n a l a n d m a st o i d p r o c ess an d p a sses th r ou gh a n o pe n i n g i n t o the

,

i nter i o r of th e e x te r n a l ear a n d r a m i fi es i n th e S ki n whi ch li n es i t I t gi ves off th e .

s tyl o m a sto id a r te ry , whi ch p a sses th r o ugh the styl om a st o i d f o ra m e n i n t o th e t y m

p a n um f or ms a n ar ch a ro u n d t he m e m b r a n a ty m p a ni a nd suppl i es the m iddl e ea r

, ,

a nd its muscles .

THE SUP E R F I CI AL TE MP OR AL AR TE R Y

This ar te r y (A t e m p or a lis s u p e rfi c i a l i s ) is m u ch th e sm a lle r of the tw o t e r m i na l

.

b r an ches o f th e exte r n a l c ar o ti d I t p a sses upw a r d b ehi n d the p o ste r i o r b o r de r o f

.

the r a mus of the ma n di ble u n de r c o ve r o f th e p a r o tid gl a n d a n d d ivides b el o w ,

the level o f the c on dyle i nt o th e a nte r i or a u r i cul a r a n d t r an sve r se f a ci a l ar te r i es .

I t i s c r o ssed supe r fi ci a lly by th e f a ci a l n e r ve .

The a nte r i o r a ur i cul ar art ery (A a u r i cu l ar is a n te r i or ) p a sses upw a r d behi n d

.

t he te m p or o m and i bul a r a r ti cul a ti o n u n de r co ve r o f the p ar o ti d gla nd c r osses th e

-
,

z yg o m ati c ar ch a n d r e a ch es th e te m p o r a l is m uscl e I t is c ro ssed deeply a t its

,
.

o r igi n by t he supe r fi ci a l te m p o ra l n e r ve a n d is a cc o m p a n i ed by a s a tel lite vei n

a n d t he a u r i cu l o p a l peb r a l b r a n ch o f th e f a ci a l n e r ve
-
I t is dist r i but ed t o th e .

S ki n a n d the te m p o r a l a n d a n t e r i o r a u r i cul a r m uscles a n d se n ds a b r a n ch th r o ugh ,

the c o n ch a l c ar ti l a ge t o th e ski n wh i ch li n es i t C o ll a te r a l twigs a r e d et a ch ed t o .

the p a r o ti d gl a n d a n d a n a n te r i or b r a n ch an a st o m o ses wi th the sup r aor bi t a l

,

a r te r y A b r a n ch s o m eti m es p a sses i n t o the p a r i et o te m p or a l c a na l a n d a n as t o

.
-

m o ses w it h the p o ste r i o r m e n i n ge a l (m a st o id ) a r te r y .

T h e tr an sve r s e f a ci al arte ry (A t r a nsve r s a f a ciei ) is l a r ge r t h a n the p r e cedi n g

. .
 T HE I N T E R N A L M AXI L L A R Y A R T E R Y 551

It tu r n s a r o u n d the n eck b el o w th e c o ndyl e o f th e m an di bl e an d eme r ges f r o m b e

n e a th th e p ar o ti d gl a n d
(Fi g I t t he n p a sses f o r w a r d a sh o r t dist an ce on .

t he m a ssete r a b o ut h a lf an i n ch bel o w th e zyg o m a ti c ar ch a nd plu nges i n t o th e

muscl e i n whi ch i t c o mm on ly divides i n t o tw o chi ef b r a n ches I t i s a ec om
, .

p ani e d b y a vei n a n d a b r a n ch o f the supe r fi ci a l te m p o r a l n e r ve I t suppl ies th e .

H OR S
FI G . 4 37 .
—
D P D EE ISSE CT ON I OF HE A D OF‘ E .

Th l ft m e f th m d ib l
e d t
ra t
us o t d w ith it h v b
e an m v d S t mp
e an f s ru c u res c o n n ec e a e ee n re o e . a , a, u s o

sty l g l o ; b g i gl
os su s ; g i h y i d ; d m h y i d ; k t h y i d ; f th y h y id ; g t h y
, en o- ossu s c, e n o- o e us , o o- o eu s e, e ra o - o eu s ,
ro - o eu s , ro

ph y g ; h i t h y i d ; i t
ar n e us , th y
c r c o- id ; l th y id g l d ; m i ph y g ;
ro e us , p l ti
s e r no - d ro e us c, ro an , c r co - ar n eu s n, a a nu s a n

p l t ph y g ; pt y g i d
a a o- ar n t eus ; p t o, p l ti ; q l v t p l ti ; t mp li ;
er o eus e x e r n u s t p t , e nso r a a , e a or a a r , e o ra s s , r ec us c a . an .

m j ; t b li q
a or , p ot ; g u tt l p h;
u us ca g . t an f h y id b
. u p t i
, t m it y f w h i h i
u ra ouc re a c o rnu o o o ne , os e r o r e x re o c s

re m v d o d i d i t d b y d tt d li
e an n ; p iti n f m l l
ca e d tt d li
o ; e th y id ; y t
ne g ; os o o s a c o r nu o e ne I ro c o rnu on ue 2

t i p i l l f ft p l t ; 1 p fi i l t m p l v ; 2 h d t y m p i ; 3 t mp f i f i l v l
, , , .

a n er or ar o so a a e , su er c a v ; e o ra ne r e , c or a an , s u o n er o r a eo a r n e r e

4 4 li g l
.
, nv i t m d i t p t m v d ; 5 d p t mp l v ; m t i
ua ner e, n er e a e ar v ; 7 b i t re v ;
o e , ee e o ra ne r e a s s e e r c ne r e , u c c na o r n e r e

8 g t p l ti
re a v ; 9 i f b it l v ; 1 0 ph p l ti
a a ne n e r e d p t i
n ra o r l v ; 1 1 pi l a ne r y e s e no a a ne a n os e r o r n a s a ne r es s na a c c ess o r

v ; 1 5 v g —y mp th t i t k ;
, , , ,

n v ; 1 2 v g ; 1 3 ph y g l b
er e , a ush f v g : 1 4
, p i l y ng l
ar n ea r a nc o a us , su er o r ar ea ne r e , a o s a e c ru n

y m p t h ti
s it h p i
a evi l g g li
c ,
w lit t l f t h b k ; 1 7 g l
su er o r c er ph y g l v ; 1 8 ph y g l
ca an on a e ur er ac , os so - ar n ea ner e , ar n ea

an d 1 9 li g lb n h f gl ua ph y g l ; 2 0 h y p g l
ra n c es o l v ; 2 1 l ft
o s s o- t v ; 22 mm
ar n ti d
ea o o ss a ne r e e r ec u r re n ne r e co o n c a ro

h ; 2 4 th y —
, , , ,

t y ; 2 3 p ti d b l y g l t y; l y g l t y ; 25 i p it l t y ; 2 6 i t l
ti d t y ; 2 8 —
a r er , a ro r a nc , ro ar n ea a r er ar n ea ar er , oc c a a r er ,
n e r na

c a roti d t y ; 2 7 t ar er l , 30 t
e x e r na l m ill y t y ; 2 9 ph y g l t y ; 3 1 li g l
c a ro a r er , ex e r na ax ar a r er , ar n ea a r er , n ua

t y ; 32 i t
a r er l m ill y t y ; 3 3 t m p f i f i
,
n e r na ax lv l ar t y ; 8 4 mi d d l m i g l t y ; 3 5
ar er , s u o n er or a eo a r a r e r , e en n ea a r er ,

d p t mp
ee l t y ; 36 b i t
e o ra t y ; 3 7 p l ti
a r er t y ; 38
, d f i t
u cc n a o r l m ill y t y ; 3 9 a r er . a a ne ar er , en o n e r na ax ar ar er ,

rig h t t l m ill y t y ; 4 0 t llit v i f 3 9 ; 4 1 i g h t p ti d d t ; 4

e x e r na ax ar ar er bm ill y l y m ph g l d ;
, sa e e e n o , r a ro uc 2
su ax ar an s

4 3 p h y g l l y m ph g l d ; 4 4 t
ar n ea h ; 4 5 w i g f tl ; 4 6 d tt d li
an s i d i ti g tli f b m i l l y
ra c ea n o a as o e ne n ca n ou ne o su ax ar

i m l g l d (A ft E ll b g — B m T p A t d Pf d )
, , , ,

gl d ; 47 l
an , ac r a an . er en er er au , o . na . . er es .

m assete r a nd t h e ski n o f this r egi on an d a na st o mo ses wi th the ext e r n a l m axil ,

l ar y a nd p oste r i or deep tem por al a r t er i es

'

Th e p u l s e m a y u su a l l y b e f e l t i n t hi s a r t ery as i t p a s s es b e l o w th e a r ti c u l a ti on o f t h e ja w .

THE I N TE RN AL M AX I LLAR Y AR TE R Y (F i g s 4 37 , 4 38, 4 39) .

Th is ar te r y (A m a xi ll a ris i n te r n a ) is mu ch th e l ar ge r of the tw o te r m i na l
.

b r a n ch es Of th e exte r n a l c ar o t id I t begi n s a t the i nne r side of the p oste r i or b or de r .

552 B L OOD —
VA S C U L A R S Y S T E M OF T H E H OR S E

of th e m a n dible ab o ut tw o i n ches (c a 5 cm ) b el o w t h e a r ti cul at i on of t h e ja w . .

a n d e n ds i n th e a n te r i o r p a r t of th e p t e r y g o p a l a ti n e f o ss a On a cc o u nt o f its -
.

c o m plex c o u r se a n d the l a r ge n u m be r o f b r a n ches give n Off it is c o n ve n ie n t t o divide

i t i n t o th r ee p a r ts
The fir st p ar t is m u ch the l on gest f or m s a n S—
.

S h a ped cu r ve a n d i s i n gr e a t , ,

p ar t i n c o n t a ct w i t h the guttu r a l p ou ch I t p a sses upw ar d a n d f o r w a r d o n the .

i nn e r su r fa ce of th e m a n dible a dist a n ce of a b o ut a n i n ch (ca 2 to 3 c m ) an d i s . .

r el a ted he r e t o the vei n whi ch i s ve n t r a l I t the n tu r n s i n w a r d bel o w th e ext e r n a l

,
.

pte r yg o id muscle a n d the i nf e r i or m a xill ar y n e r ve p a sses b etwee n th a t muscle ,

a n d the te n s o r p a l a t i a n d r u n s f o r w a r d ,

t o e n te r t he a l a r (pt e r yg o id ) f o r a m e n .

This p ar t gi ves o ff th e f o ll o wi n g b r a n ch es :
1 T he i nf e ri or al ve o l ar o r d e n ta l .

ar t e ry (A a lve o l ar i s I n a n di b u l az s in . .

fer i or ) p a sses d o w n w a r d a n d f or w a r d
with the h om o n y m o us v ei n a n d n e r ve ,

bei n g at fi r st betwee n th e exte r n a l a nd

i nte r na l pter yg o i d muscl es t he n b etween ,

the l atter a n d the r am us of t he m a n di ble .

I t e n te r s t he m a n di bul ar f o r a m e n p a sses ,

d o w n w ar d a n d f or w ar d i n t he m a n d ib ul ar
c a n a l a nd t er m i n a t es a t t he m e n t a l f or a ,

me n by di vidi n g i n t o me n t a l a n d i n cis o r
b r a n ches The m e n tal b r an c h (A men . .

t a lis ) e m e r ges th r o ugh th e m e nt a l f or a

m en a n d a n a st om o ses i n t he l ow e r li p
wi th th e Opp osite a r te r y a n d th e i n fer i or
l a bi a l T he i n ci s o r b r a n ch c o n ti n ues for .

w ar d i h th e b o n e suppl i es twigs t o the

4 38 —
,
F R HT E OF H O S
I G . .

c a n i n e a nd l I l Cl S OI t eeth a n d a n ast o m o ses

IG YE R E . ' ’

b l v t
,
R m t f i bit na n s r l
'
e

li i fei ; d Rif
a e o er or a e a or a

ii Wl th l tS fell o w Of th e Opp OS l te S l ae C OI
l

b pei i ;
r a? s u b l iqr or s c, o us oc u n r or , ec us
’

ocu li i f i ; n er or t li t e ; f
, t l a te r a l b r an ches ar e det a ched t o th e pt er y
r ec us oc u ex e r nu s . rec us

O culi p i ; g l ; y su er or ; h l i m l g Ol d a nd m y l o h V Ol Cl m uscl es a n d W l thl l l

, s c e ra ,
’
c o r ne a , ac r a -

gl d; i f
an t l v ; k f t l t y; 1 b
ro n a ne r h e ro n a a r er ra n c
t he b on e t o t h e teeth a lve o l ar pe ri o ste u m
, , ,

o f l im l ac r v t gl d ; m l im l t y ;
a ne r e o an , acr a a r er n, : ,

zy g m ti o v ; a b c h Of ne r ph t h l mi
e t y ; th e gu m s a n d the sp o ngy S ubst a n ce Of t h e
0 , ra nc o a c ar er
,
p b h f r a nc l m t o v t Ob li qocu o li o or ne r e o u us oc u
,

i f i ; q m ill y w ;
n er o r , i f b it l
ax v ;
ar
m a n di bl e
ne e r, n ra o r a ne r e

s ,p t i l
os e r o r v ; t g t p l ti n as a v ; ne r 2 Th e Pte rn i d ar t e ri e s , tw o o r
e ,
re a a a ne ne r e

14, s m ll p l ti a v ; i t
a a l m ill y t y ; three i n n umbe r a re dist r ib uted t o th e
ne ne r e
‘
U, n e rn a ax ar a r er

w b i t t y (
u c c na o r t) ; i f b it l t y ;
ar er cu r n ra o r a a r er
I d a n d te n s o r a n d lev a t o r p a l a t i
, .

t
,

r
'
m l t a ar ar e r p h p l t i t t p er n e no
, y; y y; g , s a a ne ar er r ea

p l ti
a a t y; ne m ll p l ti
ar er ( t ph y li ) muscles s a a a ne or s a ne .

t y ; 1 p t i d p t mp l t y ; 2 3
a r er , os e r o r
3 T h e tym p an i c ar te ry is a ve r y
ee e o ra ar er , ,

s t mp f b i t l m g i ; 4 f i l
u s o or a t ; 5 t mp l ar n ac a c r es e o ra
s ma l l vessel W t h p asses a l o n g th e
, ,

f o ss a
; f m l m
o ra b it l e ; 7 en t i d f
ace ru or a . a n e r or en o

l
a ar l : S p
c a na t i Op i g of
. m ( A f
os e r o rt E ust a ch i a n tube t o th e pet r o ty xn p a n i c
en n sa e . er -

E ll b g enm L m mg A l l ” )
er e r' e r
'
s
fi ss ur e (of G l a se r ) a n d e n te r s th e mi ddl e
e ar .

4
The midd l e m e ni n g e a l ar te ry (A m e n i n ge a medi a ) a r ises be n e ath th e b u c
.
.

c i na to r n e r ve w he r e t h e i n te r n a l m a xi ll ar y tu r n s f o r w a r d I t p a sses b a ckw a r d .

a c r o s s t he te m p o r a l wi n g o f the sph e n o i d t o t h e a n te r o ext e r n a l p a r t (f or am e n -

spi no sum ) of t he f o r a m e n l a ce r u m E n te r i n g the c r a n i u m i t di vid es i n t o b r a n ches .

,

w hi ch c o u r se i n th e g r o o ves o n th e t e m p or a l a n d p a r i et a l b o n es a n d supply the

d u r a m a te r I t a na s to m oses w it h t h e p ost er i o r m e n i n ge a l
.
.

Th e s i z e o f th i s a r t e ry is v a ri a b l e , a nd is i n i n v e rs e ra ti o to tha t of th e p os t eri o r me n i n gea l .

5 . Th e p o ste r i o r d e e p te mp o r a l ar e r t y (A . temp o r a lis p r o fu n d a a b or a l i s )

 554 B L OO D V A S C U L A R -
S YSTE M or T HE H OR S E

pe r i or bit a a l o ng the o ute r edge of the lev a t or p a lpeb r ae supe r i or is t o t he l a c r i m a l

gl a n d i n whi ch i t i s chi efly dist r i buted I t a ls o se n ds twigs t o th e upper eyel id
,
. .

(c ) M u scul ar b ran c h e s (R am i m uscul ar es ) supply th e o r bi t a l muscles the .

pe r i or bit a the thi r d eyel id a nd the c on j u n ctiv a

, ,
.

(d ) Cil i ar y b ran ch e s (Aa ci l i a res ) tw o sets o f ver y sl e n de r a r te r i es a r ise .

, ,

f r o m t he o phth a l m i c di r ect a n d f r om the m uscu l ar b r a n ches Th e a n te r i or cili ar y .

a r te r i es (A a c i l i a r i e s a n te r i o r es ) pi e r ce t he scl e r a i n f r o n t o f the equ a t o r a n d r a mify

.

chi efl y i n the ci li a r y b o dy a n d the i r is Th e p o ste r i or ci li ar y a r te r i es (Aa ci l i ar es . .

p oste r i or es ) pi e r ce the p o ste r i o r p a r t of the scle ra ; mo st of t he m r a m i fy i n the

"
ch or o id c oa t a s the S h o r t ci li ar y a r te r ies b ut t w o o f l a r ger S i ze th e l on g ci li a r y , ,

FI G . 44 0 .
—A
TTAL S E CT I ON O H AD O H O S C U T A L l I T o H R G H T o r T H M nr N P LAN E
S GI F E F R E ,
l
'' ‘
LE T E I E E A .

1 S ki n ; 2 , al b n ; 3 f t l b o ; 4 pa i t l b e ;
,
n as te t i u m e m ; 6
o e , i pit l b n ;
ro n a ne , r e a on n or oss u , o cc a o e

sph n i d b ; 7 h d p l t ; 8 p m ill ; 9 m d i b l ; 1 0 h y o i d b e ; 1 1 pt m b et w ee n f o t l i nus e ;

e o o ne , ar a a e ,
re ax a , an e , on , se u r n a s s

12 l, til g : I 8 d il t t n i s t n v
a a r ca r a e ; 1 , pt m i w ith v
a a s ple u
or ; I 6 p l a te l b i l a t y ;
ar ra s e rs u s se u n as e nou x se s ,
a - a a r er

pp d l wu pt l b n h o f 1 5 ; 1 7 ept l b n h f sph e n p l a ti ne a te y a nd s t llit ve

er an o er se a ra c es ,
s a ra c o o a r r a e e in

18 pt l b
se h af th m id l r a nc t y 1 9 ph n i d l i n ; 2 0 g tt l po h ; 2 1 ph y ; 2 2 ph y g l
o e o a a r er
'
s e o a s us u u ra uc ar nx ar n ea

o ifi
, , , , ,

r f E
ce t h i n t b ; 2 8 po t o na i : 2 4 s ft p l t ; 2 6 p l ti
o us ac a u e m l ; 2 6 ph y n g l m l e ;
, s e ri r r s , o a a e , a a nus us c e , ar ea u sc s

27 ,
ph g ; 2 8 d tte d li i nd i ti ng p iti
(e s o a us , f p te i
o pill f ft p l te ; 2 9 l m i n ;
ne a
ca h of i c id os on o os r or ar o so a a , a a rc cr o

C til g e ; S O y t e i d
ar a t n v u s m l ; 3 1 pi g l tti ; 3 2 b d y f t h y i d c til a g e ; 3 3 v l p o
, ar no eu s ra s e rs usc e , e o s ,
o o ro ar , oca r c es s

a nd d ; 34
co r y t n id til a g e ; 8 6 l t a l ve nt i l e f l y n ;
, ar e o car t h ea ; 3 7 ve n t l t i g h t m c l es o f h d ;
, a er r c o ar x ra c ,
ra s ra us ea

88 l g s on lli ; 3 9 a tl ; 4 0 a i ; 4 1 l i g n h ; 4 2 d
u co l p i n l m les ; 43 m l f e t
as x s l ; 44 uc ze o rs a s a us c u sc es o x e r na ear

m y l h y o id e s ; 4 7 g e n i —h y id u ; 4 8 g ni —
, , , ,
.
, , ,

d t o h y id ; 4 5 to g
i f i ; 60 l ng it d p i ; 6 1 h y —
o mo an s ern ;
- o e us , gln ; 4 9 10 n g i t d i na l i
ue o- u , o o e s , e o ossu s , u s

n er o r , o p i g l t ti
u ; 62. hin su d m e t li s m
er or l ; 63 v n p l e us o f h d
, o e o c us , c an n a us c e , e o us x ar

p l t ; 64 c p
a a e ll u m ; 66 sept m p ll u c i d m ;
, or us ca f ni ; 67 th l m ; 68 pi n l b d y ; 69 o po a
os , u e u or x , a a us , ea o , c r r

q d i g mi n ;
ua r e b l p ed n l ;a co p m mm ill a e ; 6 2 p it it y b d y ; 63
c e re ra h i ma pti
u c e m; i nte r us a r , u ar o , c as o cu r

tid t y ;
c a ro m d ll Ob l
ar er g t a ; 66 i t e v e t i el fo m ; u ai nf m l i b l m ;
on th i d v t i l ;
a , n r n r cu ar ra en u u u r en r c e

ce b rel q d t ; 7 0 nt i m d ll y v l m ; 7 1 fo th v t i l ; 7 2 p t i m d ll y v l m ; 73 b a il
ra a ue uc , a er or e u ar e u , ur en r c e , os er or e u ar e u ,
s ar

t y ; 7 4 p i l d ; 7 5 t h m i d l v ; 7 6 pt l b n h f p t e i n l n v ;
a r er , s na co r , e b n h f s m t
o a ne r e , se a ra c o os r or as a er e ra c o a e o

o gar fJn o b ; 77 l f t y n v t o g n o f J a b o n ; 78 nas l b a nc h es f p a l a ti ne a te y (A fte E ll n

aco so n ,
o ac or er e o r a co s , a r o r r . r e

b ge i n L i
er r, i ng A tl ) e se r
'
s as .

ar te r i es r u n f or w a r d o n e o n e a ch si de betwee n th e s cl e r a a n d ch or o i d t o th e
, , ,

pe r ipher y o f th e i r is He r e t hey di vi de i n t o b r an ches wh i ch a n a st om ose a nd f or m

.

a ci r cl e (C i r culus i r i dis m a j or ) F r o m t his sec on d a r y b r a n ch es a r e det a ch ed whi ch .

f or m a sec on d ci r cle a r o u n d the pupi l (C i r cul us i r idis m i nor ) .

(6 ) Th e c e n tr a l a rte ry o f th e r e ti na (Ar te r i a ce n t r a lis r eti n ae) is a s m a l l vessel

whi ch a r ises f r o m th e o phth a l m i c o r fr om a p oste r i or cili a r y a r te ry I t pi er ces t he .

Opti c n e r ve a S h o r t dist a n ce behi n d th e scl e r a an d r u n s i n i ts ce n te r t o th e l a mi na

c r ib r os a wh e r e it b r e a ks u p i n th i r ty t o f or ty fin e b r a n ch es
, Th ese a ppe ar i n .

the fu n dus o f th e eye a t t he m a r gi n o f the o pti c p a pi ll a a n d r a di a t e i n th e p o ster i o r

p a r t o f th e r eti na .

(f) The e th m o id a l arte ry (A ethm o i d a l is ) is th e c o nt i n u a ti on o f the oph .

 T HE I N T E R N A L M AX I LLA R Y A R TE R Y 555

th a l mi c I t e n te r s t he c r a n i a l c a vity th r o ugh the eth m o id a l f o r a men , p a sses

.

i n w a r d o n th e c r ib r i f o r m pl a te , a n d di vi des i nt o me n i n ge a l a n d na s a l b r a n ches .

The f or m e r r a mify i n the a n te r i o r p ar t o f the du r a m a te r a n d a n a st o mo se with

b r a n ch es of t he a r te r y o f th e c o r pus c a l l o su m Th e na s a l b r a n ch p a sses th r o ugh .

t h e c r ib r if o r m pl a te , gi ves b r a n ches to th e mu c o us m e m b r a n e o f the l a te r a l m a ss

of the ethm o i d a n d th e a dj a ce n t p ar t of th e septu m n a si , a nd r u n s f o r w a r d o n the

supe r i or tu r bi na l .

The th i rd part p a sses f or w ar d i n th e pter yg o p a l a ti n e f o ss a a cc o m p a n i ed b y -

,

b r a n ches o f the m a xi ll ar y n e r ve On r e a ch i n g t he p oste r i o r p a l a ti n e f or am e n i t

.

i s c o nti n ued by the p a l a ti n e ar te r y I ts b r a n ches a r e as f o l l o w s :

.

(1 ) The b ucci na t or ar te ry (A b uc ci na t or i a ) a r ises f r o m the l o we r a spect o f th e

.

i nte r n a l m a xill ar y sh or tl y a fter i ts eme r ge n ce (Fi g I t tu r n s a r o u n d t he m a x

.

i l l a r y tube r o si ty a cc o mp an i ed by th e bu cci n a t or n er ve a n d u n de r the m a ssete r

, ,

muscle e n ter s th e cheek a n d r u ns f o r w ar d i n i t I t suppli es b r a n ches to the

, ,
.

cheek the supe r i o r b u cc a l gl a n ds a n d th e m a ssete r a n d pte r yg o i d muscles N e a r

, , .

its o r i gi n i t gives off a b r a n ch t o th e o r bi t a l fat b ehi n d th e pe r i or bi t a .

(2 ) Th e i nf r a o r b ita l or s u e ri o r d e n ta l ar te ry (A i n f ra o r bi t a lis a r ises f r om

p ) .

t he uppe r a spect of th e i n te r n a l m a xi l l ar y a l ittl e i n fr o n t o f the p r ecedi n g vessel .

I t p a sses upw a r d a n d f o r w a r d t o t he m a xi ll ar y f o ra m en r u n s i n th e i n fr aor bi t a l ,

c an a l i n c o mp a n y with t he n er ve o f the s a m e na me a nd i s c o n ti n ued f or w ar d ,

wi thi n t he jaw t o the i n cis or teet h I t gives b r an ch es to the teeth a nd gums an d

.
,

det a ches a b r a n ch th r o ugh the i n f ra o r bit a l f ora m e n wh i ch an a st om oses with th e

l a te r a l n a s a l a n d supe r i o r l a bi a l A b o ut m i d w a y bet w ee n i ts o r igi n a n d th e m a xil
.

l ar y f oram e n i t gi ves off the m al ar or o rb i ta l b ran ch (R a m u s m a l ar is ) wh i ch p a sses ,

a l o n g the fl oo r of th e o r b it t o e n d i n th e l o we r l i d a n d a n a st o m o se wit h the a n gul a r is

o cul i I t gives twigs to the i n fe r i or o b l iqu e muscle a n d t he l a c r i ma l sac

. .

T h e i n f r ao rb i t a l a r t e r y i s u su a ll y s m a l l a t i ts e me rg en c e u p o n t h e f a c e , b u t i n s o m e e
c as s it
is r a t h er l a rg e a n d m a y pa r ti a ll y r e p l a c e t h e s u p e ri or l a b i a l a n d l a t er a l n a s a l a r t e r i es .

(3 ) The s ta ph yh ne or s mal l pa l a ti n e ar tery (A p a l a ti n a m i n o r ) is a s m a l l

’

vessel wh i ch p a sses f or w ar d i n t he gr oo ve a t t he i nn er side o f the m a xi ll ar y tuber

os i t y t o th e s o ft p a l a te I n th e g r o o ve it is a cc o m p a ni ed by t he n er ve o f t he s a m e
.

n a me a n d th e p a l a ti n e vei n .

(4 ) Th e s ph e no pal a ti n e ar te ry (A sphe n o p a l a ti n a ) ar ises i n th e ext r e m e

.

a n te r i o r p ar t o f th e pt er yg o p a l a ti n e f o ss a a n d p a sses i n t o the n a s a l c a vity whe r e

-
,

it divi des i n t o i n te r n a l a n d exte r n a l b r a n ch es The i n ter n a l b r a n ch i s di st r i buted

.

t o t he m uc o us me m b r a n e o f th e sept u m n a si ; the exte r n a l o ne g o es t o the i n fe r i o r

t u r b i na l the i n fe r i or m e a tus the p o ste r i or n ar es a n d th e m a xi ll a r y a nd f r o nt a l
, , ,

S i n uses I t ma y a r ise f r o m the i n f r ao r bit a l

. .

()
5 The pa l a tin e o r p a l a t o - l a b i a l ar te r y
(A p a l a ti n a m a j or ) is the di r ect c on
.

t i n u a t i o n of the i n te r na l m a xil l a r y I t p a sses th r o ugh th e p a l a ti n e c a n a l t o th e

.

r oo f o f the m o uth a cc o m p a n i ed by th e p a l a ti n e n e r ve a n d r u n s f o r w a r d i n th e
, ,

p a l a ti n e gr oove whe r e i t is j o i n ed by the vei n A l ittle beh i n d t he pl a n e o f t he

,
.

c or n e r i n cis o r teeth i t cu r ves i n w a r d o ve r a b ar o f c ar ti l a ge to the f or a m en i n

c i s i v u m whe r e i t u n ites wi th its fel l o w o f the o pp o site side
,
The si n gle ar te r y .

thus f orm ed p a sses up th r o ugh the f or a m e n and divides u n d er the t r a n sve r se

dil a t o r o f th e n ostr i l i n t o tw o b ra n ch es T hese r a m ify i n the uppe r lip a n d a n asto
.

m ose with t he l a ter a l n a s a l a nd supe r i or l a bi a l a r te r ies I n its c o u r se i n t he ro o f .

o f th e m o ut h the p a l a ti n e a r te r y gives o ff b r a n ches t o th e h a r d a n d s o ft p a l a te a n d

the gums a n d o th e r s whi ch p a ss th r o ugh the a ccess o r y p a l a ti n e f ora m i n a to be

,

dist r ib uted i n th e m uc o us me m b r a n e o f t he l o we r p a r t o f the na s a l c a vity C om .

m o uly t w o b r an ch es r ight a n d left a r e det a ch ed fr om th e c on vexi ty o f th e a r c h

, ,

f o r m ed b y th e u n i o n o f th e tw o a r te r ies ; these r u n f or w a r d i n t he a n te r i or p ar t of
the h ar d p a l a t e .
556 B L OOD - V A S CU L A R S YSTE M or T HE H OR S E

AR TE R I E S OF THE THORACI C L I MB
THE B RACHI AL AR TE R Y
The b ra c hi al ar te ry , a fte r tu r n i ng a r o u n d th e l o we r b or de r o f th e sc a le n us at
th e fi r st ri b p a sses b a ckw ar d a nd a little d o w nw ar d a c r o ss th e o r i gi n of t h e c o r a c o
,

b r a chi a lis a n d the i nse r ti on of the subsc a pul a r is m uscl e at t he i nn e r si de of th e

sh o ul de r j o i n t A t the p o ste r i or b or de r of the subsc a pul ar is it gi ves off the sub
.

sc a pul a r a r te r y a n d tu r ns d o w n w ar d o n the i nn e r su r f a ce o f the a r m I n i ts c o u rse

,
.

i n the a r m it i n cli nes a l ittle f o r w ar d c r o sses the hu m e r us ver y o bl iq uely a n d , ,

d i vides a t the a nte r o— i nte r na l a spect o f the dist a l th i r d of th e sh a ft of th e b o n e i n t o

‘
the a nte r i o r a n d p oster i or r a di a l a r te r i es .

I t is r el a ted i n te r n a lly t o the se rr a tus m a g n us a n d the p o ste r i or deep pect or a l

muscles a n d the cubit a l ly m ph gl a n ds
,
E xte r n a l l y it lies o n the subsc a pul ar is .
,

the b r a chi a lis the i nse r ti o n of th e te r es m a j or a n d l a ti ssi m us d or si an d th e i nn e r

, ,

h e a d of t he t r i ceps The c o r a c o b r a ch i a l is m uscle l ies a l o n g th e f r o n t o f the a r t e r y

.
-
,

whi ch h o weve r o ve r l a ps the m uscl e dist a l ly

, ,
Th e vei n c r osses th e i nn er f a ce o f .

the a r te r y a n d r u n s d o w n beh i n d it a c c o m p a n i ed p ar t w ay b y t he u l n a r a n d r a di a l ,

n e r ves The m u s c u l o cut a n e o us a n d m edi a n n e r v es f o r m a l oo p ar ou n d th e a r te r y

.
-

cl o se t o its o r igi n a n d th e l a tte r n e r ve th e n p a sses d o w n i n fr on t of th e a r te r y

,
.

Th e chi ef b r a n ches a r e as f o l l o ws
1 The s upra s capu l ar a rt e ry (A t h o r a c i c o a c r o m i a l is ) is a s m a l l a n d s o mewh a t
. .
-

fl exu o u s v essel wh i ch a r i ses n e a r th e a n t e r i o r b o r d e r of th e subsc a pul ar i s r u n s

, ,

upw ar d a n d dips i n betwee n th a t m uscl e a n d th e sup r a spi na tus

, I t gi ves b r a n ches .

t o these m uscl es the a n te r i or d eep pect or a l a n d th e m as to i d o h u m e r al i s

,
A ,
-
.

b r a n ch p a sses i n f r on t o f the c or a c o b r a ch i a l is t o th e sh o u l de r j o i nt a n d th e p r oxim a l -

en d o f the h u m e r us .

This v ess el ma y b e d o u b l e , or be r e p res en t ed by o n e or mo r e b r a n c h es o f th e i n f er i o r e v i ca l

c r
art ery .

2 The sub s c apu l a r ar te ry (A subsc a pul a r i s ) i s a v e r y l ar ge vessel wh i ch ar ises

. .

a t the p o ste r i o r b or de r o f the su bs c a pul a r is m uscl e I t p a sses u pw a r d i n th e i n te r .

sti ce betwee n th a t mus cl e a n d th e te r es m a j or o n th e i nn e r su r f a ce o f the l on g he a d

o f the t r i ceps t u r n s ar o u n d the p o ste r i o r b or d er o f th e s c a pul a bel o w th e p o ster i or
,

a n gl e ,
a n d e n ds i n the i n f r a spi n a tus
_
a n d d elt o id B esi des c o l l a te r a l s (R am i .

muscul ar es ) to the s ubs c a p ul ar is te r es m a j or t r i ceps a nd te n s or f a sci a antib rac hii , , ,

it gi ves off th e f o ll o wi n g n a m ed b r a n ch es :
()
a The th or ac i c o -
d o r s al (A t h or a c i c o d or s al i s ) i s a l on g ar te r y wh i ch is usu a lly
.

give n o ff a b o ut a n i n ch f r o m the or igi n o f th e subs c a pu l a r c r osses t h e i nn er f a c e ,

o f the te r es m aj o r a nd r u ns upw a r d a n d b a ckw a r d on th e l a tissi mus d o r si

, I t gives .

b r an ches t o these m us cl es th e a bd o m i na l p a nn i cul us a n d th e a xil l a r y lymph gl ands

, .

(b) Th e p o st er i or cir cu m fl e x a r te ry (A c i r c u m fl e x a h u i n er i p o ste r i or ) ar ises .

a l ittle a b o ve the p r e ced i n g v essel a n d p a sses o utw a r d beh i n d th e S h o u lde r j o i n t

b etwee n t he l o n g a n d exte r n a l h e a ds of t he t r i ceps wi th th e a xi ll ar y (or ci r cu m fl ex )

n e r ve . I t gi ves b r a n ch es t o th ese m uscl es t h e j o i n t c a psu l e a n d th e m uscl es a nd , ,

ski n of th e o ute r si de o f th e sh o u lde r a na st o m o si n g wi th th e a n te r i o r ci r cumflex ,

a rte r y .

(c ) The c i r cu m fl e x ar te ry of th e s c apu l a (A ci r c u mfl exa s c a pu l a ) a r ises a b o ut .

t w o o r th r ee i n ch es (c a 5 to c m ) a b o ve th e sh o ulde r j o i n t p a sses f or w ar d t o
. .
,

the p o ste r i o r b o r d e r o f th e s c a pu l a a nd divides i n t o tw o b r a n ch es Th e o ute r one ,

.

r u ns f o r w a r d o n t h e exte r n a l su r f a ce o f th e s c a pul a bel o w the spi n e a n d gives

b r a n ches to th e sup r a spi n a tus i n fr a spi n a tus a n d te r es m i nor Th e i n n e r b r an ch , ,

.

p a sses f o r w a r d i n a si m i l a r f a s hi o n o n th e c os t a l su r f a ce o f t he s c a pul a a n d supp li es

b r a n ch e s t o the subs c a pu l a r i s .

T h e t e r m a xi l l a ry i s o f t e n a pp li ed to t h e ar t ery f ro m th e fi rs t ri b to t h e po i nt of or i gin of
th e s u b s c a p u l a r b ra n c h .
 558 B LOOD - V A S C UL A R S YS T E M or T HE H OR S E

Th e ante r i o r c i r cumfl e x (or p r e h u me r a l ) arte ry (A c i r cu mfl exa hu m e r i

3 . .

a n te r i o r ) a r ises usu a lly a t the uppe r b o r de r o f th e te r es m a j o r I t p a sses f o r w a r d .

a n d o utw a r d betwee n the tw o p a r ts o f th e eor a c o b r a c h i a h s or betwee n th e l a tt er

-

Lon g h ea d f
o tr i ceps

I nl er na l h ead o f tri ceps

Ul na r ves s el s

Ten s or f as ci a; a n ti br a c hi i (cu t)

Ul na r head of fiexor ca r pi med i us

Hu mera l '
or i gi n o f fl ex . ca r pi med .

Cep ha l i c vei n
Or i gi n of fl exor ca r p i i n ter nu s
A na s l o mol i c bra nch
C u l a n eo us bra n ch f
o

med i a n n er ve
E xtens or ca r p i ra di al i s
Common i n ter oss eous a r tery
'

1 l /[ al l a7 1 i erve
S u perfici a l fl exor of d i gi t
A ce6ss or y cc pIta l i c vei n
Ul nar hea d of d eep ficxor
Ce1) ha l i c vei n
Fa sci a c u t a nd r e fl ected
med i a n }
' ,
P ost r a dw l or
-
.

a r ter y Deep fl exor of di gi t

Ul na r ves s el s a nd nerve

Fl exor car pi i nter nus (cu t)

Ou ter bra n ch l of med i a n

I nn er br a n ch f n er ve
Tend on o f fl exor ca r pi i nter nus

Fl exor ca r pi med i a s (cu t)

E xt . vol a r met . a r ter y

E xt met . . ner ve
I n ter n a l l a ter a l l i ga men t
E xt met vei n
f
.
o ca r p u s
.

Te nd o n of exte ns o r I nt . met . n er ve

L a r ge met . a r ter y
Mel aca r pa l l u beros i l y
I nt . vol a r met . a r ter y

B ra n ch to d eep .
vo l a r a r ch

S u perfici a l fl exor tend on

Check l i ga ment
Dorsa l i nl cr os s eou s '
a r ter y I n ter n a l meta ca r p a l vei n
a nd n e r ve

Fm . 442 .
or H T FO A M AN D C
RIG RE R AR P Us or HO RS E , I N T NAL S U FA C
ER R E .

C -b . . C o r a c o -b ra c h i li
a s m us c l e ; E m
. .
, i t l pi d y l f h m
n e r na e co n e o u e ru s : R , s u bcu t f f
a ne o u s s u r a c e odi ra us .
( A ft er

S h m lt z A tl
c a 1 A
, t d as ( . na . . P f
er d es ) .

and the hu m e r us I t gi ves b r a n ches to th e c or a c o b r a ch i a li s a n d deep pect o r a l a nd

.
-

e n ds i n th e u ppe r p ar t o f the bi ceps a nd i n th e m a s t o i d o h u mer a l i s I t an a st o m o ses -

.

w i t h th e p o ste r i o r ci r cu mfl ex .
 T HE P OS TE R I OR R A D I A L A RTE R Y 559

N ot r ar i es b e l o w th e mi d d l e o f t h e h u meru s a n d p as s es u p w a rd b e t w een th e b i c e p s
el y i t ar s

a n d co ra co-b r a c h i a l i s I n t h es e c as es a s m a l l b r a n c h fo r t h e cor aco b rac hi a li s i s u s u a ll y gi v en

.
-

o ff a t t h e u s u a l p o i n t o f o r i g i n o f t h e a n t e r i o r c i rc u m fl ex .

4 .Th e d e e p b r a ch i al arte ry (A p r o fu n d a b r a chi i ) is a l ar ge but sh or t t r u n k

.

whi ch a r ises usu a lly a b o ut the m i ddl e o f the hu m e r us I t p a sses b a ckw a r d a n d .

di vi des i n t o seve r a l b r a n ches wh i ch supply the t r i ceps te n s or fasc i ee a nti br a c h i i , ,

an c o n eus a n d b r a ch i a lis A b r an ch r u n s i n th e m u sc u l o spi r a l gr o o ve wit h th e

‘

-
.
,

r a di a l n e r ve t o th e f r o n t of the elb o w j o i n t a n d a n a st o m o ses with the a n te r i o r

r a di a l . A S l e n de r b r a n ch p a sses d o w n a l o n g th e exte r n a l b o r d er o f the exte n s or

c a r pi a n d suppl i es cut a n e o us twigs A n a st om o ses o ccu r wi th th e u l n a r a n d r ecu r
.

r e n t i n te r o sse o us a r te r ies .

T h e p o i nt o f o r i g i n i s i n co n s t a n t a n d i t i s n o t u n c o m mo n t o fi n d t w o a r t e ri es i ns t ea d .

Of t en a l a rg e b r a nc h fo r t h e p os t e r i o r d ee p pec t o r a l m u s c l e i s d e t a c h e d c l os e to th e or i g i n or a ri s es
f ro m t h e br a c hi a l d i rec tl y .

5 . M u s cu l ar b r anch e s (R a m i muscul a r es ) ar e dist r ib uted to the te r es m aj or ,

deep pect or a l c or a c o b r a ch i a l is a n d bi ceps

,
-
,
. The l a r gest a n d le a st v a r i a bl e o f
these suppl i es t he l o we r p ar t of t he b i ceps .

6 The u l n ar art e ry (A c o l l a te r a lis u l n ar is supe r i or ) a r ises a little bel o w the

. .

n ut r ie n t f o r a m e n o f the hu m e r us a n d p a sses d o wn w a r d a n d b a ckw a r d a l o n g the

l o wer edge of th e i n te r n a l h e a d o f th e t r i ceps u n de r c o ve r o f the b r a chi a l vei n a nd

th e te n s or f a sci a an ti br a c hii I t gi ves b r a n ch es t o th ese muscl es th e p o ste r i or
‘

.
,

supe r fi ci a l pect or a l t he cub it a l l y m ph gl a n ds p a n n i cu lus an d S ki n A t the i n te r

, , ,
.

n al epi c o n dyl e o f the h u m e r us i t is j o i n ed b y th e ul n a r n e r ve a n d tu r n s d o w n w ar d

u n de r the u l n ar h e a d o f the fiexor c ar pi m edi us I t c o n ti n ues with the vei n a nd .

n e r ve u n de r th e deep f a sci a o f the f o r e ar m b etwee n t h e ul n ar a n d h u m e r a l h e a ds of

the per f or a ns a n d i n the dist a l h a lf o f the r egi on b etwee n t he exte r n a l a n d m i dd l e
,

fie xo r s o f t he c a r pus I t u n i tes j ust a b o ve th e c ar pus (u n d e r c o ve r o f th e fl exo r

.

c a r pi exter n us ) with a b r a n ch of the r a di a l a r te r y with wh i ch i t f or m s the sup r a ,

c ar p a l a r ch I t det a ches s m a l l c o ll a te r a ls t o the m us cles a l o n g whi ch it p asses

.

a n d te r m i n a l t wi gs t o the o ute r s ur f a ce of th e c a r pus .

7 The n utr i e n t ar te r y of th e h u m e r u s (A n u tr i t i a hu m e r i ) i s a S h o r t vessel

. .

wh i ch e n te r s the n ut r i e n t f o r a m e n of th e h u m e r us I t o fte n a r ises f r om th e u l n a r . .

8 The ante ri o r ra d i a l ar te ry (A c o l l a ter a li s r a di a l is i n fe r i o r ) p a sses d o w n w a r d

. .

a n d a little o utw ar d o n t he a n te r i o r f a ce o f the hu m e r us u n d e r c o ve r of th e bi ceps

a nd b r a chi a l is t o the f r o n t o f the elb o w j o i n t whe r e i t is j o i n ed by the r a di a l n e r ve

,
.

I t the n desce n ds o n the a n te r i o r su r f a ce o f t h e r a dius u n d er c o ver o f th e a n te r i or

e xte n s o r o f th e di gi t t o the c a r pus wh e r e i t c on c ur s i n the f or m a ti on of the r ete
,

c ar pi d or s a l e a n as t o mo si n g w ith t he p o ster i or r a di a l a n d i n te r osse o us a r ter i es I t

,
.

suppl i es b r an ch es to the elb o w j o i n t t h e b i ceps b r a chi a lis a n d t he ext e n s or s of, , ,

th e c ar pus an d digit A cut an e o us b r a n ch e m er ges betwee n t he dist a l en d of the

.

bi ceps a n d t he b r a chi a li s .

THE P OS TE R I OR RAD I AL AR TE R Y
The p o steri o r r a d i al or m e di an artery (A medi an a ) is th e di r ect c o n ti n u ati on .

o f the b r a chi a l I t p a sses d o w n w a r d a n d slightl y b a ckw a r d a t fi r st o n t he i nn e r

.
,

s ur f a ce o f t he h u m e r us a nd the n o ve r t h e c a psule a n d i n te r n a l l a te r a l lig am e n t

,

of th e elb o w j o i n t u n de r c o ve r o f th e p o ste r i o r supe r fi ci a l pect or a l m uscl e

l
,
B el o w .

the elb o w i t di ps u n de r th e fl exor c a r pi i nte r n us a n d p a sses d o w n the i nn e r p a r t of

the p o ste r i or su r f a ce o f t he r a di us I n th e di st a l p a r t of th e f or e ar m i t i n cli n es
.

b a ckw ar d a n d i s sep ar a ted f r o m the r a d ius by the r ei n f or ci n g b a n d (C a put te n di n

eu m) o f th e supe r fi ci a l fl exor o f th e digit a n d i s c o n ti n ued by th e l a r ge met a c ar p a l

a r te r y .

T h e p u l s e c a n b e t a k e n w h e r e t h e a r t e ry l i es o n t h e l a t e r a l li g a me n t s i n c e t h e p ec t o r a l ,

m u s c l e i s t h i n h er e .
 5 00 B L OOD -
V AS C ULAR S YST E M OF T HE H OR S E

is a cc o m p a n i ed b v the m edi a n n e r ve w hi ch li es i n f ro n t o f th e a r t er y a t i t
It ,

o r igi n t he n c r o sses o ve r i t o bl iq uel y a t t h e elb o w j o i nt a n d bec o m es p o ste r i or I n

,
.
.

the a r m the b ra chi a l vei n l i e s behi n d a nd p a r tly up o n th e ar te r y ; l o we r d o w n th e r e

Ten s or f a s ci a a n ti br a chi i

Long h ea d of tr i c ep s
B ra n ch of ra d i a l n er ve to e at . a nd
i n t h ea d s of tri ce ps a nd
. a n c on eu s

Deep br a ch i a l a r te r y

Ra d i a l n er ve

Lo ng h ea d of tr i ceps
I n ter n a l hea d of tr i ceps
A n con eu s
E xter n a l hea d f
o tr i ceps (cu t off)
Ol ecr a non
Ul n a r h ea d of d eep fier o r
Cu ta n eou s br a n ch f
o u l n a r n er ve

B r achi a l i s E xter n a l l a tera l l i g of el bow.

Fter or ca r pi exter ri u s
(cu t a nd r efl ected )

E xtensor ca r p i r a d i a l i s
I n ter osseou s a r ter y

Ul na
Ul na r h ea d of a n ter i or exte nsor

Deep fl owe r of d i g i t
La tera l extens o r o f d i gi t

Ul na r ner ve a n d ve i n

Fl ex or ca r pi exter n u s

Dors a l i n teros s eou s a r ter y

S u perfici a l br a n ch o f Ni n a-
r n er ve

Ca r pa l s h ea th (open ed )
E xtens or car pi obl i quus
Ou ter tend on o f fl cx . ca r pi ext .

Tend on of ex te ns or c a r pi r a d i a l i s
A cces s ory ca r pa l bo ne
E arl l a ter a l l i g o f ca r pu s
A ccess ori o-meta ca r pa l l i ga ments
. .

R c te ca r pi d o rs a l e

Te nd on B a n d f r om a ccess or y car p a l to
of a nt . ex ten s or
l a ter a l exte ns or te nd on
B ra nch to l a ter a l ex te ns or La tera l exten sor tend on

FI G . 443 .
or LE FT F O A M
RE R ll o a s rz , E X T NAL
ER S u mme r-
z
.
(A fte r S c h m a lt z , A tl as (1 . A t
un . d .

P f
e rd e s . )

a re usu a lly tw o s a tellite vei n s a nte r i o r a nd p oste r i or, . The c hi ef c o ll a te r a l b ra n ches

a r e a s f o ll o ws :

1 Ar ti cul ar b ra n ch e s for th e elb o w j o i nt

.
.
562 B LOOD —
VA S CU L A R S Y S T E M OF T HE H ORS E

as th e d o rs al in t ero s s e o u s ar t e ry This vessel (A i n te r osse a d o rs a l is ) p a sses d o w n . .

betwee n the a n te r i o r a n d l a te r a l e x te ns or s Of the di gi t a n d c o n cu r s with t he an te r i or

r a di a l i n f o r m i n g a n etw or k o n the a n te r i o r su r f a ce Of the c a r pus t h e r e te c arp i ,

d or s a l e F r o m th e l a tte r a r ise t w o s m a l l vessels th e i nte rn al a n d e xt ernal d or s al

. ,

m e ta c arpa l art e r i e s (A m et a c a r pe a d o r s a lis m edi a lis l a te r a l is ) whi ch r u n dist a lly

. , ,

i n t h e g ro o ves betwee n the l a r ge a n d s m a ll m et a c a r p a l b o n es a n d a n a st o m o se

wit h t he v o l a r m et a c a r p a l a r te r i es .

4 The art ery o f th e r e te c arpi vo l ar e (A ret i S c a r pi v o l a r is ) is a s m a l l vessel

.
.

whi ch a r ises a t the dist a l thi r d o f the f or e ar m a nd p a sses d o w n w a r d t o the p oster i o r

su r f a ce o f th e c ar pus whe r e it c on cu r s with b r a n ch es o f t h e v o l a r m et a c a r p a l,

a r te r i es i n f o r mi n g the r ete c a r pi v o l ar e .

5 The e xte rn a l vo l a r m e ta c ar pal ar te ry (A m et a c a r pe a v o l ar i s l a te r a l is ) is a

.
.

sm a ll vessel wh i ch ar ises j ust a b o ve the c ar pus u n de r c o ve r o f th e fl exor c ar pi

m edi us a n d a n a st o mo ses with th e ul n a r ar te r y f o r mi n g t he s u p rac ar p a l a r ch ,
.

F r o m t he l a tte r a b ra n ch desce nds wi th th e o ute r b r a n c h Of th e medi a n n e r ve ,

i n cli n es o utw ar d t o w a r d th e p o ste r i or b or

d er o f th e a ccess o r y c a r p a l b o n e a n d a rr ives ,

a t the h e a d Of the exte r n a l met a c ar p a l b on e .

Her e it is c onn ected wi th the i n te rn a l v o l ar

m et a c a r p a l a r te r y usu a l ly by t w o t r a n sve r se ,

b r a n ches th us f or m i n g th e d e ep vo l ar or ,

s u b c arpa l ar c h (Ar cus v o l a r is p r o fu n dus ) .

On e o f these b r a n ch es li es b etwee n th e sub

c ar pa l c h ec k li g a m e n t a n d th e suspe ns o r y

ligam e nt ; the o the r (n o t a lw a ys p r ese n t ) ‘

li es be n e a th the l atte r o n th e l ar ge met a

l “ .
4 46 — Cn -. O O M m m R m
o s s S E CT !
0
c a r pa l b on e
N
A s m a l l b ra n ch desce n ds to
F p u . .

'

M O O H ORS E T A CA R P th e fetl o ck with the exte r n a l m et a c a r p a l

S F E .

C mm d i g it l ( l g m t p l ) n e r ve
a , o on B el o w th e a r ch the a r te r y pu r
a or ar e .
e aca r a .

t y; b i t
ar er
_
l m t p l vi ;
,
n e rna i t l sues a fl exuo u s c u r se d o w n w ar d o n the
e ac a r a e n c, n e rna
o
m t e p ln v ; d t
ac a r a l t p l
m er e v , ex e r na e aca r a ne r e

e ,b h
ra n cf t l v l m t p l t y ; p oster i o r f a ce o f th e l ar ge m et a c a r p a l b on e
o e x e r na o ar e acar a ar er

f ,
t
ex l m t p l vi ; 0 a a d pv l
e r na e aca r
a l o n gsi de o f th e exte r n a l sm a l l m et a c ar p a l
a e n , , , ee o ar

or i t m t
n e r o s s eo u s p l t i ; h t d f
e a car a a r e r es en on o
a n d u n de r c o ve r of th e suspe n s o r y lig
,

a
t i t
a n e r o r e x e ns o r ; i t d O f l t l t ; , en n o a e ra e x e ns o r

k ,
t m ti b
a na s o h o ti g m t p l me nt At the d istal thi r d Of th e met a
c r a nc c o nn e c n e aca r a .

ne r v ; 1 d pfl
es t d ; m h k li g m t ; c a r pus i t c o mm o n ly u n ites wi th the co r
ee exo r en on c ec a en

p fi i l fl
, ,

n . su er t d ;
c a p y li g
e xo r en on 0 , sus e nso r a

m t; p l g
en m t,
p l b ; q q m ll r esp o ndi ng vesse l Of th e i nn e r side t o fo r m
ar e e aca r a o ne , , s a

m t p l b
e ac a r ; a ki (A ft E ll
o ne s b g a r, sh o r t t r u n k w hi ch p a sses b a ckw ar d
s n . er en e r er,

i L i
n i g
e ser n A tl ) ’
s as .

th r o ugh th e a n gl e Of d ive r ge n ce Of the

b r a n ches o f th e suspe n s or y l ig a me n t an d
j o i ns the exte r n a l digi t a l or th e c o m m o n d igi t a l a r te r y .

6 The i n te r n a l vo l ar or s ma l l m e ta c ar pa l ar te ry (A met a c a r pe a v o l a r is
. .

medi a lis ) is gi ve n o ff fr o m the p o ste r i or r a di a l at a n a cut e a n gl e usu a lly a little ,

a b o ve the exte r n a l o ne o r by a c o mm o n t r u n k wi th i t I t p a sses d o w n the i nn e r .

sid e Of the c ar pus behi n d the te n d o n o f the fl exor c ar pi i n tern us a nd e m b edded i n

the p o ste r i or a n nul a r lig am e nt Arr ivi ng at th e p r o xi m a l e n d of the i nn e r met a .

c ar p a l b o n e i t bec o m es m o r e deeply pl a ced a n d is c o nn ected with th e exte r na l v o l a r

a r te r y by o n e o r t w o t r a n sve r se b r a n ches a s st a ted a b o ve I t the n pu r sues a .

fl ex u ou s c o u r se d o w n w a r d a l o n gsi de Of th e i nn e r s m a ll m et a c a r p a l b on e li ke th e ,

corr e s p o ndi n g exte r n a l a r te r y with wh i ch it c o m mo n ly u n ites as desc r ib ed a b o ve , .

I t is l a r ge r th a n the exte r n a l a r te r y a n d suppli es the n ut r i e n t a r te r y t o the l arge

m et a c a r p a l b o n e .

T hef o reg o i n g ac c ou nt d es c r i b es t h e mo s t c o m mo n a r r a n g e me n t Of t h e d o rs a l a n d v o l a r
met a ca r p a l a r t e ri es . a r i a t i o ns i n t h e i r o r i g i n a n d c o nne c t i o ns a r e c o mmo n , b u t h a v e no g rea t
s u r g i c a l i m p o r t a n ce . C o ll a t e ra l b r a n c h es a r e o mi tt e d fo r t h e s a me r e as o n I n s o m e c a s es t h e .
 T HE C O M M O N D I G I T A L A RTE R Y 563

i n t e r na l v o l ar me t ac a r p a l i s c o nn ec t ed w i t h th e co mmo n d i g it a l o r l a rg e me t a c a r p a l a r t e r a
y
li ttl e e l o
b w h q
t e c a r p u s b y a b r a n c h p as s i ng o b li u e l y ac ros s t h e i nn er bor d er o f t h e d ee p fl exor
t end o n ; t h i s f orms a s u pe rficra l v o l a r a rc h .

THE COMM ON DI GI TAL AR TE R Y

The comm o n d i g ita l or l ar ge m e ta carpal ar te ry 1 is the di r ect c onti n u a ti o n o f

the p o ste r i o r r a di a l I t desce n ds i n t he c a r p a l c a n a l a l on g the i nn e r S ide o f
.

E xter n a l meta ca r p a l vei n

I n ter n a l meta ca r pa l vei n

I n terna l l a ter a l l i ga ment of ca r p us P os teri or a nn u l a r l i ga men t of

ca r pu s
Tend on of exten s or car pi r ad i a l i s

Tend o n of extens or ca r pi obl i q

u us

S u perfici a l fl exor tend on

I n tern a l meta ca r p a l n er ve

Comm u n i ca ti ng bra nch

L a r ge met aca r pa l a rt er y
I t r
n e na l met a ca r p a l vei n

S u s p ens or y l i ga men t

Lu mbri ca l i s mu scl e
La ter a l l i ga men t of f etl ock j oi nt
A n t e ri o r d i gi t a l r
ne ve

A nt . exten s or tend on P os t er i or d i gi t a l n er ve

E xtens or bra nch of s us pen s or y

Di gi t a l a r t er y
l i ga men t
Di gi t al vei n

Dors a l a r ter y o f firs t pha l a nx L i ga men t of e r got

D eep fl ex o r t end on
L a teral ca rti l a ge
La ter a l l i g a men t f
o pas ter n j min t
Cor on a ry pl exus

Coronary ma tri x
L a mi na r ma tri x

FI G 4 4 7
. .
—D I s s nc r 1 0 N or RIG H T CA PUS M TA CA PU AN D D G
R ,
E R S ,
I
'
II‘ or H OR SE , IN N ER VI W E .
(A fte r S c h ma lt z
A tl d A t d P f d
as . na . . er es .
)

t he fl ex or te n d o n s i n c om p a n y with th e i n n e r b r an ch of the medi a n n e r ve an d a

s a tel lite vei n C on t i n u i n g d o wn the li mb it p r ese r ves th is r el a ti o n t o the te nd o n s
.

to t he dist a l t hi r d o f th e m et a c a r pus whe r e it i n cl i n es t o w a r d th e m i ddle l i n e o f the

,

l i m b b eh i n d the suspe n s or y l ig a m e n t a n d di vides i n t o the i n ter n a l a n d ext e r n a l

,

d i g i t a l a r te r i es I n the m et a c a r pus the a r te r y is r el a ted to th e vei n i n f r ont a n d

.

th e a r te r y b ehi n d a n d is c o ve r ed by the f a sci a an d ski n I t fu r n ishes c o ll a ter a l

,
.

br an ches t o t he suspe n s or y lig a m e n t the fl exor te n d o n s an d th e ski n , ,

.

Thi s v ess e l i s a l so t er m ed th e A me t a c a r p ea v o l a r i s s u perfic i a l i s o r t h e p a l ma r me t ac a r p al

.

a r t ery .
5 64 B L O O D V A S C U LA R SYS T E M
-
OF T HE H O R SE

THE D I GI TAL ARTE RI E S

Th e inte rn al an d e xte rnal d i g ita l arte ri e s (A di g itali s m e di a li s l a t e ral i s) are
.
,

f o rm e d by t h e bi fur cati o n o f t h e c o mm o n di g ital at t h e di s tal t hi rd o f t h e m et a

c a r p u s Th ey di v e r g e p ass d o wn o v e r t h e o ut e r s urfac e o f t h e c o rr es p o n din g
.
,

ses a m o i d a t t h e f e tl o ck and d es c e nd p a r a ll e l wit h t h e b o rd er s o f t h e d ee p fi ex e r

,

t e nd o n t o t h e v o l a r g r oo v es an d f o r a mi n a o f t h e t h i rd p h a l a nx E nt e rin g t h e
.

l a tt e r t h e tw o art e ri e s u n i t e i n th e se mi lun a r c an a l and f o rm t h e te rmi n al arc h

(A rcu s t e rmin a li s ) fr o m wh i c h num e r o u s bra n ch e s p a ss th r o u g h t h e b o n e t o t h e
,

wall s urfac e and r a mi fy in t h e m atrix o f t h e w a l l an d s o l e o f t h e h oo f A numb e r o f .

br a nc h e s e m er ge th r o u g h t h e f o r a mi na at t h e l o w e r b o rd e r wh e r e t h ey ana st o m o se ,

with each o th e r i n arcif o rm f a s h i o n Th es e branch es w er e nam e d by S p oo n e r t h e

.

in f eri o r c o mmuni c a t i n g art e ri e s an d t h e a n as t o m o ti c a rch f o rm e d by th em i s

,

t e rm e d t h e ci rcum fl e x a rt e ry o f t h e th ird p h alanx (C h a u v e a u ) o r t h e a rt e ry o f th e

l o w e r b o rd e r o f t h e t hi rd p h a l a n x (Le i ser i n g ) .

E a ch art e ry i s a cc o m p a n i e d by a v ei n an d by t h e di g i t a l n e r v es A b o v e th e .

f e tl o ck t h e a rt ery i s m o s t d e ep ly p lac e d a n d i s c o v e r e d by th e v e in ; t h e n e r v e i s
b e h ind t h e v e i n A t t h e f e t l o ck t h e a rt e ry h a s b e c o m e s u p e rfici al an d i s r e l a t e d
.

t o t h e v e i n in fr o nt and t h e p o s t e ri o r bran c h o f th e n er v e b eh i nd Th e ant eri o r .

branch o f t h e n e r v e cr osses o v e r t h e a rt e ry o b li q u e ly t o t h e l a t e r a l a s p e ct o f th e
fir s t p h al anx T h e v ess e l s an d n e r v es ar e cr o sse d o bl i q u e ly by a s m a l l t e n di n o u s
.

b a nd t h e li g a m e n t o f th e e r g o t wh i c h b e g in s i n t h e fibr o u s b as i s o f th e e r g o t at
, ,

t h e b a ck o f t h e f e tl o ck a n d e xt e nd s d o wnward an d f o r ward t o e n d i n t h e f a s ci a at
t h e s id e o f t h e p a s t e rn j o int .

I n a dditi o n t o br a nch es t o t h e j o int s t e nd o n s a n d syn o v i a l s h e at h e r g o t an d

, , ,

s kin t h e di g ital art e ri es g i v e o ff

,

1 Th e ar te ry o f th e fi r s t p h alanx o r p e r p e ndi cul ar art ery (A p h al an g i s

. .

pr i m ze ) a s h o rt trunk wh i ch ari ses a t a ri g h t a n g l e ab o ut t h e mi ddl e o f t h e fir s t

,

p halanx and di v id e s i nt o d o r s a l an d v o l a r bra n ch es (R am i d o r s al e s et v o lar es )

,

Th e d o r s a l (ant e ri o r ) br an c h p a s ses b e tw e e n t h e fir s t p h al a nx a n d t h e e xt e n s o r
t end o n and r am i fies o n t h e fr o nt o f t h e di g it ana s t o m o s in g wit h i ts f e ll o w Th e
,
.

v o l a r (p o s t e ri o r ) br a nc h di p s i n b etw ee n t h e fl exor t e nd o n s an d th e i nf er i o r sesa

m o id e a n li g a m ent s and an as t o m o s es wit h t h e o pp os it e a rt e ry - .

2 T h e arte ry o f th e p lantar cu s hi o n (A t or i cae p h alan g i s ter t i ae) ari se s a t t h e

. .

p r o xim a l b o rd e r o f th e l a t e r a l carti l a g e a n d p asse s b a ckw a rd a n d d o wnward t o

r a m ify i n t h e p l a nt a r cu s h i o n a n d t h e m a tri x o f t h e h ee l s a n d fr o g .

3 T h e d o r s al arte ry o f th e s e c o n d p ha l anx (R amu s d o r s al i s p h al a n g i s se c u n d ae)

.

ari s es a littl e a b o v e t h e n a v i cul a r b o n e a n d p a ss e s f o rw a rd u n d e r c o v e r o f t h e

,

l at er a l carti la ge a n d t h e e xt e n s o r t e nd o n t o th e fr o nt o f t h e s e c o n d p h al a nx wh er e ,

i t a na st o m o se s with t h e o pp o s it e v ess e l I t g i v es branch e s t o t h e s k in t h e t end o n

.
, ,

t h e c o ffi n j o int a n d t h e c o r o nary m a trix o f t h e h oo f

, .

4 T h e v o lar art e ry o f th e s e c o n d phalanx (R amu s v o l a ri s p h a l a n g i s secu n d ze )

.

i s s m a l l e r th a n t h e p r e c e di n g o pp o s it e t o wh i c h i t a ri s es
,
I t p a ss es a b o v e t h e
.

p r o ximal b o rd e r o f th e t h ir d se s am o i d an d unit es with t h e o pp o s it e art e ry .

T h e a r t e r i e s o f t h e se co n d p h a l a n x f o r m w h a t i s t e r m e d b y C h a u v ea u t h e c o r o n a ry
c ir c l e T h e d o r sa l (a n te r i o r ) p a r t o f t h e ci r c l e g i v es o ff co mm o n l y a n a r t e r y (A c o r o n a li s
p h a l a ngi s terti ce ) n e a r ei th e r s i d e o f t h e exte nso r t e nd o n w h i c h d i v i d es i n t o tw o b r anch es T h e
. .

c e n t r a l b r a n c h u n i t es w i t h t h a t o f t h e o pp os i t e s i d e w h il e t h e o t h e r j o i n s a b r a nc h o f t h e a r t e r y
.
,

o f t h e p l a nt a r cu s h io n I n t h i s w a y i s f o r me d t h e c i r c u m fl e x a r t e ry o f th e c o r o n a ry c u s h i o n
,

a n a n a s t o mo t i c a r c h w h i c h l i es o n t h e e x t e ns o r te n d o n a t t h e c o r o n e t
.
,

I n s o m e c as es d e
s ce n d i n g b r a n c h es o f t h e a r t e r i es o f t h e fi r s t p h a l a n x c o n c u r i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e a r c h
.

5 . T he
d o r s al arte ry o f th e th ir d ph alanx o r pr e p l a n tar art ery (A d o r s a l i s p h al .

an g i s t er t i ae) a ri s e s a t t h e d ee p fac e o f th e win g o f th e t hi rd p h a l a nx p a ss es o utward ,

th r o u g h t h e n o t c h o r f o ram e n th e r e a n d run s f o r w a rd i n t h e g r oo v e o n t h e wal l

,

s urf a c e I t g i v es o ff a s c e n din g a n d d es c e ndin g br anch es wh i ch rami fy i n th e m a tri x

.
,
566 B L OO D -V A S C U L A R S Y S T EM OF T HE H O R SE

tru nk Th ey s u pp ly t h e crura o f t h e di a p hra g m

.
. In s o m e ca ses th e y ar i se i n
c o mm o n with an i nt erc o s tal art e ry .

R
B AN CHE S O F THE ABDOMI N A L AO TA R
Th e c o ll a t e ral bran ch es o f t h e a bd o minal p art o f t h e a o rt a ar e di s tri b ut e d
ch i e fl y t o t h e w a l l s a n d c o nt e nt s o f t h e a bd o mi nal c a v ity but s o m e bran c h e s are ,

s u pp l i e d t o t h e s p i nal c o rd a n d i t s m e mbran es and o th e r s ext en d i nt o th e p e l v i s ,

and t o t h e s cr o tum T h e vi s c e ra l b ranc h e s ar e t h e c e l i ac ant e ri o r m e s e nt e ri c

.
, ,

r en a l p o st e ri o r m es e n t e ri c a nd t h e s p e rm a ti c o r ut er o o v ari an
, , Th e pari e tal -
.

b r a nc h e s a r e th e lumb a r art eri es .

'
Po s t e r i o r
V e n a c a t/ a

4 48 . P LA N
B R A N C H ES o r C I C A R T E R Y o r H o ne s
-
or CE L A .

1 Ce l i n e a rt ry ; 2 g as t i rt e ry ; 3 h p ti rt e ry ; 4 s p l e ni c rt e r y ; 6 p o s t e ri r g as t i c rt ry ;
e r c a e a c a n a o r a e u

s p h a g l bra h : 8 g as t r d d e n l rt ry ; 9 p rea ti o d od l rt e r y ; 1 0 ri g ht
, , , , ,

te i o g s tri a rt e r y ; 7
r r a c e o ea nc o- uo a a e a nc c - u e na a

g s t r -e p i p l o i c rt r y ; p y l ri rt e ry ; 1 2 l e f t g as t ro —
ep i p l o i c rt e r y ; 1 3 s ho rt g as t ri br hes f s p l e ni c
, . , ,

a o a e o c a , a , c a nc o .

I T h e c e l i ac ar te ry o r axi s (A c e l i aca ) i s an un p air e d v es s e l u s u ally h al f an

. .
,

in ch o r l ess (e a 1 cm ) i n l e n g th wh i ch ari ses fr o m t h e v entral a s p e ct o f t h e a o rta

. .
,

a t i ts e m er g en c e fr o m t h e h i atu s a o rti c u s I t di v i d es o n t h e d o r s al s urfac e o f th e

p a n cr ea s i nt o thr e e bra n ch es—th e g a s tri c h e p ati c an d s p l en i c
.

.
, ,

1 T h e g a s tri c arte ry (A g a s tri c a s i ni s tra ) p a sses d o wnward an d f o rward i n

t h e g a s tr o —
. .

p hr e ni c l i g am ent g i v e s off e s o p h a g e al and p an cr e ati c branch es and

, ,

di v id es ab o v e and b e h ind t h e c a rdi a int o ant e ri o r and p os t eri o r bran ch es .

(a ) T h e ante ri o r b ran ch (R amu s cr a ni a li s ) cr o sses t h e l ess er cur v atur e j u s t t o

t h e ri g h t o f t h e c ardi a a n d r a mi fies o n t h e p a ri e t a l s urfac e o f t h e s t o m a ch Th e .

bran ch es p ur s u e a fl c xu o u s c o ur s e t o ward t h e g r e a t e r cur v atur e and an a s t o m o s e

t h t h e s h o rt g a s tri c art e ri es a n d t h e g a s tri c bran ch o f t h e h e p ati c art e ry .

(b) T h e p o s te ri o r b ranch (R amu s c a ud a li s) i s di s tribut e d i n a s i mi lar fa s hi o n

o n t h e v i s c e r a l s urf a c e .
 BRA NC HE S O F TH E A BDOM I NAL A OR TA 567

(c) The
oph a g e al bra n c h (R amu s e so p h ag eu s ) p a s ses thr o u g h t h e h iatu s
e s

e s op h a g e u s i nt o t h e th o raci c ca v ity ab o v e t h e e s o p h a u s an d ana s t o m o s e s with

g
t h e e s o p h a g eal branc h o f th e br o nch o oes o p h a g e al art ery -
.

c o l on

h e . M il —P LA N
B R A N C H ES or Cm s r or AN TER IOR M e s e x 'r s m c ART E R Y
H O R SE or .

1 S t mp f n t e i r m s n t i
u o rt ry ; 2 s t
a r o e e er c a e um p s f rt ri es o f s m ll i n t es t i n ; 3 e t r n l
o a e a e x e a ce c a l a rt ry
e

4 i n t e r n l e a l a rt e ry ; 5 il l rt ry ; v nt r l co l i c a rt e r y ; 7 d o rs a l c l i c rt ry ; 8 m idd l e li fi rs t
, , ,

a c c ea a e e a o a e co c or

rt e ry f s m ll o l n
, , , ,

a o a c o .

T h e g as t r i c a rte r yft o e n a ri s e s by a com mo n t ru n k w ith th e s i pl

T h e t w o te r mi n a l
en c
p r t ly o r t h e a n t e ri o r f r o m t h e s p l e ni c p
os t e r i o r f r o m t h e h e p a t i c
.

b r a n c h es m a y a r i s e s e a
.

a e a nd t h e
p h ft a r i ses f r o m t h e s p l e n i c o r t h e po s t e r i o r g as t r i c
.
,

Th e e s o h a g e a l b r a n c o en .

2 . T h e h e p ati c ar tery (A h e p ati c a ) i s l ar g er th an th e g as tri c. I t p a s ses fer .

w ar d t o t h e ri g h t and v e ntrally o n t h e d o r s al s urfac e o f t h e p an cr e a s , c o v e r e d by

B L OO D V A S C U LA R S Y S T E M
-
OF T HE HORSE
570 B L OO D V A S C U LA R S Y S T E M
- or T H E H O R SE

h l ft a tr o -e p i p l o i c art e ry
(A a s t r oe p i p l o i c a s i n i s tr a ) i s t h e c o ntinua
( )
d T e e g s g .

ti o n o f t h e s p l e n i c art e ry I t p a s s es t o t h e ri g h t i n t h e g r e a t o m e ntum , p a r a ll e l
.

with t h e g r e at e r cur v atur e o f t h e s t o m a ch , and ana s t o m o s es with t h e r i g ht g a s tr o

ep i pl o i c I t g i v es o ff br a nch es t o t h e g r e a t er cur v atur e o f t h e s t o mac h , and twi gs
.

to th e o m e ntum .

I I Th e ante ri o r o r gr e at m e s e nte ri c ar te ry (A m es e nt e ri c a crani a l i s ) ari ses

.
.

fr o m t h e v e n tr a l f a c e o f t h e a o rta at t h e fir s t lu mbar v e rt e bra I t i s a lar ge nu .

p a i r e d trunk ab o ut a n inch (c a 2 to 3 cm ) in l e n g th wh i c h p a s s es v e ntr a ll y b e tw e e n

,
. .
,

t h e v e na c a v a a n d t h e l e ft a dr e n a l i nt o t h e r oo t o f t h e g r e at m e s e nt e ry wh e n it ,

—
di v id es i nto th ree br a nch es l e ft ri g ht and ant e ri o r ‘
, ,
.

l . T h e l e ft br a nc h g i v es off a t o nc e ab o ut fift e e n t o tw e nty ar t e r i e s o f th e

2
s mal l inte s ti n e (A a i n t es ti n a l es )
. Th ese c o m e o ff cl o se t o ge th er and p a s s i n
.

di v e r g e nt f a s hi o n b etw e e n t h e l a y er s o f t h e g r e at m es e nt e ry e a ch di v i din g int o ,

tw o br a nch es w hi c h ana s t o m os e wi th adj ac e nt bran ch es t o f o rm a se ri es o f a rch es .

I n t h e ant e ri o r p art o f t h e se ri e s se c o ndary arch e s ar e f o rm e d by th e u ni o n o f

bran ch es g i v e n off fr o m t h e p ri m a ry set o f a rch es F r o m t h e c o n v e x s id e o f th ese .

a rch es t e rm inal br a nc h es p ass t o t h e w a ll o f t h e s mal l i nt es ti n e i n w h i ch th ey ,

r a mi fy an d f o rm a v a s cular n e tw o rk Th ey ar e ac c o m p a ni e d by s a t e l lit e v e in s an d
.

by n er v es and lym p h v esse l s T h e fir s t a rt ery anas t o m o ses wi th t h e p a n cr e a ti c o

-
.

du o d e nal and th e l as t with t h e i l e a l branc h o f t h e g r e at m es e nt eri c art e ry B ranch es

,
.

a r e s u pp li e d t o t h e m es e nt e ri c lym p h g l a n d s .

2 T h e ri gh t b ran c h (A i l e o c e eo c o l i c a ) mi g ht b e r eg ar d e d a s t h e c o nti nu ati o n

. .
- -

o f t h e tru nk I t run s d o wnward an d a l ittl e f o rward and t o th e ri g ht an d g i v es

.

o ff t h e i l e al t h e tw o ce ca l a n d t h e v e ntral c o l i c art e ri e s
, ,
.

(1 ) Th e il eal o r fl e e ce c al a rt e ry (A i l e a ) p a sses i n r etr o g rad e f as h i o n al o n g

-
.

t h e t erminal p art o f t h e i l e um an d un it e s wi t h t h e la s t bran ch o f t h e l e ft di v i s i o n .

(2 ) T h e e xternal o r i nf e ri o r c e c al ar te ry (R amu s c aecal i s l a t e rali s ) p a ss es b e

tw ee n t h e c aecum and t h e o ri g in o f th e c o l o n an d run s o n t h e ext e rn al m us cul a r
b a nd o f t h e c e cum t o t h e a p e x w h e r e i t an as t o m o s es w ith th e int e rnal art e ry
, .

B es id es num er o u s c o ll at eral s t o th e c ae cum i t g i v es off th e art ery o f th e arch , ,

wh i c h p a ss es al o n g th e l es s e r cur v atur e o f th e b a s e o f t h e c e cu m and run s o n t h e

o ut e r f a c e o f th e o ri g i n o f t h e g r e at c o l o n .

(3 ) T h e in te r nal o r s u pe r i o r c e cal ar te ry (R amu s c e cal i s m e di a l i s) p asses

al o n g t h e inn e r band t o t h e a p e x o f th e c e c um w h er e it an a s t o m o ses with t h e ,

e xt e rn a l c e c a l a rt e ry .

(4 ) Th e ve ntra l , ri gh t , o r d i r e ct c oli c a rte ry (A c o l i c a v e ntrali s ) run s al o n g th e .

o pp ose d s urf a c es o f t h e v e ntral (fir s t an d se c o n d ) p art s o f t h e g r e at c o l o n t o th e

p e l v i c fl exu r e wh e r e i t un it es with t h e d o r s al c o l i c art ery
, I t s u pp l i es t h e v e ntral .

p a rt s o f t h e g r e at c o l o n an d se n d s a bran ch t o t h e ba se o f t h e c e cum .

3 T h e ante ri o r bran c h di v i d es aft e r a v e ry s h o rt c o u r se i nt o t h e d o r s a l and

.

mi ddl e c o li c a rt e ri es .

(l ) Th e d o r s al , l e ft, o r r e tr ogr a d e c o l i c ar t e ry (A c o l i c a d o r s al i s ) i s a l a r g e v esse l .

wh i ch p a sses al o n g t h e d o rs a l (f o urth and th i rd ) p art s o f t h e g re at c o l o n t o t h e

p e l v i c fle xu re wh e re it j o in s t h e v e n tr a l c o li c art e ry
, .

(2 ) Th e mi d d l e c ol i c ar t e ry o r fir s t ar t e ry o f th e s mal l c o l on (A c o li ca m e d ia ) .

i s a much s mall e r v es se l wh i ch p a sses t o th e o ri g in o f t h e s m a l l c o l o n e nt e r s t h e ,

c o li c m ese n t e ry a n d f o rm s an a rch by j o i nin g t h e firs t bran ch o f t h e p os t e ri o r

,

m ese nt e ri c a rt e ry cl o se t o t h e l e ss e r cur v a tur e o f t h e b o w e l I t se nd s an a n as to .

m o t i c branch to t h e d o r s a l c o li c art e ry .

1
I n t h e g r e a t ma j o ri t y j
t t h i s v es s e l a nd s o me o f i ts b r a nc h es a re th e s ea t of mo r e
of sub ec s
Or l e s s e x t e ns i v e v c r mmo u s a ne u r y s m p r o d u ce d b y t h e S c l e ro s to mu m a r m a t u m I n t he a u t h o r 3
e xp e r 1 e n ce i n e n t i r e l y n o r m t I s p e c i me n i s q u i t e e xc e p t i o n a l i n a d u l t h o r s e s
, .

2
T h e l e f t b r a nc h i s a d es c i i p t i v e c o n v e n t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a l e a l i ty s i n ce t h e a r te r i es o f t h e
s ma l l i n tes t i n e s S p ri n g f r o m t h e mes e n tmi e t r u n k e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r b
,

y s h o r t co mm o n s t e m s
w i t h a n a d j a ce n t v es s e l .
 BR AN C HE S or T H E A B D O M I NAL A O R TA 57 1

I I I T h e r enal ar teri e s (Aa r e n a l es ) ri g h t an d l e ft a r e r e lati v e ly l a rg e v esse l s

. .
, ,

wh i ch ari se fr o m t h e a o rta n e a r t h e ant e ri o r m e s ent e ri c T h e ri g ht ar te ry i s t h e .

l o n ge r o f th e tw o I t c r osses o v e r th e d o r s a l s urfac e o f t h e v e na c a v a t o t h e ri g ht
.

an d s o m e wh a t f o rw a rd A t t h e h i lu s it di v i d es i nt o se v e ral (fiv e t o e i g h t ) bran ch e s ;

.

s o m e o f th ese e nt e r t h e g lan d at t h e h i lu s wh i l e o th e r s p a s s t o t h e v e ntr a l s urfac e

,

an d e nt e r th e r e T h e l e ft arte ry i s s h o rt and u s ually ari ses a lit tl e furth e r back :

.

i t p as ses dir e ctly o utward t o t h e ki dn e y and i s th e n di s p o se d li k e t h e ri g ht one .

S mall c o ll a t e r a l bran ch e s ar e s u pp li e d t o t h e ur e t e r s an d t h e adr e nal s T h e l a tt e r .

al s o r e c e i v e s mal l v ess e l s dir e ctly fr o m th e a o rta Th e di s tributi o n with in t h e .

ki dn e y h as b ee n d es c rib e d .

Va ri a ti o ns i n t h e r en al a r te r i es a r e f r e q u en t T w o o r m o r e a r t e r i es m ay oc cu r o n o n e o r
A cces so r y a r te r i es a r e m o r e c o mm o n o n t h e l e f t s i de a n d u su a ll y e n t e r t h e p os t e r i o r
.

b o t h s i d es
po le of th e gl an d Th ey ma y a r i se f r om th e ao r t a t h e ext e r na l 1 l i ac o r th e ci r c u mfl ex ili a c a r t e r y
.

.
, , .

I V T h e p o s teri o r o r s mal l mes e n te ri c ar tery (A m es e nt e ri ca cau dali s) i s an

. .

un p ai r e d v essel wh i c h ari ses fr o m th e v e ntr al fac e o f t h e a o rta a t t h e f o u rt h lumb a r

v e rt eb ra i e ab o ut fiv e o r s ix i n ch es (ca 1 2 t o 1 5 cm ) b e h in d th e o ri g in o f t h e
,
. .
, . .

ant e ri o r m es e nt e ri c art e ry I t i s mu ch s m al l e r th an t h e l att e r and s u pp li es th e

.

g r e a t e r p a r t o f th e s mal l c o l o n and r e ctu m I t d e s c e nd s i n t h e c o li c m esent e ry .

and di v i d es int o tw o branc h es Th e ant e ri o r b ran ch (A c o li ca s ini s tra) g i v es off

. .

th ree o r f o ur art e ri es wh i c h di v i d e and f o rm an a s t o m o ti c arch es cl o se t o th e b o w e l .

T h e fir s t ar ch i s f o rm e d by uni o n wi th th e m i d d l e c o li c bran ch o f t h e ant e ri o r

m ese nt e ri c Th e p os t e ri o r branch o r ant e r i o r h azm orr h oi d al art e ry (A haam e r
. .

r h oi d al i s crani ali s ) p as ses backward in t h e u pp e r p art o f t h e m ese nt e ry an d th e

m es o r e ctu m an d t erm inat es n e ar th e a n u s by ana s t o m os in g wi th th e int e rnal

p udi c art e ry Th ree o r f o ur o f i ts ant e ri o r c o l l at eral branch es f o rm arch es
. .

V Th e sperma ti c arteri e s (Aa s p e rm ati c a i nt e rn ae) ri g h t an d l e ft a re l o n g

. .
, ,

s l e n d e r art e ri e s wh i c h ari s e fr o m th e a o rta n e a r t h e p o s t e ri o r m esent e ri c an d s u pp ly

t h e t es ti cl e an d ep i di dym i s E ach p as ses b ackward in a n arr o w f o ld o f p e rit o n e um

.

(P l i c a v as cul os a) t o t h e int e rnal in g ui n al ri n g and d es c end s th r o u g h th e in g ui nal

canal t o th e s cr o tum I n th e c an al an d s cr o tum i t p ur s u es a v e ry flexu ou s c o ur se
.

i n th e ant er i o r b o rd e r o f th e s p e rmati c c o rd s ur r o und e d by th e p am p i ni f o rm p l exu s ,

o f v e i ns and as s o ci at e d cl o se ly wi th th e s p e rm ati c n e r v es and lym p h ati c s and

,

un s tri p e d mu s cl e fib er s I t p as se s b e tw ee n t h e e p i di dymi s and t es ti cl e run s i n

-
.
,

fl exu ou s fas h i o n al o n g t h e att a ch e d b o rd e r o f th e latt e r tu rn s ar o und t h e p o s t e ri o r ,

p o l e an d run s f o rward o n t h e fr ee b o rd e r t o t h e ant e ri o r p o l e T h e l a rges t bran ch es

,
.

ari se fr o m i ts v e ntr a l p art p as s t o rtu o u s l y u p e ith e r s i d e o f th e g lan d e mb e dd e d

,

i n th e tun i ca alb u g in e a and g i v e off fin e br a n ch es t o th e g l a n d s ub s tan c e S mall

,
.

c o llat e ral branch es ar e d etach e d t o th e ur e t e r an d th e s p e rmati c c o rd .

T h e u t e r o -o var i an arteri e s i n th e f em a l e c o rr es p o n d t o th e p r e c e din g

v esse l s b ut ar e mu ch s h o rt er E ach i s p l a c e d i n th e ant e ri o r p art o f t h e br o a d
,
.

l i g am e nt o f t h e ut e ru s and di v i d es i nt o o v ari an an d ut e rin e bran ch es Th e ov ari an .

b ran ch (A o v ari ca ) p ur s u es a fl exu ou s c o ur s e t o t h e o v ary wh i ch i t s u pp l i es

.
Th e ,
.

u t eri n e b r an ch (A ut e rin a c rani a l i s ) p a ss es t o t h e c o n ca v e b o rd e r o f th e c o rn u o f

.

th e ut e ru s W h i ch it s u pp l i es a n as t o m o s in g w ith th e ut e rin e art e ry

, ,
.

V I Th e l u mb ar arteri e s (A a l umb a l es) are i n seri es wi th th e i nt erc os tal

. .

art e ri es an d h a v e a s im il ar o ri g i n an d di st ribut i o n Th e r e a re u s ually s i x p air s o f .

lumbar art e ri es o f wh i ch fiv e ari se fr o m t h e a o rta an d t h e s ix th fr o m t h e int e rn a l

,

il iac o r th e lat e ral s a cral at th e j un cti o n o f th e l as t lumbar v e rt e b r a an d t h e s a crum .

E ach p a sse s acr o ss t h e b o dy o f a lumb a r v e rt e b r a t o t h e i n t e rt r a n s v e r se sp ac e ,

i v e s b ran ch es t o t h e s ublumbar mu s cl es a n d di v i d es int o d o r s al an d v e nt ral

g ,

b ran ch es T h e d o r s al b r an c h (R amu s d o r sa li s ) t h e lar ge r o f t h e tw o p a sse s

. , ,

u p ward t o rami fy i n t h e ext e n s o r mu s cl es o f th e s p in e and th e s ki n o f t h e l o in s ;

i t g i v es o ff a s pin al b r an ch (R a mu s S p inali s ) wh i ch c o m p o rt s it se l f l ik e t h e c o rr e
s p e ndin g b r a nch o f an a o rti c int e rc o s tal a rt e ry T h e v e ntr al b ran ch (R a mu s .
 J
N B L O O D V A S C U LA R S YS T E M
- OF T HE HORSE

I t r
n e na l i l i a c l y m h g la nd s p
Ct r c u mfl e r i l i a c ves s els
' '

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Dee pi ng u i na l l ym h p
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n e na l l i ga me n t

l l idd l e p a e t l l a r l i g a me n t

Fi c . 4 51 .
or Tm c a ,
U PP R P A R T
I N T E R N AL V
E or L EG or Ho u s e , i ew .

L L u mb a r V s e l s
: l
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o p o s t e ri o r ve n a c a v at (t m i t i
; A C symp t h t i t r
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. .
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l p di rt e ry ; p r f d p is fr m l ft
, .

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a er ; 7 o u a o a er ; 8 a o un a en ( o e

i or g l t l ( i s hi t i ) v s ls l ili d p f m r l rt r y
, , , .

o bt r t r ) ; 9 p s t r
u a o o e : u ea or c a c es e rt ry
10 e x t e r na ac a e : ee e o a a e : 1 °

p r p bi rt e ry : I 3 b r h o f d p fe m r l p s t i r l t l rv
. .

e u c a : 1 a nc ee o a a rt ry 4 r t s i t i
e rv g ea c a c ne e; o er o g u ea ne e: 1 6 (a b o v e
’
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.
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s y m p h ys i s p l vi s
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o -c o c c u e ac o r an h d s f bt r t r i t r tw o ea o o u a o n e n us : 29 e ;
s p s ry l i g m n o f r t r t r p is m s l b lb v r s sm s l
. . ,
,

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e u c e o u s en o a e t p is en ; 25 e ac o en u c e: 26 u o -c a e no u u c e;

r — s s p s ry l i m t s
. , .

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re t r t o r p e n i s m l e ) ; 3 0 l l ym ph g l n ; 3 1 t ibi l r (A f t r S h m l t z A t l d A t d P f rd s
, .

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57 4 B L O O D V A S C U LA R S Y S T E M
- or TH E H O RSE

int o t h e p e rin e al and th e a rt e ry o f th e bulb in th e mal e p e ri n e al an d a rt e ry o f th e ,

clit o ri s i n t h e f emal e I t i s ac c o m p ani e d by t h e inte rn al p udi c n e r v e I ts ch i e f

.
.

bran ch e s a r e a s f o ll o ws :
m b il i cal art y i i v n ff fr o m t h e i nt e rn a l p ud i c ab o ut an in ch
(l ) T h e u e r s g e o

t o cm fr o m h o ri in o f t h a t v es s e l I t i s a v e ry l ar g e art e ry in t h e
( c a .2 3 ) t e .
g .

fmt u s i n wh i ch it cur v e s d o w n w a rd a n d f o rward a t t h e s i d e o f t h e b l a dd e r i n th e

,

e d g e o f t h e umbi l i c a l f o ld o f p e rit o n e um p a ss es th r o u g h t h e umbi li cal o p enin g , ,

b e c o m es a c o m p o n e nt o f t h e umbi li c a l c o rd an d r a m i fie s in th e fce tal p l a c e nt a .

A ft e r bi rth it e xt e nd s o nly t o th e v e rt e x o f t h e bl a dd e r and i s m u c h r e d u ce d I ts

l um e n i s alm o s t o bl it e r a t e d and i ts wall i s v e ry th i ck g i v in g th e v esse l a c o rd —
.

li k e ,
1
charact e r h e nc e it i s c o mm o nly t e rm e d t h e r o und li g am e nt o f t h e bladd e r
,
It .

Coccygeus mu s cl e
A n a l l ym p h g l a n d s
B r a n ch of p os t e ri o r gl u t ea l

P os t eri o r h w morr hoi d a l

rt er y Obt u r a t o r a

F I G 4 53 —D r nc r o x o r P E R I N E U M o r M R
. ss
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r A E .

I S c r co
a yg e s s p ri r : 2 s c ro co y g s l t r l i s ; 3 i t t
o- cc u u e o , a - l ; 4 s m cocc y g eu s i n fe ri r ;
cc eu a e a ,
n e r r a n s v e r s a es . ee - o

5 r t yg us :
e c o -c o cc s p hi n t r ni e t r n s ;
e c b r n h c n ne t i ng s p hi n t r ni w i t h o n s tri t r l v ; 7
e a x e u a c o c c e a c c o vu az

v s t b l r b l b : 8 t b r i s h ii ; 9 s a r s i ti l i g me t (A f t e r S h m l t z A t l s (1 A n t d P fe rd es )
e i u a u , u e c . c o- c a c a n . c a , a . a . . .

g i v es o ff s mal l v es ical b r an ch e s (Aa v es i c al es cran i al es ) t o th e bl a dd e r , and twi gs

.

t o t h e p r o s tat e and v as a d e f e r en s i n t h e m a l e I n t h e m ar e a s mal l b ran ch run s .

f o rward a l o n g th e ur e t e r i nt o t h e br o ad li g am ent o f th e ut e ru s .

T he mi d d l e h e m o rr h o i d al o r v e s i c o -pr o s ta ti c a r t e ry (A h a m orrh o i d a l i s .

m e dia ) i n th e m a l e ari ses u s u a l ly n e ar th e p r o s t at e an d run s backward l a t e ral t o

t h e r e ctum I t s u pp li e s bran ch e s t o th e r e ctum bl a d d e r u re th ra and acc ess o ry
.

, , ,

g e ni t a l g land s I n t h e f e m a l e th e h o m o l o g o u s v ess e l i s m u c h larg e r and g i v e s o ff

.

t h e p o s te ri o r ute rin e arte ry (A ut e rina c a u d a l i s ) . T h i s run s f o rward o n th e s id e .

o f t h e v a g in a t o wh i ch i t , g i v e s br a n ch e s an d r a mi fies o n t h e b o dy o f th e ut e ru s , ,

a n as t o m o s in g wi th t h e a n t e ri o r a n d m i ddl e ut e rin e art e ri e s

(I n s o m e c ases t h i s .

a rt e ry a ri se s fr o m t h e int e rn a l il i ac o r t h e umb ili c a l

) .

(3 ) T h e p e r in e al ar t e ry (A p e rin e i ) i s r e l ati v e ly s mall in t h e m al e I t p a sses

. .

T h e o b l i t e r a t i o n i n t h e a d u l t e x t e n d s a v a r i a b l e d i s t a n ce f r o m th e v e s i c a l end t o w a r d th e
o n g m b u t u s u a ll y i n v o l v es o nl y a s ma ll p a r t
, .
 THE I N T E R NAL I L I A C A R T E R Y 575

u p ward at t h e s i d e o f th e an u s wh i ch i t s u pp li es and g i v es twi g s t o t h e bu lb o

, ,

ca v e rn o s u s mu s cl e and th e s kin o f th e p e rin e u m I n t h e fe m a l e it i s large and is .

di s tribut e d t o th e anu s an d v ul v a and g i v e s a larg e b ran c h t o t h e v e s t ibu lar bu lb

, .

(4 ) Th e ar te ry o f th e b ul b (A bulbi u r e th r ae) m a y b e r e g ard e d as th e di r e ct .

c o ntinu ati o n o f t h e i nt e rnal p udi c i n t h e mal e I t l i e s a t th e s i d e o f th e u r eth ra .

ab o v e th e i s ch i al arch di p s u nd e r th e bulb o ca v e rn o s u s mu s cl e and r a mi fies in

,
-
,

t h e c o r p u s s p o n g i o s um B e fo re d o in g so i t g i v es off a s m a ll b r a n c h wh i ch turn s
.

ar o un d th e i s ch ial arch t o r ea ch th e d o r s um p e ni s an d a n a s t o m o s e s with t h e d ee p ,

bran ch o f t h e o btu rat o r .

(4 a ) Th e arte ry o f th e cli t o ri s (A clit o ri di s ) i s th e h o m o l o g u e i n th e f e mal e .

o f th e p re c e din g v es se l b ut i s mu ch s mall e r I t p a sses t o th e v e ntral s u rfac e o f

, .

t h e v u l v a wi th t h e i nt e rnal p udi c n e r v e s u pp l i es t h e cl it o ri s and g i v es twi g s t o t h e, ,

v ul v a .

3 Th e l a t e r al s acral ar t ery (A s ac rali s lat e rali s ) ari ses a t t h e lumb o s a cral

. .
-

FI G . H O R SE
4 54 .
— C R os s -S E c r rON or TA I L or .

I D o rs o l t e r l c y g a l v s l s nd n rv e ; 2 v e n t ro I a te l c y g l rt ry a d
- a a occ e es e a e - ra occ ea a e n ne rv e ; 3 mi dd l e

l rt ry ; 4 sn r co c c yg u s s p e ri r ; sac ro c o c yg s l t r l i s ; 5
, , ,

c oc c y g
ea a e o e- e u o - c eu a e a s r
ac o

s i n f ri r ; 7 r c t -co yg e s ; 8 coc c yg l f s i a ; 9 fi b e — rt i l ag e b e t w ee n f rth fi f th l

. ,

c occ y geu e o e o cc u ea a c r ca ou a nd c occ yg

ea

v rt b rae T h e ve i ns a e b l ac k
, , ,

e e . r .

art i cul ati o n (Fi g I t p a sse s b ack ward und e r th e win g o f th e s acrum th en
.
,

al o n g th e p e l v i c s urfac e o f th e b o n e b e l o w t h e infe ri o r s a cral f o ram in a and th e

n e r v es e m e r g in g fr o m th em an d i s c o nti nu e d by t h e lat e ral c o c cy geal art e ry
, .

Th e branch es a r e as f o l l o w s :
(1 ) S pin al b ran ch e s (R am i s p inal es ) e nt e r th e v e rt e bral c a n a l th r o u g h th e f o r
am e n b e tw een th e l a s t lumb ar ve rt e bra an d th e s a crum and th r o u g h th e v ent ral
s ac r a l foram i n a Th ey g i v e o ff branch es t o th e s p in a l c o rd and i ts m embran es
.

wh i ch r e i n f o rc e t h e v e ntr a l s p i nal art e ry a n d o th e rs wh i ch e m e r g e th r o u g h t h e ,

d o rs a l s acr a l f orami na and s u pp ly t h e mu s cl es and s kin o f t h e cr o u p .

(2 ) Th e mi d d l e c o c cyg e al ar t e ry (A c o c cy ge a ) i s an un p ai r e d v esse l wh i c h
'

ari s es fr o m t h e ri g ht o r l e ft l a t e r a l s a c ra l o r fr o m a l a t e r a l c o c cy g e al art e ry I t .

p a sses b ackward o n t h e p e l v i c s urf a c e o f t h e s acrum t o t h e m e di a n lin e a n d c o n

t i n u es i n t h a t p o s iti o n al o n g t h e t a i l b e tw ee n t h e d ep r ess o r mu s cl es s u pp lyin g ,

th ese an d t h e s k i n .

(3 ) T h e po s ter i o r g lute al o r i s c h ia ti c ar te ry (A g lut ea caud a li s ) e m e rges .

576 B L OO D V A S C U L A R SYS T E M
- or T HE H O R S E

7 u be r os z l y
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‘

A n t e ri o r ex e ns o t r
L a t er a l ex ens o t r

S u p erfic i a l pe r on ea l n e ve r
Deep p er on ea l
-
n e ve r

P r ox i ma l a nn ul a r l i gmnen l

M l ad l e a n nu l a r l i ga m e n t

E x t e r na l l a t e r a l l i ga me n t

Di s t a l a nn ul a r l i ga men t

4 55 .
—D I S S E CT 1 0 N or P ELV I S T H I G H LEG H , axn or o ns n, E '
x r rz m mt . V i ew .

s br n h f f rth l u mb a r
,

D rs l br h s f l s t i t r
I o a n a nc ; e ut n o u n e co s t l d fi rs t thr l m b r rv s
a a ee u a ne e :2 c a eou a c o ou

rv e ; o v t r l br h s f l s t i t r rv ; 5 s p r fi i l br h f s t l rv 4 br h s i l i h y p
, ,

f g s t ri
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ne en a ; n a nc e o a n e co a ne e a c e o o- o a c ne e u e c a a nc o

i l i i g i n l n rv : g r t s i t i rv : 7 S rv s t o bi p s f m ri s (f r m p s t i r g l t l n rv ) ; 9 rve t
, , ,

o- n u a e e ea c a c ne e ne e ce e o o o er o u ea e e ne o

s rv f t hi g h : 1 1 i n t rn l p di e rv ; 1 9 t ri r g l t l
, , .

s m it d i s s (f r m s m ) ; I t) p s t e ri r t
e en no u o a e o o cu a ne o u ne e o e a u c n e an e o u ea

v ss l s w l n rv s ; I d p s t ri r g l t l ( i s hi t i ) v ss l s ; 1 4 br n hes f bt r t r v ss l s ; 1 5 p rox i m l
, , ,

e e a e e o e o u ea or c a c e e a c o o u a o e e a

m s l r br
, . ,

u cu a h s f gr t s i ti a nc rv t b i p s f m ris s m it nd i n s s d s e m i m m br s s ; 1 6 ne rv t o
e o ea c a c ne e o ce e o e e o u an e a no u e

t s r f s i l t (f r m t ri r g l t l n rv ) : I 7 g l t s p r f d s ; I S s t u m p f g l t s m ed i s ; 1 9 g m ll s :
, , ,

en o a c a» a w o an e o u ea e e u eu o un u o u eu u e e u

y g s l t e ra l i s :
. , ,

30 t r h t r j : 2 1 s t m p f bi p s f m ri s : 2 2 s a m
oc an e l l l tl u r y g s s p ri r : s w u o ce e o e -c o c c eu u e o no -
co cc eu a

i f ri r ; 9 6 l i n f f u s i o f p r s s f i n t e r l d x t rn l b l i q
. . .

L
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c o cc eu S i l t'r ( ) n e o e o n o a o ne u o e o na an e e a o ue

m s l s f bd m ; r s i s f t r l b l i q m s l (l m i i l i ) ; 2 6 b r n h s f i l i fe m r l
. , . ,

u c e po a o e n a o ne u o o ex e na o ue u c e a na ac a a c e o aco- o a

V s l s ; 2 7 i l i l m b r v ss l s : 2 8 i l i l m b r Iip d p l y r f l m b l a l f s i ; 9 9 t r l ng l e
,

es e o- u t a e e o- u a ci u n or ee a e o u o -( o rs a c a ex e na a

f il i m ; 30 i t r l g l f i l i m ; 3 1 l t l s m i l ia l ig m t ; 69 s w s i t i l ig m t (A f t e r S hma l t z
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 57 8 B L O O D V A S C U LA R S YS T E M
- OF T HE H OR S E

th e i l i um al o n g t h e v e ntr a l b o rd e r o f t h e ili a c h e a d o f t h e o bt urat o r i n t e rnu s a c ,

c o m p a n i e d by t h e s a t e llit e v e in a n d n e r v e wh i ch l i e i n fr o n t o f t h e art e n ,

(Fi g .
O n r e a chin g t h e a n t e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e o bt ur a t o r fo r a m e n it di p s
.

und e r t h e o btu r a t o r i n t e rnu s a n d p a sse s o bl i q u e ly t hr o u g h t h e f o ram e n I n th i s .

p a rt o f i ts c o urse it g i v e s o ff a v es ic a l br a n ch a n d t w i gs t o t h e o btu r a t o r
int e rnu s a n d t h e h i p— j o i nt A ft e r i t s e m e r g e n c e fr o m t h e p e l v i c c a v ity it run s
.

backw a rd o n t h e v e ntr a l f a c e o f t h e i s ch i um p a ss es t h r o u g h t h e s e mim e mbr a n o s u s

.
,

and ,
in t h e mal e e n t e rs t h e e ru s p e ni s f o rm in g t h e a rt e ri a p r o fu n d a p e ni s I t
,
, .

a n as t o m o s e s wit h t h e i n t e r n al p u di c a n d u s u a lly w it h t h e e xt e rn a l p udi c by a

,

branc h w h i ch run s fo rward o n t h e d o r s um p e ni s L ar g e c o ll a t e ral b ran ch es a re . .

d e t a ch e d t o t h e a ddu ct o rs o f t h e th i g h t h e bi c e p s f em o ri s an d s e m it e ndin o s u s
, ,

f o rmi n g a n as t o m o s es wit h t h e d e e p f e m o r a l a n d p os t e ri o r f e m o ral art e ri es In .

t h e f e m a l e t h e t e rmin a l p a rt i s s m a ll a n d e nt e r s t h e r oo t o f t h e c l it o ri s .

A RTE R I E S O F THE PE LVI C LI M B

T h e mai n a rt e ri a l t runk o f e a ch p e l v i c l imb d e s c e n d s as far as t h e l o w e r b o rd e r
o f t h e p o p l it e u s mu s cl e , wh e r e i t di v i d es int o t h e ant e ri o r and p o s t e ri o r tibi a l

art e ri es T h e di ffe r ent p a rt s o f t h e t run k r e c e i v e s p e ci a l n a m e s wh i ch c o rr es p o nd

.

to t h e s e v e r a l r e g i o n s th r o u g h wh i ch i t p a sses I n th e ab d o m e n i t i s t e rm e d t h e .

ext ernal i li ac ar t e ry in t h e p r o xi mal tw o th i rd s o f t h e th i g h i t i s call e d

,
-
th e f e m o ral
ar te ry wh il e b e l o w th i s i t i s t e rm e d t h e p op li te a l ar t e ry
,
.

THE E X T E RN A L I
Y (F i g s 4 5 0 4 5 1 )
L rA c AR TE R .
,

Th e e xt e rn al il iac ar t e ry (A i l i ac a e xt e rn a ) a ri s es fr o m t h e a o rta un d e r th e
.

fi fth l umb a r v e rt ebra u s ually j u s t i n fr o nt o f t h e o ri g in o f t h e int e rnal i li a c I t

,
.

d es c end s at th e s id e o f th e p e l v i c i nl e t al o n g t h e t e nd o n o f t h e p s o as m in o r cr o ss e s ,

t h e i n s e rti o n o f that m u s cl e a n d r e ach e s t h e l e v e l o f t h e ant e ri o r b o rd e r o f

,

t h e p ubi s wh e r e it b e c o m es th e fe m o ral art e ry

,
I t i s c o v e r e d by t h e p e rit o .

n eum a nd fa s ci a and i s r e l a t e d b e h i n d t o th e c o rr es p o ndin g v e in I ts br a n ch es

,
.

a r e a s f o ll o w s :

1 T h e c i rc umfl e x il iac ar t e ry (A c i r c u m fl e x a i li um p r o funda ) ari ses fr o m t h e

. .

e xt e rnal iliac a t i ts o ri g in o r fr o m th e a o rt a di r e ctly I t p a s se s a cr o ss t h e i liac .

fas ci a t o w a rd th e e xt e rn a l a n g l e o f th e i l i u m n e ar wh i ch i t di v i d es int o tw o b r a n ch es
,
.

T h e a rt e ry l i es b e tw ee n th e f a s ci a a n d t h e p e rit o n e um an d i s ac c o m p a n i e d by tw o
v e in s and t h e ext e rnal cut a n e o u s n e r v e o f t h e thi g h T h e an t e ri o r b ran ch g i v es .

twi gs t o t h e i liacu s a nd p s oa s mu s cl es and p a ss es d o wnw a rd and f o rward in th e ,

fl a n k b etw ee n th e o bl i q uu s int e rnu s a n d t r a n s v e rs u s a b d o m in i s i n wh i ch it r am ifies ,

.

Th e p o s te ri o r b ran ch p e rf o r a t es t h e a bd o mi nal w all a n d run s d o wnward o n t h e

inn e r f a c e o f t h e t en s o r f a s ci a lat a t o t h e f o l d o f th e fl a nk s u pp lyin g b ranch es t o ,

th a t mu s c l e t h e p a nni culu s th e p r e crur a l lym p h g land s and t h e s kin

, ,
-
,
.

2 T h e c r e ma s t e ri c a rte ry (A s p e rm at i ca e xt e rn a ) i s a v e ry s m al l v es s e l
. .

whi ch ari se s in a v a riabl e m a nn e r I t S p rin g s m o s t o fte n fr o m t h e e xt e rnal i l iac

.

n e ar i ts o ri g i n but m a y c o m e fr o m t h e ci rcum fl e x i li ac t h e a o rta b e tw ee n t h e

, ,

e xt e r n a l and int e rnal i li a c o r t h e l att e r v ess e l

,
I t a c c o m p ani e s th e cr e m a s t e r .

mu s c l c to t h e in g uin a l c a n a l s u pp li es twi g s to th a t mu s cl e t h e tun i ca v a g inali s and

.
, , ,

o th e r c o n s titu e nt s o f t h e s p e rm a ti c c o rd (Fi g .

2 a T h e mi ddl e ut e ri n e ar t e ry (A ut e ri n a m e di a ) o f t h e f e mal e i s r e g a rd e d
. .

as t h e h o m o l o g u e o f t h e p r e c e din g v ess e l I t h as a s imi lar o ri gi n but i s a mu ch .

,

l a rge r a rt e ry wh i ch p a s s e s b e twe e n t h e l a y e rs o f t h e br o ad li g a m e n t a n d r e a ch es
,

t h e h o r n o f t h e ut e ru s cl os e t o i ts j uncti o n wit h t h e b o dy I t i s d i s tribut e d t o .

b o th an d a n as t o m ose s wi th t h e ant e ri o r a n d p o s t e ri o r ut e rin e art e ri e s

, .
 THE F E M O R AL A R T E R Y 579

THE F E M O R AL AR T E R Y (F i g s . 4 5 0 , 4 5 x)

Th e f e m o ra l art e ry i s th e m a in art e rial trun k o f th e th i g h I t b e g in s a t th e .

.

l e v e l o f t h e an t e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e p ubi s fr o m wh i c h it i s se p arat e d by t h e fem o r a l ,

ve i n .I t d es c e nd s alm os t v e rt i c a l ly i n t h e f e m o ral canal b e h i n d th e s a rt o riu s

mu s cl e c o v e r e d a t fir s t by t h e int e rna l f em o ral f as ci a a n d l o w e r d o wn by t h e
,

g rac il i s A ft e r p a ss in g o v e r t h e in se rti o n o f t h e p e ctin e u s i t p e rf o r a t e s t h e

.
,

addu ct o r mu s cl e c r o sses i n t h e v a s cu lar g r oo v e o f th e p o s t e ri o r s u rfac e o f t h e f e mur

,

and i s c o nt in u e d b e tw ee n th e tw o h e ad s o f t h e g a st r o cn e miu s as t h e p o p lit eal a rt e ry .

FI G . 4 57 . or H O R SE
I N G L I N A L R E c ro x
‘

I x N E R St a r a c r: or TH IG H or .

1 E t e r n l p di rt r y ; 2 n t e ri r b r hes f I ; 3 p o s t ri r br n h s o f I ; 4 t r ns v rs n s t m s i s
x a u c a e a o a nc o e o a c e a e e a a o o

b e t ee e t e rn l p d i c ve i ns ; v n s p l e u s f d rs u m p i s ; 5 f m r l rt ry ;
.
, , ,

w n x a u s a p h n s n rv e : 7
e ou x o o en e o a a e e ou e an

b rd e r f e t rn l i ng i n l ri ng ; 8 b l i q s a d mi i i t r n s ; 9 p o s t ri o r b rd r o f t r l i g i l
, .

te ir or o o x e a u a o uu n s n e u e o e ex e na n u na

ri g ; 1 0 t i a v ag i n l i s ; 1 1 as d f re s ; 1 2 r m s t r m s l ; 1 3 p r p ; I 4 g l s p i s : 1 5 t e r l
. ,

n un c a v e e n c e a e u c e e u ce an en ex na

r t hr l o i fi e ; 1 6 p s t e ri r b ra n h es f ir m fl i l i v s l s ; 1 7 s p h no s v s l s ; 1 8 f l d f fl n k ;
, , , , . .

u e a r c o o c o c cu ex ac e s e a e u es e o o a

p e n i s ( t ) ; A s u p r fi i a l i g i l l y m p h g l nd s ; B p rec r r l l y m p h g l d s ; C d p i g ui na l l y m p h g l nd s
, , ,

cu e c n u na a u a an ee n a

(A f t e r S hm l t z A t l s 1 A t d P f rd s )
, , , .

c a , a ( . na . . e e .

I t i s r e lat e d at i ts o ri g in t o t h e s art o riu s i n fr o nt th e f em o ral v e i n b e hi n d (wh i ch ,

sep arat es i t fr o m t h e p e ctin e u s ) and t h e i li a cu s e xt e rn a lly L o w e r d o w n it i s ,

.

r e l a t e d s u p e rfic ially t o th e d ee p in g uin a l lym p h g l a n d s and d e ep ly t o t h e v a s tu s ,

int e rnu s wh il e t h e s a p h e n o u s n e r v e i s i n fr o nt o f it a n d t h e v e i n p a sses t o i ts

, ,

e xt e rn a l f a c e Th e ch i e f bran ch es a re a s f o ll o w s :
.

1 T h e pr e p u b i c ar t e ry (T ru n cu s p ud e nd o ep i g as tr i c u s ) ari s e s fr o m t h e fe m o ral
.
-

art e ry at i ts o ri g i n u s u ally by a c o mm o n t ru n k w ith t h e d ee p fe m o r a l

,
I t p a sse s . .

f o rward an d a littl e i nw a rd a n d d o w nward a cr os s t h e e d g e o f t h e in g uin a l li g am e nt ,

and th e n run s o n t h e abd o mi n a l s urf a c e o f th e li g a m e n t t o th e inn e r p art o f th e

int e rn a l in g u in al ri n g wh e r e it di v i d e s o v e r t h e u pp e r b o rd e r o f t h e int e rnal o bl i q u e
,

mu s cl e i nt o t h e p os t e ri o r a bd o minal an d e xt e rn a l p udi c a rt e ri e s .

(l ) T h e po s t e ri o r ab d om in al a rte ry (A e p i g a s tri ca caudali s ) p a s ses al o n g th e .

580 B L O O D V A S C U LA R S Y S T E M
- OF T HE H O R SE

e xt e rn a l b o rd e r o f t h e r e ctu s ab d o mini s a n d a n a s t o m o ses in th e umbi li c a l r eg i o n

with t h e a n t e ri o r abd o mi n a l art e ry (F i g s I t s u pp li es b r a n ch es t o t h e r e ctu s
.

and o bl i q u u s int e r n u s m u s cl e s .

(2 ) T h e e xt e rnal p udic ar t e ry (A p ud e nd a e xte rn a ) d e s c e nd s o n t h e i n g uinal.

l i g a m e nt th r o u g h t h e i n n e r p a rt o f t h e in g uinal c a nal and e m e r g es at t h e inn e r

a n g l e o f t h e e xt e rn a l rin g I n t h e m a l e i t di v i d e s int o t h e s ub cutan e o u s ab d omin al
.

art e ry a n d t h e d o r s al ar te ry o f th e p e ni s T h e f o rm e r run s f o rw a rd a s h o rt di s t a n c e
.

fr o m t h e l i ne a alb a and g i v e s br a n ch es t o t h e s u p e rfi ci al i n g u i nal lym p h g l and s

‘ , ,

t h e s h e ath a n d t h e s cr o tum ,
T h e l a tt e r p a sses t o t h e d o r s um p e ni s and e nd s at
.

t h e g lan s as t h e art e ria g landi s I t g i v es ofi c o l lat e r a l bran ch e s (R a mi p r o fundi

‘
.

p e ni s ) t o th e c o r p u s c a v e rn o s u m on e o f wh i ch u s u a l ly p a ss es backward an d an a sto
,

m o s es with a b r a n ch o f t h e o btu r a t o r art e ry B ran c h es are a l s o s u pp li e d t o t h e .

s u p e rfici a l i n g uin a l lym p h g land s t h e p r e p u c e a n d t h e s cr o tu m ,

I n t h e f e m a l e th e ,
.

mamm ary arte ry t a k es t h e p l a c e o f th e d o r s a l art e ry o f t h e p e n i s ; it p l un ges i nt o

t h e ba se o f th e mamm a ry g l a nd .

2 T h e d e ep f e m o r al ar te ry (A p r o funda f em o ri s ) ari ses e ith e r by a c o mm o n

. .

trunk wi th t h e p r e p ubi c o r a littl e di s t a l t o i t (Fi g I t p a sse s b a ckward an d .

d o wnward a c r os s t h e in n e r fac e o f t h e f e m o ral v e in th e n b e l o w th e p ubi s i n t h e ,

s p a c e b e tw ee n t h e h i p j o i nt an d t h e p e c ti n e u s m u s cl e O n re ach in g th e o btura .

t o r e xt e rnu s i t in clin es m o r e v e ntr a l ly a n d o u tward p a sses o ut b e tw een th e int e r ,

nal b o rd e r o f th e fe mur a nd t h e q uadratu s fe m o ri s an d ram i fi es in t h e bi c e p s ,

f em o ri s and s e mit e ndin os u s I t s u pp li e s l ar ge c o l lat e ral b ran ch e s t o t h e ad d u c

.

t o r mu s cl es and twi gs t o th e d eep i n g ui n al lym p h g land s and th e h i p j o int .

3 T h e a nte ri o r f e m o ral ar t e ry (A f e m o r a l i s cran i ali s ) ari s e s a l ittl e di s tal t o

. .

th e p r e c e din g v ess e l fr o m t h e o pp o s it e s i d e o f t h e fe m o ral t runk I t p a sses f o rward .

,

o utward and a li ttl e d o wnw a rd acr oss t h e d ee p f a c e o f t h e s art o ri u s a n d di p s i n

, ,

b e tw ee n t h e r e ctu s f e m o ri s an d v a s tu s int e rnu s (Fi g I t i s r e lat e d ext e rn .

ally t o th e i li o p s o a s and th e fe m o ral n e r v e

-
.

In s o m e c as es t h i s a r te r y i s r e p l a c e d b y a l a r g e b r a n c h of th e t r l c i r c u m fl ex w h i c h
ex e n a
p t h e i li o p s o as a n d r e c tu s f e mo r i s a n d e n te r s
,

a ss e s b e t w ee n -
the i n t e r s ti c e be t w een th e l a t t e r
mu s c l e a nd the v as t u s i n t e r n u s .

I nn o minat e mu s cular b ran ch e s (R am i m u s cu lar es) o f v ari a bl e s i z e an d

4 .

arran g e m ent a re g i v e n off t o t h e mu s cl es o f th i s v i cini ty .

5 T h e s aph e n o u s ar t e ry (A s a p h e na ) i s a s mal l v esse l wh i ch ari s es fr o m t h e

. .

f em o ral ab o ut i ts mi ddl e o r fr o m a mu s cu l ar bran ch an d em e r ges b e tw ee n t h e ,

s a rt o riu s and g rac ili s o r th r o u g h t h e l att e r t o t h e i nn e r s u rfac e o f t h e th i g h (Fi g .

I t i s j o in e d by t h e l a r g e s a p h e n o u s v e in an d th e s a p h en o u s n e r v e an d
p a sses d o wn s u p e rfici ally o n t h e f o r e p art o f th e g raci l i s c o ntinu es o n th e d ee p ,

f a s cia o f t h e l e g and di v i d es ab o v e t h e h e c k in t o tw o b ran ch es wh i ch a e c o m

, ,

p any t h e radi cl e s o f th e v e in I t g i v es o ff c ut an e o u s twi gs and ana s t o m o ses with

.

t h e r e curr ent tibi a l art e ry .

In so me cas e s t h i s a n a s t o mo s i s d oes no t o cc u r T he a r te r y m a y be la r ge r a nd d i r e c tl y
i n t e r na l t a r s a l a r t e r y
.

t Wi t h
.

co n i n u o u s the .

6 T h e articular
. b r an ch (A gen u s u p r e m a ) i s a s l e n d e r art e ry wh i ch ari ses
.

fr o m t h e f em o r a l j u s t b e f o r e i t p as s es th r o u g h t h e addu ct o r I t d es c end s al o n g th e .

p o s t e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e v a s tu s in t e rnu s t o t h e inn e r s u rfac e o f th e s ti fl e j o i nt wh e r e ,

i t rami fies .

7 T h e nutri e nt ar t ery o f th e f e mu r (A n u tr i ti a f e m o ri s ) i s g i v e n off at th e

. .

m iddl e o f t h e fe mur a nd e nt e rs t h e n utri e n t f o ram en

—
.

8 Th e p o s t e ri o r f e m o ra l o r f e m o r e po pl i t e al ar t e ry (A f em o ri s caudal i s ) i s a
.
.

larg e v es s e l wh i ch ari se s fr o m t h e p o s t e ri o r fac e o f t h e f e m o ral j u s t b e f o r e th e trunk

p asses b e twe e n t h e tw o h e ad s o f t h e g a s tr o cn emiu s (Fi g I t i s v er y s h o rt .

and di v id es int o tw o bran ch es T h e a s c e ndin g bran ch p a sses u p ward an d o utward

.
5 82 B LO O D—
V A S C U LA R S YS T E M or T HE H O R SE

tw o a n d u s ually a pp e a r s t o b e t h e c o nti n u a t i o n o f t h e p e rf o ratin g tar s al It .

s u p p li es t h e nutri e n t a rte ry o f t h e l a r g e m e tat a r s a l b o ne I n o t h e r c as es it i s .

Ti bia l i ns e rt i o n o f se mi
te n tl i n os u s

S a pl ten o us ve in

Tend on o f ga s troc
n em i u s
Te n d on of s u p crj i ci a l
fl av o r
P os t e r i or ti bi a l ves s e l s Ta r s a l t end on of
se t endi n os u s
mi
A n t er i o r exte n s o r Ti bi a l ne r ve
R ec u rr en t ti bi a l
vess e l s

I n t e r n a l l a t er a l l i ga men t

P er on eu s te r t i u s

Ten d o n of fl erc or di g l on .

I nne r (cunea n ) ten d on of gu s (8 .

t i bi a l i s a n t er i o r E x t er n a l pl an t a r vei n

Ou t l i n e of bu r sa
I t r
n e na l pl an t a r a rt er y

I n ter n a l p l a n t a r n e ve r
Gr e t
a met a t a r s a l r ei n Deep fl ea or ten d on ‘

I n l er na l p l a nt a r met a
ta rsa l ve s s e l s

4 58 .
—D i s s r c r ro x o r
.
LEG A N !) HOCK or Ho u s e ,
I NN E R Vi i-
:w . A ft
( e r S h m l t z A t l as
c a , (1 . A na t . (l Pf e rd es )
.

th e dire ct c o ntinu a ti o n o f th e i nte rn a l p l an t a r art e ry , th e e xt e rn a l art e ry o nly

unitin g with t h e p e rf o r a tin g t a r s a l .
 ANTER O R T B I I I AL ARTER Y 583

AN T ER IOR T I B I A L A R T ER Y
T h e an teri o r ti b ia l art e ry (A tibi ali s a nt e ri o r ) i s mu ch t h e l ar g e r o f th e tw o
.

t e rmin a l bran ch es o f th e p o p lit e a l I t p a sses f o rward thr o u g h t h e u pp e r p a rt o f

.

I
7
t r
a s tu s i n e n u s
F emo r a l ves s e l s
B i ceps j eme r i s
-

Gas t r ocn e m i us , t r
ex e na l
P os t e r i or femo r a l a rt e r y
hea d P opl i t ea l a rt e r y
A dd u c tor

S u perfw i a l fi exor
G st r
a oc ne mi us , i n t er n a l h ea d
'

. Ti bi a l ne ve r

A r ti c u l a r ves s el s

J oi n t ca ps u l e

E xtern a l cond yl e o f femu r

P opl i teu s
J oi n t ca ps u l e, open ed

E xte r na l l a t er a l l i gamen t

R ecu r r ent t i bi a l ves s el s

S ol eu s

Ti bi a l i s pos t e r i o r
Fl ex o r d i g l on gu s
. s . a cces sor
ius
F l exor h a l l u ci s l on gu s

Recu rr en t t i bi a l a rt e r y

La t e r a l extens o r t end on
R ec u r r en t ta r sa l vei n
E x t e r n a l ta r sa l rt er y a
E xt e r na l pl an ta r vei n
I n t e r na l t a r s a l a rt e r y

E xt er n al ta r s a l vei n
UP 179? en d Of t a r sa l s h ea th

E x t er na l ta r s a l
Tr ochl ea of ti bi a l
E xt er na l l a t er a l li ga ment
D eep fiexor 16 71 d on
a rt e r y
L on g fl exor t en d on
t a r sal bon e P l a n t a r n e r ves
P l a n t a r a rt e ri es
J oi n t ca ps u l e op e ned ,

Fi bu l a r t a r sa l bon e

Fro . 4 59 .
—D EE P DI S S E CI ’
I G H T ST I FLE
‘
I ON or R ,
LEG AN D
,
Ho c x or H O R SE P OS R OR "
.
TE T I EV
V
.

h k is fl
Th e oc ex e d a t ri g ht a g l e nd t h t b r
n a e u e ca c l is is s a w n of The t ibi l rv i s d r w n i
a ne e rd a nw a to
Sh w i t s m u s c l r b r a
a

h s B ra n h s f t ibi l rv e I
.
,

o u a nc e c e o a ne : 2 , to ga s tr mi s ; 3 4 t
o c ne u p fi l fl o su er c ra e xo r: 5 , to
p p l it s ; t fl l (A f t r S h m l t z A t l s 1 A t d P f rd s )
. , . ,

o eu o ex o r o ng s
u ss ri s ; 7 t d p fl
or acce o u , o ee ex o r . e c a , a ( . na . . e e .
584 B L OO D V A S C U L A R S Y ST E M
- or TH E H OR SE

th e i nt e r osse o u s s p ac e and d es c e nd s wi th tw o s at e llit e v e in s o n th e o ut e r p art o f

t h e fr o nt o f th e tibi a und e r c o v e r o f th e tibial i s ant e ri o r
,
A t th e l o we r p art o f th e .

P t a el l a

Vas tus i n t er nus

A ccess or y ca r ti l a ge of pa tell a
Tend o n of bi ceps f emor i s
G aci l i s
r

S a rt o ri u s
E x t er na l p a t el l a r l i ga ment
T r och l ea f femu r
G tr
as ocne mi us
o

I t r
n e na l p a t el la r l i ga ment

E x t e r na l co nd yl e o f t i bi a M i dd l e p a t el l a r l i ga ment

E x t e r n al l a t e r a l l i ga men t I t r
n e na l tu be r os i t y f t i bi a
o

P er onea l r
n e ve I t r
n e na l l a t e r a l l i ga men t

G tr as oc ne mi u s

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Ti bi a l t en d on of se mi t en
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ex ens o r
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ex ens or
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a n er i o r
S a p h en ou s vei n

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p e r o ne u s t e r t i us ne u s t er ti u s
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("
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Pe r fo r a t i ng t a r s a l a rt er y
S t u mp of t
ex e ns o r br evi s
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La te ra l t r t end on
e x e ns o Gr ea t me t a t a r s a l vei n

A nt er i o r ex t ens or t end on Deep p er onea l n e ve r

4 00 : —S U P E R F I C I A I. D i s s e cr ro x o r R IG H T ST I F LE ‘
LEG AN D H CK O or H O R SE FR O NT V I E W ( A ft e r S hm l t z
c a

A t d P f rd s
, , ,
.
,

A t l as ( 1 . na . . e e . )

l eg i t d e v i a t e s t o th e o u t e r b o rd e r o f th e t e nd o n o f th i s mu s cl e p a sses o n t o th e ,

c a p s ul e o f th e h o ck j o i nt g i v es off t h e p erf o r a ti n g t a r s a l art e ry and i s c o ntinu e d a s

, ,
586 THE VEIN S

b e l o w t h e t e rminati o n o f t h e p o s t e ri o r v en a ca v a a nd i s c o v e r e d i n p art by a
th i n l a y e r o f v e ntri cular mu s cl e fib e rs I t o p e n s int o t h e ri g ht at rium j u s t b e l o w
- .

t h e p o s t e ri o r v e n a ca v a I t i s f o rm e d by th e uni o n o f t w o t rib ut a ri es T h e g r e at
.
.

car diac o r l e ft c o r o na ry v e in (V c o rdi s m a g n a ) b e g i n s at th e l e ft s id e o f t h e a p e x

.

o f t h e h e a rt a s c e n d s i n t h e l e ft l o n g it udi n a l g r oo v e a n d turn s b a ckw a rd i n t h e

,

c o r o n a ry g ro o v e i n wh i c h i t w i n d s a ro und t h e p os t e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e h ea rt t o th e
,

ri g ht s id e an d j o in s t h e c o r o n a ry s inu s T h e mi d d l e c ar d iac o r ri g ht c o r o nar y v e in

.

(V c o rdi s m e di a ) b e g in s o n t h e ri g ht s i d e o f t h e a p e x a s c e nd s in t h e ri gh t l ong i tu
. ,

d inal g ro o v e a n d j o in s th e c o r o n a ry s i n u s o r o p e n s s ep arat e ly i nt o t h e a t rium j u s t

,

i n fr o n t o f th e o ri fic e o f t h e l e ft v ei n s o that a c o mm o n trunk (c o r o n a ry s inu s ),

d o e s no t th e n e xi s t .

T h e s mall car diac v e in s (Vv c o rdi s m i n o r es ) th r e e t o fiv e i n numb e r a r e

.
, ,

s m a ll v esse l s wh i ch r e tur n s o m e bl o o d fr o m t h e ri g ht v e ntri cl e a n d atrium ; th e y

o p e n i n t o t h e latte r n ea r t h e c o r o n a ry g r oo v e i n sp a c e s b e tw e e n t h e mu s cu li
pec ti n a ti .

THE ANTE RI O R VE N A C AVA (Fi g .

Th e nt er i o r v e na ca v a (V c a v a cran iali s ) r e tu rn s t o th e h e a rt th e bl oo d fr o m
a .

t h e h e ad n e ck th o rac i c limb s a n d t h e g r e at e r p art o f th e th o raci c wal l

, , ,
I t is .

f o rm e d a t t h e v en tr a l p art o f t h e th o raci c inl e t by th e c o n fl u en c e o f th e tw o j u g u

l a r a n d tw o brach i al v e in s I ts o ri g i n i s attach e d t o t h e fir s t p a i r o f rib s
. It .
.

p ass es b a ckw a rd i n th e ant e ri o r m e di as tinum a t fi r s t m e d ian an d v entr a l t o th e ,

c o mm o n car o ti d trunk th e n d e v i a t es t o t h e ri g h t o f th e ant e ri o r a o rta and o p e n s

, ,

i n t o t h e ri g h t atri um o pp o s it e t o t h e th ird ri b Th e d e m a rc a ti o n b e tw ee n v e in and .

a trium i s n o t v e ry di s tin ct I t c o nt a in s n o v al v es e xc ep t a t th e m o u th s o f i ts
.

radicl e s I ts l e n g th i s a b o ut fiv e t o s i x i n ch es (ca 1 2 t o 1 5 cm ) and i ts calib e r ab o ut

. . .

tw o inch es (ca 5 cm ) i n a s ubj e ct o f m e diu m s i z e I ts r i g h t f a c e i s cr o s se d by

. . .

t h e ri g h t p h r e ni c n e r v e a n d o n t h e l e ft it i s r e l a t e d t o t h e ant e ri o r a o rta and brach i o

,

c ep h a li c a rt e ry I t r e c e i v e s i n a dditi o n t o s m all p e ri cardi al an d m e dia s tinal

.
,

v e in s t h e f o l l o win g trib ut a ri es :
,

1 Th e i nte rn al th o rac i c v e i n (V th o rac i ca i nt e rn a ) i s a s a t ell it e o f t h e art e ry

. .

o f th at n a m e I t o p e n s int o th e ant e ri o r v e n a c a v a at t h e fir s t rib

. .

2 T h e v e rt e b ral v e in (V v e rt e bral i s ) c o rr es p o nd s t o t h e h o m o n ym o u s art e ry

. . .

O n th e r i g h t s id e i t te rmin a t es e ith e r in fr o nt o f th e d e e p c e r v i cal v e in o r by a s h o rt

c o mm o n trunk wi th i t O n t h e l e ft s i d e it al m os t alway s un it e s wi th t h e d ee p
.

c e r v i c a l a n d v e rte bral v e i n t o f o rm a c o mm o n trunk .

3 T h e d e e p o r s u pe ri o r c e rv i c al v e in (V c e r v i c a li s p r o funda ) c o rr es p o nd s t o
.
.

th e art e ry O n t h e ri g ht s i d e i t l e a v es t h e art e ry at th e fir s t int e rc o s tal s p a c e

.
,

cr o sses th e ri g ht f a c e o f t h e tr a ch e a a nd o p e n s int o t h e v en a ca v a ; i t may f o rm a

c o mm o n trunk with th e d o rs al o r v e rt e b r a l O n th e l e ft s i d e th e r e i s n e a rly a lw a y s
.

a c o mm o n trunk f o r a l l th r ee .

4 T h e d o r s al v e i n (V c os t o c e r v i c a li s ) c o rr es p o n d s t o th e a rt e ry
. .
- - O n th e .

ri g h t s id e i t l e a v es th e a rt e ry o n e nt e rin g t h e th o rax cr o s se s t h e ri g h t fac e o f th e ,

trach e a and o p en s i nt o t h e v e n a ca v a i n fr o nt o f th e d ee p c e r v i c a l o r by a c o mm o n
,

tru n k wi th i t O n t h e l e ft s id e i t a lm o s t alway s j o i n s t h e d e e p c e r v i cal and v e rt e

.

br a l to f o rm a s h o r t c o mm o n trunk w h i ch c r o sse s t h e l e ft f a c e o f th e int rath o r a ci c

p a rt o f th e brach i a l art e ry o pp o s i t e t h e s e c o n d rib and o p en s int o th e ant e ri o r v e na
c a va .

THE V E NA A Z Y G O S
The v e na a zyg o s (Fi g 4 2 9 ) i s an u n p a i r e d v es se l wh i ch a ri s es at t h e l e v e l o f
.

t h e fi r s t l um b a r v e rt e br a by r a di c l es c o m in fr o m t h e p s o as a n d th e cru ra o f t h e
g
dia p h r a g m ; i t i s c o nn e ct e d w ith th e fi rs t lumb a r v e i n I t p a sses f o rward al o n g .

t h e ri g h t s id e o f t h e b o d i e s o f t h e th o r a ci c v e rt e br ae in c o ntact u s ually wi th t h e
,
 VEINS on T H E H EAD AN D N E C K 587

th o raci c du ct wh i ch se p arat es t h e v e i n fr o m th e a o rta A t t h e s e v e nth v e rt e br a

, .

it l e a v es th e s p in e c ur v es d o wnward and f o rward o v e r t h e ri g h t s i d e o f t h e t h o r a c i c

,

duct trac h e a a nd (e s o p h a g u s and o pe n s int o t h e ri g h t a triu m o p po s i te t h e th i rd

, , ,

i nt e rc os tal s p ac e I ts tributari es a r e :
.

1 T h e l a s t f o urt e e n i nt e rc o s tal v e i n s (Vv i nt e rc o s tal es ) o f t h e ri g ht s id e

. .
.

O n t h e l eft s id e th e la s t f o u r t o se v e n i nt e rc o s tal v e i n s u s u a lly e m p ty int o th e v e na

h emi a zyg o s T h i s v esse l run s o n t h e l e ft s id e o f t h e a o rt a fr o m th e f o urt ee nt h
.

t o th e e l e v e nth th o r a ci c v e rt e bra p asses b e tw een t h e a o rta a nd t h e s p i n e a nd j o in s

, ,

t he ve n a a z yg o s I n i ts ab s e n c e i ts tribut a ri e s j o i n t h e v e n a a z y g o s
. .

2 Th e oes oph a g eal v ei n (V oesop h a g ea ) s a t e ll it e o f t h e oes o p h a g e al a rt e ry

. .
, ,

j o in s t h e v e na a z y g os a s it i n cl in es d o wn w a rd .

3 T h e b r o nchi al v e i n (V e na b r on c hi al i s ) uni t es wi th t h e p r e c e din g t o f o rm a

.

s h o rt c o mm o n t ru n k (E l l e n b e r g er B aum ) o r e m p ti es i nt o t h e
g r ea t c o r o n a ry v e in
-
,
1
(C h a u v e au ) .

VE I N S O F THE HE AD AND NE K C
J U G U LAR VE IN S
T he j u gu l a r v e in s (Vv j u g ulares) ri g ht an d l e ft (Fi g . ari se b e h ind t h e
, .

p o s t e ri o r b o rd e r o f th e l o we r j aw ab o ut tw o an d a h alf in ch es (c a 6 t o 7 cm ) b e l o w
th e t em p o r o —
. .

ma xi l lary arti culati o n by t h e uni o n o f th e s u p e rfi ci al t e m p o ral a n d

i nt e rnal maxil lary v e ins E ac h p as se s d o w nward and backward at firs t e mb e dd e d
.
,

m o re o r l ess i n th e p ar o ti d g lan d an d c o ntin u es i n t h e j u g u lar furr o w t o th e th o raci c

,

i nl e t wh e r e it uni t e s wi th i ts fe ll o w an d th e tw o brach ial v e in s t o f o rm th e a nt e ri o r

,

v e n a ca v a I n t h e n e ck it i s c o v e r e d b y t h e s ki n fa s ci a and p anni culu s and i s

.
, , ,

s u p e rfici al t o th e c ar o ti d art e ry fr o m wh i ch i t i s se p arat e d i n t h e ant e ri o r tw o

,
2
th i rd s o f t h e r eg i o n by th e o m o hy o i d e u s m u s cl e I t c o ntain s v al v es at t h e m o uth s
-
.

o f i ts trib utari es a n d h as se v e ral p a i r s o f s e mi lun a r v al v es v ariab ly di s p o se d al o n g

i ts c o ur se .I ts trib utari es a r e a s f o l l o w s :
1 Th e i n t ern al maxil l ar y v e i n (V m axi l lari s int e rna ) i s lar g e r th an t h e
. .

e xt e rnal m axi l lary I t m ay b e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e g i n as t h e c o ntinuati o n b a ckw a rd

.

o f th e bu cc inat o r v e i n wh e r e t h e v esse l cr o sses th e al v e o l a r b o rd e r o f th e mandibl e

(ab o ut tw o i nch es (ca 5 cm ) b e h i nd t h e l as t m o lar t o o th ) I t run s backw a rd o n
. . .

th e inn e r s u r fac e o f t h e ram u s b e l o w t h e e xt e rnal p t e ry g o i d an d c o v e r e d by t h e

i nt e rnal p t e ry g o i d mu s cl e f o r a di s t a nc e o f ab o ut th r ee i n ch es (ca 7 t o 8 .

th e n i n cl in es a l ittl e d o wn ward an d run s v entr a l t o t h e a rt e ry f o r ab o ut a n i n ch

(ca 2 t o 3
. I t cr osses t h e e xt e rn al f a c e o f th e art e ry at t h e p os t e ri o r b o rd e r
o f t h e j aw a n d i s j o i n e d by t h e s u p e rfic i al t e m p o r a l v e i n t o f o rm t h e j u g u lar I ts
,
.

p ri nci p al radi cl es a re :
(1 ) T h e d o r s al l i n gu al v e i n (V d o r s ali s lin g u a ) w h i ch i s a s at e llit e o f t h e
.
,

lin g u al n e r v e .

(2 ) T h e i nf e ri o r al v e ol ar o r d e ntal v e i n (V al v e o l a ri s m and ibu l ae) a s a t ell it e .

,

o f t h e c o rres p o ndin g art e ry I t o ft e n un it es w ith t h e p r e c e di n g

. .

(3 ) P te ryg oi d v e in s (R ami p t e ry g o id e i ) .

(4 ) T h e d e e p te mpo ral v e i n (V t e m p o rali s p r o fund a ) i s a larg e v e s s e l wh ich

.

r e c e i v es trib utari es fr o m t h e t e m p o rali s mu s c l e a n d e m i ss ari e s fr o m t h e p a ri e t o

t em p o ral canal I t i s c o nn e ct e d wi th th e ant eri o r c e r eb r a l v e in a nd u s ually with
.

1
C h a u v ea u sa ys v e i ns w hi c h r a mi f y o n th e b r on c h i li k e th e a r t e r i es o f w h i c h
“
th e b r o n chi a l
t h e y a re s a t el l i t es o p e n i n t o t h e g r e a t co r o n a r y v ei n v e r y n e a r i ts mo u”t h a f t e r h a v i ng u ni t e d to
, .

fo r m a s i ngl e v esse l w h i c h so me t i mes o p e ns di re c t l y i n t o th e a t ri u m E l l e n b e rge r a nd Ba u m

, ,

s t a t e t h a t t h e b r o n c hi a l a n d oeso p h ag ea l v e i ns O p e n i n t o t h e v e n a a z y g o s s e pa a tel y o r b y a c o m
.
,

r
M a r t i n d esc ri b es a s h o r t b r o n c h o oes o p h a g ea l t r u n k b u t t h e v e i n w h i c h h e fi g u r e s
'

mo n t r u nk -

as t h e b r o n c hi a l d o es no t co me f r o m t h e l u n g s b u t i s a s m a l l m e d i as t i na l v es s e l
.
,

T he a u t h o r
fi nd s s u ch a v es s e l e n t e r i ng t h e t e r mi n a l p a r t o f t h e (e s o p h a g e a l v ei n b u t no d i s t i n c t b r o n c hi a l
.
,
.

v ein i n t h e h o r s e
M Fa d y ea n r eco r d s a cas e i n w hi c h t h e v ei n l a y o n th e d ee p f a ce o f t h e o m o h y o i d e u s w it h
.

2 ’ -

th e ca r o t i d a r t e r y .
5 88 THE VEINS

th e m en in g e al v e in s by i ts fr o ntal bran ch T h e l a tt e r drain s ch i e fl y th e lacrimal .

g land and p asse s b e h ind t h e s u p ra o rbital p r o c e ss .

2 Th e s u pe r fic i al t e m po r al v e in (V t em p o rali s su p er fic i a l i s ) i s a s at e lli t e o f
.
.

th e c o rr es p o ndin g a rt e ry I t i s f o rm e d by th e c o n fl u e n c e o f t h e an teri o r aur i cu l ar

.

and tran s v e r s e fac ial v e i n s T h e f o rm e r r e c e i v es t h e s u pe ri o r c e r e b ral v e in (V . .

c e re br a li s d o rs al i s ) wh i ch i s th e e mi s s ary o f th e tr a n s v e rs e s inu s o f t h e du r a m at e r ;
,

i t e m e r ges fr o m t h e p ari e t o t e m p o r a l can a l b e h in d th e p o st g l e n o i d p r o c ess Th e - .

tran s ve r s e fac ia l v e i n (V tr a n s v e r s a f a ci e i ) run s a t firs t ab o v e t h e art e ry o f lik e .

n a m e th e n p lun g e s d e e p ly int o t h e m a sse t e r an d un i t es i n fr o nt with th e faci al

,

v e in I t i s c o nn e ct e d with t h e v e na re fiex a
.
.

3 T h e i nf er i o r ma s s e t e r i c o r m ax il l o mu s c ul a r v e i n (V m a s se t e ri c a ) j o in s t h e -

j u g ul a r a t t h e u pp e r b o rd e r o f t h e s t e rn o —
.
.

c e p h a li cu s t e nd o n I t i s a s h o rt t runk .

f o rm e d by th e c o nfl u en c e at th e p o steri o r b o rd er o f th e j aw o f ma sse t e ri c and

P ro . 4 61 .
—S U P E R F I C I AL V ESSELS A N D
H EA D A N D A N T E R I O R P A R T o r N E C K o H O R SE NE RV Es op r .

M ss e t e r b p r t id g l nd ; p a tid ri l ri s ; I m ss t ri rt ry ; 2 pa r tid br n h ; 3 t r ns v rse

a a
'
a o a c, ro o -a u cu a a e e c a e o a c a e

f ac i l a rt ry ; 4 f i l rt ry ; 5 i n fe ri r l bi l rt r y ; 7 s p ri r l bi l rt r y ; 8 l t e r l n s l a rt r y ; 9 l
, . , .

a e ac a a e o a a a e u e o a a a e a a a a e n

bi t l rt r y : [ 0 d rs l n s l rt e r y ; 1 1 ng l r rt ry o f y e ; 1 2 I 3 j g l r v i n ; 1 4 g re t ic lar v i n;
, , , .

fra o r a a e o a a a a a u a a e e u u a e a au r u e

1 6 m ss t i v i n ; 1 6 s p r fi i l t m p r l i n g 1 7 t r a ns v r s f a i l v i n ; d ep t m p r l vei n ; 1 8 e t r n l
, , , ,

a e er c e u e c a e o a ve e e c a e e e o a x e a

m a i ll r y v e i n ; 1 9 f i l v i n ; 2 0 l bi l v e i n ; 2 1 d r s l n l v i n; £ 2 l t r l s l v ei n ; 9 3 a g l r v i n f
. . , ,

x a ac a e a a o a asa e 7 a e a na a n u a e o

f ci l n w ; s p ri r nd i n f ri o r b cc l ne rv es ; t r ns v rs f i l ne rv ; £ 7 ri l
, . , . ,

e y :e 25 a a e e u e o a e u a a e e ac a e au cu o

p l p br l n rve ; 2 8 n t ri r ri l r n rv e ; 2 9 ce r i c l br n h f f i l n rv ; 80 v e n t r l b r n h f s nd
,

a e a e a e o au cu a e v a a c o ac a e e a a c o ec o

rvi l ne rv e ; i c l a r d u t e s b r n hes f 3 0 ; 3 1 br n hes f d rs a l divi s i f fi rs t a d

, .

ce ca 30 aur u an c an ou a c o a c o o on o n

s nd ce rvi l ne rv s ; 3 2 d rs l br h o f s p i n l a sso r y n rv (A f t r L e i i g A t l s )
,

'
ec o ca e , o a a nc a cc e e e . e se r n s a .

p t e ry g o i d v e i n s T h e f o rm e r i s u s u ally c o nn e ct e d by a l ar ge b ran ch with th e h u e

.

c i n a to r v e in .

4 T h e g r e at aur i cu l ar v e i n (V au ri cul ari s m a g n a ) i s a s a t e l lit e o f th e p o s t e ri o r

. .

a uri cular art e ry ab o v e but j o i n s t h e j u g ul a r a v a ri a bl e di s tan c e b e l o w a n d b e h ind

,

t h e p o i n t o f o ri g i n o f t h e a rt e ry .

5 Th e in f e ri o r c e r e b ral v e i n (V c e r e b r a l i s v e nt ral i s ) i s a n emi s s ary o f th e

. .

ca v e rn o u s s inu s o f t h e dur a I t i s a s a t e ll it e o f t h e int e rn al c a r o ti d art e ry r e c e i v es .

,

t h e c o ndyl o id v e i n , an d j o i n s t h e j u g u l ar n e ar t h e o c c i p it al v e i n o r by a c o mm o n
tru n k wi th it .

(i T h e o c ci p ital v e i n (V o c c i p i t a l i s ) ari ses i n t h e f o ss a atlan ti s b v t h e uni o n o f

. .

mu s cular a n d c e r e br os p i n a l br a n ch es Th e f o rm e r c o m e s fr o m t h e mu s cl es o f th e .

p o l l a n d p a s s e s th r o u g h t h e f o ram e n tr a n s v e r s a ri um T h e l a tt e r i s c o n n e ct e d with .
.

t h e o cci p ital s inu s o f th e dura m a t e r a n d e m e r g e s fr o m t h e s p inal canal by t h e

int e r v e rt e br a l f o ram e n .

7 T h e e xt e rnal max illa ry o r fac ial v e i n (V m a xi ll a ri s e xt e rn a ) ari ses by radi cl es

. .

wh i ch c o rr es p o nd i n g en e ral t o t h e br a nc h e s o f th e art e ry o f lik e n a m e I t p a sses .

590 TH E i xs

op h th a l mi c v e in
The o p h th a lmi ca ) i s a s h o rt t runk c o nn e ct e d in fr o nt ,

w ith t h e v e n a re fl exa a n d b e h i n d wit h t h e c a v e rn o u s s inu s th r o u g h t h e f o r a m e n

l a c e rum o rbi tal e I t r e c e i v e s v e in s w h i ch c o rre s p o n d t o t h e a rt e ri a l br a nch es
.
.

T h e b u cc in at o r v e i n (V bu ccinat o ri a ) e xt end s b a ck ward fr o m t h e ext e rn a l .

m a xillary a l o n g t h e l o we r b o rd e r o f th e d ep r e ss o r l a bi i inf e ri o ri s and bu ccinat o r

und e r c o v e r o f t h e m as s et e r p a s s e s b etw e e n t h e ramu s o f t h e m a ndibl e a nd t h e ,

tub e r m a x i l l a re a n d i s c o nt inu e d a s th e i nt e rn a l m axi ll a ry v e in I t h as a lar g e .

fu s i f o rm dil a t a t i o n a n d i s v al v e l e s s I t r e c e i v es a l a r g e c o m m o n labial v e in fr o m .
.

th e l a bi a l p l exu s
. i s u s u a lly c o nn e ct e d with t h e m as set e ri c v e in
,
.

1 9
. 29 ,

F ro . 4 63 H O R SE .
—D EE P E R V ESSELS Ax D N E R V ES or H EA D or .

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,

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a e na n o a e e u c e , e a e u c 0, a u a , . a a u o

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t r l m i ll ry v e i n ; i f ri r c r br l v i n ; 1 3 fac i l v i n ; 1 4 ng l r v i n f ey e ; 1 6 d rs l l
, , . , ,

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v i ; 1 6 l t r l n s l v i n ; I 7 s p ri o r l bi l v i n ; 1 8 i n f ri r l bi l v i ns ; 2 0 l bi l p l s ; £ 1 9 2 m r
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, , , , , ,

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ex e na re ex a v in; u o no a a ne a o a e n a a ne e

t ri l r v i ; 2 7 s p rfi i l t m p r l v i n ; 2 9 t ns v rs f i l v i n ; 3 0 b i t r v i ; 3 1
, , .

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d rs l l i g l v i n ; 3 2 i f ri r l v l a r d t l v i n ; 3 3 p t e r yg id v i n ; 3 4 d p t m p r l v i ; 3 5 s p ri r
, . , , ,

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c r br l v e i ; 3 6 t r l as l rv ; 3 7 n t e ri r na s l rv ; 3 8 s p ri r l bi l n rv :
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e e a n ex e na n a ne m s t ri n rv ;
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in yl o- o e e o e o au cu a u c a nc o a u e na au u a e e

ri l p l p b r l e rve ( t ) ; 4 6 di g s t ri rv e (A f t r L i i ng A t l s )
, , ,

’
au cu o- a e a n cu , a c ne . e e se r s a .

Th e li n gu al v e in (V lin g u a li s ) i s n o t a at e ll it e o f th e art ery I t i s f o rm ed at

. s .

the s id e o f t h e lin g ual p r o c ess Of t h e h y o idb o n e by t h e c o n fl u e n c e o f sev e ral v e i n s

w hi c h c o me fr o m t h e s ub s tanc e o f t h e t o n u e On e o r tw o c o n s id e rabl e v e s s e l s
g .

run p artly i n t h e s ub s tan c e o f t h e hy o g l oss u s a n d a n o th e r in th e g en i e hy o id e u s -

,
- .

T h e v e i n i s a t fir s t c o v e r e d by t h e myl o hy o i d e u s p e rf o r a t e s th a t mu s cl e run s -
, ,

b a ck a l o n g t h e G i n o hy o i d e u s i n r e l a t i o n t o th e s ubm a xi ll a ry lym p h g l a nd s a n d
-
,

j o in s t h e e xt e r n a l m a xi l l a ry n e a r t h e p os t e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e ja w N e a r i ts te rmi n a .

t i o n it r e c e i v e s t h e s ub l i n gu al v e in o r t h e l a tt e r m ay Op en int o th e e xt e rn al m a xil ,

l a ry dir e ctly .

8 Th e thyr o i d v e i n (V thyr eo id e a ) i s a l a r g e v es s e l wh i ch j o in s t h e j u g ul a r
. .

n e a r t h e e xt e rn a l m a xil l a ry v e i n I t r e c e i v e s a nt e ri o r t hyr o id l a ryn g e a l a n d .

, ,

p h a ryn g ea l r a di cl e s a n d s o m et i m e s a p o s t e ri o r thyr o i d v e i n
, .
 TH E SI N U S E S O F TH E DUR A MA T E R 59 1

9 M u s cul ar , tr ac h e al , a n d oes o ph a g e a l v e in s
. .

1 0 Th e c e p h a l ic v e i n ( e n a c e p h a l i ca ) e nt e r s t h e j u g ul a r n e ar i ts t e rmin a ti o n
. V .

It wil l b e d es crib e d with t h e v e in s o f t h e th o r a ci c li mb .

1 1 T h e i nf e ri o r c e rvi cal v e in
. c e r v i cali s as c e n d en s ) acc o m p a ni es t h e a rt e ry .

It may o p e n i nt o th e brach i al v e i n .

THE S rN U S E s OF T HE D UR A M A T ER
Th ese (S i nu s durae m a tri s ) a r e bl oo d s p a c es b etw e e n th e m e nin g e al a nd -

p e ri o s t e al lay e r s o f t h e dura mat e r and a r e li n e d with e nd o t h e li um I n m a ny .

p l ac es t h e lum e n i s cr o ss e d by fibr o u s s trand s T h e y r e c e i v e t h e v e in s o f t h e brain .

,

c o mmuni cat e wit h th e m e nin g e a l an d di p l o i c v e in s and wit h v e i n s o ut s id e o f th e ,

crani um ; th e i r c o nn e cti o n s w ith t h e l a tt e r a re by m e an s o f s mal l e mi s s ary v e in s

(E mi ss ari a ) T h e y c o n v e y th e bl oo d di r e ctly o r i ndi r e ctly t o t h e j u g ul ar v e i n s
' '

. .

S o m e a r e p a i r e d o th e r s u n p a i r e d Th e y may b e di v i d e d i nt o d o r s al and b a s il a r
,
.

sy s t em s T h e d o r s al s y s t e m c o m p ri ses t h e f o ll o win g :
.

Th e s u pe ri o r l o n gi tu d i n al o r s a gi tta l s i nu s (S s a g ittal i s s u p e ri o r ) i s s i tu a t e d .

i n t h e u pp e r b o rd e r o f t h e fa l x c er eb r i al o n g t h e int e r n a l s a g ittal cr es t I t b eg in s g
.

at th e cri s t a g a ll i a n d e nd s a t t h e t e nt o ri um o s se um by di v idin g i nt o tw o tr a n s v e r s e
s inu s e s I t r e c e i v e s t h e s u p e ri o r c er e bral v e in s
. A l o n g e ac h s id e a r e s mall p o uch es .

M E D I A N S E CT I O N O F H EA D O F H O R SE U E R P W IT H S E PT U M N s R E M O V E D
FI G . 4 64 .
-
, PP a ar a r .

L t r l m s f t hm id b
a a e a s p ri r t rbi l
as i f ri r t rbi l d d t rbi l f l d s
o e o fr t l o ne ; b, u e o u na ; c, n e o u na ;
’
u na o ; e, on a

si s f f l t t ri m r b ll i h m d i l s rf r b ll m k i p it l b
, , .

nu ; r b ri a x ce e f h mi sph r
; g, en o u ce e e ; e a u ace o e e e ; i ce e e u ; occ a o ne ;

ipi t l d y l k p r m s t id p r ss 1 t r l di t r y m t s m t m p r l d yl
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k’
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t mp r l l br h s thm id l rt ry br h s f s p h p l t i
, , , ,

e o a cana ; 1 a nc rt r y br h s f s p h
e Of e o a a e ; 2 a nc e o e no a a ne a e ; 3 a nc e o eno

p l t i v i 4 br h s f th m id l rv br h s f s p h p l t i rp s ll
, , ,

a a ne e n; a nc rve rt r y
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s p ri r s i t t l s i s i f ri r s i t t l s i s
,

su m ; 7 u es tr i ht s i s
o v ag m r bri a nu ; 8, a g nu ; 9 e na a g na ce e ; 1 0, n e o ag a nu ; 1 1
s p ri r p t r s l s i s s p ri r i p i t l s i s 4 s p ri r r br l v i
, , ,

t r s v rs s i s s
an e e nu e : 12 u e o rp s
e o a nu ; 13, u e o occ a nu ; 1 u e o ce e a e n; 1 5, co u

ll s m f r i (A f t r E ll b r r i L At l )
. ,
'
ca o u ; I6 , o n x . e en e ge , n e is e ri ng s as .

(L a cun a; l at e ral es ) i nt o whi ch t h e v e i n s o p e n T h e lum en o f th e s i nu s i s tra v ers e d .

by fibr o u s b and s and i s p arti ally di v i d e d by a l o n g itudinal sep tum .

Th e tr an s v e r s e s i n u s e s (S tran s v e r s i ) ri g h t and l eft p a ss o utward i n t h e .

, ,

tran s v e r se g r oo v es Of th e p ari e tal b o n e s e nt e r th e p ari e t o t em p o r a l canal s and ,

-
,

are c o nti nu e d by t h e s u p e ri o r c e r e b r a l v e i n s t o t h e s u p e rficial t em p o ral v e in s .

Th e tw o s inu s e s a r e c o nn e ct e d by t h e s inu s c o mm uni c a n s .

T h e i nf eri o r l on gi tu d i nal o r s a gi tt al s in u s (S s a g itt a l i s in fe r i o r ) run s backward .

o n t h e u pp e r s urfac e o f t h e c o r p u s c a ll o s um al o n g t h e c o n ca v e e d ge o f t h e falx
c e rebri an d j o in s t h e g r e a t c e r e br a l v e in (o f G a l e n ) t o f o rm th e s trai g ht s inu s .

Th e s tr ai gh t s in u s (S r e ctu s ) p ass es u p ward a n d backw a rd b e tw ee n t h e c e r e .

bral h e mi sp h e r es a n d in t h e t ent o ri um c e r e b e ll i and j o in s th e s u p e ri o r s a g ittal s inu s .

T h e p o int o f m e e tin g i s t h e c o nfl u e n c e o f t h e s i n u s e s (C o n fl u e ns s inu um ) .

Th e o c c i pi tal s in u s e s (S o c ci p it a l es ) l i e o n e ith e r s i d e o f t h e v e rmi s c e r e b elli .

.

Th e y e m p ty a nt e ri o rly int o t h e s i nu s c o mmuni c a n s and c o mmuni c a t e b eh i nd with

t h e s p in a l v e in s .

T h e s u pe ri o r pe tr o s al s in u s e s (S p et r o s i s u p e ri o r es ) p a ss in th e t ent o riu m .

c e re b e ll i t o en d in t h e tr a n s v e r se s i n u s es .
592 THE VE IN S

T he b a s il ar s y s te m c o n s i st s o f t h e f o ll o win g :
Th e ca v e rn o u s s in u s e s (S c a v e rn os i ) l i e in th e inn e r g r oo v es o f th e r oo t o f th e
.

t e m p o ral wi n gs o f t h e s p h e n o i d b o n e a t e i th e r s id e o f t h e s e lla turci c a T h e tw o .

a r e c o nn e ct e d by a wi d e tra v e rse br a nc h (S inu s i n t e rc a v er n os u s ) b e h i nd a n d

b e l o w t h e p os t e ri o r p a rt o f t h e p i tuit a ry b o dy E a ch i s c o ntinu o u s in fr o nt wit h
.

t h e o p h th a lm i c v e in and b e l o w wit h t h e i nf e ri o r p e tr o s al s i nu s Th e th ird s ixth .

, ,

and t h e o p hth a lm i c a n d m a xi ll a ry di v i s i o n s o f t h e fifth n e r v e l i e al o n g t h e o ut e r

wall o f t h e s inu s T h e int e rn a l c ar o ti d art e ry tr a v e r ses t h e s inu s a n d i s c o nn e ct e d
.

with i ts f e ll o w by a t ran s v e r se branch wh ich l i es in t h e c o rres p o ndin g p a rt o f t h e

s inu s . A n o v a l o p eni n g in th e fl o o r c o mmun i cat e s with t h e i nfe ri o r p et r o s al s inu s
and tran s mit s th e int e rn a l c a r ot id art e ry .

T h e s i nu s i s no t s u b d i v i d e d b y s t r a n d s o f fi b r o u s t i s s u e a s i n m a n b u t a fe w d e li c a te b a n d s
a tt a c h t h e a r t e r y t o i ts w a ll
,

1
T h e i nf e ri o r pe tr o s al s i n u s e s (S p e tr o s i inf e ri o r ) l i e al o n g th e b o rd e r s o f
. es

t h e ba s il a r p a rt o f t h e o cc i p i t a l b o n e in cl o se d i n t h e th i ck dura wh i ch cl o s es t h e
,

f o r a m e n lac e rum T h e ant e ri o r p art e xt e nd s ab o ut h alf an i nc h (ca 1 2 mm )

. . .

u nd e r th e t em p o r a l wi n g o f t h e s p h en o i d He r e c o mm un i c a ti o n s e xi s t with v e in s
.

i n th e p ter y go p al a tin e f o ss a T h e p o s te ri o r e n d i s bu lb o u s and l i es i n t h e c o ndy

- .

l o i d f oss a ; it c o mmuni c a t e s with t h e c o ndyl o i d v e i n i s s u in g fr o m th e h yp o g l o ss al

f o ram e n and i s dr a in e d by t h e i nf e ri o r c e r e b r a l v e in ; i t al s o r e c e i v es an e m i ssa ry
“

v e in fr o m th e p ari e t o — te m p o r a l c a n a l T h e r oo f o f t h e s inu s i s p e rf o rat e d by an

.

o v a l o p e nin g at th e car o ti d n o tch wh i ch o p e n s i nt o t h e c a v e rn o u s s inu s an d t ran s

m it s t h e int e rn a l c a r o ti d a rt e ry ; th e latt e r f o rm s t h e fir s t b e n d o f i ts S s h a p e d -

cur v e i n t h e p e tr os al and th e s e c o n d i n th e ca v e rn o u s s i nu s .

T h e ba s i lar pl e xu s (P l e xu s ba s i lari s ) i s a v e n o u s p l e xu s s itu a t e d o n th e u pp e r

s urfac e o f t h e ba s il ar p art o f t h e o cci p i tal b o n e I t i s c o nn e ct e d th r o u g h t h e hy p o
.

g l ossa l f o r a m e n with t h e inf e ri o r p e tr o s al s i nu s and c o mmun i cat es b e h ind with th e

s p in a l v e in s .

THE VE IN s OF T HE CR AN I U M
Th e v e i n s o f th e b r ain (V e n ae c e r e bri ) d o n o t in gen e ral acc o m p any th e c e r e bral
a rt e ri e s Th ey h a v e v e ry th in wall s n o mu s cul ar c o at and n o v al v es Th e y a re
.
, ,
.

arran ge d in tw o se t s s u p e rfic i a l o r c o rti c al and d ee p o r c e ntral T h e s u p e rfici al

,
.

v e in s a r e m o r e num e r o u s and lar ge r th an th e art e ri es Th e y l i e o n t h e s urfac e o f .

t h e brain in t h e p i a mat e r and t h e s ubarach n o id s p ac e .

Th e s u pe ri o r c e r e br al v ei n s drai n th e u pp e r and o ut e r p art o f t h e c e r e bral

c o rt ex Th ey r e c e i v e v e in s fr o m th e m e di al s u rf a c es o f th e h e mi s p h e r es a nd o p e n
.
“

int o t h e s u p e ri o r s a g itt a l s inu s Th e i r t e rm inal p art s ar e b ulb o u s and th e i r o p en

.

in gs ar e di r e ct e d o bli q u e ly f o rward i e c o ntrary t o t h e di r e cti o n o f th e bl oo d

,
. .
,

s tr e am i n t h e s inu s .

T h e i nf e ri o r c e r e b ral v e i n s l i e o n t h e in f e ri o r an d e xt e rnal as p e ct o f th e h emi

s p h e r es T h ey o pe n int o th e i nfe ri o r s y s t e m o f s i nu s e s Th e mi d d l e ce r eb ral
.
.

v e i n run s i n t h e lat e ral fi ss u re (o f S y l v i u s ) and o p e n s int o th e ca v e rn o u s s i nu s .

T h e d e ep c e r e b ral v e in s i ss u e fr o m t h e c e ntral o r g an g l i o n i c p art s o f t h e brai n

at th e tran s v e r se fi ss ur e T h e y c o n v e rge t o f o rm th e gre at c e r eb ral v e i n (o f G al en )
.

(V m a g na c e re bri ) T h i s p asses u p w a rd an d b a ckw a rd b e h in d th e s p l e ni um o f

.
.

t h e c o r p u s cal l os um a n d i s c o ntinu e d as t h e s trai g h t s inu s t o j o in th e s a g ittal s inu s .

T h e s u p e ri o r c e r e b e ll ar v e i n s rami fy o n t h e u pp e r s urfac e o f th e c e r e b e llum .

Th e y o p e n int o th e s u p e ri o r sy s t e m o f s i nu ses and t h e g r e at c e r e bral v ein T h e .

inf e ri o r c e r e b e l l a r v ei n s a re l ar ge r a n d go ch i e fl y t o th e b a s il ar p l exu s T h e v e in s .

o f t h e m e du ll a and p o n s e n d i n t h e inf e ri o r s y s t e m o f s inu s es .

Th e m e ni n g e al v ei n s (Ve n ae m e nin g eae ) a ri se in c a p i ll a ry p l exu s e s in t h e s u p e r

fic i a l a n d d e c p f a c e s o f t h e dura m a t e r S o m e end i n t h e s inu ses o f th e dura
.
,

o th e rs a c c o m p any t h e m e n in g e al art e ri e s .

T h e se a re t e r m e d b y C h a u v ea u a nd M F a d y ea n t h e s u b s p h e no i d a l c o nflu e n ts
’
.
 594 THE VEINS

c e r v i c a l p a nni cul u s and o p e n s i nt o t h e t e rminal p a rt o f t h e j u g ul ar o r th e b rac h i a l

,

v e in I t r e c e i v e s an ac c e s s o ry c ep hali c v e i n (V c ep h a l i c a a c c ess o r i a ) wh i ch a r i ses

. .
,

fr o m th e c a r p a l n e tw o rk run s u p ward a l o n g t h e I nn e r b o rd e r o f t h e e xt e n s o r car p i

, ,

FIG . 4 GG .
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E G I O N A N D A N T E R I OR P A R T O F A B DO MI N AL W ALL O F H OR SE
CT l O N or PEC I ’ ‘
OR A L R
l rv i
.

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,

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.

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p i l s ph l i s s l s t ri r s p r fi i l p t r l
,
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a nn c u u st r ; 16 e n o -c e m a d cu m l ; 17, ca enu ; 18 as t o i o -h u e ra is ; 1 9, an e o u e c a ec o a ; 20 .
p s t ri r s p r fi i l p t r l t ri r d p p t r l p s t ri r d p p t r l bd mi l p i l s
.
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o e o u e c a ec o a ; 21 an e £2 9 23 a o na a nn c u u :
b l i q s bd m i i s t r s
o ee ec o a ; o e o ee ec o a ;

b r hi l i s
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p l r l ymph l d s p r p t r l l y mph l d s i ll ry l y m p h l d s bit l l y m p h l d s

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, ,

a pr esca u a g an : b e ec o a g an : c, ax a g an ; d, cu a g an ;
i p h id rti l (A f t r S h m l t z A t l s 1 A t d P f rd s )
,
.

x o ca ag e e c a a ( na
.
, . . . e e .

turn s al o n g th e l o w e r b o rd e r o f th e br a ch iali s p a sses und e r th e s u p e rfici al t e nd o n ,

o f t h e b i c e p s and j o i n s t h e c e p h a l i c .
 THE P OS T E R I O R V E NA CA VA 595

T h e d e e p v e in s o f th e f o r e arm a re v a ri a bl e C o mm o nly tw o po s teri o r ra d ia l

.

V
v ein s ( e n a m ed i ano r ad i al es ) a c c o m p any t h e art e ry o f li k e nam e , o ne i n fr o nt
and o n e b e h ind A th i rd v e i n ari s e s by radi cl es e m e r g in g fr o m t h e p r o ximal p a rt
.

o f th e d ee p fiex o r ; it j o in s t h e p o s t e ri o r s at e ll it e o f t h e p o s t e ri o r radi a l art e ry

o r f o rm s on e o f t h e r oo t s o f th e b rach i al v e in Th e c o mm o n i nte r o s s e o u s v ein .

j o in s t h e p os t e ri o r s at e l lit e T h e an t e ri o r radial v e in ( c o ll a t e rali s radi a li s ) i s

. V .

a s at ellit e o f th e a rt e ry T h e u l n ar v e i n i s u s u ally d o ubl e at i ts p r o ximal p art ,

.

and c o mmuni c a t es with t h e d eep br a ch i a l v e in .

Th e re a re th r ee ch i ef m e tacar pal v ei n s Th e in te m al m etac a rpa l v ei n (

. V .

m e t a c a r p e a v o lari s su pe r fi ci a l i s m e di ali s ) ari s e s fr o m th e v o lar v e n o u s arch ab o v e

th e f e tl o ck I t i s t h e l a r ge s t v e in o f th e r e g i o n an d l i e s i n fr o nt o f th e lar ge m e ta
.

car p a l art e ry I t se p arat es fr o m t h e art e ry at th e p r o ximal en d o f th e m etacar p u s ,

.
,

p a sses u p w a rd o n th e inn e r p a rt o f t h e p o s t e ri o r s u rfac e o f t h e car p u s , und e r c o v er

o f th e s u p e rfici al l ay e r o f t h e p os t e ri o r annu lar li g am ent , and i s c o ntinu e d as th e
c e p h a l i c v ei n I t c o mm u ni c a t es at i ts p r o xi m al p art with th e o ri g in o f th e p o st e ri o r
.

radial v e in s by a s h o rt but r e l ati v e ly l ar ge b ran ch Th e e xte rnal m etacarpal v ein .

V
( m etac ar p e a v o lari s s u per fici al i s l at e ral i s ) ari s es fr o m th e v en o u s arch ab o v e th e
.

f e tl o ck and p a ss es u p ward b e h in d th e e xt e rn al b o rd e r o f th e s u s p en s ory l i g am e nt

i n fr o nt o f th e e xt e rnal bran ch o f th e m e dian n e r v e a n d ac c o m p an i e d by a sm a ll
a rt ery A t th e p r oximal en d o f th e m e t a c a r p u s i t i s c o nn e ct e d w ith th e d ee p m e ta
.
f

car p al v e in b y tw o tran s v e r se anas t o m o ses wh i ch p a ss acr o ss th e s u s p e n s o ry li g a

m ent I t th e n p a sses u p ward as a s at e ll i t e o f t h e ext e rn al v o lar m e tacar p al art e ry
.

an d c o ncur s i n th e o ri g in o f th e uln ar an d p o s t e ri o r radial v e in s Th e d e ep m e ta .

V
carpal v ei n ( m etac ar p e a v o l ari s p r o fu n d a m ediali s) ari se s fr o m th e v en o u s a rch ,
.

p a sses f o rw a rd b e tw een t h e tw o branch es o f th e s u s p en s o ry li g a m ent , an d a s c en d s

o n th e p o s t e ri o r s urfac e o f th e l ar ge m e t a c a r p al b o n e A t th e p r oxi mal en d o f th e .

l a tt er i t c o mmuni cat es wi th t h e o th e r m e tacar p al v e in s , a s c en d s with th e s mall

m etacar p al art ery , and c o n cur s i n f o rmi n g th e r a di a l v e i n s .

T h e v en o u s a rch (A rcu s v e n o s u s v o l ari s ), fr o m wh i ch t h e m etacar p al v ein s ari se ,

i s s ituat e d ab o v e t h e ses am o i d s o f th e f e tl o ck b e tw ee n th e s u s p en s o ry li g am e nt
and th e d ee p fiex or t e nd o n I t i s f o rm e d by th e j uncti o n o f t h e tw o di g it al v e in s
. .

T h e d i gi tal v e in s , int ern al a n d e xt e rn al ( V

di g itali s m e di al i s , lat e rali s ),
.

drai n t h e v e n o u s p l e xu ses o f t h e f oo t Th ey ari s e at t h e u pp er e d ge o f th e l a t e ral

.

carti l a ges an d a s c en d i n fr o nt o f th e c o rr es p o ndin g art e ri es .

I t i s c o n v e ni e nt t o r e c o g ni z e th e f o ll o win g v e n o us p l exu ses o f th e f oo t , wh ich ,

h o w e v e r c o mmuni cat e v e ry fr ee ly :
,

1 Th e c o r o n ar y pl e xu s e n circl es t h e u pp e r p art o f th e f oo t
. I t i s attach e d .

t o th e t e rminal p art o f t h e e xt e ns o r t e n d o n th e lat e ral carti l a ges and th e bu lb s

, ,

o f th e p l a nt a r c u s h i o n .

2 Th e d o r s al (o r lami n a l ) pl e xu s c o v e r s th e d o r s al o r w a ll su rfac e o f th e th ird

.

p h alanx i n th e d ee p l ay er o f t h e m atri x o f t h e w al l o f t h e h oo f I t f o rm s th e cir .

cu m fl ex v e in o f th e th i rd p h alanx o r v e i n o f t h e di s tal b o rd e r o f t h e th ird p h alanx ,

wh i c h c o rr es p o nd s t o t h e art e ry o f l ik e n am e .

3 T h e v ol ar pl e xu s i s i n th e d ee p l a y e r o f th e m atrix o f th e s o l e o f t h e h oo f
.

and o n t h e d ee p s urf a c e o f t h e lat eral c a rti la ges I t c o mmuni cat es ar o und th e .

i nf eri o r b o rd er o f t h e th i rd p h al anx with t h e d o r s al p l e xu s an d th r o u g h th e lat eral

cartil a g es with th e c o r o nary p l exu s .

Th e d ee p v e i n o f th e th i rd p h al a nx ac c o m p an i es t h e t e rm in a l p art o f th e di gital
art e ry I t dr ai n s th e i n tr a o s s e o u s pl e xu s
.
.

THE P OSTE RI O R VE N A CA VA (F i g s . 270, 4 50 )

v en a ca v a (V ca v a cau dal i s) r eturn s alm o s t al l o f t h e bl oo d fr o m

Th e po s t e ri or .

th e ab d o m e n p e l v i s a nd p e l v i c limb s
, ,
I t i s f o rm e d by t h e c o n fl u en c e o f th e ri g ht
.
596 TH E V E I N S

and l e ft c o mm o n il ia c v e i n s at th e fift h lumb a r v e rt e bra ab o v e t h e t e rmi nal p art ,

o f t h e ao rt a a n d c h i e fl v t o t h e ri gh t o f t h e m e d ian p l a n e .

T h e mo d e o f o r i g i n i s v a r i a b l e I n s o me c as es t h e r e i s a co mm o n t r u n k f o r me d b y th e
l
.

u ni o n o f t h e t w o i n t e r na l i i a c v e i ns s o t h a t t h e a rr a n g e m e n t r esemb les t h e t e r mi n a t i o n o f th e
a o rt a . I n o th e r c as es t h e i n t e r n a i i a c v e i n d oes no t e xi s t l l .

I t p a ss e s f o rward o n t h e v e n t ral f a c e o f t h e p s o a s min o r t o t h e ri g ht o f th e

abd o mi n al a o rt a A t t h e l a s t th o raci c v e rt ebra i t s e p arat e s fr o m t h e a o rta and
.

run s f o rw a rd b e tw e e n t h e ri g ht cru s o f t h e dia p h ra g m a n d th e p an cre as t il l it

r e a ch es th e li v e r He r e it in clin es d o wnward a l o n g t h e inn e r b o rd e r o f t h e ri g h t
.

l o b e a n d t h e p a ri e t a l s urf a c e o f t h e li v e r l a r ge ly e mb e dd e d in th e g l a nd s ub s t a n c e , ,

and p a ss es th r o u g h t h e f o ram e n v e n a ca v a o f th e di a p h r a g m I t th en run s f o r .

w a rd and s o m e wh a t d o wn w a rd b e tw ee n t h e m e di a s tin al l o b e and th e main m ass

o f th e ri g ht lun g at t h e u pp e r m a r g in o f a s p e ci al f o ld o f th e ri g h t p l e ura a ec o m ,

a n i e d by t h e ri g h t p h r e ni c n e r v e a n d o p e n s int o t h e p o s t e ri o r p art o f t h e ri g h t
p ,

a tri um I t r e c e i v es t h e f o ll o wi n g tribu tari e s :

.

1 T h e l u mb a r v e i n s (Vv lumb al es ) c o rr es p o n d t o t h e a rt e ri es
. . F i v e p ai rs .

u su a lly e m p ty int o t h e v e n a ca v a S o m e ti m es th e c o rr esp o ndin g v ei n s o f o pp o s it e

.

s id e s unit e t o f o rm a c o mm o n trunk T h e fir s t c o mm uni c a t e with t h e v en a a z y g o s

. .

2 T h e sp e rm ati c v e in s (Vv s p e rm ati c a i nt e rn a ) (Fi g 4 50) ac c o m p any t h e

. . .

art e ri es o f l i k e n am e I n t h e s p e rm a ti c c o rd th ey f o rm t h e p am p ini f o rm p l exu s

.

ab o ut th e art e ry a n d n e r v es Th e i r t e rm in a ti o n i s v ari abl e Th e ri g h t one c o m

. .

mo nl y j o i ns t h e v e n a c a v a n e ar t h e r e n a l v e i n o ft e n by a c o mm o n trunk wi th t h e ,

l e ft o ne F r e q u e ntly th e l e ft v ei n j o in s th e l e ft r e nal an d s o m etim es t h e ri g h t

.
,

o ne e nd s s imilarly .

2 a T h e u t e r o - o v ar ian v e i n s are m u ch l ar g e r th an t h e p r e c e din g a n d a r e

.

s a t e ll it es o f t h e art e ri e s i n t h e br o a d li g am e nt s T h e o v a ri an bran ch i s p l exi f o rm .

n ea r t h e o v ary T h e ut e rin e bran ch e s f o rm a ri ch p l e xu s in th e wal l o f th e ut e ru s

. .

T h e trunk i s v e ry s h o rt .

3 T h e r e nal v e i n s (Vv r e n a l es ) s a t e ll i t es o f t h e a rt e ri e s a re o f lar ge cal ib e r

.
, ,

and th i n—
.

wal l e d T h e ri g h t v e i n p a sses i n ward and backward o n t h e v e nt ral f a c e

.

o f t h e kidn e y b e twe e n t h e art e ry i n fr o nt a n d t h e u r e t e r b e h ind I t j o in s th e v e n a .

c a v a ab o v e t h e ri g h t adr e nal T h e l e ft v e i n i s s o m e wh at l o n g e r I t p a sses inward

. .

a t fir s t lik e t h e ri g ht o ne th e n b e nd s a r o und t h e p o s t e ri o r e n d o f t h e adr e n a l cr o s ses

, ,

t h e o ri g in o f t h e r e n a l art e ry a n d o p e n s i nt o t h e v e n a c a v a a littl e fu rth e r b ack th a n

t h e ri g h t o n e Th ey r e c e i v e v e i n s fr o m t h e adr e n al s b ut s o m e adr e nal v e in s o p e n
.
,

di re ctly i nt o th e v e na c a v a .

4 T h e h ep ati c v e i n s (Vv h e p ati c a ) r et urn t h e b l oo d fr o m t h e li v e r a n d o p e n

. .
,

int o t h e v e n a c a v a a s i t l i es in t h e g r o o v e i n t h e li v e r Th r ee o r f o u r large v ess e l s .

o p e n in to th e v e na ca v a j u s t b e f o r e it l e a v e s t h e l i v e r a n d n um e r o u s s m a l l o n es ,

di s ch ar ge i nt o i ts e mb e dd e d p a rt .

5 T h e p h r e n i c v e i n s (Vv p h r e n i c a ) tw o o r th r ee i n numb e r r e tu rn t h e bl oo d
. .
, ,

fr o m t h e di a p h ra gm T h e y a re v e ry lar ge i n c o m p ari s o n with t h e art e ri es an d

.
,

j o in t h e v e na ca v a as it li es i n th e c a v a l o p e nin g .

I n so m e c a ses th e r e i s a s ma l l mi d d l e sa c ar l v ei n (V s a c r a li s me di a ) a s a telli t e o f th e ar te ry
Op l co mmo n i l i ac v e i ns o r i n t o o n e o f t h e l a t te r
.
, .

It e ns i n to t h e a n g e of j u nc t i o n of t he .

THE P O RTA L VE I N
The p o rtal v e in (V p o rt a ) is a l a r ge t ru n k wh i ch r etu rn s t h e bl oo d c arri e d t o
.

t h e v i s c e ra by t h e g as tri c s p l e ni c a n d m es e nt e ri c art e ri es
, I ts p e ri p h e ral tribu
, .

tari e s c o rre s p o n d cl o s e ly w ith t h e b ranch e s o f th e art e ri e s bu t t h e t e rm i nal trunk s ,

d o no t T h e v e in i s f o rm e d b e h ind th e p an cre a s an d b el o w t h e p os t e ri o r v e n a ca v a
.

by t h e c o n fl u e n c e o f t h e an t e ri o r and p o s te ri o r m e s e nt e ri c and s pl eni c v e i ns It .

p a sses f o rw a rd t r a v e rse s t h e p os t e ri o r p art o f th e p a n cr e a s v e ry o bli q u e ly in clin es

, ,
598 TH E VE I N s

l . o b turat o r v e i n (V o bt urat o ri a ) i s a s a t e lli t e o f t h e a rt e ry an d u s ually

Th e .

o p e n s i n t o t h e e xt e r n a l ili a c at t h e in se rti o n o f th e p s o a s min o r I ts radi cl e s .

a n a s t o m o se with th o se o f t h e int e rnal and ext e rnal p udi c v e in s (F i gs 4 5 1 .

,

2 T h e il i ac o - f e m o ra l o r e xt e rn al c i rc umfl e x v e in s (Vv c i r cu mfl e xa f e m o ri s
. .

l at e ral es ) a r e th e tw o s a t e llit e s o f t h e h o m o n ym o u s a rt e ry Th ey o p e n a l ittl e .

h i g h e r than t h e o btur a t o r .

T h e f e m o ral v e i n (F i g s 4 50 4 51 ) li e s b e h ind t h e art e ry i n t h e u pp e r p art o f

.
,

t h e th i g h e xt e rn a l t o i t l o w e r d o w n
,
I ts ch i e f t ribut a ri e s a r e :
.

1 A v e ry larg e but s h o rt trunk f o rm e d by t h e uni o n o f t h e d ee p fe m o r a l a n

. d
t h e e xt e rn a l p udi c v e in T h e d e ep f e m o r al v e in (V p r o fund a fe m o ri s ) c o rr es p o nd s
. .

ot h e rwi se t o t h e a rt e ry T h e e xt e r nal p u di c v e i n (V p u d enda e xt e rn a ) ari s es

. .

ch i e fl y fr o m a ri ch p l e xu s o f lar ge v e in s s itu at e d ab o v e a n d a l o n g th e s id es o f t h e
p e ni s and p re p u c e i n t h e m a l e t h e mamm a ry g l a nd s i n t h e f em a l e I t p a sses
,
.

th r o u g h a f o ram e n i n th e ant e ri o r p a rt o f t h e t e nd o n o f o ri g in o f t h e g raci li s an d

ru n s o utward i n t h e s ub p ubi c g r oo v e b e h i nd t h e p e ct in e u s t o unit e wit h t h e d eep
f e m o r a l v e i n T h e ri ght and l e ft v e in s a re c o nn e ct e d by a larg e t ran s v e r s e a n as t o
.

m o s i s an d ea ch h a s a larg e c o nn e cti o n w ith t h e o btu r a t o r v e in E a ch r e c e i v es .

t h e po s t e ri o r ab d o mi n al v e i n (V ep i g as tri ca cau d a li s ) wh i ch acc o m p ani es t h e art e ry

.

o f lik e n a m e T h e s ub c utan e o u s ab d o mi n al v e in (V a bd o m inali s s ub cutan ea )

. .

ari ses i n t h e s kin and p a nni cu lu s o f t h e v en tral abd o m i n al wall a n as t o m os e s wi t h ,

t h e int e r n al and e xt e rn a l th o raci c an d d ee p ab d o m in a l v e in s an d j o in s th e e xt e rnal ,

p udi c o r p os t e ri o r abd o min a l v e in .

A s mall v e i n a c c o m p ani es t h e ext e rnal p udi c art e ry i n th e in g u i nal c anal .

2 T h e an te ri o r f e m o ral v e in (V fe m o ri s cr a n i a li s ) a c c o m p an i es t h e art e ry
. . .

3 T h e s aph e n o u s v e i n (V s a p h e na ) (F i g s 4 51 4 58 4 60) ari se s at t h e i nn e r

. . .
, ,

s id e o f th e fl ex i on s u rf a c e o f t h e t a r s u s a s t h e u p w a rd c o nt in u a ti o n o f t h e i nt e rn al

m e t a t a rs a l v e in I ts c o u r se i s di s tin ctly v i s ibl e I t a s c e n d s o n th e s ub cut a n e o u s

. .

s urf a c e o f th e t ibi a a n d t h e p o p l it e u s mu s cl e in cl o s e d b e tw e e n l ay e r s o f t h e d ee p
,

fa s ci a in cli n e s a l itt l e b a ckward t o t h e p r o xim a l p a rt o f th e l e g th e n d e v i a t es

, ,

s li g htly f o rw a rd run s u p w a rd o n t h e g r a ci li s p a ss e s b e tw ee n th at mu s cl e and th e

, ,

s rt o ri u
a s and j o i n s t h e fe m o ral o r t h e e xt e rn a l p udi c v e in
,
1
O n t h e u pp e r p a rt o f .

t h e ca p s ul e o f t h e h o ck j o i n t it f o rm s an arc h with th e ant e ri o r tibi al v e i n Th e .

v e i n h a s n um e r o u s v a l v e s T h e s at e l lit e art e ry i s r e l a ti v e ly s m a l l a n d li e s i n
.

fr o n t o f t h e v e i n as fa r a s t h e j un cti o n with th e r e cu rr e n t tibi al v e in wh i ch i t ac ,

c o m p a ni es on t h e l e g I t r e c e i v es t h e r e curr e nt ti b ial v e in (V r e curr en s tib i ali s )

. .

at t h e p r o xi m a l f o urth o f t h e l e g T h i s v es s e l ari ses at t h e inn e r s urfac e o f t h e

.

t a r s u s a nd f o rm s an arch with t h e p o s t e ri o r tibi a l v e in at t h e l e v e l o f t h e tub e r

calci s I t a s c end s i n th e fu rr o w i n fr o nt o f t h e g a s tr o cn e mi u s t e n d o n inc l in e s f o r
.

w a rd a t t h e p r o xi mal th i rd o f th e l e g an d j o in s th e s a p h e n o u s v e i n at an acut e
,

an g l e I t h a s n um e r o u s v al v e s A s mall e r v e i n fr o m t h e ant e ri o r fac e o f t h e

. .

m e tatars u s j o i n s t h e s a p h e n o u s at t h e h o ck .

4 M u s cul ar b ran ch e s wh i ch c o rr es p o nd t o t h e art e ri e s

.
.

5 T h e p o s t e ri o r f e m o r al o r f e mor o-popl i t e a l v e i n (V f em o ri s c au d a l i s ) i s a
.
.

s a t e llit e o f t h e a rt e ry I t r e c e i v e s t h e r e cu r r e nt tar s a l o r e xt e rn al s aph e n o u s v ei n

.

(V tarse a r e curre n s ) wh i ch ari ses at t h e o ut e r s id e o f t h e h o ck a s c end s o n th e

.
, ,

d e e p f as ci a o f t h e e xt e rnal s urfac e o f t h e l e g i n fr o nt o f t h e t e n d o A ch i lli s p a sses ,

b e tw ee n t h e bi c e p s f e m o ri s an d s em i t e ndin o s u s an d j o in s t h e p o s t e ri o r f e m o ral ,

v e in .
I t i s c o nn e ct e d wi th t h e re cu rrent tibi a l v e in by a l a r g e an a s t o m o ti c bran ch
w hi ch c r oss e s i n fr o n t o f t h e t ub e r c a l ci s Us u a lly a b ran c h fr o m i t as c e nd s al o n g
.

t h e g r e a t s c i at i c n e r v e a n d an a s t o m o s e s wit h t h e o bturat o r v e in .

‘
Th e pl a c e a nd mo d e t e r mi na t i o n i s q u ite v a r i a b l e I t m a y d i s a pp e a r f r om th e s ur f ace
of

an y p o i n t a b o ve the d i s ta l t h i rd I n s o me c as es i t p as s e s t h r ou g h t h e a nt e r i or
.

o f th e t h i g h a t

p a r t o2 f t h e g r ac i l i s i ns t e a d o f d i pp i n g i n b e t w e en t h a t m u s cl e a nd th e s a r t o r i us
.

T hi s o f t e n j o i ns t h e p o s t e r i o r f e mo r a l or t h e p o p li t e a l v e i n
.

.
 TH E L Y MP H A T IC SYS T E M 599

Th e p opl it e al v e in ( V
p o p lit e a ) l i es a l o n g t h e inn e r s id e o f t h e art e ry (Fi g
. . .

I t i s f o rm e d by t h e c o n fl u en c e o f ant e ri o r and p ost e ri o r tibi a l v e in s .

T w o an t e ri o r ti b ia l v e in s (Vv t ibi a l es ant e ri o r es ) u s u a lly acc o m p a ny th e art e ry

.

o f l i k e n a m e ; t h e o ut e r v e i n i s mu ch t h e l a r g e r I n o th e r c as e s th e r e i s a s i n g l e
.

l ar ge v e i n i n t h e p r o xi m al p art o f th e l e g , tw o l o w e r d o wn Th ey ari s e fr o m a .

n umb e r o f an as t o m o s in g radi cl e s o n t h e fr o nt o f t h e c a p s ul e o f t h e h o ck j o int ,

ch i e fl y as t h e c o nti nu a ti o n o f t h e p e rf o ratin g t a r s a l v e in Th e o ri g in o f th e ch i e f
.

v e in i s c o nn e ct e d w it h t h e s a p h e n o u s by a lar g e an as t o m o ti c br a n ch .

T h e po s te ri o r ti b i al v e i n ( V
tibi a li s p o st e ri o r ) i s c o mm o nly d o ubl e (Fi g
. .

I t ari ses a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e t ub e r c al ci s , wh e r e i t h a s a c o mmuni cat i o n with th e

r e cu rr e nt tibial v e i n . I t i s a s at e llit e o f th e art e ry
T h e in t e rn al o r gr e at me ta tar s al v e i n ( V
m et atar se a d o r s al i s m e diali s) (F i gs
.
.

4 58, 4 60) ari ses fr o m t h e v e n o u s arch ab o v e t h e s e s a m o i d s a t t h e f e tl o ck , but i s

p ract i cally t h e u p ward c o nti nu at i o n o f th e int e rnal di g it a l v e i n I t a s c e nd s al o n g
.

t h e inn e r b o rd e r o f t h e d e e p fl ex o r t e nd o n , th e n i n t h e g r oo v e o n t h e inn e r a s p e ct
o f th e p r o xi mal p art o f t h e lar ge m e t a tar s al b o n e t o th e ca p s ul e o f th e h o ck j o int ,
and i s c o ntin u e d by th e s a p h e n o u s v e i n .

T h e e xtern al me ta tar s al v e in ( V
m e tat arse a p l antari s l at er a li s) ari ses fr o m
.

t h e v e n o u s arch ab o v e t h e f e tl o ck , but a pp ea r s t o b e t h e u p ward c o nti nu a ti o n o f

t h e e xt e rn a l di g it a l v e in I t a s c e nd s al o n g t h e o ut e r b o rd e r o f th e d eep fl e xor
.

t end o n i n fr o nt o f t h e p lant ar n e r v e , an d i s c o n n e ct e d w ith t h e d ee p m e t a t a rs al

v e in at th e p r o xi m al p art o f th e m e tat a r s u s by a t ran s v e r se bran ch I t th e n p a sses .

u p ward al o n g t h e d e e p fl ex or t e n d o n i n r e lat i o n t o th e p lantar n e r v es and th e inn e r

t ar s al art e ry an d i s c o nti nu e d by t h e r e cu rr ent t ibi al v e i n .

Th e d eep m e ta tar s al v e in ( V
m e tat a r se a p l a nt a ri s m e di al i s ) ari ses fr o m th e
.

p l antar v en o u s a rch , p a ss es f o rward b e tw ee n t h e bran ch es o f th e s u s p e n s o ry li g a

m ent , an d a s c e nd s o n th e p o s t e ri o r fac e o f th e l ar ge m e t a t a r s a l b o n e A t t h e p r oxi .

m al e n d o f th e m e t atar s u s it i s c o nn e ct e d w it h t h e e xt e rnal m etatar s al v ei n by a

trans v e r se bran ch . I t th e n p as s e s (a s th e p e rf o ratin g tar s al v e in ) t h r o u g h t h e
v as cular canal o f t h e t ar s u s and f o rm s th e ch i e f r a di cl e o f t h e ant e ri o r t ibi a l v ein .

T h e pl an tar v e n o u s ar ch (A rcu s v e n o s u s p lantari s ) an d th e d i g ital v e ins are

arran ge d lik e th o s e o f th e t h o raci c l imb .

THE LYM PHATI C SYSTE M

Th e l ym ph a ti c s y s t em (S y s t e m a lym p h ati cum ) i s s ub s idi ary t o th e v e n o u s
p art o f t h e ci rcul a t o ry s y s t e m , fr o m wh i ch it ari ses in t h e e mbry o I t c o ns i s t s o f .

t h e lym p h v esse l s an d g l and s .

V
T h e l ym ph v e s s e l s ( a s a l y m p h at i ca ) c o ntai n a c o l o rl ess fl u i d , t h e lym p h ,
wh i ch c o ntain s num e r o us lym p h o c y t es ‘
Th ey r es embl e t h e v e in s i n stru cture
.

b ut h a v e th in n er wall s a n d a r e p r o v i d e d w i th m o r e num e r o u s v a l v es T h e v es se l s .

are s acc u lat ed o pp os it e t h e se g m e nt s o f t h e v al v es and h a v e a ch ar a ct e ri sti c b e ad e d

a pp e aran c e wh e n di s t e n d e d T h e c o l l e ctin g lym p h v esse l s d o n o t u s u ally f o rm ri ch
.

p l exu ses as v ei n s o ft e n d o th e ir b ran ch i n g i s m o r e limit e d and l ess tre e lik e th an

‘

-
, ,

th at o f t h e b l oo d v esse l s an d th e i r c a lib e r th e r e f o r e in cr ea s e s l es s fr o m th e p e ri p h e ry
-
,

t o ward t h ei r t e rmi nat i o n A ll o f th e lym p h i s u lt imat e ly c a rri e d int o t h e v en o u s

.

s y s t e m by tw o t runk s t h e th o rac i c du ct and t h e ri g ht l ym p h ati c d uct

,
A lm o s t all .

o f t h e l y m p h p a sses th r o u g h at l e a s t on e g r o u p o f lym p h g land s b e f o r e e nt e rin g th e

bl oo d v a s cu l ar s y s t em
-
.

T h e l ym ph gl an d s o r n o d e s (Lym p h o gl a n d u l ae) a re int e rcal a t e d i n t h e c o u r se

o f t h e l y m p h -v esse l s Th ey v a ry wid e ly i n s i z e s o m e b e in g mi cr o s c o p i c o th e rs
.
, ,

te r m c h y l e i s o f t e n a ppl i e d to th e l y m p h c a r r i e d b y t h e efi er en t v essel s of th e i n t esti ne

'

Th e
wh en i t con t a i n s p r o d u c t s o f di g es t i on a nd t h es e v es s el s may be d es i gn a te d as l a c t ea l s o r c h y l e
,

s s e ls
ve .
 600 THE V EINS

se v e r a l i n ch e s i n l e n g th I n f o rm th e y m a y b e g l o bul a r o v o i d an d fl a tt e n e d
.
, ,

e l o n g at e d o r i rr e g ul a r
,
I n c e rt a i n s it u a t i o n s t h e y a r e a g g r eg at e d int o g r o u p s a n d
.
,

a k n o wl e d ge o f t h e p o s iti o n o f th es e and t h e t e rri t o ry drai n e d i nt o th em i s i m

p o rt a nt I t i s c o n v e n i e nt wh e n p o s s ibl e t o i n di c a t e t h e i r p o s iti o n with r eg ard t o
.
.
, ,

a rt e ri es o n t h e c o u r s e o f wh i ch th e y a r e p l a c e d I n c o l o r th ey are u s u ally g ray o r .

y e ll o wi s h br o wn i n th e d e a d s ubj e ct p ink o r r e ddi s h b r o w n duri n g l if e bu t thi s

-
,
-
,

v a ri e s ac c o rdin g t o th e i r p o s iti o n a n d funct i o n al s tat e Th e br o n ch ial g l a nd s .

a re o ft e n b l ack e n e d by infi ltr a ti o n with c a rb o n T h e m es e nt e ri c g l and s a r e cr e a my

.

o r w h it e wh il e t h e ch yl e i s p a ss in g th r o u g h bu t p ink at o th e r tim es V ess el s ,

.

w h i ch c a rry lym p h t o a g l a n d a re c a ll e d afi e r en t ; t h e e fi er e n t v ess e l s wh i ch c o n v e y

it away a re l a r g e r a nd f e w e r E ach g l a nd h as a d e p r e ss i o n t h e hi l u s , at whi ch t h e
.
,

bl o o d v e ss e l s en t e r and t h e eff e r e n t lym p h v e ss e l s e m e r ge

- .

L ym p h n o du l e s o r f o l l i c l es (N o dul i lym p h a ti ci ) a r e m inut e m a s ses o f lym p h o i d

ti ss u e wh i ch o cc ur i n c e rt a in mu c o u s m embr a n es Th e y m a y b e s o litary as in t h e .
,

s o li tary g l a nd s o f t h e int es tin e o r a g g r e g at e d i nt o m a sses o r p atch es a s i n t h e t o n s i l s

, ,

and t h e so call e d P e y e r s p atch es

’
- .

Th e l ymp h n o d u l e o r f o l l i c l e i s th e u n it o f s t r u c t u r e o f t h e lym p h g l a n d I t c on si s t s
es s e n t i a ll y o f a n a rt e r y s u r r o u n d e d b y a r e t i c u l u m o f c o n ne c ti v e ti ss u e
.

t h e m es h es of w h i c h
co n t a i n n u me r o u s l y m p h oc y t e s S u r r o u n d i n g t h i s i s a r i c h p l e xu s of l y m p h v e ss e l s f o r m i n g t h e
,

s o ca ll e d s i nu s i n c l os e d i n so m e c a s es b y a fi b r o u s ca p s u l e
.
,
-
T h e gl a n d co n s i s ts o f a mas s o f
fo ll i c l es i nc l os e d i n a fi b ro u s c ap s u l e f r o m w h i c h t r a b e cu l ae p a ss i n a nd u n i t e th e fo l l i c l es B e
.
,

n e a t h t h e c a p s u l e i s t h e p e r i p h e r a l s i n u s w h i c h co ns i s t s o f a v e r y r i c h p l exu s o f l y m p h v esse l s ;
, , .

t o t h i s t h e a ff e r e n t v es s e l s p as s a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s o f t h e s u r f a c e
,

I n t h e c o rti c a l s u b s t a n c e t h e .

ce l l s a re i n r o u n d e d m ass e s t h e c o r ti ca l n o d u l es w hi l e i n th e m e d u ll a ry s u b s t a n c e t h e y l i e
a r o u n d t h e a r te r i e s f o r m i n g t h e s o — c a ll e d me d u ll a r y c o r d s
, ,

T h e me d u l l a i s r e d d e r t h a n t h e c o r
te x s i n c e i t i s m o r e v a s cu l a r ; i t co n t a i n s t h e c e n t ra l l ymph s i n u s e s w h i c h h a v e a s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e
.
,

to t h e p e r i p h e r a l s i n u s
, ,

T h e h aemol ymph g lan d s di ff e r fr o m t h e lym p h g l a nd s i n c o l o r and s truct ur e .

Th ey a r e o f a d ee p re d c o l o r , wh i c h i s d u e t o t h e h i g h v a s cularity o f t h e c o rti cal

s ub s tan c e T h e p e ri p h e ral s i nu ses es p e c ially a r e g r e atly d e v e l o p ed a n d c o ntai n
.

num er o u s re d b l oo d — c e ll s T h e r e i s n o cl e a r di v i s i o n i nt o c o rt i c al an d m e du ll a ry
—
.

s ub s t a nc e , a n d th e t rab e c ul ae c o n t a i n s m oo th mu s cl e c e ll s S o m e h a v e aff e re nt .

and e ff e r e nt lym p h v esse l s a n d o th e r s d o n o t T h e y r es e mbl e th e Sp l ee n in s o m e .

r es p e ct s , but th e ir s i g ni fi can c e i s n o t y et c l e a r Th ey a re n um e r o u s i n th e o x a n d .

s h ee p , much f e w e r i n t h e d o g , a n d a pp ar e ntly a re a b s e nt in t h e h o r se Th ey o c cu r .

al o n g t h e c o u rse o f t h e a o rta , i n t h e p e rin e a l fa t , at th e p o rtal fi s s u r e , a n d wi th

th e g a s tri c a n d m ese nt e ri c lym p h g l an d s I n t h e o x th ey ar e a l s o f o und und e r th e.

tr a p e z iu s mu s cl e , und e r th e s ki n o f th e u pp e r p art o f t h e fl ank , an d i n o th e r p lac es

l ess c o n s t a ntly .

T h e ti s s u e o r lym ph s pac e s a r e i nt e r s ti c es o f v aryin g s i z e b e tw ee n c e ll s o r

i n th e m e s h es o f c o n n e cti v e ti ss u e T h e y c o ntai n a fl u i d d e ri v e d fr o m t h e b l oo d
.

p l a s m a w h i ch i s u s ually c a ll e d lym ph
, Th e y a re drain e d by th e v e in s and lym p h
.

v ess e l s T h e lar ge s e r o u s s a c s ar e o ft e n i n clu d e d i n th i s c at e g o ry

.
.

T h e e xa c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n th e l y m p h a ti c c a p ill a r i e s a nd t h e t i ss u e s p ac e s i s s till a ma tt e r
o f co n t r o v e r s y I t i s h e l d b y s o m e t h a t t h e l y m p h v es s e l s a re i n d i r ec t c o mmu ni ca t i o n w it h th e
-

t i s su e s pa c es w hi l e o t h e r s ma i n ta i n t h a t th e l y mp h a t i c s a re co m p l ete c l os e d tu b es C o mmu ni
.

c a t i o n b e t w ee n t h e s p a ce s a n d v e ss e l s i s i n
g e n e r a l v e r y f r ee M a ll h a s s h o w n t h a t g r a n u l es i n
, .

j e c te d i n t o t h e h e p a t i c a r te r y a r e r e t u r n e d b y t h e l y m p h a t i c s a s w e ll a s b y t h e v e i ns a n d i n t r a
.

m u s c u l a r i nj ec ti o ns w ill e n t e r t h e l y m p h v es s e l s o f th e t e n d o n i n s p ite of t h e a b s e nc e of l y mp h a ti cs
,
-

in mu s e l e .

L YMP HATI C SYSTE M OF THE HOR SE

THE THO R ACI C DU CT (F i g s 4 2 8 4 2 9)
.
,

Th e
th o rac ic d u c t (D u c tu s t h o r a ci c u s )i s t h e ch i e f c o ll e ctin g trun k o f th e lym p h
at i c sy s te m I t b e g in s as an e l o n g at e d i rre g ul ar di l a tati o n t h e c i s te rn a o r r e c epta
.

c u l u m chyli , wh i ch i s s itu a t e d b e t w ee n t h e ri ht s id e o f t h e a o rt a and t h e ri h t cru s

g g
602 TH E V E I N S

th i n l a y e r o f fa s ci a and p anni culu s a n d a re th e re f o r e p a l p abl e A nt e ri o rly th e y .

a r e firmly att a ch e d t o t h e myl o —

,

hy o i d e i but o th e rwi se t h e y a r e rath e r m o v abl e

,

i n th e n o rm a l s tat e E a ch g r o u p i s r e lat e d e xt e rn a lly t o th e e xte rnal m axill a ry

.

a rt e ry a n d t h e ant e ri o r b e l ly o f t h e di g a s tri cu s b e l o w t o th e e xt e rn al m axi ll ary

,

v e in and ab o v e t o t h e l in g u a l a n d s ublin g ual v e in s

,
.

Th e y r e c e i v e afi er en t v e s s e l s fr o m t h e li p s n o s tril s n as al r e g i o n ch e ek s t h e , , , ,

a nte ri o r p a rt o f t h e t o n g u e t h e j a ws t h e floo r o f t h e m o uth

, ,
an d th e g re at e r p art ,

o f th e h ard p al at e a n d n as al c a v ity T h e eff e r e nt v e s s el s p ass t o t h e ant e ri o r

.

c e r v i c a l a n d p h a ryn ge al g l a nd s .

T h e s u p e r fi c i a l l y mp h v esse l s o f t h e f a ce c o n v e r g e to t w e l v e to fi f tee n t r u n k s w hi c h tur n

a r o u n d t h e l o w e r b o rd e r o f t h e ja w w i t h t h e f a c i a l v ess e l s T h o s e of t h e li p s f o r m p l exu s es a t
T h e n as a l m u co u s m e m b r a n e i s r i c h l y s u pp l i e d w i t h l y m p h v es s e l s w hi c h
.

t h e c o mmi ss u r es
a c c o m p a n y t h e v e i n s ; p os t e r i o r l y t h e y c o mm u ni c a t e w i t h t h e su b d u r a l a nd s u b a r ac h no i d s p a ces
.

a nd s e n d e fl e re n ts to t h e p h a r y n g ea l a nd a n te r i o r c e r v i c a l g l a n d s .

2 . p h ar yn g e al l ymph g land s (F i g s 4 3 6 4 3 7 569) m ay c o n s i s t o f tw o

Th e .
, ,

gr ou ps One l i es o n t h e lat e ral s urf a c e o f t h e p h arynx al o n g th e c o ur se o f th e ex

.

t e rn a l c a r o ti d a rte ry T h ese g lan d s ar e r el at e d e xt e rnally t o t h e s tyl o m axi l l a ri s

.
-

a n d di g a s tri cu s a n d o ft e n t o t h e s ubm axi ll ary g l and al s o ab o v e t o t h e g uttu ral ,

p o uch O th e r g l and s (Lg r e tr o p h aryn g e al es ) a r e c o mm o nly f o un d o n t h e g uttural

. .

p o u ch a l o n g t h e c o ur se o f th e i nt e rn a l c ar o ti d art e ry Th ey l i e b e l o w th e art e ry
—
.

a n d a re c o v e r e d by t h e a p o n e u r o s i s o f t h e m as t o id o h um era l i s and t h e c e r v i cal

e n d o f t h e s ubma xi llary g l a n d .

Th ey r e c e i v e a ff e r e nt v esse l s fr o m th e cr an i um th e p o s t e ri o r p art o f t h e t o n g u e , ,

t h e s o ft p alat e p harynx g uttural p o u ch l a rynx p o s t e ri o r p art o f t h e na s al ca v ity

, , , , ,

and effe r e nt s fr o m th e s ubm axi ll a ry g l and s .

3 T h e a nte ri o r c e rvi ca l lym ph g l an d s (Lg c e r v i c a l es c ran i a l e s ) a r e s itu a t e d

. .

ch i e fl y a l o n g th e c o ur se o f th e c o mm o n c ar o ti d art e ry i n t h e v i cin ity o f th e thyr o i d

g l a nd und e r c o v e r o f t h e c e r v i c al an g l e o f t h e p ar o ti d g l a nd
,
S o m e o c cur b e tw ee n .

t h e thyr o i d a n d t h e s ubm ax i l l a ry s a li v a ry g l a n d o th e r s ab o v e and p artly u p o n ,

th e thyr o i d Th ey a re r e lat e d d ee p ly t o t h e p o s t e ri o r p a rt o f t h e l arynx t h e

.
,

tr a ch e a th e th yr o i d g land , an d th e oes o p h a g u s ; b e l o w t o th e e xt e rnal m a xillary

,
1
v e in a nd t h e o ut e r b o rd e r o f th e o m o h y o i d e u s -
.

Th es e gl a n d s are v a r i a b l e O f te n t h e r e a re n o n e i n f r ont of th e t h yr o i d and th e g r ou p ma y

e xte n d b a c k a co ns i d e r a b l e d i s ta n c e a l o ng t h e c ou r se o f t h e ca r o t i d a r te r y
.

T h ei r a ff e r e nt s a re d ee p lym p h v esse l s fr o m th e h e ad th e p h arynx l arynx , , ,

g uttural p o u ch a n d thyr o i d g l a nd a n d e ff e r e nt s fr o m t h e s ubm a xi llary and ph a ry n

, ,

g e a l g l a nd s Th e ir e ff e r e nt v esse l s go t o th e m i d dl e an d p o s t e ri o r c e r v i c al g land s
. .

4 Th e mi d d l e c e rv ical l ym p h g l a n d s (Lg c e r v i cal e s m e di ae) f o rm a n i n c o n s tant

. .

g r o u p s i tu a t e d a l ittl e in fr o nt o f t h e m i ddl e o f th e n e ck o n t h e trach e a b e l o w th e

c a r o tid art e ry T h e g r o u p i s u s u al ly s m al l an d i n s o m e ca ses i s ab se nt b e in g
.
,

r e p l a c ed by a numb e r o f g l a nd s o c cu rri n g at i nt e r v a l s a l o n g t h e c o u rs e o f t h e c a r o ti d
arte ry I n o th e r s ubj e ct s t h e g r o u p c o n s i s t s o f se v e ral g land s o f c o n s i d e rabl e s i z e
. .

T h e y a re inte rcal at e d i n th e c o ur se o f t h e trach e al lym p h du cts .

5 T h e p o s t eri o r c e rvi cal o r pr e pe ct o ral l ymph g l an d s (Lg c e r v i c al es cau dal es )

. .

f o rm a l a rge g r o u p b e l o w t h e trach e a at th e e ntran c e t o t h e th o rax (Fi g .

Th e y o ccu p y th e i nt e rs ti c es b e tw ee n th e v esse l s and mu s cl es an d e xt en d f o rward a

v ari a b l e di s tan c e o n t h e v e ntr a l a s p e ct o f t h e tr a ch e a Th e y ar e c o v e re d by th e
p a nni culu s a n d s t e rn o —
.

c e p h ali cu s Th e i r a ffe r e nt v esse l s c o m e fr o m th e h e ad

.
,

n e ck th o rax a n d th o raci c limb T h e y r e c e i v e e ff e r e nt du ct s o f t h e ant e ri o r an d

, , .

middl e c e r v i cal p r es c a p u l a r an d axi ll ary g l a nd s Th e i r e ffe r e nt s go t o th e th o raci c

, , .

duct o n t h e l e ft t o t h e ri g h t l y m p h ati c du ct o n th e ri g h t o r o p e n di r e ctly i nt o th e

, ,

v e n a ca v a .

6 T h e p r e s capu lar o r s u pe r fic ial c ervi cal l ym ph g l an d s (Lg

. c e r v i c al es .

A b s c es s h e r e c a n be r e a c h e d r ead il y b y a n i nc i s i o n b e tween t h e v e i n a nd th e omo h yo i d eus - .

 T HE L Y MP H G LAN D S AND V E SSE L S OF T HE TH O RAX 603

su p er fic i a l es ) l ie
o n t h e ant e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e ant e ri o r d ee p p e ct o r a l mu s c l e in ,

r e lat i o n t o th e o m o hy o i d e u s i nt e rnally an d t h e ma s t o id e h u m e r al i s e xt e rn a lly

- -

(F i gs 4 3 1 4 4 1
.
, Th e y a re o n th e c o u r se o f t h e as c e ndin g br a nc h o f th e i h
,

fer i or c e r v i cal a rt e ry Th ey r e c e i v e aff e re nt s fr o m th e n e ck br e a st s h o uld e r and

.
, , ,

ar m Th e ir eff e r e nt s p a ss t o th e p r e p e ct o ral g land s

. .

Th e trach e al d uct s , ri g ht and l e ft (D uctu s trac h e ali s d e xt e r s i n i s t er ) a r e c o l , ,

l eet in g trunk s f o r t h e lym p h o f t h e h e ad and n e ck Th e y l i e o n t h e trach ea i n .

r e lati o n t o t h e c a r o ti d art e ri e s Th e ri g h t o n e g o es t o t h e p r e p e ct o r a l g l a nd s o r
.

t o t h e ri g h t lym p h ati c du ct t h e l e ft on e t o th e t e rm inal p art o f t h e th o r a ci c duct

, .

THE LYMP H GL AN DS AN D VE SSE LS O F THE THO RAX

T h e i n t e rc o s tal l ym ph g lan d s (Lg int e rc o s tal es) a r e s m all an d a r e s itu at e d
1 . .

at th e s id es o f t h e b o di es o f t h e t h o rac i c v e rt e br ae , in se ri e s c o rr es p o n di n g t o t h e
i nt er c o s tal s p ac es Th ey r e c e i v e aff e r e nt s fr o m t h e v e rt ebral c a n a l , t h e s p inal
.

m u s cl es , t h e di a p h ra g m , i nt e rc o s t a l mu s c l es , an d p l e u ra Th e eff e r e nt v e s se l s go .

t o t h e th o raci c du ct .

y o u n g s u b j e ct t h ese g l a n d s a r e m o r e
I n th e nu me r o u s t h a n i n t h e t an d t h e r e
ad ul ar e a s o l
g l a n d s a l ong t h e d o rs a l f a ce o f t h e t h o r ac i c ao r t a d i sa pp ea r l a t e r
,

w hich s ee m to .

2 an t er i o r m e di a s ti n al l ym p h gl an d s (Lg m e dia s tin al es crani al es ) (Fi g

. Th e . .

4 28) a r e n u m e r o u s S o m e a re s ituat e d o n t h e c o ur se o f th e br a ch i a l art e ri es an d

.

th e ir br a nch e s ; o n t h e ri g ht s i d e th e y a r e r e l a t e d d eep ly t o th e trach e a o n t h e l e ft ,

t o t h e oes o p h a g u s al s o T h e y a r e v a ri a b l e i n s i z e and di s p o s iti o n a n d a r e c o nt inu o u s

.
_

in fr o nt wi th t h e p r ep e ct o ral g l a n ds O t h e r g l an d s l i e al o n g t h e v e ntral f a c e o f
.

t h e tr a ch e a o n t h e ant e ri o r v e na c a v a an d t h e ri g h t a t rium o f t h e h ea rt ; th ese a re

c o nt in u o u s b e h ind wi t h th e br o n chi a l g l and s A few g l and s u s u a lly o c cur al o n g t h e .

d o rs al s ur fac e o f th e trach e a a n d t h e r e i s o ft e n one at t h e a n g l e o f di v e r g en c e o f

,

th e brachi o c e p h a li c t ru n k Th e aff e r e nt v ess e l s c o m e ch i efl y fr o m t h e p l e ur a

.
,

t h e p e ri car d i u m t h e h e art t h e th ym u s o r i t s r e main s t h e tr a ch e a a n d th e (e s op h a

, , , ,

gu s . Th e ir eff e r e nt v esse l s p a ss t o t h e p r ep e ct o r a l g l a n d s and t h e th o raci c du ct .

T he glan d s a l o n g t h e v en t r al f a c e o f t h e t r a c h e a a re f r e q u e n t l y e nl a r g e d an d u s u a ll y pi g
mented i n di s s ec t i n g r oo m s u b j e c ts - Th e l e f t r e c ur r e n t n e r v e li es a b o v e t h e m o n t h e v e n t r al
fa ce of th e t r a c h e a
.

3 Th e b r on ch i al l ym ph gl an d s (Lg b r o n ch ial e s ) a r e g r o u p e d ar o und th e

. .

t e rmi nal p art o f th e t r a ch e a a n d t h e b r o n ch i On e g r o u p li es o n t h e u pp e r su rfac e .

o f t h e bi furc a ti o n o f t h e trac h e a an d i s c o ntinu e d a s h o rt di s t a nc e backward und e r

th e oes o p h a g u s (Fi g O th e rs l i e b e l o w t h e tr a ch e a and br o n ch i a n d a l s o
.
.

o ccu p y t h e an gl e b e tw ee n t h e a o rt i c ar ch an d t h e p ulm o n a ry art e ry , c o n c e al in g

th e l e ft r e curr e nt n e r v e and o ft e n c o v e ri n g t h e v a g u s in t h i s p art o f i ts c o ur se .

S mall g l and s o c c ur al o n g t h e ch i e f b r o n c h i in t h e s ub s t a n c e o f th e l un g s (Lg p u l .

mo n al es ) T h e y r e c e i v e t h e d eep an d m o s t o f t h e s u p e rficial lym p h v esse l s o f t h e

.

lun gs , an d t h e eff e r e nt s fr o m t h e p o s t e ri o r m e di a s tin a l gland s Th e i r eff e r ent .

v es sel s g o t o th e th o raci c du ct a n d t h e ant e ri o r m e di a st in a l g land s T h e d ee p .

lym p h v esse l s o f t h e lun g ari s e in p l exu s e s wh i ch s u rr o un d t h e t e rmin a l br o nch i

an d acc o m p a ny t h e br o n chi t o t h e r o o t o f t h e lun g T h e s u p e rficial v ess e l s f o rm .

a ri ch n etw o rk und e r t h e p l e ura ; m o s t o f th e m p a ss t o th e b r o n ch ial g land s .

Th e b r o n c hi a l g l a nds ar e c o mm o nl y p i g m e n t e d exce p t i n yo u n g s u b j e c t s a n d a re o f t en
enl ar ged a n d i n d ur a t ed .

Th e p o s t eri o r me d i a s tin al l ym p h g l a n d s (Lg m e di a s tinal es caud a l es ) a r e

4 .
.

us ual ly s mal l and ar e s c a tt e r e d al o n g t h e p o s t eri o r m e di a s tin u m ab o v e t h e oesoph a

Th y r c i v a ff e r e nt v esse l s fr o m t h e oes o p h a g u s , m e di a s tinum , di a p hr a g m ,
’

g us . e e e e

and li v e r T h e eff e r e nt s go t o t h e b r o n ch i a l an d ant e ri o r m e di as t in al l ym p h g lan ds ,

.

p a rtly t o t h e th o raci c duct di r e ctly .

604 T HE VE IN S

S o m e tim e s o ne o r tw o s m a ll g land s a re s it u a t e d i n th e acut e a n g l e b etw ee n th e

p os t e ri o r v e na c a v a a nd t h e di a p h ra g m .

THE LYlV
lP H G L A ND S AN D VE SSE L S O F THE ABD OME N AND P E LVI S
Th e lym ph g lan d s o f th e ab d o m e n c o n s i s t o f t w o m a in g r o u p s , p a ri et al and
v i s cer a l T h e
. par i e tal g lan d s l i e i n t h e s ub p e rit o n ea l o r s ub cutan e o u s t i ss u e ;
th e y r e c e i v e t h e lym p h v e sse l s fr o m t h e ab d o m in al an d p e l v i c wall s fr o m p art s o f ,

th e v i s c e ra and fr o m t h e p r o xi mal l ym p h g land s o f t h e p e l v i c l imb s

,
Th e vi s c e ral .

g lan d s l i e o n t h e wall s o f t h e v i s c e r a o r i n t h e p e rit o n e al f o ld s wh i ch c o nn e ct th e

o rga n s wi th t h e w a ll o r with adj a c e n t v i s c e ra T h e y r e c e i v e all o r m o s t o f t h e .

lym p h v esse l s fr o m t h e o r g an s with wh i ch th ey a r e c o nn e ct e d .

Th e p ari e tal g lan d s c o m p ri se th e f o l l o wi n g :

.1 Th e lum bar lym ph g lan d s (Lg l umb al es ) l i e a l o n g th e c o ur se o f th e ab d o m
.

in a l a o rta and p o s t e ri o r v e n a c a v a (Fi g S o m e a re p l a c e d al o n g t h e l o w e r

.

s urfac e a nd s i d e s o f t h e v esse l s o th e r s ab o v e ,
A fe w s m al l g land s m ay b e f o un d
.

a b o v e t h e s ubl umb a r mu s cl e s T h e s mal l n o d es wh i ch a r e s ituat e d at th e h i lu s

.

o f th e kidn ey s a re o ft e n t e rm e d t h e r e n a l lym p h g l a nd s Th ey r e c e i v e a ff e r ent .

v ess e l s fr o m t h e lumb ar wall o f t h e ab d o m e n an d t h e p a i r e d v i s c e ra (k idn ey s ,

a dr e n a l s g e ni t a l o r g a n s ) a l s o t h e i n g ui n a l v e s se l s and t h e eff e r e nt s o f t h e i li ac
, ,

g land s . Th e ir effe r e nt s g o t o t h e th o raci c du ct c o n s t it utin g th e lum bar trunk s ,

o f o ri g in o f th a t v e sse l .

.2 T h e i n te rnal i l iac l ym ph g lan d s (Lg i l i a cae i nt ern a ) a r e g r o u p e d ab o ut t h e

.

t e rminal p art o f th e a o rt a a nd t h e o ri g i n s o f th e i li a c art e ri e s (Fi g Th e i r .

affe r e nt v e sse l s c o m e ch i e fl y fr o m th e p e l v i s p e l v i c v i s c e ra an d tai l and th e y r e c e i v e

, , ,

eff e r e nt v ess e l s o f t h e e xt e rnal i l i a c an d d ee p in g u in a l g l a n d s .

.3 T h e e xt e rn al il i ac l ym ph g lan d s (L g i l i a cae e xt e rn ae) f o rm a g r o u p o n e ith e r

.

s id e o n t h e i l iac f as ci a a t t h e bi furcati o n o f t h e ci r cum fl e x i l iac art e ry (Fi g .

Th ei r a ff e r ent v essel s c o m e fr o m th e fl ank an d a b d o m in al fl oo r t h e o ut e r s u rfac e ,

o f th e th i g h a n d t h e p r e crural g l and s
, T h e eff e r ent v essel s g o t o th e lumb a r a n d
.

i n t e rn a l i li a c g l a nd s .

.4 T h e s acral l ym ph gl an d s (Lg s ac ral es ) a r e s m all n o d es s it uat e d al o n g th e

.

b o rd e r s o f t h e s a crum and o n i ts p e l v i c s u rfac e T h e y re c e i v e a ffe r ent s fr o m the .

r oo f o f th e p e l v i s a n d fr o m th e tail , and t h e i r e ffe r e nt v esse l s p a ss t o th e int e rnal

i l i a c g l a nd s .

.5 T h e s u pe rficial i n g u in al lym ph gl a n d s (Lg in g uin al es su p erfic i al es ) l i e o n .

th e a b d o minal tuni c i n fr o nt o f t h e e xt e rn a l i n g u in al rin g (Fi g T h e y f o rm .

an e l o n g a t e d g r o u p al o n g t h e c o urse o f t h e s ub cutan e o u s abd o mi n a l art e ry o n ,

e ith e r s id e o f t h e p e ni s i n t h e m al e ab o v e th e m a mmary g l a nd s in th e fem a l e ;

,

in t h e lat te r th e y a re o ft e n t e rm e d m amm ary Th e i r aff e r e nt s c o m e fr o m th e inn e r

.

s urf a c e o f t h e th i g h t h e abd o m i nal fl oo r t h e s h e ath an d s cr o tu m in t h e m a l e a nd

, , ,

t h e m a mm a ry g l a nd s i n t h e fe m a l e T h e e ff e r e nt v esse l s a s c e n d th r o u g h th e
.

i n g ui n a l c a n a l and go t o th e d e e p in g u i n al an d lumb a r g lan d s .

.6 T h e i s chi ati c lym ph gl a n d (Lg i s ch i adi c a ) i s a s mal l n o d e wh i ch ma y b e

.

f o und a t th e l esse r s c i ati c n o tch I t r e c e i v es lym p h fr o m t h e adj ac ent p a rt s

.

a n d fr o m t h e p o p lit e al
g l and s a n d se nd s e ff e r e nt s t o th e s acral and int e rnal i liac
,

g land s .

Th e vi s c e ral g lan d s i ncl ud e t h e fo ll o win g :

1 T h e g a s tri c l ym ph g l an d s (Lg g a s t ri c ae ) a r e s ituat e d al o n g t h e c o u r se o f
S e v e ral o ccur al o n g t h e a ttachm e nt o f t h e g as tr o —
. .

th e g as tri c a rt e ri es . p h re ni c
l i g am e nt A g r o u p li e s at t h e l e ss e r cur v a tu re a s h o rt di s t a n c e b e l o w t h e cardia
. .

Th e re i s an o th e r s mal l g r o u p o n th e v i s c e ral s urf a c e wh e re th e p os te ri o r g a stri c

art e ry di v id es int o i ts p rim ary br a n ch es Tw o o r t h ree s m a ll n o d e s a re u s ually
.

f o un d o n t h e v e ntral a s p e ct o f th e p yl o ru s O th e r s m a l l g l a n d s are s catt e r e d .

606 THE VEINS

v e in s wi th t h e b r a ch i al (Fi g T h e i r e ff e re n t s i n cl ud e m o s t o f t h e lym p h
.

v essel s o f t h e li mb wh i ch c o m e di r e ctly o r as e ff e r e nt s fr o m t h e cubital g l a n d s

,
.

T h e y r e c e i v e a l s o lym p h v e s s e l s fr o m t h e th o r a c i c wall T h e e ff e r e nt s a c c o m p a ny .

t h e brac hi al bl o o d v e s se l s and e n d in t h e p r e p e ct o ral g l a nd s and t h e th o raci c and

-

ri g h t lym p h ati c du ct s .

2 T h e c ub ita l lym p h g lan d s (Lg cub i tal e s ) u s ually e i g h t t o te n in numb e r

.
.
, ,

f o rm a di s c o i d o v a l g r o u p at t h e in n e r s i d e o f t h e d i s t a l p art o f t h e s h a ft o f t h e
hum eru s (F i g s 4 4 1 , . T h e v l i e b e hin d t h e bi c e p s mu s cl e o n t h e brach ial
v e ss e l s a n d m e di a n n e r v e and a re c o v e r e d b v t h e d e e p f a s ci a a n d th e p o s t e ri o r
s u p e rfici a l p e ct o r a l mu s c l e T h e y r e c e i v e as a ffe re nt s m o s t o f t h e v essel s fr o m th e
.

limb b e l o w th i s p o int T h e ir e ff e r e nt s p as s ch i e fl y t o th e axi llary g l a nd s but i n

.
,

p a rt t o th e p res c a p ul a r g l a n d s a l s o .

A numb e r o f s u p e rfi c i a l lym p h v e sse l s a s c e n d with o r n e a r t h e s ubcut a n e o u s

v e in s (c e p h al ic and ac c es s o ry c e p h ali c ) a n d j o i n t h e p r es c a p ul a r an d p r ep e ct o r a l
l a n d s S u p e rfic i al v e s se l s f r o m t h e ch e s t wall and s h o uld e r ru n acr o ss th e l att e r
-
g .

t o t h e p r es ca p u l a r g lan d s T h e s u p e rfi ci a l lym p h a ti c s o f th e p e ct o r a l r eg i o n f o rm
.

a p l e xu s w h i ch dr a in s int o t h e p r e p e ct o r a l a n d p r es c a p u l a r g l a nd s by a numb e r o f

v e s s e l s wh i c h ac c o m p a ny t h e c e p h a l i c v e in T h e d ee p lym p h v esse l s o f t h e p ec .

t o ra l r egi o n run with t h e e xt e rn a l th o raci c v e i n t o t h e axi ll ary g land s .

THE LYMP H G L AN D S AN D VE SSE LS OF THE P E LV I C L I M B

T h e pr e c r u ral o r s ub i li ac l ym ph gl an d s (Lg s u b i l i a c ae) a re s itu at e d i n th e
i . .

f o ld o f t h e g r o in o n th e a n t e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e t e n s o r f a s ci ae l at ae, ab o ut m i dw a y
b e tw ee n th e p o int o f t h e h i p a nd th e p a t e l l a (F i g s 4 50, 4 5 1 , T h ey l ie on .

t h e c o ur s e o f t h e p o s t e ri o r br a n ch o f th e c ircum fl e x i li ac art e ry , a n d n umb e r u s u a lly

ab o ut a d o z e n Th e y r e c e i v e s u p e rfici al l y m p h v ess e l s fr o m t h e h i p , t hi g h , an d
.

fl a nk T h e ir e ff e r e nt v ess e l s a s c e nd with t h e p o s t e ri o r c ircum fl e x i li ac v e i n , e nt e r

.

t h e abd o m e n n e a r t h e e xt e rn al an g l e o f th e i li um , an d j o i n th e e xt e rnal i li ac lym p h

g l a nd s .

2 The . d e ep in g u ina l lym ph g lan d s (Lg in g u in a l es p r o fund a e ) f o rm a l ar g e

.

g r o u p s itu at e d in t h e u pp e r p a rt o f t h e f e m o r a l canal b e tw e e n t h e p e ctin e u s and

s art o riu s mu s cl e s (F i g s 4 5 1 Th ey c o v e r t h e f e m o ral v esse l s and a re r e lat e d
.
,

s u p e rfici ally t o t h e in g u in a l l i g a m e nt T h e y r e c e i v e n e arly al l o f th e lym p h v esse l s

.

o f th e li mb b e l o w th em T h e ir e ff e r en t v e sse l s a s c e n d t o t h e i nt e rn a l i li a c g l a nd s
. .

3 T h e p o p li te a l lymp h g lan d s (Lg p o p l i teae) u s u ally f o u r t o s i x i n n umb e r

. .
, ,

l i e b e hin d t h e o ri g in o f th e g a s tr o cn e m i u s an d b e tw ee n t h e b i c e p s f e m o ri s an d sem i
t e n d i no s u s a t t h e di v i s i o n o f t h e p o s t e ri o r f e m o ral art e ry i nt o i ts p rimary br a n ch es
(Fi g . T h e y r e c e i v e t h e d ee p lym p h v e sse l s o f th e di s tal p art o f t h e li mb .

Th e ir e ff er e nt v esse l s c h i e fl y f o l l o w t h e c o u r se o f t h e f e m o ral v esse l s t o t h e d ee p

in g u in a l g l an d s but o n e o r t w o a s c e nd i n c o m p a ny w ith a v e i n a l o n g t h e g r ea t s ci ati c
,

n er v e and m a y e nt e r a g l and a t t h e l e ss e r s c iati c n o t c h F r o m th i s a v esse l ac .

c o m p a n i es t h e int e rnal p u d i c v e in a n d j o in s t h e int ern a l i l i a c g l a n d s .

Se v e r a l su p r fi i l l y mp h v
e c a l
ess e s a s c e nd w i th o r ne a r th ei n t e rna l me ta t a r s al a nd s a ph e no us
v e i ns , e n te r the fmrl
e o a l ca na , a nd e nd i n th e d ee p i n g ui n a l g l a n d s .

THE FCE TAL CI RCUL ATI ON

T he bl o o d o f t h e f oe tu s i s o xy g e nat e d r e c e i v e s n utri e n t matt er an d g i v es off
, ,

wa s t e m a tt e r by cl o s e c o n ti g u ity with t h e m a t e rn a l bl oo d i n t h e p lac e nt a T h e

—
.

ch i e f di ff e r e n c es i n t h e bl oo d v as c ular s y s t e m a s c o m p ar e d w it h th at wh i c h o btain s
aft e r birth a r e c o rr e l a t e d with th i s int e rch a n g e .

T h e umb i l i ca l arte ri e s , ri g ht and l e ft a r e lar g e v esse l s wh i ch ari se fr o m th e

,
 TH E FCE T A L CI R C U L A T I O N 607

int e rn a l i l ia c art e ri es a n d p a s s d o wnward an d f o rward i n th e umb il i c a l f o ld s o f p e ri

to n e u m o n e ith e r s i d e o f t h e bladd e r t o t h e umbi li cu s H e r e th e y a r e in c o r p o rat e d
.

wi th th e um bil i cal v e in and th e u rac hu s i n t h e umbi l i cal c o rd r a mi fy in t h e all a n ,

to i s and en d a s th e c a p i llari e s o f t h e foetal p lac e nta

, Th ey c o ndu ct t h e im p ur e
.

bl oo d t o t h e p l ac e nt a A ft e r b irt h th es e v esse l s r e tr a ct with t h e bladd e r t o t h e

.

p e l v i c ca v i ty ; th e i r lum e n b e c o m es g r e atly r e duc e d an d t h e w a ll th i ck e n ed s o

th at th e y a re c o rd li k e an d a r e t e rm e d t h e r o un d l i g am e nts o f th e bl a d d e r
-
.

T h e u mb i l i ca l v e i n r e c e i v es t h e o xy g e n a t e d b l oo d fr o m th e p lac e nt a I ts .

r a dic l es c o n v e r g e t o f o rm i n t h e h o r s e a s in g l e lar g e trunk w h i ch se p ar a t es fr o m th e

o th e r c o n s titu e nt s o f t h e u mb i l ic al c o rd o n e nt e rin g th e a bd o m e n a n d p a s ses f o r
ward al o n g t h e ab d o mi nal fl oor i n th e fr ee b o rd e r o f th e fal ci f o rm li g a m ent o f t h e
li v e r . I t e nt e r s t h e l att e r at t h e u mbil i c al fi ss ur e an d j o i n s t h e p o rt a l v e in s o ,

t hat th e b l oo d c o n v e y e d by it p a s s es thr o u g h t h e ca p i llari es o f th e l i v e r b e f o r e

e nt e ri n g t h e p o s t e ri o r v en a ca v a .

I n t h e o x an d d og s o m e o f t h e bl oo d i n t h e umb il i cal v e in i s c o n v ey e d dir e ctly

t o t h e v e na ca v a by t h e d u ctu s v e n o s u s (A ranti i ) Th i s v ess e l i s g i v e n off with in
.

t h e l i v e r fr o m a v e n o u s s i nu s f o rm e d b y t h e c o n fl u e nc e o f t h e p o rt a l an d u mbi l i cal
v e in s an d p a s se s dir e ctly t o th e p o s t e ri o r v ena c a v a .

Th e f o ra me n o v al e i s an o p e ni n g i n t h e sep tum b e t w ee n th e atri a by w h i ch t h e ,

latt er c o mmuni cat e wi th e ach o th e r I t i s g u ard e d by a v al v e (V al v ul a f o ram ini s

.

o v al i s ) wh i c h p r e v e nt s t h e bl oo d fr o m p a ss i n g fr o m th e l e ft atrium t o t h e ri g h t .

A ft e r bi rt h t h e f o ram e n s oo n cl o ses b ut th i s p art o f th e sep tu m r e main s m e mbran

,

ou s a nd t h e r e i s a d ee p f o s s a o v ali s i n t h e ri g ht atriu m wh i ch i ndi cat es t h e p o s i

,

ti o n o f th e f o rm er o p e ni n g I n s o m e ca s es t h e f o ram e n p e r s i s ts t o a v ariabl e
.

e xt e nt i n t h e adult w i th o ut a pp ar e nt di s turb an c e o f t h e cir cul ati o n .

T h e pul mo nary ci rc u l a ti on i s v e ry l m i t ed in th e f oetu s an d m o s t o f th e bl oo d

'

wh i c h e nt er s t h e p ul mo nary art e ry p a s s es th r o u g h th e d uctu s a rte ri o s u s t o t h e

a o rta Th i s v esse l i s lar g er th an th e di v i s i o n s o f t h e p ulm o n a ry wh i ch go t o th e
.

l un g s an d j o i n s t h e l eft s i d e o f th e a o rti c a r ch A ft e r birth th e p ulm o nary ci r cu l a

.

ti o n u nd er g o es p r o m p tly an e n o rm o u s in cr e a se an d th e du ctu s i s ra p i dly tran s

f o rm e d i nt o a fibr o u s c o rd —th e l i game n tu m a r teri o s u m .

'

Th e o nly art e ri al bl oo d i n th e f oet u s i s th a t carri e d by th e u mb i l i cal ve m .

Th i s bl oo d i s mix e d i n th e l i v er w ith th e v e n o u s bl oo d o f t h e p o rt a l v e in and aft e r ,

p as s i ng thr o u g h th e c a p il lari es o f t h e l i v e r i s carri e d by th e h e p ati c v ein s t o t h e

p o s t eri o r v e na ca v a T h e l att e r r e c e i v es a l s o t h e v e n o u s bl oo d fr o m th e p o s t eri o r
.

p art o f th e tru nk an d th e p el v i c li mb s I t i s g e n e rally b e l i ev e d th at t h e bl oo d car

.

ri e d i nt o t h e ri g ht atri um by t h e p os t e ri o r v e n a ca v a p a ss es lar ge ly i f n o t e ntir ely , ,

thr o u g h t h e f o ram en o v al e i nt o t h e l e ft atrium whi l e th e b l oo d fl o win g i nt o i t

,

th r o u g h t h e a nt e ri o r v e na c a v a p a ss es i nt o t h e ri g h t v entri cl e O n th i s ba s i s th e
.

bl oo d r e c e i v e d by t h e l e ft atri u m c o n s i s t s c h i e fl y o f mix e d bl oo d fr o m th e p o s t e ri o r
v e na c a v a s i nc e th e s m al l am o unt o f bl oo d c o n v ey e d by th e p ul m o nary v e in s i s
,

ven o us Th i s mix e d b l oo d p a sses i nt o th e l eft v e ntri cl e and i s f o rc e d i nt o t h e

.

s y s t emi c art e ri es . T h e v en o u s bl oo d fr o m t h e ant eri o r p a rt o f th e b o dy an d th e

th o raci c l imb s i s c o n v ey e d by th e a nt e ri o r v e na ca v a t o t h e ri g ht atrium p a sses ,

i nt o th e ri g ht v e ntri cl e an d i s f o rc e d i n t o t h e p ulm o nary art e ry

,
A s mal l am o unt
.

i s carri e d t o th e l un g s but t h e bulk o f it p a ss e s by t h e du ctu s art e ri o s u s i nt o t h e

,

a o rta b e h i nd th e p o i nt o f o ri g i n o f t h e brach i o c e p h al i c trun k (ant e ri o r a o rta ) ,

and i s carri e d t o t h e p os t e ri o r p ar t o f th e b o dy a lar g e p art p a ss i n g by th e umbi li cal

,

art e ri es t o th e p l ac e nta .
 T HE B L O O D—
V A S C U LA R S YS T E M OF T HE GK

THE B L OO D VA SCUL AR SY S TE M OF THE

- OX
THE P E RI CAR DI UM AN D HE ART
T h e per i car diu m i s tt a ch e d by tw o fibr o u s band s (L i g am enta s t ern o-p e ri
a

c a rdi a ca ) t o t h e s t e rnum o pp o s it e t h e f a c e t s fo r t h e s i xth c o s t a l c a rt ila g e s ; th ese

l i g am ent s ri g ht and l e ft a r e e m b edd e d i n th e ma ss o f fa t wh i ch sep arat es th e a p e x
, ,

o f t h e p e ri cardi um fr o m t h e fl o o r o f t h e th o r a x .

A ort a

L i ga men t u m a rt e r i os u m
c l br a nch of p u l mona r y a rt e r y
: l n l c r l or r c n o .

ca va Pu l mona ry vcrn
T ve na. ca va

B ra c h i occph n
tr u

R i g /1 L(Lu

P u l mona r y (zr l cr
hem i a z ygos

Lef t a u ri cl e

P t er i r br
os o a n ch o f l eft
r
co on e r y a rt e r y i n
R i gh t r c n l r tc i n t e r medi a t e g r oove
L ef t ve nt r i cl e
L ef t r
co o n a r y a rt e r y

F ro . 4 fiT.
—H EA R T
~
or Ox ,
L EF T VI E W .

The h e art o f th e adul t o x h a s an a v e ra g e w e i g h t o f ab o ut 5% t o 6 p o u nd s (ca .

to k g ) o r a b o ut
.
to p e r c e nt o f t h e b o dy w e i g ht . I ts l e n g th fr o m -
.

b a s e to a p e x i s r e lati v e ly l o n g e r th a n th a t o f th e h o r se and t h e b a s e i s s m a ll e r i n
b o th i ts di a m e t er s .

A s h a ll o w inte rm e diate g r oo v e (S ul cu s int e rm e diu s ) ext e nd s fr o m th e c o r o nary

g r oo v e d o wn t h e l e ft s i d e o f t h e p o s t e ri o r b o rd e r but d o e s n o t r e ach th e a p e x
, Th e .

am o unt o f fa t i n an d n e a r t h e g r oo v es i s mu ch g r e a t e r th a n i n t h e h o r s e .

T h e h e a rt i s s i tuat e d m o r e t o t h e l e ft o f t h e m e di an p l a n e t h an i n t h e h o r se a n d
i s o pp o s i t e t o t h e th i rd f o u rth an d fifth rib s wh e n i t i s c o ntract e d
, , I t h as ext en .
61 0 T H E B L O O D -V A S C U LA R SYS T E M or THE ox

3 i nf e ri o r c e rv ica l a rte ry c o rr es p o nd s u s u ally t o t h e a s c e n din g bra nch o f

. The
th at v esse l i n t h e h o r se .

4 T h e e xte rnal th o raci c art e ry i s l a r g e an d u s u a lly g i v es ofi a branc h wh i ch i s

q
.

ui v al nt t o t h d c ndin br a n ch o f t h e i nf e ri o r c e r v i cal art e ry o f t h e h o r se

e e es e g
.

THE COMMON C A R OTI D ARTE RY

ca o t a t r u u lly ari fr m c o mm o n trun ab o ut tw o in c h e s (c a
The r i d r e i e s s a s e o a k .

5 cm ) in l e n g th but in e xc e p ti o nal c a ses a r e g i v e n o ff s ep a rat e ly fr o m t h e b rach i o

.
,

Fi G . H EA D o r Co w
4 68 .
—S C H E M A or CHI EF A nr n m ns on .

1 C mm n r tid rt ry ;
o o l a r y ng l ; 3 t h y r id ; 4 l a r y g e l ; 6 p h ry ng l ; occ i p i t a l ; 7
th y r — ca o a e 9
‘
o ea o n a a ea

c nd y l o id ; 8 m idd l m e ni ng l ; 9 p h r y g a l ; 1 0 t r l m i ll r y ; 1 1 l i g a l ; 1 2 s b l i ng l ; 1 3 s p e ri r
, , , . .

o e ea a n e ex e na ax a n u u ua u o

l bi l ; 1 4 i n t rn l m i ll a ry ; 1 5 m ss t i ; i nf ri r l v l r ; 1 7 b c i t r ; 1 8 g re t p l a ti ne ; 1 9
, . , , . ,

a a e a ax a e er c e o a eo a u c na o a a

s p h p l ti e : 2 0 p s t ri r u ri l r ; 2 1 s p e r fi i l t m p r l ; 2 2 p o s t ri r m n i ng l : 2 3 a n t e ri r a u ri u l r :
. .
, . .

e no a a n o e o a cu a u c a e o a e o e ea o c a

rt ry t m a t ri f h r ; 2 5 d p t m p r l 2 6 rt ri s t r t m i r bi l ; 2 7 f r t l : 2 8 m a l r : d o rs a l
. . . ,

24 a e o x o o n ee e o a
'
a e e o e e a e on a a

n s l f m l r; i n f r rbi t l 9 l t e ra l n a s a l n ti n a t i n o f 2 9
, , , , ,

n ti ti ' 0 ’
a a co nu a on o a a ao a a co u o .

c ep h a l i c E ach p ur s u es a c o u r se s imi l a r t o th at o f th e h o rse a n d i s ac c o m p a ni e d

.

by t h e s m a l l int e rn a l j u g u l a r v e in but i s se p arat e d fr o m t h e ext e rnal j u g ul a r v e in

by th e o m o— hy o id a n d s t e rn o—
,

m a s t o id mu s cl e s I t di v i d es at t h e di g a s tri cu s int o .

o c ci p i t a l e xt e r n a l m a xill ary and e xt e rn a l c a r o ti d art e ri e s

, I n additi o n t o trach e a l
,
.
,

oe s o p h a g e a l a n d mu s cu l a r br a n ch e s it g i v es o ff t h e thyr o i d a n d laryn g e a l art e ri es

, ,
.

T h e thyr o i d art ery (A thyr e o i d e a crani al i s ) b e nd s ar o und th e ant e ri o r en d o f th e

.

thyr o i d g l a nd i n wh i ch i t r am i fies T h e a c c e s s o ry thyr o i d a rt e ry i s u s u ally

, .

ab s e nt Th e lar yn g e al ar t e ry may ari se with t h e thyr o i d

. .
 T H E C O MM O N C A R O T I D A RT E RY 61 1

l Th e oc c i pi ta l art e ry i s r e lati v e ly s mal l

. I t g i v es off : .

(1 ) T h e ph ar yn g e al arte ry , wh i ch , h o w e v e r , m ay ari s e fr o m th e e xt e rnal

c ar o ti d .

(2 ) S ev e ral bran ch es t o th e mu s cl e s (ch i e fl y t h e fle xors ) a n d t o t h e atlant o

o c ci p ital j o int .

(3 ) T h e c o n d yl o i d ar t e ry p a sses int o t h e crani um th r o u g h th e a nt e ri o r f o r a m en

i n th e c o ndyl o i d f oss a and j o in s t h e v e rt e br a l in th e f o rm a ti o n o f th e r et e m irabil e
,

ab o ut th e p i tui tary g l a nd B e f o r e e nt e rin g t h e crani um i t g i v es off a br a n ch t o

.

th e p h ar y n ge al lym p h g l and s and t h e m i ddl e m e nin ge al art e ry ; t h e l a tt e r p a s se s ,

th r o u g h th e f o ram en l a c e rum A n o th e r bran c h e nt e r s th e t e m p o ral c anal and g i v es .

twi gs t o t h e t e m p o r a l i s mu s cl e and t h e mu c o u s m e mb ran e o f t h e fr o nt a l s inu s A .

mu s cul a r b r a n c h e m e r ges fr o m t h e int e r v e rt eb ral f o ram e n o f th e atla s A di p l o i c .

bran ch g o es int o th e o c ci p it al c o n dyl e a n d s q u a m a and e mi t s twi gs t o t h e o c c i p ital ,

mu s cl es .

2 T h e exte rn al maxil l ar y ar te ry i s s mal l e r th an th at o f th e h o r se but p urs u es

.
,

Fro . 4 69 .
—
FL O R
C R A N I U M A N D AN T E R I O R P A R T 0 ? V E R T E B R AL C A AL o Ox
0 or N r .

1 V rt b r l a rt e ry ; 2 m s l r br
e e a he s f I ; 8 b r a nc h s f 1 t o t h e re t e m i r bi l 4 ; 5 b r h s f i n
u cu a a nc o e o a e, a nc e o

t e r n l m i ll ry rt ry t re t ; 6 br n h f i t e rn l ma i ll ry rt r y t ri g r i um thr g h f r m n v l ;
, ,
, ,

a ax a a e o e a c o n a x a a e en e n c an ou o a e o a e

7 c nd y l o id a rt ry ; 8 e m e r g e n t rt r y f r m re t e di s t rib t d l i k e i n t r l a r t id rt ry f h rs ; 9
,

o e a e o l git u e e na c o a e o o e on u

di a l ve rt b ra l s i n u s es ; c rib i f rm p l t ; b o p t i fo r m i n ; f l r m rbit l e
. ,
, ,

n e a r o a r t nd m : d f r m e n
e c a a c, or ace u o a o u u o a

i p i t l c nd y l e ; f g h fi r s t s ec n d d thi rd c rvi a l v e rt e brae (A f t e r L i ri g s A t l s )

,
. ,
,

o v al e ;
’
o e, cc a o o an e c . e se n a .
, , , , ,

a s imi lar c o ur se Th e l in gu al arte ry i s l ar g e and o ft e n ari s es se p a r a t e ly fr o m th e

.
,

c o mm o n car o ti d ; it g i v es o ff a bran ch t o t h e s ubm axi ll ary g lan d and t h e s ub l in g u a l ,

ar t ery A ft e r turni n g ar o un d t h e j aw t h e faci al g i v es o ff t h e tw o lab i al arte ri e s

.
.

T h e s u pe ri o r l ab i al i s l arg e ; it u s u a l ly g i v e s o ff a bran ch wh ich run s f o rward

alm os t p aral l e l with th e lat e ral n a s al T h e angu l ar a rt e ry i s ab s e nt o r rudim e ntary . ,

and th e l ate r al a n d d o r s al n a s al a rt e ri e s s p rin g fr o m bran ch e s o f th e i nt e rnal

m a xi llary .

3 T h e e xt e rn al c ar o ti d arte ry p as s es u p ward b e tw e e n t h e s tyl o hy o i d e u s

-
.

and th e g r e at c o rnu o f t h e hy o i d b o n e tu rn s f o rw a rd a cr o ss t h e ext e rnal f a c e o f t h e ,

latt e r an d di v i d es i nt o s u p e rfici a l t e m p o r a l a n d int e rnal m a xi ll a ry art e ri es I t

,
.

g i v es o ff t h e f o l l ow in g c o ll a t e ral b ran ch es :
()
l B ran ch es t o t h e p a r o ti d an d s ubm a xill a ry g l a nd s .

Th ha n t y wh i ch h o w v r ft e n ari s es fr o m t h e o cci p it a l
()
2 e p r y g e a l a r e r ,
e e o , ,
.

T h o t ri o r a i cu l whi ch r mbl th a t o f t h e h o r s e a n d s e nd s a
( )
3 e p s e u r ar , es e e s

s tyl o m a s t o id br a n ch int o t h e tym p a n um

- I t m ay ari s e fr o m th e s u p e rfic i a l .

t em p o ral .
61 2 T H E B L OO D V A S C U LA R SYS T E M
-
or T HE ox

(4 ) ma s s e te ri c ar t e ry r e se mbl es th at o f t h e h o rs e but i s s m a ll e r
Th e , .

T h e s u pe rfic ial t e m po ral ar te ry i s l a r g e and p r esent s t h e f o ll o win g s p e ci a l

fe atur e s : (1 ) I ts t ran s v e rse fa ci a l br a n ch p a sses int o t h e c e ntral p art o f t h e ma sse
ter .
(2 ) I t g i v es o ff a bran ch w h i ch c o rr es p o nd s t o t h e p o s t e ri o r m e nin ge al art e ry
o f t h e h o rs e e nt e r s t h e t e m p o ral c a n a l a nd r a mifies i n t h e du r a m at e r g i v in g off
, , ,

twi gs t o t h e e xt e rn al e a r t h e t em p o r a l mu s cl e an d t h e fr o ntal s inu s

, , (3 ) I t .

u s u a lly g i v e s o ff t h e ant e ri o r a uri cul a r a rt e ry (4 ) B ran ch e s a r e s u pp li e d t o t h e

.

fr o ntal i s mu s cl e an d t h e e y e lid s (5) A l a r g e bran c h p a s ses ar o und t h e o ut e r s id e

.

o f t h e ba se o f t h e h o rn c o r e s u pp li e s th e m a trix o f t h e h o rn and ana st o m o ses

-
, ,

a cr oss t h e b a c k o f t h e fr o nt a l e min e nc e with t h e a rt e ry o f t h e o pp o s it e s id e .

T h e i nt e rn al maxi ll a ry ar t e ry i s l e ss cur v e d t h an i n t h e h o r se an d i s e nt ir e ly
e xt r a o s s e o u s s i n c e t h e a lar c a n al i s ab se nt
,
Th e p rinci p al di ff e r e nti a l f e atu r es i n
.

i ts br a nch in g a re a s f o ll o w s :
(1 ) T h e o p hth almi c a rte ry f o rm s a r e t e m irabi l e wi th in th e p e ri o rbit a I ts .

fr o nt a l br a n ch e nt e r s t h e s u p ra o rbit a l canal and r ai n i fies ch i e fly i n th e fr o n t a l s inu s .

(2 ) S e v e r a l branch e s t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e int e rnal car o t i d art e ry One o f .

th ese e n t e r s th e cr an ial ca v i ty th r o u g h th e f o ram e n o v a l e and se v e ral s mall o n es

p a ss th r o u g h t h e f o r a m e n wh i ch r e p r es e nt s t h e f o ram e n r o tundum a n d f o ram e n
l a c e rum o rbit a l e o f t h e h o rse Th e y c o n cu r with t h e v e rt e b ral an d c o ndyl o id
.

a rt e ri es in t h e f o rmat i o n o f an e xt e n s i v e r e t e mi r ab i l e o n t h e cran i a l fl oo r ar o und

t h e s e ll a turci ca F r o m e a ch s id e o f t h e r e t e an art e r y ari ses w h i ch i s di s tribut e d in

.

g e n e ral lik e t h e int e rn al c ar o tid o f t h e h o r s e .

(3 ) Th e malar art e ry i s lar ge ; i t a ri ses by a c o mm o n t runk w ith th e in fra

o rbit a l and gi v es o ff th e d o r s al na s al a n d t h e an gu lar a rt e ry o f th e eye .

(4 ) T h e i n fra o rb ital ar t e ry i s l a r g e an d e m e r ges fr o m t h e infr a o rbi tal f o r a m e n

t o f o rm t h e late ral na s al art e ry .

(5) T h e p alatin e ar te ry i s s m all e r th an in th e h o r se an d u s ual ly ari s es by a

c o mm o n trun k with th e s p h en o p al a tin e I t p a sses th r o u g h t h e p alat in e canal
.

a n d al o n g t h e p al a t i n e g r oo v e e nt e r s t h e n a s al c a v i ty th r o u g h t h e in ci s i v e fi ss u r e
, ,

a n d d o e s n o t g o t o t h e u pp e r li p I t f o rm s a r e t e m irabi l e a b o ut t h e n a s o p al at in e
.

c a n a l a n d t e rminat es i n t h e m uc o u s m e mbran e o f t h e a nt e ri o r p art o f th e na s al

ca v ity .

A RTE R I E S O F THE THO R ACI C LI M B

Th e b rach ial ar t e ry p u r s u es t h e s am e c o u rs e in t h e a r m as th at o f th e h o rs e .

t h
A t e e lb o w i t b e c o m es t h e m e di an 1
. T h e c h i e f di ff e r e nti a l f e a tu r es in i ts branch es
a re a s f o ll o w s :
1 T h e s ub s ca p u lar art e ry i s a lm os t a s l a r g e as t h e c o ntinu at i o n o f t h e brach i a l
. .

T h e p o s t e ri o r c i rc u mfl e x ar te ry s e nd s b r a n ch e s b a ck w a rd an d d o wnw a rd int o t h e
tri c e p s t a kin g t h e p l a c e in p art o f th e d e ep brach i al art e ry T h e th oraci co-d o r s al
, .

a rt e ry s u pp li es br a n ch e s to t h e p e ct o r a l m u s cl e s and t h e tri c e p s as w e l l as th e t e r es
m a j o r a nd lati ss imu s d o r s i ; it m ay ari se dir e ctly fr o m th e brach ial .

2 T h e d e ep b rachi al ar t e ry i s s m a ll
. .

3 T h e s u p e ri o r c o l l at e ra l uln a r a rt e ry i s o ft en d o ubl e and d o es n o t e xt e nd to

.

th e c a r p u s .

T h e m e di a n ar t e ry (p os t e ri o r r a di al art e ry ) d es c e nd s a l o n g t h e inn e r p art o f

t h e p o s t e ri o r s u rfa c e o f t h e radi u s and di v id e s n e a r t h e m id dl e o f t h e f o r e a rm i nt o
t h e r a di a l a n d ul n a r art e ri es I t g i v es o ff at t h e u pp e r th i rd o f t h e f o r e arm t h e
.

c o mm o n in t e r o s s e o u s ar t e ry a l a rg e v e ss e l w h i ch an ast o m o ses wit h th e d ee p b ra

,

chi a l p as s es th r o u g h t h e p r o ximal i nt e r o s se o u s s p a c e a n d d es c e nd s (a s t h e d o rs a l
, ,

i n t e ro s s e o u s ) i n t h e g r o o v e b e t w e en t h e radiu s and ul n a a n d c o n cu r s in t h e f o rma ,

t i o n o f t h e rct e c a r p i d o rs a l e A t t h e d i s t al e nd o f t h e f o r e arm it s e nd s a branch

.

1
Th e h o m o l og i es of th e v es s e l s o f t h e l o w e r p a rt s o f th e li m b s a re s till u n ce r t a i n T h e a cco u nt
h e r e 1 8 ma i n l y b as e d o n t h e V i e w s o f S u s s d or f a nd B a u m
.

gi v en .
61 4 T H E B L OO D - V A S C U L A R SYS T E M or THE ox

c o v e r o f t h e flexor car p i int e rnu s with o ut g i v in g off a ny l a r g e br a n ch es i n th e f o re

arm . I t p a sses th r o u g h t h e c ar p a l can a l and c o ntin u e s a l o n g t h e inn e r s i d e o f th e
d ee p fl ex or t e n d o n as t h e v o l a r c o mm o n d i gi tal ar te ry A t t h e di s tal th i rd o f t h e
.

m et a car p u s th i s v es se l i s j o in e d by a br a nch fr o m t h e int e rn a l d ee p v o l ar m et a

car p al arte ry f o rmi n g t h e s u p e rfi ci a l v o l a r arch
,
N e a r thi s an o th e r bran ch o f th e
.

c o mm o n di g ital (o r o f t h e int e rn a l di g it a l ) p a sse s ar o un d t h e o ut e r b o rd e r o f t h e

fl ex o r t e nd o n s t o t h e p os t e ri o r fac e o f th e m e tacar p al b o n e a n d c o ncurs with t h e
d e ep v o l a r m e t a car p al a rte ri e s in t h e f o rmati o n o f t h e d ee p v o l ar arch A bran ch .

fr o m t h e a rch p asses f o rw a rd th r o u g h t h e i nfe ri o r f o r a m e n o f th e m e tacar p al b o n e

an d j o in s th e d o r s a l m e tac a r p a l art e ry wh i c h d es c e nd s fr o m th e r e t e car p i
d o rs a l e i n th e ant e ri o r m e t a car p a l gr oo v e .

T h e v o lar c o mm o n di gi tal ar t e ry (A m e tacar p e a v o l ari s su p e r fici a l i s I I I )

. .

p a sses i nt o t h e i nt e rdi g it a l s p a c e a n d di v i d e s int o tw o v o lar pr ope r d i g ita l art e ri es ,

wh i ch d es c e nd al o n g th e i nt e rdi g i t a l s urfac es o f t h e ch i e f di g it s an d p a ss th r o u g h
t h e f o ramin a at t h e u pp e r p a rt o f t h e int e rd i g ital s urfac es o f th e th i rd p h alan ges ,

e nt e r t h e c a v iti es i n th e s e b o n es a n d ram i fy in a m ann e r Sim i lar t o t h e c o rr es p o nd

,

i ng v e ssel s i n t h e h o rs e T h e v o l a r c o mm o n di g ital d e t a ch es a bran ch (A i nt e r

. .

di g it a li s p e rf o r a n s ) wh i ch p a s s e s f o rward th r o u g h t h e u pp e r p art o f th e int e rdi g it a l

S p ac e a nd a n as t o m os es wi t h t h e d o r s a l m e tacar p al art e ry .

The v o l a r p r o p e r di g i ta l a r te r i es (o r th e c o mmo n di g i t a l ) gi v e o ff i n a d d iti o n to o t h e r

co ll a t e r a l s b r a n c h es w h i c h c o r r es p o n d t o t h e a r t e r i e s o f t h e p l a n t a r c u s h i o n o f t h e h o r s e
,

T h ese
p as s to t h e b u l b s o f t h e c l aw s a nd a n a s t o mo s e w i t h e a c h o t h e r a nd w i t h th e i nne r a nd o u t e r
.

di gi t a l a r t e r i es f o r mi ng a n a r c h f r o m w h i c h n u me r ou s b r a n c h es a r e d i s t r i b u t e d to th e m a t r i x
o f th e h oo f s
,

T he d o r s al m e tacar pa l a rte ry (A met d o r s al i s I I I ) i s a s m al l v e ss e l wh i ch

. . .

ari ses fr o m th e r e t e c a r p i d o r s al e d es c e n d s in t h e g r oo v e o n th e ant e ri o r fac e o f th e

,

m e t a car p a l b o n e and i s j o in e d by t h e i n f e ri o r p e rf o rat in g m e tacar p al art e ry fr o m

,

t h e d ee p v o l a r arch t o c o n s titut e t h e d o r s a l c o m m o n di g it a l a rt e ry Th i s v esse l .

(A di g it a li s c o mmuni s d o r s a li s I I I ) d i v i d es i nt o tw o d o r s al pr ope r d i g ital ar te ri es

. . .

T h e i nt er nal d i gi tal ar t e ry (A di g i ti I I I m e di ali s ) i s t h e c o ntinu ati o n o f t h e

. .

int e rn a l d e ep v o l a r m e tac a r p a l a rt e ry I t d es c e nd s o n th e i nn e r Si d e o f t h e i nn e r
.

di g it a nd t e rminat es a t th e bu lb o f th e c l a w by a n a s t o m o s in g with th e c o rr es p o n din g

v o l ar p r o p e r di g it a l a rt e ry I t g i v es off a bran ch t o t h e rudi m e nt a ry di g it an d
.

f o rm s a tran s v e r se a n a s t o m os i s b e h i n d th e fir s t p h alanx with th e v o l ar c o mm o n

di g it a l o r i ts inn e r di v i s i o n .

T h e e xt e rn al di gi ta l art e ry (A di g iti I V l at e ral i s ) ari ses fr o m t h e d e ep v o lar

. .

arch p a sses d o wn o n th e o ut e r Si d e o f th e e xt e rn a l di g it a n d i s di s tribut e d lik e th e

,

i nn e r o n e .

R
B AN C HE S O F THE THO A C I C AO TA R R
T h e b r o nc hi al a n d oes
oph a g e al art e ri e s o ft e n ari se s ep a rat e ly .

T en p ai rs o f i nt e rc o s tal ar te ri e s u s u al ly ari s e fr o m t h e a o rta T h e o th e r thr ee .

c o m e fr o m t h e s ub c o s t a l a rt e ry .

Th e tw o ph r e ni c art e ri e s a re v e ry v ari ab l e i n o ri g i n Th ey m a y c o m e fr o m .

t h e a o rt a t h e c oeli a c l e ft rum in al o r a n int e rc o s tal o r lumbar art e ry

, , ,
.

R
B AN CHE S O F THE A B DOMI N A L AO TA R
Th e c ce li a c
arte ry i s a b o ut f o u r t o fiv e in ch e s (ca 1 0 t o 1 2 cm ) i n l en g th . It . .

p asses d o wnw a rd a n d cur v es f o rward b e tw ee n th e ru m e n and p a n cr e a s o n th e l e ft

a n d t h e ri g h t C N S o f t h e d i a p h ra m a n d t h e p o s t e ri o r v e n a c a v a o n t h e ri h t It
g g .

g i v es o ff fiv e chi e f br a n ch es .

l T h e h ep ati c arte ry a ri s es fr o m t h e c o n v ex Si d e o f t h e cu r v e o f t h e c ml i a c
.

a rt e ry as i t cr oss es t h e p os t e ri o r v e na c a v a I t p a ss es d o wnward f o rward an d t o

.
, ,
 B R AN C H E S OF T HE A B D O M I NAL A O R T A 61 5

the ri g ht ab o v e th e p o rtal v e i n t o t h e p o rt a l fi s s ur e and g i ves off t h e f o l l o win g ,

bran ch es :
(1 ) P a n cr e a ti c branch es .

(2 ) D o r s al an d v e ntr a l b ran ch e s t o th e li v e r T h e v e ntral bran ch i s th e l a rg e r ; .

i t g i v es off th e ri g h t g a s tri c art e ry wh i ch run s i n th e l e ss e r o m e ntum t o s u pp ly th e

,

o ri gi n o f th e du o d e num and th e p yl o ru s an a s t o m os in g with t h e d o r s a l b ra n ch o f

,

t h e o ma s o ab o ma s al art e ry
-
.

(3 ) Th e cy s ti c art e ry s u pp li e s t h e g a ll -b l a dd e r .

(4 ) T h e g as tr o du o d e nal art e ry di v id es int o ri g h t g a s tr o e p i p l o i c and p an

- -

c rea ti co du o d e nal branch e s

-
Th e ri g ht g a s tr o -ep i p l o i c art e ry an a s t o m o ses wi th
Th e p an cr e ati c o—
.

t h e l e ft g a s tr o e p i p l o i c -
d u o d e n a l art e ry ana s t o m os es with th e
.

firs t int es ti nal bran ch o f t h e ant e ri o r m ese nt e ri c art e ry .

2 T h e ri g ht ru mi nal ar t e ry (A r u m i n al i S d e xtra ) i s t h e lar g es t b ran ch and

. .
,

u s u a lly a ri ses by a s h o rt c o mm o n t runk wit h t h e S p l e ni c I t run s d o wnw a rd and .

b a ckward o n th e ri gh t fac e o f th e d o r s a l s a c o f t h e rum e n t o th e p o s t e ri o r tran s v e rse

fi ss ur e i n wh i ch i t turn s ar o un d t o th e l e ft an d an as t o m o se s with bran ch es o f th e
,

l e ft rumi n a l art e ry I t g i v es off a p ancr e ati c b ran ch d o rs al and v e ntr a l c o r o nary

.
,

art eri e s bran ch es t o th e g r e a t o m e ntum an d r am i fies o n b o t h s urfac es o f th e rum e n

, , .

3 T h e l e ft ru mi n al art ery (A ru mi n a l i s s ini s tr a ) run s d o wnward o n th e ant e ri o r

. .

p art o f th e ri g h t fac e o f th e rum e n e nt e r s t h e ant e ri o r furr o w in wh i ch it run s fr o m

, ,

ri g h t t o l eft and c o ntinu es b a c kward in th e l e ft l o n g itudinal g r oo v e ana s t o m os in g

, ,

wit h bran ch e s o f th e ri g ht art e ry I t s u pp l i es ch i e fl y th e l e ft f a c e o f t h e rum en

.
,

b ut n o t i ts p o s t e ri o r p art I t u s ual ly g i v e s o ff n e a r i ts o ri g in t h e r e ti cu l ar ar te ry
.

(A r e ti cu lari s ) ; th i s rath e r s mall v esse l p ass es f o rward o n th e d o r s a l cur v atur e o f

.

t h e rum e n and turn s d o wn ward i n t h e rumi n o r e ti cul ar g r oo v e i n t h e b o tt o m o f -

,

wh i ch it run s ar o und v e ntrally t o t h e ri g h t s i d e I t g i v es off a bran ch wh i ch p asses .

t o th e l e ft o f th e cardi a an d al o n g t h e l esse r cu r v atur e o f th e r eti cu lum t o th e n e ck

o f t h e o ma s um T h e r e ti cular bran c h es ana s t o m os e wi th t h e o ma s o ab o ma s al and
.
-

l e ft ruminal art e ri es .

4 Th e oma s o -ab om a s al ar t ery (A g a s tri ca s ini s tra ) a pp e ar s as th e c o ntinua

. .

ti o n o f th e c oel i ac I t p asses f o rward an d d o wn w a rd t o t h e gr e at e r cur v atur e o f

.

th e o ma s um an d di v i d e s aft e r a c o ur se o f f o u r o r fiv e in ch es i nt o tw o branch es .

T h e d o r s al b ranch cur v es Sh ar p ly b ackward o n t h e d o r s al s urfac e o f t h e o m a s um ,

c o ntinu es al o n g th e l esse r cur v atur e o f th e ab o m a s um and a na s t o m oses w ith t h e ,

h ep ati c a rt e ry I t s u pp l i es br a nch e s t o t h e o ma s um and t o t h e l e sser cur v ature

.

and p yl o ri c p art o f t h e ab o ma s u m T h e v e n tr al b r an c h (A g a s tr o ep i p l o i c a
. .
-

s ini s tra ) run s f o rward an d d o w nward o v e r t h e ant e ri o r e xtr e mity o f t h e o ma s um ,

p a ss es b ackwar d i n th e g r e at o m e nt um cl o s e t o th e v e ntral cur v a tur e o f t h e ab o m a

s u m and a n a s t o m o s es with t h e ri g h t g a s tr o e p i p l o i c
,
A c o n s i d e r a bl e b ranch fr o m it
- .

cur v es ar o und i n fr o nt o f th e n e ck o f t h e o m a s um t o c o mmuni cat e with t h e r e ti cul a r

art e ry A n o th e r bran ch run s back a cr o ss th e l e ft Sid e o f th e o ma s o a b o m as a l
.
-

j u n cti o n and a th i rd g oes t o t h e l esse r (v e ntr a l ) cur v a tur e o f th e o ma s um

,
.

5 T h e s pl e ni c ar t e ry u s ually ari s es by a c o mm o n trunk with th e ri g ht rumin a l

.

art e ry I t p a sses f o rward a n d t o t h e l e ft acr o ss th e d o r s al cur v atur e o f th e rum e n

.

an d e nt e rs t h e h i lu s o f t h e S p l ee n .

Th e an te ri o r m e s e n t e ri c art ery ari ses fr o m th e a o rta j u s t b e h i nd th e c oeliac ,

and h as ab o ut th e s am e cali b er a s th e latt e r I t p as s e s d o wnward and a littl e t o .

th e ri g h t an d cr o sses t h e c o l o n as it e m e r g es fr o m t h e s p i ral t o run b a ckw a rd

,
.

A ft e r d e tac hin g twi g s t o th e p an cr e a s it g i v es o ff i n s ucc ess i o n th e f o ll o win g

br a nch es :
1 A bran ch (A c o li c a m e di a ) p a sses t o t h e c o l o n a s it e m e r g es fr o m th e s p iral
. .

arran ge m e nt Thi s a rt e ry i s c o m p arabl e t o t h e m i ddl e c o li c o r a rt e ry o f t h e

.

s mal l c o l o n o f t h e h o r se ; i t run s b a ckward a l o n g t h e t e rmi nal p art o f th e c o l o n ,

wh i c h it s u pp l i e s .
61 6 T H E B L O O D -V A S C U LA R SYS T E M or THE o x

F ro . 4 72 .
—
G AS T R I C
IG H T V l E W (P A R T L Y S C H E M A T I C ) E ES
A RT R I or Ox , R .

I Cce l i a rt ry ; 2 i g ht r m i na 8
c a en
e ; 4 re t i r u l sp l i
l r ; 6 l e f t ru m i l ; o m s o b m asal ; 7 d o rs a l c cu a na a -a o

br n h f 6 ; 8 ve t r l b ra h f 6 p i p l i ) ; A d o rs l ; B ve n t r l l ft t r
, , , , , ,

of r m c o f r me
‘
a c o e n o a nc o -e o c a sa c u en u n
°

g as a sa

C C p os t ri r b l i d s ac s ; D E r t i ul m ; F
, , ,

m as m ; G b o m s m ; H d od n m ; I ri g ht
—
'
ph g
'
e o n ce s o a us e c u o u a a u u e u

l o ng i t di l f rr w of r m en By a n ve r s g h t th e r ti l r te r y is sh w n ar i s i ng f ro m th e omas o a bom as a l
, , , , , , , ,

u na u o u . o i e cu a ar o as .

4 73 .
—G AST R I C A nr nm s s or 0 xVIEW
, LE FI ‘
(P A R T m
1 L e ft r u mi n a l
rt r y ; 2 o t i n t i n
a e c n ua o of ri g ht r m i l rt r y ;
u na a e 3 re t i cu a lr a rt e r y w hi c h d i s pp rs i t o a ea n

l r g r v : 4 d rs l tr l p s t ri o r b l i nd s s ; D s i h a
.

. , , ,

r u mi n o - e rt f r m n : B v f r m
m ; F r mi n —
i cu a oo e o a sac o u e en a sac o u en; C C o e ac a‘ o )

l r t i c l a r g roo ve ; 0 l ft l l f rr
.
, , . ,

gus; E , re t ic u u , u o e u , e g i t di
on u na u ow of r u me n .
61 8 T HE B L OO D -V A S C U LA R SYS T E M or THE o x

T h e po s te ri o r m e s e nt e ri c ar t e ry ari ses fr o m t h e a o rta n e ar i t s t e rminati o n It .

i s s mall a n d s u pp l i es bran ch es t o t h e t e rminal p a rt o f t h e c o l o n and t o th e r e ctum .

T h e r e nal a rt e r i e s a ri s e fr o m t h e a o rt a cl o s e t o g e th e r Th e ri g ht o n e p a sses .

o utward and f o rward acr oss t h e d o rs a l fac e o f th e p o s t e ri o r v en a c a v a t o t h e h i lu s

o f t h e k idn ey Th e l e ft one run s backw a rd but n e c ess a rily v a ri es i n di r e ct i o n i n
. ,

c o n f o rmity with t h e p os iti o n o f t h e k id n ey (qv ) . .

Th e s pe rm ati c ar t e ri e s r es e mb l e th os e o f th e h o r s e .

T h e ut e r o - ov ar i a n ar t e r i e s a re s mal l .

Th e fiv e p a i r s o f l u m bar ar t e ri e s d e ri v e d fr o m th e a o rt a a r e d i s tribut e d muc h

in t h e h or se T h e Sixth u s u a lly c o m es fr o m t h e int e rnal il iac art e ry
. .

T h e mi d d l e s ac ral arte ry i s a v es se l ab o u t 5 mm i n di a m e t e r wh i ch c o ntinu es .

FI G . 4 75 .
—P EL I C V A nr nm as
‘
or Co w .

Pa rt i g ht w ll o f t h e t r s nd v a g i na i s re m v ed a nd t h e ce rvi t ri i s s h w n i n s g i tt l s ti o n
of th e r a u e u a o x u e o a a ec

Ao rt ; b t r v ri n rt ry ; b v ri n nd b” t e ri ne br n h o f b; t r a l i l i ac rt ry ; d ri g ht i n t rn l
.

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a a u e o -o a a a e o a a a u a c c, ex e n a e e a

il k o f m bi l i l rt e r y ( ) a nd m idd l e t e ri n rt ry (f ) ; g i l i o l m b r rt ry ; h
, , , , ,

i ac rt r y ;
a e m mo n t r e, co un u ca a e
’
u e a e - u a a e

t ri r g l t ea l a rt e ri s ; i m idd l h mm h o id l rt ry ; k p s t e ri o r t ri rt ry ; 1 p ri ne l rt r y ; m p o s t ri o r
, ,

an e o u e e o rr a a e o u e ne a e e a a e e

gl t l rt ry ; n o bt r t o r rt ri s ; rt r y f l i t ri s ; p p s t e ri r m s t ri rt r y ; r a n t e ri o r h m o r
, , , ,

u ea a e u a a e e o a e o c o o o e en e c a e ar

rt e ry ; 8 midd l e s r l rt ry ; 1 v r y ; 2 a pp re n t b d y o f t r s r ll y pp o s d h r ns ;
, , , ,

r h oid l a a ac a a e o a o rn a o u e u ea a e o c u

t ri ; v g i n l p a rt f u t e r u s (os u t e ri ) ; 6 b r d l i g m e n t s l rg p a rt f ri g ht ne e
. , , ,

3 v gi ; 4 c rvi
a na e x u e a a o oa a a e o o r

m v d ; 6 u ri n ry b l dd r ; 7 re t u m ; 8 s c r u m ; 9 s y m p h y s i s p l vi s (A f t r Z i g e r )
. . , ,

o e , a a e , c , a , e . e e .

th e rt a I t ari ses fr o m th e d o r s al fac e o f t h e a o rta at th e an g l e o f di v e r ge n c e o f

ao .

t h e i nt e rn a l i l i ac s run s b a ckw a rd o n t h e p e l v i c s u rfac e o f t h e s acrum a littl e t o th e

,

l e ft o f th e m e dian lin e and i s c o ntinu e d a s th e m i ddl e c o c cy ge al arte ry I t g i v e s

,
.

o ff s m a ll c o ll a t e ral b ran ch e s t o t h e S p in al c o rd and t h e m u s c l es o f t h e tai l and t h e

late ral c o ccyg e al art e r i e s T h e latt e r ma y h a v e a c o mm o n trunk o f o ri g in an d

.
,

e a ch di v id es int o d o r s a l a n d v e ntral b r a n ch es T h e mi d d l e c o ccyg e al ar t e ry r u n s .

th ro u g h t h e v en tr a l (h aem al ) arch es o f t h e c o ccy ge al v e rt e b rae T h e c o c cy ge al .

art e ri e s a re c o nn e ct e d at p r e tty r e g ul ar int e r v al s by seg m ent a l a n a s t o m oses .

T h e i nt e rnal il i ac ar t e ri e s a r e mu ch l o n g e r th a n in t h e h o rse E ach p a sses .

b a ckw a rd o n th e s a cr o s c i ati c l i g am e nt a n d di v id e s a b o u t t h e m i ddl e o f t h e p e l v i c

-

wal l int o p os t e ri o r g lut e al an d int e rn a l p udi c b ran ch es T h e ch i e f d iff e r e n c e s i n .

i ts di s tributi o n a re (l ) A l a rg e trunk g i v es o ri g in t o t h e u mb il ic al and m i ddl e

 A RTE R IES or T H E P EL VI C L I M B 61 9

ut e rin e art e ri e s Th e u mb il i c al ar tery i s u s u ally l a rge ly o bli t e rat e d an d i ts t e rm inal

.

bran ch es r e c e i v e th e ir bl oo d th r o u g h a n a s t o m oses with t h e i n t e rn a l p ud ic I t .

g i v es o ff n e ar i ts o ri g in tw o s m a ll v esse l s t h e u r e t e ral art e ry (A ur e t e ri c a ) a n d t h e

, .

d e fe r e nt i al art e ry (A d e f e r e nti ali s ) w h i ch ac c o m p a ny th e u re t e r and t h e v as

.
,

d e f e r e n s r es p e cti v e ly T h e mi d d l e ut e ri n e a rte ry (A ut e rin a m e di a ) i s v e ry l a r g e

. .
.

I t i s di s tribut e d ch i e fl y t o t h e c o rn u o f t h e ut e ru s a n d c o m p e n sa t es f o r t h e ,

s mall s i z e o f th e ut e r o o v ar i an art e ry -
()
2 Th e il
I l i
i o -l u
mb ar art e ry i s r e l a ti v e ly
.

s m a l l a n d i s di s tri b ut e d ch i e fl y t o t h e s ublumbar mu s c l es I t i s s o m e tim es .

r e p lac e d by b ran ch es o f th e circum fl e x i li ac a n d g lut e al art e ri e s (3 ) T h e .

an te ri o r g lut e al art e ry i s c o mm o n ly r e p r e s e nt e d by se v e r a l v ess e l s (4 ) T h e .

o btu r at o r a rt e ry i s r e p r es e nt e d by sev e ral s m a l l branch es wh i ch s u pp ly t h e

o btu rat o r and addu ct o r mu s cl e s ()
5 T h e il i ac .o -f e m o ra
l a n d lat e ral s acra l
a rte ri es a r e ab s e nt Th e ab se nc e o f t h e latt e r i s c o m p e n s a t e d by th e m i ddl e s a cr a l
.

and g l ut e al art e ri es (6) T h e po s te ri o r g lute al (o r i s ch i ati c ) art e ry i s l ar ge I t

. .

e m e r g es th r o u g h t h e l esse r s ci a ti c n o tch an d r am i fie s in t h e bi c e p s f e m o ri s a n d

adj a c e nt mu s cl e s .
(7) Th e in t ern al pu d i c art e ry (A ur e th r o g e n itali s ) i s th e di re ct .
-

c o ntinuati o n o f t h e int e rn al il iac I t g i v es o ff branch es t o t h e r e ctum bl a dd e r

.
, ,

ur e th ra and g e nital o r g an s I n th e m al e i t s u pp l i es t h e acc ess o ry g e ni t a l g l and s

,
.

and di v i d e s int o d o r s a l and d ee p art e ri es o f t h e p e ni s ; t h e a d o rs ali s p en i s run s .

al o n g t h e d o rs um p en i s t o th e g l a n s a n d g i v es twi g s t o t h e p r e p u c e ; t h e a p r o funda .

p eni s g i v es o ff a p e rin e al bran ch an d e nt e r s t h e c o r p u s c a v e rn o s um p e ni s I n t h e .

fe mal e i t g i v es o ff a l ar ge p os t e ri o r ut e rin e art e ry wh i c h s u pp li es t h e p os te ri o r ,

p a rt o f th e ut e ru s an d g i v es b r a n ch es t o t h e v a g in a and b ladd e r I t e nd s as th e a . .

cl it o ri di s wh i ch s u pp li es th e c lit o ri s an d adj ac e nt p art s

, .

ARTE RI E S O F THE PE LVI C LI M B

Th e e xt ern al t y h a s t h e s a m e c o urse as in t h e h o rse T h e c i rcum fl e x
il i ac ar e r .

i li a c art e ry i s l a rge A br a n ch fr o m i t e m e r ges b e tw ee n th e abd o min al and lumb a r

.

mu s cl e s n e ar th e e xt e rnal an g l e o f th e i liu m and r a m ifl es li k e th e t e rm in a l s o f th e

i li o l u mb ar art e ry o f th e h o rse
-
.

T h e f e m or al an d popl i t e al ar t eri e s p u r s u e a s imi l a r c o ur se t o th o se o f t h e h o rse .

Th e ch i e f diff e r e n c e s i n th e ir b ran ch es a r e a s f o ll o w s :
1 Th e ext ern al pu d i c art e ry i s di s tribut e d ch i e fl y t o t h e s cr o tum i n t h e m al e
. .

I n th e c o w i t i s u s ually t erm e d th e mammary an d i s v e ry l a rg e es p e cially durin g ,

l actat i o n . E ac h di v i d es at th e b ase o f th e mammary g lan d i nt o tw o bran ch es

wh i c h a r e di s trib ut e d t o th e ant e ri o r a n d p os t e ri o r p a rts o f th e g l a nd .

A s m a ll b r a n c h a c c o m p an i es th e s ub c utan e o u s a b d o min a l v e in t o t h e xi p h o i d r eg i o n .

2 Th e d e e p f em or al ar t e ry g i v es o ff an o bturat o r br a n ch wh i ch p a s s e s u p
.

th r o u g h t h e o btur a t o r f o r a m e n t o s u pp ly t h e o btur a t o r int e rn us and c o m p e n s a t es

o th e rwi se f o r th e ab se n c e o f t h e o bturat o r art e ry .

3 T h e an t e ri o r f e m o r al ar t e ry i s l a r g e
. I t o ft e n g i v es o ff th e e xte rn al ci r
.

c u mfl e x a r t ery o f t h e th i g h wh i ch p e rf o rat es t h e p r o xim a l e n d o f t h e q u a dri c e p s

, ,

i v s bran ch es t o th at mu s cl e t h e ili a cu s g lut e i a n d t e n so r fa s c i z

e l a tae
g e .

, , ,

4 T h e s aph en o u s ar te ry i s l a r ge
. I t d es c e nd s i n fr o nt o f t h e h o m o nym o u s
.

v e in t o th e p o s t e r o int e rn al s urfac e o f t h e h ook wh e r e i t di v i d es i nt o tw o p l a nt a r

-
,

b ran ch es T h e i n t ern al pl antar artery (A p l a n tari s m e diali s ) i s t h e dir e ct c o ntinua

. .

t i o n o f th e s a p h e n o u s I t d es c e nd s at fir s t al o n g th e inn e r b o rd e r o f th e s u p e rficial
.

fl exor t e n d o n an d i s c o ntinu e d as th e in t ern al s u pe r fic i al pl an ta r m e ta tar s al ar te ry

al o n g th e inn e r s i d e o f th e d e e p fl exo r t e nd o n w i th t h e i nt e rn al p l a n t a r n e r v e .

I t an a s t o m os e s at th e p r o xim a l e n d o f t h e m e tat a r s u s with t h e p e rf o r a tin g m e t a

tar s a l art e ry a ss i s tin g i n th e f o rmati o n o f th e p r o ximal p l a ntar a rch N e a r t h e
,
.

f e tl o ck i t c o n cu rs with t h e p e rf o ratin g b r a nch o f t h e d o rs al m e t a t a rs al art e ry i n

t h e fo rmati o n o f t h e di s t a l p lant a r arc h B e l o w th i s it i s c o ntinu e d as th e in te rn al
.
62 0 T H E B L O O D -V A S C U L A R SYS T E M or THE o x

di g ital ar t e ry T h e e xt e rna l p lan tar ar t e ry (A p l an t a ri s l a t e r a li s ) i s s mal l

. It . .

d es c e n d s a l o n g th e o ut e r b o rd e r o f t h e d e ep fl e x or t e n d o n with th e e xt e rn a l p lantar
n e r v e c o n cu rs with t h e p e rf o rat in g t a rs al a n d t h e i nt e rn a l p l a ntar art e ri es i n th e
,

f o rm a ti o n o f t h e p r o ximal p l a ntar a rch a n d g i v es b ran ch es t o t h e r e t e t a r s i ,

d o r s al e C o ntinu in g d o wnw a rd al o n g th e d ee p fl e xor t e n d o n a s t h e e xte rn a l

.

FIG 4 76 —A
D I ST AL P A R T 0 ? R I G H T
RT E m Es or FIG 4 77 —A R T I R I ES D I S T AL P A R T o r R H
-
: or IG T

H I N D L IM B o O A N T E R I O R V I E W H IN D LI M B XOR V I E W
. . . .

r x . o O P OS r x ,
TE R .

A n t e ri r t ibi l rt r y ; b p ro i m l p rf r ti ng
0 o a a e x a e o a S p he n s rt r y ; f f i t r na l d e t e r n l
e, a ou a e
’
n e an x a

m t t rs l d rs l m t t rs l rt ry ; 1 p l a n t r rt e ri e s ; g g ' i n t e rn l d t r a l s u p e r fi i l
, , , ,

e a art e r y ; a a c, o a e a a a a e ( a a a an ex e n c a

d rs l m m n di g i t l rt r y ; d rs l p r pe r p l n t a r m e t a t a rsa l a rt e ri e s ; h d p p l n t r m t t rs l
, , ,

’
o a co o a a e 6 e o a o a ee a a e a a a

di g it l rt ri s rt ry ; i j i t r l a nd e t e r n l p l n t r di g i t l
, , ,

a a e e a e n e na x a a a a

rt ri es ; k p l n t r mm d i g i t l a rt e r y ; 1 l i n t r n l
.
, .

'
a e a a co on a e a

nd e t e r n l p l n t r di g it l
, , ,

a x a art ri esa a a e .

s u pe rfic ia l p lan tar m e tatar s al ar tery , i t a ss i s t s in f o rm in g th e di s t a l p l antar arc h

and b e c o m e s th e e xte r nal di gi tal a rt e ry .

T h e p o s te ri o r ti b ial ar t e ry i s r e l ati v e ly s mall an d i s d i s tribut e d c h i e fl y t o th e

mu s cl e s o n t h e p o s t e ri o r s urfac e o f th e tibi a L o w e r d o wn i t i s r e p l ac e d by th e .

s a p h e n o u s a rt e ry a s d es cri b e d ab o v e .

T h e an te ri o r tib ial art e ry h a s th e s am e c o ur se as i n t h e h o r se I t i s c o ntinu e d .

d o w n th e g r oo v e o n t h e fr o nt o f th e m e tatar s al b o n e as th e d o r s al me tatar s al
ar te ry Th i s i s th e ch i e f a rt e ry o f t h e re g i o n and i s a c c o m p a n i e d by tw o v e i n s
. .

I t d e t a ch e s t h e p r o xim al p e rf o r a tin g m e t a tar s al a rt e ry wh i ch p a s ses th r o u g h t h e ,

p r o xi m a l f o ram e n o f th e m e tatar s al b o n e an d c o n cur s with t h e s u p e rfi ci al p l antar

622 T H E B L OO D V A S C U L A R SY S T E M O F T H E o x
-

s urfac es o f th e di g it s a n d un it e in t h e i nt e rdi g ital s p a c e t o f o rm a trunk wh i ch i s a

s a t e l lit e o f t h e v o l a r c o mm o n di g ital art e ry .

T h e i nte rn al and e xte rn al d i g ital v e in s l i e in fr o nt o f th e c o rr es p o ndin g a rt e ri es .

Th ey a re c o nn e cte d with t h e v o l a r di g it a l v e i n by a larg e branch wh i c h p a sse s

b e tw ee n t h e flex o r t end o n s and th e firs t p h a l a nx A t t h e di s t a l en d o f t h e m e t a
.

car p u s e ach inclin e s f o rward a n d an a s t o m os e s with th e v o lar c o mm o n di g ital v e i n

t o f o rm th e v o lar v e n o u s arch T h e inn e r v e in i s c o ntinu e d as t h e int e rnal v o l a r
.

m e t a c a r p a l v e i n al o n g t h e i n n e r b o rd e r o f th e s u s p en s o ry li g am e nt an d b e c o m es a ,

s at e l lit e o f t h e r a di a l art e ry i n t h e f o r e a rm wh i l e t h e o ut e r o n e i s c o ntinu e d o n t h e

,

p os te ri o r fac e o f th e m e tac a r p a l b o n e by tw o i rr eg ul a r v e in s th e e xt e rn al an d ,

m iddl e v o l a r m e tac a r p a l s T h e l att e r an a s t o m o se fr ee ly wi th e ach o th e r a n d

.

wi th t h e inn e r v e i n Th e y unit e b e l o w t h e c a r p u s o r j o i n th e v o l a r c o mm o n
.

di g it a l v e in .

Th e ac c e s s o ry c e ph al i c v e i n i s th e u p w a rd c o ntin uati o n o f t h e d o r s al m e ta
c ar p al v e in an d i s m uch large r th an i n t h e h o rse .

T h e po s t e ri o r v e na ca v a i s p a rti a l ly e mb e dd e d i n th e m e dial b o rd e r o f th e
li v e r I ts a bd o m inal p a rt h a s a th i ck e r w a ll th a n i n t h e h o r se I ts a fflu e nt s
. .

c o rr es p o nd t o t h e art e ri es o f wh i ch th e y a re s at e l lit es T h e r e nal v e i n s are l a rg e

.

q
and th i ck - wal l e d ; th e y run o b li u e ly f o rward and j o in th e v e n a c a v a at an acute
an g l e T h e l e ft o n e i s muc h t h e l o n g e r
. .

Tw o mi d d l e s ac ra l v e i n s u s ually acc o m p any th e art e ry .

Th e v e i ns o f th e mamm ary g l an d s d e s e r v e s p e ci al n o ti c e T h ey c o n v e r g e t o .

a v en o u s circl e at th e b a se o f th e u dd e r , wh i ch i s drain e d ch i e fl y by t w o p a i r s o f
v e in s T h e s u b c utan e o u s ab d o mi n al v e in (a nt e ri o r mamm ary o r m il k v e in )
.

i s v e ry l a r g e i n anim al s o f t h e dai ry b r ee d s an d i ts c o u r se al o n g t h e v e ntr a l wal l o f

t h e ab d o m e n i s e a s ily f o ll o w e d . I t i s u s u a lly fl exu o u s I t e m e r ges at t h e a nt e ri o r
.

b o rd e r o f t h e u dd e r ab o ut tw o o r th r ee in ch e s (c a 5 t o 8 cm ) fr o m t h e lin e a alba ,
. .

run s f o rward (d e v i a tin g a l ittl e o utward ), di p s un d e r t h e p ann i cu lu s , p a sses th r o u g h

a f o ram en i n th e abd o min a l w a l l a b o ut a h andb r e adth fr o m t h e m e dian p lan e , an d
j o in s th e int e rn a l th o raci c v e in Th e e xtern al pu d i c v e i n (mi ddl e mammary v e in )
.

i s a l s o o f c o n s i d e rabl e s i z e .I t a s c e nd s i n th e in g uinal canal as a s at e lli t e o f t h e

arte ry and j o in s t h e e xt e rn al il i a c v e in T h e ri g h t a n d l e ft v e in s a re c o nn e ct e d at
.

t h e p o st e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e b a se o f t h e u dd e r by a l ar g e tran s v e r se b ran ch F ro m .

t h e l a tt e r a ri s es th e pe ri n e al v e i n (p o s t e ri o r mamm ary v e in ), wh i ch run s m e di ally

u p ward and backw a rd t o t h e p e ri n e um , tu rn s a r o u nd t h e i s ch i al arch , and j o in s
t h e int e rn a l p udic v e i n . I n t h e m a l e th ese v e in s a r e r e l a ti v e ly s mal l .

Th e d eep v e in s o f t h e th i g h an d l eg r es e mbl e th o s e o f t h e h o r s e , but th e r e i s n o

r e curr e n t tibi a l v e in .

T h e s a ph e n o u s v e i n i s much s m a ll e r th an in t h e h o r s e .

T h e r e c urr e nt ta r s al v e i n (e xt e r n al s a p h e n o u s ) i s l a r g e I t i s t h e u p ward
.

c o nti nu a ti o n o f th e e xt e rnal p l a nt a r m et a t a r s al v e i n and ana st o m o ses with t h e

ant e ri o r tib i a l a n d s a p h e n o u s v e in s I t ari se s o n t h e o ut e r f a c e o f t h e h o ck
.
,

a s c e n d s a t fir s t i n fr o nt o f th e t e nd o A ch ill i s th e n c rosse s t h e l att e r ext e rnally

, ,

p asse s u p b etwe e n t h e bi c e p s f e m o ri s an d s e mi t e ndi n o s u s a n d j o in s th e p o s te ri o r

,

f e m o ral v e i n .

Th e re a re th r ee ch i e f m e t a t a r s a l v e in s Th e g r e at d o r s al m e tatar s al v e in
.

ari s es a t th e di s t a l p a rt o f th e m e tatars u s by t h e uni o n o f t h e d o r s a l di g ital v e i n

a n d a lar g e b ranch fr o m t h e v e n o u s arch a b o v e t h e s e s am o id s I t a s c e nd s s u p e r
.

fi c i a l l y b e tw e e n t h e l o n g a n d l a t e r a l e xt en s o r t end o n s a n d b e c o m es th e ch i e f radi cl e
o f t h e a nt e ri o r tibi a l v e in T h e i n ternal p lan tar m e tatar s al v ei n ari ses fr o m t h e
.

v e n o u s a rch ab o v e t h e f e tl o ck a s c e nd s a l o n g t h e i nn e r b o rd e r o f t h e s u s p en s o ry
,

li g a m e n t p as s e s th r o u g h t h e v a s cul a r canal o f t h e m e t a t a rs u s and c e ntr o t a r s al (as

,
-

t h e p e rf o ratin g t a r s a l ) and j o i n s t h e a nt e ri o r ti bi al v e i n T h e e xt e rn al pl an tar

.
 TH E L Y M P H V E SSE L S A N D G LA N D S 62 3

me ta tar s al v e in is
l ar ge r th a n t h e p r e c e din g I t p a sses s u p e rfi ci al ly o v e r th e .

o ut e r fac e o f t h e h o ck a nd i s c o ntinu e d by t h e r e cu rre nt tar s a l v e in .

T h e d i gi tal v e i n s diff e r fr o m th o se o f t h e f o r e limb ch i e fl y i n th a t t h e d o r s al

v e in i s l ar g e and th e p lantar ab se nt o r s mall .

Th e p or tal v e in i s f o rm e d u s ual ly by t h e c o n fl u e n c e o f tw o radi cl es gas tri c

I t r e c e i v es th e ri g h t g a s tr o —
,

and m ese nt e ri c . e p i p l o i c v e in an d v e i n s o f t h e p a ncr e a s .

‘
Th e g a s tri c v e i n i s t h e l a r ges t a fll u en t I t i s f o rm e d by th e j un cti o n o f th ree v e in s
.
,

t h e l e ft o f wh i c h r e c e i v e s t h e s p l e n i c v e i n T h e ant e ri o r m e s e nt e ri c v e i n i s a l s o
.

f o rm e d by t h e c o n fl u e nc e o f th ree radi cl es ; i t u s ually r e c e i v es th e s mal l p o s t e ri o r

m ese nt e ri c v e i n Th e p o rtal tributari es ar e i n ge n e r a l s at e llit es o f t h e c o rr es p o nd
.

i n g art e ri es .

THE LYMP H VESSE L S AN D GL AND S

Th e th o r ac i c d u ct ari ses fr o m a s mal l ci s t e rn a chyli and i s v e ry v ari abl e I t i s .

e xc e p ti o nal t o fin d a s in g l e trunk thr o u g h o ut as i s o ft e n t h e ca s e i n t h e h o rse T he , .

du ct i s lar g e ly c o v e r e d by fat and s mall lym p h g land s Th e r e a r e o ft e n tw o du ct s .

,

o ne o n e ith e r s id e o f t h e a o rta wh i c h m ay j o in at a v ari ab l e p o int o r t e rmin a t e cl o se

,

t oge th e r at t h e j uncti o n s o f t h e j u g ul ar an d br a ch i a l v e in s I n o th e r ca ses th e duct .

i s s in g l e f o r a v ariabl e di s tan c e th e n bi furc at es o r di v i d es int o th r e e o r f o ur branch es

, ,

wh i ch are o ft e n c o nn e ct e d b y p l e xi f o rm anas t o m o ses .

T h e e ff e r e nt v ess e l s fr o m t h e int es ti n e c o n v e r g e t o a l a r g e trunk wh i ch a o

c o m p a n i es th e a nt e ri o r m ese nt e ri c art e ry an d v e in I t p a sses b e l o w th e p an cr e as .

and r e c e i v es u s u a lly a l a r g e du ct wh i c h i s f o rm e d by eff e r e nt v e ss e l s fr o m th e s t o m

ach li v e r and s p l een ; th i s du ct s o m e tim es o p e n s di r e ctly i nt o th e ci s t e rn a Th e
, , .

g a s tr o int e s tinal t runk r e c e i v e s th e c o l l e ctin g du ct (trun cu s lumb a l i s ) o f t h e lumb a r

-

lym p h v esse l s f o rm s a b e n d ar o un d t h e ri g ht r e n al v esse l s an d j o in s t h e ci st e rna

, , .

Th e l ymph g l an d s i n t h e o x a re i n g e n e r a l l ess n um e r o u s but l ar g e r th an th o s e

o f t h e h o r se an d i n s o m e s itu ati o n s a s in g l e lar ge gl and o c curs i n s t e ad o f a g r o u p o f
,

s mall e r o n es a s f o und i n t h e l a tt e r an im al
,
.

Th e s u b m axi l l ar y l ym ph g lan d s a r e u s u a lly tw o i n numb e r ri g h t and l e ft ; ,

e ach i s s i tu a t e d und e r t h e e xt e rn a l m a xill ary v e in b e tw ee n t h e s ubm a xill a ry s a li

v ary g lan d and t h e s t e rn o c e p h ali cu s m u s cl e Us u ally on e o r tw o h ee m ol ym p h

-
.

g lan d s a r e n e ar i t Th e r e i s g e n e rally a s m al l g lan d o n th e d ee p fac e o f th e

.

ant e ri o r p art o f th e s ubmax i ll a ry s al i v ary g land a n d s mal l n o d es m a y b e f o und ,

furth e r f o rward in t h e s ubmaxi llary s p ac e

A lar ge s u b par oti d l ymph g l an d li es o n t h e p o s t e r o —
.

s u p e ri o r p a rt o f t h e

ma sse t e r m u s cl e p artly und e r c o v e r o f t h e u pp e r e n d o f t h e p ar o tid g l a nd

,
.

S e v e ral h mmol y mp h g l a n d s l i e o n i t s d ee p fac e .

Th e ph ar yn g eal l ym ph g l and s numb e r tw o o r th r ee o n e a ch s i d e O f th ese tw o .

,

l arge s u praph ar yn g e al g l and s (Lg r e tr o p h aryn g e a l e s ) a r e s ituat e d ab o u t a n in ch

.

a p art b e tw ee n t h e d o r s al w a ll o f t h e p h ary n x an d th e v e ntr a l s trai g ht mu s cl es

(F i g s 2 8 1
.
,
Th es e a r e tw o t o th r ee i n ch es l o n g E n lar g em e n t o f th em i s .

lik e ly t o c a u se diffi cu lty i n s wal l ow i n g and i n r es p i rati o n B e h ind th es e ar e .

s e v e ral h aemol ym p h g l a nd s A n atl a ntal g lan d i s s i tu a t e d b e l o w th e win g o f th e

.

atla s o n th e s p i nal a c c ess o ry n e r v e I t i s di s c o i d o v al i n o u tlin e an d m a y b e

.
, ,

an i nc h a n d a h alf o r m o r e in l e n g th I t i s p a rtly c o v e r e d by th e u pp e r e n d
.

o f th e s ubmaxill a ry s al i v a ry g lan d .

A s mal l e r lym p h g land (p a r a p h aryn ge al ) i s u s ually f o und al o n g t h e l o w e r

b o rd e r o f th e car o ti d a rt e ry (i e v e ntral t o t h e atl a n t a l g land ) o n t h e lat e r a l
. .
,

wal l o f th e p h a ryn x and und e r c o v e r o f t h e s ubm a xi l lary s a li v a ry g lan d o r a t

i t s p o s t e ri o r b o rd e r .

Tw o o r th r ee s m a ll an te ri o r c ervi c al lymph g lan d s c o mm o nly b e a l o n g th e

car o ti d art ery a l i ttl e furth e r b a ck .
624 T H E B L O O D -V A S C U LA R SYS T E M or T HE o x

T h e mi ddl e c e rvi cal lymph g lan d s c o m p ri se a se ri es o f s mall n o d es al o n g t h e

d o rs al f a c e o f t h e trach e a .

I n th e S h eep t h e r e i s a l y m p h g l a n d a t th e mi d d le o f t h e n e c k i n th e a ngl e b e t w een

a nd goa t
t h e s p i n a l i s a n d co m p l e x u s co v e r e d b y t h e s pl e m u s I t r e ce i v es v e s s e l s f r o m t h e a t l a n t a l g l a n d
,
i

a nd s e n d s e f e r e n t s to t h e p r e s c a p u l a r g l a n d
.
,

Th e pr e s ca p ul ar o r s u p e r fic ial c e rvi c al lym p h g lan d i s s it uat e d at th e ant e ri o r

b o rd e r o f th e s u p r as p inatu s und er c o v e r o f th e m as to id o h u m e r a l i s and o m o-tran s -

v e rs a r i u s I t i s e l o n g a t e d a n d m a y b e an in ch o r m o r e i n wi dt h and f o ur o r fiv e
.

i nch es l o n g Tw o o ccu r in e xc e p ti o n a l ca ses

. .

A c h a i n o f h znmo l y m ph g l a n d s li es a l o n g th e f r on t o f th e s h o u l d e r co v e r e d a b o v e b y th e
t r a p e z i u s O t h e rs a re f r e q u e n t l y fo u n d (i n t h e c a lf e s p e c i a ll y ) o n t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e o mo t r a ns
,
-

v e rs a ri u s a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e i t p a ss es u n d e r t h e m as to i d o h u m e ra l i s (F o r g eo t )
.

-
.

T h e po s te ri o r c e rv i cal o r p r epe ct o r al l ymph g lan d s numb e r c o mm o n ly th r e e

o r f o ur o n e a ch s id e On e o r tw o a re p lac e d o n t h e brach ial v ess e l s o ne b e l o w t h e
.
,

F ro . 4 TS .
—S U P FJ R F I C I A L L Y M P H G LA N DS S U R FA C E o B OD Y
or Co w P R OJ E CT E D r .

1 S b ma i ll ry ; 2
u x a s u b p a ro t id ; 3 t l t l ; 4 p r p h ry g l ;
a an a t ri r rvi l ;
a a a m idd l
n ea r i o, an e o ce ca e ce v c a l ; 7 , p re
l p r r r l (W i th f fig i E ll b rg r B m A t f K t l )
, , ,

s p ca u a r; 8 , ec u a . use o . n en e e -
au ,
na . . u ns er .

br a ch i a l v e in at th e fir s t rib a n d o ne at t h e j un cti o n o f t h e c o mm o n trunk o f t h e

,

e xt e rn a l a n d s ub cutan e o u s th o r a ci c v e in s wit h t h e b r a ch i al .

T h e i nt e rc o s tal l ym ph g l an d s a r e Situat e d a s i n t h e h o r s e at th e u pp e r p art s , ,

o f t h e int e rc o s t a l s p a c e s A s s o c i at e d wi th th em a r e l i ze m o l y m p h g lan d s
. .

T h e s t e rn al l ym p h g l a n d s a r e s itu at e d al o n g t h e c o ur s e o f t h e int e rn a l th o raci c

art e ry a t t h e l o w e r p a rt o f t h e i nt e rc os tal s p a c es Th e lar ges t i s cl o s e t o t h e .

th o r a ci c inl e t S e v e r a l g l a nd s o c cu r i n t h e fa t ab o ut th e a p e x o f t h e p e ri cardium
. .

4 S ev e ral ante ri o r m e dia s ti n al lym ph g lan d s a re p lac e d al o n g th e oes o p h a g u s

.

a n d t h e t r a ch e a
1
Hze m ol y m p h g l a nd s o c cur h e r e a l s o
.
.

Us ually th r e e l a r g e b r o nc h ial lym p h g lan d s a r e p r es e nt (Fi g On e i s . . .

s itu a t e d a t t h e o ri in o f ea ch ch i e f b r o n ch u s a n d t h e th ird i s und e r t h e trach e a at

g
t h e o ri g in o f t h e s p e c i a l b r o n ch u s o f t h e a p i cal l o b e o f t h e ri g h t l un g A n o th e r .

T he u pp r r i e se es t i n u o u s w i t h t h e p o s t e r i o r me d i as t i n a l ((D s o ph ag e nl ) g l a n d s a nd th e
is con
l ow er or t rac h l gl
ea a n d s w i t h t h e b r o nc h i a l He n ce w e mi g h t w e ll d es i g n a t e t h e m e d i a s t i na l
ph g l (a n t e ri o r a n d p os t e ri o r ) a n d t r a c h eo b r o n c h i a l
.

g l a n d s a (e so
s
a ea -
.
62 6 CI R C U LA T O R Y S Y S T EM or THE PIG
o f th e b as e o f th e udd e r ; tw o lar ge g land s wh i ch a r e i n a pp os iti o n with e ach o th e r
m e di ally a re c o n s tant a n d ab o v e th ese th e re a r e o ft e n tw o s m a ll e r g land s
,
.

A n i s chi ati c lymph g lan d , wh i ch i s di s c o i d and u s u a lly a b o ut an in c h in di am

et e r i s s itu a t e d o n t h e l o w e r p a rt o f t h e s acr o s ci a tic li g am e nt n e ar t h e l esse r s ciati c
-
,

n o tch u n d e r c o v e r o f t h e b i c e p s f e m o ri s .

A n an al lym ph g lan d i s s ituat e d o n t h e r e tract o r ani o n e ith e r s i d e .

Th e g a s tri c lym ph g lan d s a r e n um e r o u s a n d c o m p ri se : (1 ) a ch ain al o n g th e

c o ur se o f th e ri g h t rumi n a l art e ry and tw o o r th r ee in t h e l e ft g r oo v e o f th e rum e n ;
(2 ) se v e ral o n th e r e ti culum ab o v e an d b e l o w t h e j un cti o n w ith th e o ma s um ; (3 )
a se ri es al o n g t h e c o ur s e o f t h e s u p e ri o r o m a sa l v e s se l s a n d t h e l esse r cur v a tur e o f

t h e a b o ma s um ; (4 ) a n ext e n s i v e c h ai n a l o n g t h e v e ntral fac e o f t h e o ma s um a n d

th e g r e at c ur v a tur e o f t h e a b o m a s um at th e a tt a chm e n t o f t h e g r e at o m e ntum .

Tw o o r th r ee l ar ge h epati c o r po rtal lym ph g l an d s a r e f o und a t t h e u pp e r p art

o f th e p o rtal fi ss ure o f t h e li v er .

N o lym p h g land s o ccur at t h e h i lu s o f th e Sp l een Th e eff e r ent v essel s fr o m

.

t h e s p l ee n a pp e a r t o g o t o g land s a l o n g th e c o ur se o f t h e c oel i ac art e ry .

A lar g e di s c o i d c oel iac l ymph g l a n d l i es o n th e p a n cr e a s an d t h e c oe l iac art e ry ,

c o v e rin g th e l a tt e r as i t g i v es o ff i ts p rimary bran ch es .

T h e me s e nt eri c lym ph g lan d s a re l a r g e and num e r o u s Th e y f o rm a ch ain i n

.

t h e l o w e r p art o f t h e m ese nt e ry al o n g t h e c o u r se o f t h e g r e at m e se nt e ri c art e ry .

T h ey a re ch i e fl y e l o n g a t e d and narr o w and s o m e h a v e a l e n g th o f s i x t o e i g h t in ch es

,

(1 5 t o 20 cm ) o r m o r e S o m e ti m es se v e ral unit e an d f o rm a n arr o w ban d ab o ut

. .

t w o f ee t in l e n g th . A lar ge g l an d o c cu r s a t th e o ri g in o f th e s p ir a l p art o f t h e c o l o n ,

a g r o u p i s f o und n e ar th e a nt e ri o r m ese nt e ri c trunk an d o th e rs a re s catt e r e d al o n g

,

th e c o i l s o f t h e c o l o n whi c h a re b es t s ee n o n t h e ri g ht Sid e
,
A ch a i n o f s m a l l
.

lym p h g land s ext e nd s al o n g th e t e rmi nal p art o f th e c o l o n a nd t h e d o r s al fac e o f t h e

r e ct um .

Th e pr e c rur al l ym ph g l and i s s itu at e d o n th e a p o n e ur o s i s o f th e ext e rnal o bli u e q

at th e ant e ri o r b o rd e r o f t h e t en s o r f a s ciae l a t te a s h o rt di s tan c e ab o v e th e s ti fl e .

I t i s e l o n g at e d li k e th e p res c a p ular g lan d an d m ay b e s i x in ch es (c a 1 5 cm ) l o n g

. . .

S e v e r a l s ub cut a n e o u s h aemo l y m p h g l a n d s o ccur in th i s v i cin ity ; o th e r s a r e s ituat e d

furth e r f o rward o n th e fl ank n o t far fr o m th e l a s t rib Th e r e i s u s u a lly a r o und ,
.

fl a tt e n e d lym p h gl a n d a b o ut a n in ch i n di am e t er o n t h e u pp e r p art o f th e u adri c ep s q

f em o ri s und e r c o v e r o f t h e t en s o r fa s c i ae l a t ae , a n d on e o r m o r e s m al l o n es o c cur o n
t h e s urfac e o f t h e l att e r mu s c l e .

N
o d e e p in gu in al lym ph g l a n d s a re p r e se nt .

A s in g l e popl i t e al lym ph g l a n d an i n ch o r m o r e i n l en g th i s s itu at e d s o m e wh at

l o w e r d o wn o n t h e g a s tr o cn e mi u s th an i n t h e h o r s e , b e h ind t h e tibi al and p e r o n eal
n e r v es .

CI R CULA T O R Y S Y STE M OF THE PI G

THE HE AR T
Th e pe ri cardiu m i s attach e d t o t h e s t e rnum fr o m a p o i nt o pp o s it e t o t h e th i rd
rib as fa r a s t h e xi p h o i d c a rtil a g e , and a l s o t o t h e s t e rn a l p art o f t h e di a p h ra g m .

Th e h e art i s s m a l l in p r o p o rti o n t o t h e b o dy -w e i g ht , es p e ci ally i n fa t ani m al s .

I t i s r el a ti v ely s h o rt an d wid e Th e a p e x i s blun t a nd i s m ark e d by a n o t ch (I n

.

c i s u r a a p i ci s )
. I ts l o n g axi s i s m o r e o b li q u e , but i t i s l e ss a s ymm e tri cal wi th r eg ard
to t h e m e di a n p l a n e , th a n i n t h e h o r s e o r o x T h e l o w e r b o rd e r o f t h e l e ft a u ri cl e
.

(a pp endix ) i s m a rk e d by se v e r a l n ot ch es a n d i s s it uate d a t a l o w e r l ev e l th an t h e
 T H E AR TE R I E S 62 7

ri g h t on e Th e ri g h t l o n g itu din al g r oo v e i s p l ac ed far back an d th e r e i s n o p os

.

t eri or s ul cu s .

THE ARTE RI E S
Th e pu l m on ar y v e s s el s p r es e nt n o r em ark a bl e fe atu r es .

T h e a o rta r ese mb l es th at o f th e h o r se a n d o x i n i ts c o ur se and r e lati o n s , but th e

arch i s m o r e s tr o n g ly cur v e d Th e r e i s n o c o mm o n brach i o c e p h al i c trunk (ant e ri o r
.

a o rta ) .

Th e b r ach i o ceph c ar te ry ari ses fir s t fr o m t h e a o rt i c arch and p a s s e s f o rward

b e l o w th e trac h e a t o t h e fir s t rib He r e i t g i v e s off th e c omm on car o ti d ar t er i es ,

.

and i s c o nti nu e d ar o un d th e fir s t rib as th e ri g h t br a ch ial .

Th e s u pe ri or ce rvi cal , v e rt e b r al , an d d o r s al ar te ri e s u s u ally ari se by a

c o mm o n tru n k .

T h e i nf eri or c ervi c al ar t e ry i s l ar g e i ts a s c e n din g b ranch g i v es o ff t h e po s t e ri or

th yr oi d arte ry and par oti d b ranch e s .

Th e in t ern al an d ext ern al th ora c i c ar teri e s g i v e bran ch es t o t h e p e ct o ral

mammary g lan d s ; t h e e xt e rnal m ay b e ab se nt .

Th e l e ft b r a c hi al ar tery ari ses fr o m t h e a o rti c arch j u s t a b o v e th e brach i o

c ep h ali c I t cu r v es f o rward an d d ow n w ard an d turn s ar o un d th e ant eri o r b o rd e r
.

o f t h e fir s t rib I ts s u p e ri o r c e r v i c al , v e rt e bral , an d d o r s a l bran ch es u s ual ly ari se

.

se p arat e ly .

Th e oti d ar teri e s ari se fr o m th e b r a ch i o c ep h ali c cl o se t o g eth e r o r by a v e ry

c ar

s h o rt c o mm o n tru nk Th e y t ermin at e i n o c ci p ital and int e rnal an d ext ernal c a r o ti d

.

di v i s i o ns .

T h e o c c i pi