Portal Frames:

Portal Frames can be defined as two dimensional rigid frames which have the basic characteristic of a
rigid joint between the column and the beam.The main objective of this form of design is to reduce the
bending moment in the beam thus allowing the frame to act as one structural unit. This will help to
reduce the size of the beam used over a large span. The use of portal frame also eliminates the need of
struts and ties within the roof space
The transfer of stresses from the beam to the column can result in a rotational movement at the
foundation which can be overcome by the introduction of a pin or hinge joint. The pin or hinge will allow
free rotation to take place at the point of fixing whilst transmitting both load and shear from one
member to another.
Portal frames are mostly made in factory controlled conditions, which gives good dimensional and
quality control but can create transportation problem.
To overcome this problem, site erection splices may be used.
Portal frames are generally constructed from steel, concrete or timber and they can take the form of the
usual roof profiles used for single or multi-span buildings.

Portal frames can be classified as;

 Short span portal frame:
o span up to 15m.
o spaced at 3-5m.
 Medium span Portal frame:
o span of 16 to 35m.
o spaced at 4-8m.
 Long span Portal frame:
o span of 36 to 60m.
o spaced at 8-12m.

Hinge connection:
Portal frames of moderate height and span are usually connected to their foundation forming rigid
joints.
When the frames exceed 4m. in height and 15m. in span, the introduction of a hinged or pin joint base
connection should be considered.
Hinges can be introduced at base connections and at the centre or apex of the beam, giving 3 basic
forms of portal frame ;

A. Fixed or rigid portal frame:

All connections between frame members are rigid.
Used for small to medium size frames where the moments transferred to the foundations will not be
excessive.
B. Two pin portal frame
Hinges are used at the base connections to eliminate the tendency of the base to rotate.
The bending moments resisted by the supporting members will be greater than those encountered in
the rigid portal frame.
Used where high base moments and weak ground are encountered.

C. Three pin portal frame:

It has hinged joints at the base connections and at centre of the spanning member.
The effect of the third hinge is to reduce the bending moments in the spanning member but increases
deflection.
To overcome this disadvantage, a deeper beam must be used or the spanning member must be given a
moderate pitch to raise the apex.

1. Steel Portal Frames

Steel portal frames can be fabricated from standard universal (I-section) beam, column and box section.
Alternatively a lattice construction of flats, angles or tubes can be used.
Foundations and fixings:
The foundation is usually a reinforced concrete isolated base or pad foundation designed to suit loading
and ground bearing conditions.
The connections can be one of the three basic methods:
 Pocket connection
 Base plate connection
 Pin or hinge connection

Pocket connection:
The foot of the supporting member is inserted and grouted into a pocket formed in the concrete
foundation.
In some designs, gussets are welded to the flanges of the columns to facilitate leveling.
Base plate connection:
Traditional structural steelwork column to foundation connection using a slab or gusset base fixed to a
reinforced concrete foundation with cast in holding down bolts.

Pin or hinge connection:

Special bearing plates designed to accommodate true pin or rocker devices are fixed by holding down
bolts to the concrete foundation to give the required low degree of rigidity at the connection.

Fabrication:
For short and medium span frames, the apex or ridge is generally made as an on site rigid bolted
connection for convenience in transporting half portal frames.
Long span portal frames may have a pin joint connection at the ridge to allow some flexure between the
rafters of the frame which are pin jointed to foundation bases to allow flexure of base.

For economy in the use of a standard section, short and medium span steel portal frames are often
fabricated from one MS I-section.

Connections at knee in medium and long span portal frames may be haunched for additional stiffness.
The junction of the rafters at ridge or apex is often stiffened by welding cut I-sections to the underside of
the rafters at the bolted site connection.

Advantages:
 Standard range of manufacturer’s systems
 Good wind resistance
 Ease of site assembly using quickly trained semi-skilled labour
 Overall dead load is less than concrete portal frames

Disadvantages:
 Problem of Corrosion and thus requiring long life protection.
 Lower fire resistance

B) Concrete Portal Frames

They are generally manufactured from suitable reinforced high quality pre-cast concrete.
They have usually low pitch (4°- 221/2°) single span frames but two storey and multi-span frames are
also available.
They are generally designed to carry light weight (34 kg /m² maximum) roof sheeting.
Sheet claddings are fixed by using hook bolts and purlins.
Foundations and Fixings:
The foundation for a pre-cast concrete portal frames usually consist of a R.C.C. isolated base or pad.
The frame can be connected to the foundations by various different methods

1. Pocket connection:
The foot of the supporting member is located and housed in a void or pocket formed in the base leaving
a surrounding clearance of 25 mm to allow for plumbing and final adjustment before grouting of column
to foundation.
2. Base plate connection:
A steel base plate is welded to the main reinforcement of the supporting member or cast into the
column by using fixing lugs welded to the back of the base plate.
Holding down bolts are cast into the foundation base to connect and fix the frame.

3. Pin joint or hinge joint:

A special base or bearing plate is bolted to the foundation and the mechanical connection is made when
the frames are erected.

Advantages:
 Factory production will result in accurate and predictable components.
  Standard range of components can be manufactured.
 Also provides well balanced and flexible design range, covering most roof profiles.
 Maintenance cost is very low.
 They have their own built in resistant to fire thus no fire resistant treatment is required.
 Wind resistance is such that wind bracing is not usually required.
 The connections between the members are generally mechanical (nut and bolt) and thus it can
be carried out by quickly trained semi-skilled labour.
 The clean lines of pre-cast concrete portal frames are considered to be aesthetically pleasing.
 In most cases, the foundation design, setting out and construction can be carried out by portal
frame sub-contractor.

Disadvantages:
 Self load is heavy
 Difficult in transportation and handling in site due to its heavy load
 Requires lifting gears or mechanical equipments for placement in site
C) Timber Portal Frames
They can be manufactured by several methods which produce a light and strong frame of pleasing
appearance. Suitable for buildings such as churches, halls and gymnasiums where clear space and
appearance are important.

Common frames are;

 Glued laminated portal frames
 Plywood faced portal frames
 Solid timber and plywood gussets portal frames

Glued laminated portal frames:

The objective of forming a laminated member consisting of glued layers of thin timber sections is to
obtain an overall increase in strength than the similar sized solid section.

Soft wood of suitable quality is necessary for successful design.

In common with other timber portal frames, they can be rigid, two pin or three pin structures.

The foot of the supporting member is fixing to the metal shoe or to a pivot housing bolted to the
concrete foundation and connecting the joint at the apex with a bolt fixing or hinge device.

Plywood faced portal frames:

They are suitable for small halls, churches and schools with span around 9m.
These frames have boxed beams with a skeleton core of softwood members faced on both sides with
plywood which takes the bending stresses.

The hollow form of the construction enables the various service lines to be accommodated within the
frame members.

Design concepts, fixing and finishes are same as in glued laminated portal frames.

Solid timber and plywood gussets portal frames:

They are developed to provide a simple and economic timber frame using ordinary tools and basic skills.
Glue is not used to join the timber members.
The frames are spaced close together at 600, 900 or 1200 mm c/c and are clad with plywood sheath so
that structure acts as a shell giving a lightweight building which is very rigid and strong.
The foundations for this form of timber portal frames consist of
A ground beam or
Alternatively fixed to the edge of a raft slab
A timber spreader or sole plate is used along the entire length of the building to receive and distribute
the loads of the frames.
Standard galvanized steel joists hangers or galvanized steel angle cleats are used for the connection to
this timber spreader.

Advantages of timber portal frames:

 They can be constructed from readily available materials at an economic cost.
 Light in weight.
 Easy to transport and erect.
 Can be trimmed and easily adjusted on site.
 Protection against fungi and insect attack can be treated by impregnation or surface treatment.
 Pleasing appearance either as a natural timber finishes or painted.
Disadvantages of timber portal frames:
 They require proper treatment against fungi and insect attack.
 Fire resistant is low.
 The tensile strength of timber is very low in comparison to steel.
 Not economical for large clear spans

Shells

Single Curvature
Double curvature shells:

Construction
Barrel Vaults:
RCC Barrel Vaults
Timber Barrel Vaults
 Single and multi-bay barrel vaults can be constructed from small section timber with spans and
widths similar to reinforced concrete barrel vaults.
 The vault is formed of three layers of boards glued and nailed together and stiffened with ribs at
close centres.
 The ribs serve both to stiffen the shell and to maintain the boards’ curvature over the vault.
 There is no appreciable difference in cost between similar concrete and timber barrel vault.
Conoid and Hyperboloid Shell Roofs:
Reinforced concrete conoid shell.
In this type, the curvature and rise of the shell increases from a shallow curve to a steeply curved end in
which north light glazing is fixed.
Reinforced concrete hyperbolic paraboloid shell:
Timber hyperbolic paraboloid shell

C) Domes:
Dome is a thin shell generated by revolution of a regular curve about one of its axis.
The shape of dome depends on
 Type of curve
 Direction of the axis of revolution;
 When segments revolves around vertical axis – spherical dome
 Revolution of a right angled triangle about vertical axis- conical dome
 Revolution of elliptical curve about one of its axis- elliptical dome
Domes are generally used for covering;
 Circular areas
 Circular tanks
 Hangars
 Exhibition halls
 Auditoriums and planetariums and
 Bottoms of tanks, bins and bunkers.

Domes are constructed from Masonry, Steel, timber or reinforced cement concrete.

Spherical dome
 Spherical domes are commonly used.
 Spherical dome consists of a number of horizontal rings placed one over another but the
diameter of successive upper rings are decreased.
 Circle between two diametrically opposite points- form meridian circle
 These meridian circles converge at crown
 The load at crown is concentrated (tensile) and needs proper reinforcement and is thicker
 The joints between two successive rings is radial

 Each horizontal ring supports load of upper ring & transmits load below.
 Reaction is tangential on curved surface.
 The thickness required for dome is small; minimum thickness is 75mm providing protection
against steel.
 Ring beams are placed at base of the dome.
 The minimum main reinforcement should be of 0.15% of area provided in both directions.
Openings can be provided in dome for functional purposes which should be sealed properly
from weather.
 Ring beam is provided around openings if concentrated load is present.