Development of the Nervous System

Overall structure and Cell types

PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

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 • Overview: Command and Control Center
• The human brain
– Contains an estimated 100 billion nerve cells,
or neurons

• Each neuron
– May communicate with thousands of other
neurons

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 • Concept 48.1: Nervous systems consist of
circuits of neurons and supporting cells
• All animals except sponges
– Have some type of nervous system

• What distinguishes the nervous systems of

different animal groups
– Is how the neurons are organized into circuits

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 • In vertebrates
– The central nervous system consists of a brain
and dorsal spinal cord
– The PNS connects to the CNS

Brain

Sensory
Spinal
ganglion
cord
(dorsal
nerve
cord)

Figure 48.2h (h) Salamander (chordate)

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 Information Processing
• Nervous systems process information in three
stages
– Sensory input, integration, and motor output

Sensory input

Integration
Sensor

Motor output

Effector
Figure 48.3 Peripheral nervous Central nervous
system (PNS) system (CNS)
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 Neuron Structure
• Most of a neuron’s organelles
– Are located in the cell body
Dendrites

Cell body

Nucleus
Synapse
Signal
Axon direction
Axon hillock

Presynaptic cell Postsynaptic cell

Myelin sheath

Synaptic
Figure 48.5
terminals
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 • Most neurons have dendrites
– Highly branched extensions that receive
signals from other neurons

• The axon is typically a much longer extension

– That transmits signals to other cells at
synapses
– That may be covered with a myelin sheath

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 • Neurons have a wide variety of shapes
– That reflect their input and output interactions
Dendrites

Axon

Cell
body

Figure 48.6a–c (a) Sensory neuron (b) Interneurons (c) Motor neuron
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 Supporting Cells (Glia)
• Glia are supporting cells
– That are essential for the structural integrity of
the nervous system and for the normal
functioning of neurons

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 • In the CNS, astrocytes
– Provide structural support for neurons and
regulate the extracellular concentrations of
ions and neurotransmitters

50 µm
Figure 48.7
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 • Oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and Schwann
cells (in the PNS)
– Are glia that form the myelin sheaths around
the axons of many vertebrate neurons

Node of Ranvier
Layers of myelin
Axon
Schwann
cell Schwann
cell
Nodes of Nucleus of
Axon Myelin sheath
Ranvier Schwann cell
Figure 48.8
0.1 µm

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 • Concept 48.5: The vertebrate nervous system
is regionally specialized
• In all vertebrates, the nervous system
– Shows a high degree of cephalization and
distinct CNS and PNS components Central nervous
Peripheral nervous
system (CNS)
system (PNS)
Brain Cranial
Spinal cord nerves
Ganglia
outside
CNS
Spinal
nerves

Figure 48.19
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 • The brain provides the integrative power
– That underlies the complex behavior of
vertebrates

• The spinal cord integrates simple responses to

certain kinds of stimuli
– And conveys information to and from the brain

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 • The central canal of the spinal cord and the
four ventricles of the brain
– Are hollow, since they are derived from the
dorsal embryonic nerve cord

Gray matter
White
matter

Ventricles

Figure 48.20

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 The Peripheral Nervous System
• The PNS transmits information to and from the
CNS
– And plays a large role in regulating a
vertebrate’s movement and internal
environment

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 • The cranial nerves originate in the brain
– And terminate mostly in organs of the head
and upper body

• The spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord

– And extend to parts of the body below the
head

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 • The PNS can be divided into two functional
components
– The somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system
Peripheral
nervous system

Somatic Autonomic
nervous nervous
system system

Sympathetic Parasympathetic Enteric

division division division

Figure 48.21

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 • The somatic nervous system
– Carries signals to skeletal muscles

• The autonomic nervous system

– Regulates the internal environment, in an
involuntary manner
– Is divided into the sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric divisions

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 • The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
– Have antagonistic effects on target organs
Parasympathetic division Sympathetic division
Action on target organs: Action on target organs:

Constricts pupil Dilates pupil

Location of of eye Location of
preganglionic neurons: of eye
preganglionic neurons:
brainstem and sacral thoracic and lumbar
segments of spinal cord Stimulates salivary Inhibits salivary
gland secretion segments of spinal cord
gland secretion
Sympathetic
Neurotransmitter Constricts ganglia Relaxes bronchi Neurotransmitter
released by bronchi in lungs Cervical in lungs released by
preganglionic neurons:
preganglionic neurons:
acetylcholine
Slows heart Accelerates heart acetylcholine

Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Location of Stimulates activity Thoracic Location of
postganglionic neurons: of stomach and postganglionic neurons:
in ganglia close to or intestines Inhibits activity
some in ganglia close to
within target organs of pancreas
target organs; others in
Stimulates activity a chain of ganglia near
of pancreas Stimulates glucose spinal cord
release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Stimulates Lumbar
Neurotransmitter
gallbladder
released by Stimulates Neurotransmitter
postganglionic neurons: adrenal medulla released by
acetylcholine postganglionic neurons:
Promotes emptying norepinephrine
Inhibits emptying
of bladder
of bladder

Promotes erection Promotes ejaculation and

of genitalia Sacral
Figure 48.22 Synapse vaginal contractions

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 • The sympathetic division
– Correlates with the “fight-or-flight” response

• The parasympathetic division

– Promotes a return to self-maintenance
functions

• The enteric division

– Controls the activity of the digestive tract,
pancreas, and gallbladder

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 Embryonic Development of the Brain
• In all vertebrates
– The brain develops from three embryonic
regions: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the
Embryonic brain regions

hindbrain
Forebrain

Midbrain

Hindbrain

Midbrain Hindbrain

Forebrain

(a) Embryo at one month

Figure 48.23a
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 • By the fifth week of human embryonic
development
– Five brain regions have formed from the three Embryonic brain regions

embryonic regions
Telencephalon

Diencephalon

Mesencephalon

Metencephalon

Myelencephalon

Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Diencephalon
Myelencephalon

Spinal cord
Telencephalon

Figure 48.23b (b) Embryo at five weeks

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 • As a human brain develops further
– The most profound change occurs in the
forebrain, which gives rise to the cerebrum
Brain structures present in adult

Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres; includes cerebral

cortex, white matter, basal nuclei)

Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)

Midbrain (part of brainstem)

Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum

Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)

Diencephalon:
Cerebral hemisphere Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)

Brainstem:

Midbrain
Pons
Pituitary
gland Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord Cerebellum
Central canal
(c) Adult
Figure 48.23c
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 The Brainstem
• The brainstem consists of three parts
– The medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain

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 • The medulla oblongata
– Contains centers that control several visceral
functions

• The pons
– Also participates in visceral functions

• The midbrain
– Contains centers for the receipt and integration
of several types of sensory information

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 Arousal and Sleep
• A diffuse network of neurons called the
reticular formation
– Is present in the core of the brainstem

Eye
Input from ears
Reticular formation
Input from touch,
pain, and temperature
Figure 48.24 receptors

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 The Cerebellum
• The cerebellum
– Is important for coordination and error
checking during motor, perceptual, and
cognitive functions

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 • The cerebellum
– Is also involved in learning and remembering
motor skills

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 The Diencephalon
• The embryonic diencephalon develops into
three adult brain regions
– The epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus

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 • The epithalamus
– Includes the pineal gland and the choroid
plexus

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 • The thalamus
– Is the main input center for sensory information
going to the cerebrum and the main output
center for motor information leaving the
cerebrum

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 • The hypothalamus regulates
– Homeostasis
– Basic survival behaviors such as feeding,
fighting, fleeing, and reproducing

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 Circadian Rhythms
• The hypothalamus also regulates circadian
rhythms
– Such as the sleep/wake cycle

• Animals usually have a biological clock

– Which is a pair of suprachiasmatic nuclei
(SCN) found in the hypothalamus

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 • Biological clocks usually require external cues
– To remain synchronized with environmental cycles
EXPERIMENT In the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus), activity normally begins with the onset of darkness and ends
at dawn, which suggests that light is an important external cue for the squirrel. To test this idea, researchers monitored the activity of captive
squirrels for 23 days under two sets of conditions: (a) a regular cycle of 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness and (b) constant darkness.
The squirrels were given free access to an exercise wheel and a rest cage. A recorder automatically noted when the wheel was rotating and
when it was still.
(a) 12 hr light-12 hr dark cycle (b) Constant darkness
Light Dark Light Dark

RESULTS 1
When the squirrels
were exposed to a regular light/dark
cycle, their wheel-turning activity 5
Days of experiment

(indicated by the dark bars) occurred

at roughly the same time every day.
However, when they were kept in 10
constant darkness, their activity phase
began about 21 minutes later each day.
15

20

12 16 20 24 4 8 12 12 16 20 24 4 8 12
Figure 48.25
Time of day (hr) Time of day (hr)

CONCLUSION The northern flying squirrel’s internal clock can run in constant darkness, but it does so on
its own cycle, which lasts about 24 hours and 21 minutes. External (light) cues keep the clock running on a 24-hour cycle.
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 The Cerebrum
• The cerebrum
– Develops from the embryonic telencephalon

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 • The cerebrum has right and left cerebral
hemispheres
– That each consist of cerebral cortex overlying
white matter and basal nuclei
Left cerebral Right cerebral
hemisphere hemisphere

Corpus
callosum
Basal
nuclei
Neocortex

Figure 48.26

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 • The basal nuclei
– Are important centers for planning and learning
movement sequences

• In mammals
– The cerebral cortex has a convoluted surface
called the neocortex

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 • In humans, the largest and most complex part
of the brain
– Is the cerebral cortex, where sensory
information is analyzed, motor commands are
issued, and language is generated

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 • A thick band of axons, the corpus callosum
– Provides communication between the right and
left cerebral cortices

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 • Concept 48.6: The cerebral cortex controls
voluntary movement and cognitive functions
• Each side of the cerebral cortex has four lobes
– Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Somatosensory
Frontal Speech association
association area
Taste
area
Reading
Speech
Hearing
Visual
Smell association
Auditory area
association
area
Vision

Figure 48.27 Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

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 • Each of the lobes
– Contains primary sensory areas and
association areas

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 Information Processing in the Cerebral Cortex
• Specific types of sensory input
– Enter the primary sensory areas

• Adjacent association areas

– Process particular features in the sensory input
and integrate information from different
sensory areas

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 • In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex
– Neurons are distributed according to the part
of the body that generates sensory input or
receives motor input
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Genitalia
Toes

Lips
Jaw Tongue
Tongue
Pharynx
Primary Primary
motor cortex Abdominal somatosensory
organs cortex
Figure 48.28

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 Lateralization of Cortical Function
• During brain development, in a process called
lateralization
– Competing functions segregate and displace
each other in the cortex of the left and right
cerebral hemispheres

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 • The left hemisphere
– Becomes more adept at language, math,
logical operations, and the processing of serial
sequences

• The right hemisphere

– Is stronger at pattern recognition, nonverbal
thinking, and emotional processing

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