Physics-II

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 To understand energy band structure of semiconductor, intrinsic
C18 and extrinsic semiconductor, Variation of Fermi level with

temperature, with impurity concentration

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 Extrinsic Semiconductor

 By adding the certain impurities, we can significantly change the electrical

conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors.

 An intentional introduction of controlled amount of impurity into an intrinsic

semiconductor is called doping.

 A semiconductor doped with impurity atoms is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

 In one of the important method for doping, impurity (very precisely measured
quantity) is added to the melt from which the semiconductor crystal is grown.

 Typical doping levels range varies from 1020 to 1027 impurity atoms/m3.

 Pentavalent elements from group V or trivalent elements from group III are used
as dopants.

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 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Types of Extrinsic Semiconductor

(i) n-Type Semiconductor: produced by adding pentavalent impurity e.g.

phosphorous, Arsenic and Antimony

(ii) p- Type Semiconductor: produced by adding trivalent impurity e.g. Aluminum,

Boron, Gallium and Indium

Advantages of Extrinsic Semiconductors

 Conductivity is high

 Conductivity can be tailored to the desired value through the control of doping
concentration

 Conductivity is not a function of temperature.

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n-Type Semiconductor
The addition of pentavalent impurities
such as antimony, arsenic or
phosphorous contributes free electrons,
greatly increasing the conductivity of the
intrinsic semiconductor. Phosphorous
may be added by diffusion of phosphine
gas (PH3).

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 n-Type Semiconductor
 A phosphorous atom has five electrons. Out
of the five electrons, only four participate in
bonding with four host silicon atoms while the
fifth electron remains loosely bound. By giving
the thermal energy we can easily liberate the
fifth electron. It means that the energy levels
corresponding to phosphorous atoms are
nearer to the bottom edge of the conduction
band.

 At normal temperatures, the fifth electron

become free to move about in the crystal and
act as a charge carrier. That is, the electron
jumps into conduction band leaving behind
the positive phosphorus ion that is fixed in the
crystal lattice.
Energy band diagram of n-type
semiconductor
 ED = donor level and represents the ground
state of the fifth electron of impurity atom.
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 n-Type Semiconductor
The number of electrons in conduction band will be approx. equal to the number of
donor atoms, i. e. n = ND . As we know

𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷 = 𝑁𝐶 .𝑒 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 ) /kT

𝑁𝐶
= 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 )/𝑘𝑇
𝑁𝐷
Taking the logarithm of both the sides.

𝑁𝐶 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶
ln =−
𝑁𝐷 𝑘𝑇

𝑁𝐶
𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝐶 − 𝑘𝑇 ln
𝑁𝐷
It shows that the Fermi level lies below the bottom of the conduction band.

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 n-Type Semiconductor

At 0K, the donor

atoms are not ionized
which means that all
donor electrons are
bound to the donor
atoms. The
conduction band is
empty, while the
valence band is full. It
behave like as an
insulator.

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 n-Type Semiconductor
 At slightly elevated temperature, the donor atoms are ionized and the donor electrons go
into the conduction band (ionization region in figure) by getting energy from lattice
vibrations. No holes produced in this process in valence band. At about 100K, the donor
levels are all ionized. Once all the donor atoms are ionized, further increase in temperature
does not produce electrons and the curve levels off. The plateau region is called the
depletion region. In depletion region, the electron concentration in the conduction band is
nearly identical to the concentration of the dopant atoms.

 If ND is the concentration of donor atoms, then nn = ND , where nn is the electron

concentration in the conduction band of n-type material.

 As temperature increase further, some electrons from the valence band are also excited
into conduction band. The conduction band, therefore, contains electrons that have come
thorough two different processes-namely (i) donor atom ionization and (ii) intrinsic process.
The intrinsic produces holes in the valence band.

 Majority carriers are electron (region II) and holes are minority carriers. The number of
carriers is independent of temperature in the depletion region.

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 n-Type Semiconductor

Energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor (a) 0K (b) at 300 K

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 n-Type Semiconductor
Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in an n-type Semiconductor
 As electrons in the conduction band are only
due to the transitions from the donor levels,
there Fermi level must lie between the impurity
donor levels and the bottom of the conduction
band.

 At T = 0K, EFn lies midway between the donor

levels and the bottom of the conduction band.

𝑬𝑪 +𝑬𝑫
 𝑬𝑭𝒏 = at T = 0K
𝟐

 As the temperature increases, the donor levels

gradually get depleted and the Fermi level
moves downward. At the temperature of Qualitative dependence of Fermi
complete depletion of donor levels, Td, the level on temperature in an n-type
Fermi level coincides with the donor level ED. semiconductor
Thus EFn = ED at T = Td .

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 n-Type Semiconductor

 As the temperature grows further above

Td , the Fermi level shifts downward in an
approx. linear fashion.

 At the temperature Ti , the intrinsic

process contributes to electron
concentration significantly.

 Fermi level approaches the intrinsic

value.

𝑬𝒈
Qualitative dependence of Fermi
 𝑬𝑭𝒏 = 𝑬𝑭𝒊 = at T ≥ 𝑻𝒊 level on temperature in an n-type
𝟐
semiconductor

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 p-Type Semiconductor

The addition of trivalent impurities such as

boron, aluminum or gallium to an intrinsic
semiconductor creates deficiencies of
valence electrons, called "holes". It is
typical to use B2H6 diborane gas to diffuse
boron into the silicon material.

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 p-Type Semiconductor
 The hole can move freely in the valence band whereas the impurity ion is fixed in position
by the covalent bonds.

 As the boron atom accepted an electron from the valence bond is called an acceptor atom.
The acceptor impurity atoms produce holes without the simultaneous generation of the
electrons in the conduction band.

 Since the acceptor atoms are distantly spaced

from each other, there no interaction between
them, their energy levels are discrete levels. They
are called acceptor levels (EA) and represent the
ground state of the hole.

 As even small amount of thermal energy can

make an electron in the valence band jump into
acceptor level, the acceptor levels are expected
to be located very near to the top edge of the
valence band.

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 p-Type Semiconductor
Here we assume only acceptor atoms are present and these are all ionized, we
have p = NA. As we know

p = 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝑉 .𝑒 (𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹 ) /kT

𝑁𝑉
= 𝑒 −(𝐸𝑉−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
𝑁𝐴
Taking the logarithm of both the sides.
𝑁𝑉 𝐸𝑉 −𝐸𝐹
ln =−
𝑁𝐴 𝑘𝑇

𝑁𝑉
𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝑉 + 𝑘𝑇 ln
𝑁𝐴

It shows that the Fermi level lies above the top of valence band.

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 p-Type Semiconductor
 At 0K, the acceptor levels are vacant and the valence band is full. The material
behaves as an insulator.

 At slightly elevated temperature, electrons from the valence band jump into the
acceptor levels and holes are generated in the valence band. In this process holes
are generated without simultaneous generation of electrons.

 At normal temperature, the acceptor levels are saturated and a few electrons are
excited to the conduction band also. At about 100K, the acceptor atoms are all
ionized.

 Once all the acceptor atoms are ionized, further increase in temperature does not
produce holes and we say the acceptor levels are saturated. The region is called
the saturation/depleted region.

 In this saturation region, the hole concentration in valence band is nearly

identical to the concentration of the acceptor atoms. If NA is the concentration of
acceptor atoms, then pp = NA (approx.), where pp is the hole concentration in the
valence band of p-type material.
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 p-Type Semiconductor
 As the temperature is increased further some electrons from the valence band
are excited into conduction band. The valence band now contains holes that are
generated by two different processes-namely (i) acceptor atoms ionization and
(ii) intrinsic process.

 P-type semiconductor, the holes outnumber the electrons and constitute the
majority carriers. Electrons are minority carriers. The number of majority
carriers is independent of temperature in the depletion region/saturation region.

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 p-Type Semiconductor

Energy band diagram of an p-type semiconductor (a) at 0K and at 300K

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 p-Type Semiconductor
Variation of Fermi level with Temperature in a p-type Semiconductor

At T = 0K

As the valence band is the source of

electrons and the acceptor levels are the
recipients for them, the Fermi level must lie
between the top of the valence band and
the impurity acceptor levels.

Fermi level lies midway between the

acceptor levels and the top of valence band
thus

𝑬𝑽 +𝑬𝑨
𝑬𝑭𝑷 =
𝟐

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 p-Type Semiconductor
As the temperature increases the acceptor levels gradually get filled and the Fermi
level moves upwards. At the temperature of saturation TS, the Fermi level coincides
with the acceptor level EA. Thus,

EFP = EA at T = Ts

As the temperature grows above Ts, the Fermi

level shift upward in an approximately linear
fashion.

𝑬𝒈
At T = Ti , EFP = Ei =
𝟐

At this temperature and above extrinsic

semiconductor behaves as an intrinsic
semiconductor.

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 Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration
n-type Semiconductor

Energy band diagrams of an n-type semiconductor at three different levels of

doping; (a) low level doping; (b) medium doping; (c) heavy doping.
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 Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration
n-Type Semiconductor
 Addition of donor impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor leads to the formation of discrete
donor levels below the bottom edge of the conduction band. At low concentration of
impurity, donor atoms are distantly spaced and do not interact each other.

 With an increase in the impurity concentration, the separation between impurity atoms
decreases and they tend to interact. As a result, the donor levels undergo splitting and form
an energy band below the conduction band as shown in figure.

 The larger the doping concentration, the broader is the impurity band; and at the one stage
the impurity band overlaps on the conduction band. Then the upper vacant levels in the
conduction band are accessible to the donor electrons.

 The broadening of donor levels into band is by a decrease in width of the forbidden gap and
also by upward displacement of Fermi level.

 Fermi level shifts closer and closer to the conduction band with increasing impurity
concentration and finally moves into the conduction band when the donor band overlaps
on the conduction band.

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 Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration
p-Type Semiconductor

 In p-type semiconductor, the acceptor levels broaden and form into a band with
increasing impurity concentration.

 The acceptor band ultimately overlaps on the valence band.

 The Fermi level moves down closer to the valence band and finally at very high
impurity concentration it will shift into the valence band.

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Differentiate between direct and indirect band gap
semiconductors
.

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 Direct band-gap (DBG) semiconductor
A direct band-gap (DBG) semiconductor is
one in which the maximum energy level of
the valence band aligns with the minimum
energy level of the conduction band with
respect to momentum.
Indirect band-gap (IBG) semiconductor
An Indirect band-gap (IBG) semiconductor
is one in which the maximum energy level
of the valence band and the minimum
energy level of the conduction band are
misaligned with respect to momentum.

In a DBG semiconductor, a direct In case of a IBG semiconductor, due to a

recombination takes place with the release relative difference in the momentum, first,
of the energy equal to the energy difference the momentum is conserved by release of
between the recombining particles. energy and only after the both the
momenta align themselves, a recombination
occurs accompanied with the release of
energy.
The probability of a radiative
recombination is high. The probability of a radiative
recombination is comparatively low.
The efficiency factor of a DBG
semiconductor is higher. Thus, DBG The efficiency factor of a IBG
semiconductors are always preferred over semiconductor is lower.
IBG for making optical sources.

Example, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs). Example, Silicon and Germanium

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