Network

Rakesh Kumar Naik

Architecture
Rakesh Kumar Naik
Madhav Institute of Technology and Science Gwalior

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Layered Network Architecture
• To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized
as a series of layers or levels
• The basic idea of a layered architecture is to divide the design into
small pieces.
• Each layer adds to the services provided by the lower layers in such a

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manner that the highest layer is provided a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications
• The basic elements of a layered model are
• Services
• A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer
• Protocols
• Protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a
peer entity
• Interfaces
• The messages from one layer to another are sent through those 2
interfaces.
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service access point
• In layered network, each layer has various entities and entities
of layer i provide service to the entities of layer i+1. The
services can be accessed through service access point (SAP),
which has some address through which the layer i+1 will
access the services provided by layer i

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Need of Layered architecture
• To make the design process easy by breaking unmanageable
tasks into several smaller and manageable tasks (by divide-
and-conquer approach).
• Modularity and clear interfaces, so as to provide comparability
between the different providers' components.

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• Ensure independence of layers, so that implementation of
each layer can be changed or modified without affecting other
layers.
• Each layer can be analyzed and tested independently of all
other layers

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Reference Models in
Communication Networks
• The most important reference models are :
• OSI reference model.
• TCP/IP reference model

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OSI reference model
• The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model
describes how information from a software application in one
computer moves through a network medium to a software
application in another computer.
• The OSI reference model is a conceptual model composed of

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seven layers, each specifying particular network functions.
• The model was developed by the International
Standardization Organization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
considered the primary architectural model for inter-
computer communications.

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OSI reference model
• The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture.
• Physical Layer
• Data-Link Layer
• Network Layer
• Transport Layer

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• Session Layer
• Presentation Layer
• Application Layer

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Physical Layer
• Physical Layer: Controls the transmission of the actual data
onto the network cable. It defines the electrical signals, line
states and encoding of the data and the connector types used.

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Functions of Physical Layer
• Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The
bits must be encoded into signals for transmission. It defines the type
of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to signal.
• Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the
number of bits per second.
• Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter

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and receiver. The sender and receiver are synchronized at bit level.
• Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface
between devices and transmission medium.
• Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the medium: Point
to Point configuration and Multipoint configuration.
• Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies:
Mesh, Star, Ring and Bus.
• Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
• Deals with baseband and broadband transmission. 12
Data Link Layer
• This layer takes the data frames or messages from the Network Layer and
provides for their actual transmission. At the receiving computer, this layer
receives the incoming data and sends it to the network layer for handling. The
Data-Link Layer also provides error-free delivery of data between the two
computers by using the physical layer. It does this by packaging the data from
the Network Layer into a frame, which includes error detection information. At
the receiving computer, the Data-Link Layer reads the incoming frame, and
generates its own error detection information based on the received frames

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data. After receiving the entire frame, it then compares its error detection
value with that of the incoming frames, and if they match, the frame has been
received correctly

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Functions of Data Link Layer
• Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units. This division of stream of bits is
done by Data Link Layer.
• Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame
in order to define physical address of the sender or receiver of the
frame, if the frames are to be distributed to different systems on the

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network.
• Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast transmitter
from running a slow receiver by buffering the extra bit is provided by
flow control. This prevents traffic jam at the receiver side.
• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the end
of the frame. Duplication of frames are also prevented by using this
mechanism. Data Link Layers adds mechanism to prevent
duplication of frames.
• Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the
devices has control over the link at any given time, when two or
more devices are connected to the same link 14
Hop-to-hop delivery

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Network Layer
• This is responsible for addressing messages and data so they
are sent to the correct destination, and for translating logical
addresses and names (like a machine name FLAME) into
physical addresses. This layer is also responsible for finding a
path through the network to the destination computer.

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Functions of Network Layer
• It translates logical network address into physical address.
Concerned with circuit, message or packet switching.
• Routers and gateways operate in the network layer.
Mechanism is provided by Network Layer for routing the
packets to final destination.

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• Connection services are provided including network layer flow
control, network layer error control and packet sequence
control.
• Breaks larger packets into small packets
• Internetworking : connecting different network technologies
together
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Source-to-destination delivery

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Transport Layer
• Ensures that data is delivered error free, in sequence and with
no loss, duplications or corruption. This layer also repackages
data by assembling long messages into lots of smaller
messages for sending, and repackaging the smaller messages
into the original larger message at the receiving end.

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Functions of Transport Layer
• Service Point Addressing: Transport Layer header includes service point
address which is port address. This layer gets the message to the correct
process on the computer unlike Network Layer, which gets each packet to
the correct computer.
• Segmentation and Reassembling: A message is divided into segments;
each segment contains sequence number, which enables this layer in
reassembling the message. Message is reassembled correctly upon arrival
at the destination and replaces packets which were lost in transmission.

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• Connection Control: It includes 2 types:
• Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is considered as an
independent packet and delivered to the transport layer at the destination
machine.
• Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before delivering packets,
connection is made with transport layer at the destination machine.
• Flow Control: In this layer, flow control is performed end to end.
• Error Control: Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure 20
that the complete message arrives at the receiving transport layer without
any error. Error Correction is done through retransmission.
Reliable process-to-process
delivery of a message

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Session Layer
• Allows two applications to establish, use and disconnect a
connection between them called a session. Provides for name
recognition and additional functions like security, which are
needed to allow applications to communicate over the
network

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 Functions of Session Layer
• Dialog Control : This layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Token Management: This layer prevents two parties from
attempting the same critical operation at the same time.
• Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints

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which are considered as synchronization points into stream of data.
• Example: If a system is sending a file of 800 pages, adding checkpoints
after every 50 pages is recommended. This ensures that 50 page unit is
successfully received and acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time of
crash as if a crash happens at page number 110; there is no need to
retransmit 1 to100 pages.

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Presentation Layer
• Determines the format used to exchange data among
networked computers.

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Functions of Presentation
Layer
• Translation: Before being transmitted, information in the form
of characters and numbers should be changed to bit streams.
The presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between encoding methods as different computers use
different encoding methods. It translates data between the

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formats the network requires and the format the computer.
• Encryption: It carries out encryption at the transmitter and
decryption at the receiver.
• Compression: It carries out data compression to reduce the
bandwidth of the data to be transmitted. The primary role of
Data compression is to reduce the number of bits to be
0transmitted. It is important in transmitting multimedia such
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as audio, video, text etc
Application Layer
• Provides Applications with access to network services.

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Functions of Application Layer
• File transfer (FTP): Connect to a remote machine and send or
fetch an arbitrary file. FTP deals with authentication, listing a
directory contents, ASCII or binary files, etc.
• Remote login (telnet): A remote terminal protocol that allows
a user at one site to establish a TCP connection to another

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site, and then pass keystrokes from the local host to the
remote host.
• Mail (SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)): Allow a mail
delivery agent on a local machine to connect to a mail delivery
agent on a remote machine and deliver mail.
• News (NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol)): Allows
communication between a news server and a news client.
• Web (HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer protocol)): Base protocol for
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communication on the World Wide Web.
TCP/IP Reference Model
• ARPANET: U.S. Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). In 1969
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in
the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
• Host-to-network layers

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• Internet layers
• Transport layers
• Application layers
• However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers:
• Physical layers
• Data link layers
• Network layers
• Transport layers 28
• Application layers
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
• Lowest layer of the all.
• Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets
can be sent over it.
• Varies from host to host and network to network.

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Ethernet

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Layer 2: Internet layer
• Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a
connectionless internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
• It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
• It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.

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• Order in which packets are received is different from the way
they are sent.
• IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
• The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
• Delivering IP packets
• Performing routing
• Avoiding congestion
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Layer 3: Transport Layer
• It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or
single path.
• Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the
data is done by transport layer.
• The applications can read and write to the transport layer.

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• Transport layer adds header information to the data.
• Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so
that they are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
• Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in
sequence.

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Layer 4: Application Layer
• TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting
to a remote machine and run applications on it.
• FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer
amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple
and efficient.
• SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via

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a route.
• DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address
for Hosts connected over a network.
• It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
• It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
• TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented
protocol which handles byte-stream from source to destination without
error and flow control.
• UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less
protocol that do not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One- 33
shot request-reply kind of service.
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Physical address

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Logical address

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 Port address

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TCP Header / Packet

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• The TCP packet format consists of these fields:
• Source Port and Destination Port fields (16 bits each) identify the end points of the
connection.
• Sequence Number field (32 bits) specifies the number assigned to the first byte of
data in the current message. Under certain circumstances, it can also be used to
identify an initial sequence number to be used in the upcoming transmission.
• Acknowledgement Number field (32 bits) contains the value of the next sequence
number that the sender of the segment is expecting to receive, if the ACK control bit
is set. Note that the sequence number refers to the stream flowing in the same
direction as the segment, while the acknowledgement number refers to the stream
flowing in the opposite direction from the segment.
• Data Offset (a.k.a. Header Length) field (variable length) tells how many 32-bit words
are contained in the TCP header. This information is needed because the Options field
has variable length, so the header length is variable too.

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• Reserved field (6 bits) must be zero. This is for future use.
• Flags field (6 bits) contains the various flags:
URG—Indicates that some urgent data has been placed.
ACK—Indicates that acknowledgement number is valid.
PSH—Indicates that data should be passed to the application as soon as possible.
RST—Resets the connection.
SYN—Synchronizes sequence numbers to initiate a connection.
FIN—Means that the sender of the flag has finished sending data.
• Window field (16 bits) specifies the size of the sender's receive window (that is,
buffer space available for incoming data).
• Checksum field (16 bits) indicates whether the header was damaged in transit.
• Urgent pointer field (16 bits) points to the first urgent data byte in the packet. 39
• Options field (variable length) specifies various TCP options.
• Data field (variable length) contains upper-layer information.
UDP packet
• The UDP packet format contains four fields:
• Source Port and Destination Port fields (16 bits each) identify the
end points of the connection.
• Length field (16 bits) specifies the length of the header and data.
• Checksum field (16 bits) allows packet integrity checking

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(optional).

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 IP Packet

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• The IP packet format consists of these fields:
• Version field (4 bits) indicates the version of IP currently used.
• IP Header Length (IHL) field (4 bits) indicates how many 32-bit words are
in the IP header.
• Type-of-service field (8 bits) specifies how a particular upper-layer
protocol would like the current datagram to be handled. Datagrams can be
assigned various levels of importance through this field.
• Total Length field (16 bits) specifies the length of the entire IP packet,
including data and header, in bytes.
• Identification field (16 bits) contains an integer that identifies the current
datagram. This field is used to help reconstruct datagram fragments.
• Flags field (4 bits; one is not used) controls whether routers are allowed to

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fragment a packet and indicates the parts of a packet to the receiver.
• Time-to-live field (8 bits) maintains a counter that gradually decrements
to zero, at which point the datagram is discarded. This keeps packets from
looping endlessly.
• Protocol field (8 bits) indicates which upper-layer protocol receives
incoming packets after IP processing is complete.
• Header Checksum field (16 bits) helps ensure IP header integrity.
• Source Address field (32 bits) specifies the sending node.
• Destination Address field (32 bits) specifies the receiving node.
• Options field (32 bits) allows IP to support various options, such as
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• Data field (32 bits) contains upper-layer information.
Connecting Devices

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A Repeater in the OSI Model

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A Bridge in the OSI Model

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A Router in the OSI Model

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A Gateway in the OSI Model

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ATM
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is an International
Telecommunication Union-Telecommunications Standards
Section (ITU-T) standard for cell relay wherein information for
multiple service types, such as voice, video, or data, is
conveyed in small, fixed-size cells.

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• ATM networks are connection-oriented.
• Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a technology that has its
history in the development of broadband ISDN in the 1970s
and 1980s.
• Technically, it can be viewed as an evolution of packet
switching. Like packet switching protocols for data (e.g., X.25,
frame relay, Transmission Control Protocol and Internet 52
protocol (TCP IP])
 Benefits of ATM
• Dynamic bandwidth for bursty traffic meeting application needs and
delivering high utilization of networking resources; most applications are or
can be viewed as inherently bursty, for example voice is bursty, as both parties
are neither speaking at once nor all the time; video is bursty, as the amount of
motion and required resolution varies over time.
• Smaller header with respect to the data to make the efficient use of
bandwidth.
• Can handle Mixed network traffic very efficiently: Variety of packet sizes
makes traffic unpredictable. All network equipments should incorporate

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elaborate software systems to manage the various sizes of packets. ATM
handles these problems efficiently with the fixed size cell.
• Cell network: All data is loaded into identical cells that can be transmitted
with complete predictability and uniformity
• Class-of-service support for multimedia traffic allowing applications with
varying throughput and latency requirements to be met on a single network.
• Scalability in speed and network size supporting link speeds of T1/E1 to OC–
12 (622 Mbps).
• Common LAN/WAN architecture allowing ATM to be used consistently from
one desktop to another; traditionally, LAN and WAN technologies have been
very different, with implications for performance and interoperability. But 53
ATM technology can be used either as a LAN technology or a WAN technology.
• International standards compliance in central-office and customer-premises
environments allowing for multivendor operation.
Multiplexing with Different Packet Sizes

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Multiplexing with Cells

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Virtual Path Identifier

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Switching Using VPI

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 VPI and VCI

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Switching Using VPI and VCI

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ATM Devices
• An ATM network is made up of an ATM switch and ATM
endpoints.
• An ATM switch is responsible for cell transit through an ATM
network.
• The job of an ATM switch is well defined. It accepts the

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incoming cell from an ATM endpoint or another ATM switch.
• It then reads and updates the cell header information and
quickly switches the cell to an output interface towards its
destination.
• An ATM endpoint (or end system) contains an ATM network
interface adapter.
• Examples of ATM endpoints are workstations, routers, digital
service units (DSUs), LAN switches, and video coder-decoders 59
(Codec’s).
ATM Interfaces
• An ATM network consists of a set of ATM switches
interconnected by point-to-point ATM links or interfaces.
• ATM switches support two primary types of interfaces
• User-Network Interface connects ATM end systems (such as hosts
and routers) to an ATM switch.

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• Network-Network Interface connects two ATM switches.

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VP/VC Switching
VPI 1 VPI 3
VCI 1 VCI 1
VCI 2 VCI 2
VCI 3 VCI 3

VPI 2 VPI 4
VCI 1 VCI 1
VCI 2 VCI 2
VCI 3 VCI 3

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VPI 3
VCI 3
VPI 1 VCI 4
VCI 1
VCI 2
VCI 3
VPI 4
VCI 4 VCI 1
VCI 2
VCI 3
VPI 2
VCI 1 VPI 5
VCI 2 VCI 1 62
VCI 3 VCI 2
Protocol Architecture
• Similarities between ATM and packet switching
• Transfer of data in discrete chunks
• Multiple logical connections over single physical interface
• In ATM flow on each logical connection is in fixed sized packets

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called cells
• Minimal error and flow control
• Reduced overhead
• Data rates (physical layer) 25.6Mbps to 622.08Mbps

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