Measurement and Data Collection in

Research
Aurang Zeb
MSN, M Bioethics
Objectives
At the end of the session the learners will be able to
explain the following:
 Measurement & Data Collection.
 Interview and Questionnaire
 Observational Method
 Biophysical Data and other Collection Method
 Criteria for assessing and selecting measuring tool.
 Reliability and validity of the tools and studies
Data collection

• Data collection is precise, systematic, gathering of

information relevant to the research purpose or the
specific objective, questions, or hypotheses of a
study.

• Without high quality collection methods, the

accuracy and authenticity of the conclusions are
subject to challenge.
• For a trust worthy data …..important data
collection tools are important.
Concepts of measurements
• Directness of measurement
– Direct and indirect

• Measurement error
– Difference between the actual and the ideal

• Levels of measurements
– Nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale

• Reliability and Validity

 Directness of measurement
To measure the researcher must first identify the object,
characteristic, or element to be measured.

Direct measurement
– Measurement of concrete things
– Examples: height, weight, temperature, etc

Indirect measurement
- measurement of abstract ideas and concepts
– Examples stress, caring, coping , anxiety,
compliance etc
Measurement Error
 Is the difference between true measure and what is
actually measured
 (example: the difference between the exact weight and
measured weight, hope)

 The amount of measurement error varies.

 Measurement error exist in direct and indirect

measurement

 Can be random or systematic.

The difference between random error and systematic error is
in the direction of error.

Random Error:
The difference between the measured value and the true
value is without a direction.
In one measurement , the obtained value is higher than the
actual whereas in the other measurement the obtained
value is lower than the actual value.
A number of situations can cause random error:
1. Data collector not using the same procedure every time
2. Marking of wrong column accidently
3. Punching of the wrong key
• Systematic error:

• The difference between the measured value and the

true value is in a particular direction.

• Example: a weighing machine that weighs 2 kg extra

for each subject would yield a mean than greater than
the actual.
Reliability
 Reliability is concerned with how consistently the
measurement technique measures the concept of
interest.

 For example: if a scale is used to weigh a subject,

the scale should indicate the same weight each
time the subject steps on and off the scale.

 A scale that does not show the same weight every

time is unreliable.

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 What is reliability?
 Reliability testing is considered a measure of the amount
of random error in the measurement technique.
 Because all measurement techniques take into account
random error, reliability exist in degrees and usually is
expressed as correlation coefficient.
– 1.0 indicating perfect reliability
– 0.8 considered as acceptable reliability lowest
acceptable tool for the well developed measurement tool
– 0.7 considered acceptable
– 0 indicates no reliability
 Cronbach alpha coefficient is the most commonly
used measure of reliability
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What is reliability?
• Stability
– It is concerned with the consistency of repeated
measures. This is usually referred as test-retest
reliability.

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What is reliability?
• Equivalence
It is concerned with comparing measurement made
by two or more observers measuring the same
event and is referred as inter-rater reliability

• Homogeneity
Addresses the correlation of various items within the
instrument
Split-half reliability

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Validity
 The validity of an instrument is a determination of
how well the instrument reflects the abstract
concept being examined.

 Again like reliability it is measured on a

continuum.

 Example: How accurately an instrument that is

used to measure anxiety will measure anxiety.
 Reliability and Validity
The center of the target is the concept that you are
trying to measure. Imagine that for each person
you are measuring, you are taking a shot at the
target. If you measure the concept perfectly for a
person, you are hitting the center of the target. If
you don't, you are missing the center. The more
you are off for that person, the further you are from
the center.

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 Levels of Measurements
• Nominal
– No order, no interval concept is present
– Lowest form of measurement

• Ordinal
– In order, interval is not same

• Interval scale measurement

– Zero is not absolute, interval is same

• Ratio
– Zero is absolute, interval is same
– Highest form of measurement
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Approaches of data collection
• Structured
Research data for quantitative studies are often collected
according to a structured plan that indicates what
information is collected and how to collect it.
They include a fixed set of questions to be answered in a
specified sequence and with predesigned response options.
Closed ended questions.
Example: During the past week, would you say you felt
stressed:
1. Rarely or none of the time
2. Some or little of the time
3. Occasionally or a moderate amount of time
4. Most or all of the time
• Unstructured:
most qualitative studies rely on unstructured or
loosely structured methods of data collection where the
participants are provided opportunities to reveal
information in a naturalistic way.

Open ended questions.

Example: how stressed or anxious have you been this

past week? Tell me more about the stressors and
tensions you have been experiencing.
Major types of data collection methods used in
nursing
1. Observation
2. Physiological measurement
3. Interview
4. Questionnaire
5. Focus group
 Interview
 An interview involves verbal communication between the
researcher and the subject during which the information is
provided to the researcher.
 Mostly used in qualitative studies.
 Could be unstructured or structured.
 “ Describe me your experience of going through ….”
 Role of interviewer is to encourage the participant to
continue talking like making the sound that indicates
interest.
 During an structured interview, the researcher follows the
sequence, and asks the questions precisely.
 Focus group
• Focus groups are used to study qualitative issues, analyze
policy, assess consumer satisfaction, quality of care, explore pt
care problems etc
• Focus groups are designed to obtain participants perceptions
about a subject in a setting that is permissive and non
threatening.
• Group dynamics help people to express their views
• Interviewer related anxiety is reduced
• Usually 6-10 participants in a group
• Sorting people with similar characteristics in one group
• Selection of moderator….neutral and non judgmental
• Selection of moderator…a person who shares some
characteristics with the participant
• Logistics of the lay out
Questionnaire
 A questionnaire is a printed self report form
designed to elicit information through written or
verbal responses of the subjects.
 Are sometimes referred to as surveys
 The subject is not permitted to elaborate on
responses and the data collector cannot use
probing.
 Some questionnaire uses open ended questions
whereas others may have closed ended questions
Scales
• The scale, a self report is a more precise means of measuring
phenomena than the questionnaire.
1. Rating scales: lists an ordered series of categories of a variable
and is assumed to be based on a continuum. A numerical value
is assigned to each category.
Example: Nurses come into my room
1. Rarely
2. Sometimes
3. Whenever I call
4. Frequently

Pain scale (0-10)

Evaluation (1-10)
 Likert scale
 Measures the opinion or attitude
 Contains a number of declarative statements with a
scale after each statement
 Example:
Strongly disagree uncertain agree Strongly
disagree agree
People with cancer
almost always die

Chemotherapy is
very effective in
treating cancer
Visual analogue scale
Observation
 Unstructured observations includes spontaneously
observing and recording what is seen.

 In structured observations the researcher defines

what is to be observed and how the observations
are recorded.
Bio physiological measures
 Measures that require technical instruments

(BP, Wt ht etc)
Five tasks in the process of data collection
 Obtaining / recruiting subjects
 Collecting data in a consistent way
 Maintaining research controls
 Protecting the integrity or validity of the study
 Solving problems that threaten to disrupt the study.

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References
1. Burns, N. & Grove, S.K (2007). Understanding Nursing Research,
building an Evidence-Based Practice 4th Edition. St. Louis,
Missouri: Saunders.

2. Dawson, B., & Trapp, R. G. (2004). Basic & Clinical Biostatistics

(4th ed.). New York: Lange/McGraw-Hill

3. Harris, M. & Taylor, G. (2008). Medical Statistics Made Easy, 2nd

Edition. Oxford shire: Scion Publishing

4. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating

and assessing evidence for nursing practice (8th ed.).
Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.

5. Major Sources of Bias in Research studies. [online database, cited

19/08/2011]; available from:
http://www.umdnj.edu/idsweb/shared/biases.htm