Machine Design & CAD - I

1
Fundamental Concepts : Load & Stress
Loads & Resulting Stresses
Tensile

Compression Buckling

Shear

Bending

Turning

(Mohr, H-M-H)
Load
It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The
following four types of the load are important from the subject point of
view:
1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does
not change in magnitude or direction.
2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it
changes continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied or
shock load, when it is suddenly applied or removed.
4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with
some initial velocity.
Note: A machine part resists a dead load more easily than a live load and a live
load more easily than a shock load.
Stress
 When some external system of forces or loads acts on a body, the
internal forces (equal and opposite) are set up at various sections
of the body, which resist the external forces. This internal force
per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit stress or
simply a stress. It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ).
Mathematically,
Stress, σ = P/A
where P = Force or load acting on a body, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the body.
In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that
1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In actual practice, we use bigger units of stress i.e.
mega pascal (MPa) and giga pascal (GPa),
Strain
 When a system of forces or loads acts on a body, it
undergoes some deformation. This deformation per unit
length is known as unit strain or simply a strain. It is
denoted by a Greek letter epsilon (ε).
Mathematically,
Strain, ε = δl / l or δl = ε.l
where δl = Change in length of the body, and
l = Original length of the body.
 Tensile Test
Load  deformation
stress – strain diagrams

ductile – carbon steel rigid – cast iron

Elastic Properties

elastic (Young) modulus: E [MPa]

(Hook’s law s = Ee)

shear modulus: G [MPa] (t = Gg)

Strain Hardening
Stress Strain Diagram for various materials
Bar under tensile loading

Stress
Stresses on an Element
 σy
Stress and Strain
τxy
 Stress and strain
 Normal stresses and strains σx
θ
 Shear stresses and strains
 Principal stresses and strains
 Mohr’s circle and analytical relationships
τ
 x  y  x  y
 1, 2   ( ) 2   xy2
2 2
σ3 σ2 σ1
σ  x  y
 max   ( ) 2   xy2
2
2 xy
tan( 2 ) 
 x  y
Axial Stress & Strain
Shear Stress & Strain
TORSION
BENDING
Forces and Moments acting at a section
 Problem
 A pull of 80 kN is transmitted from a bar X to the bar Y through a
pin as shown in Fig. If the maximum permissible tensile stress in
the bars is 100 N/mm2 and the permissible shear stress in the pin
is 80 N/mm2, find the diameter of bars and of the pin.
Diameter of Bar
Diameter of Pin
 The bar is in Tension
 Let Db = Diameter of the bars in mm.  Let Dp = diameter of pin
 There fore area of bar is given by  The tensile load P tends to shear off
the pin at two sections i.e. at AB and
CD, therefore the pin is in double
shear.
 The resisting area of pin is
permissible tensile stress in the bar is
given by
σt = P/Ab
Put the given values
permissible shear stress in the pin
Db = 32 mm
τ = P/Ap

Put the given values Dp = 25.2 mm

 Problem
 A known force is exerted on S hook shown in figure. Determine
location and maximum tensile stress
 Solution Contd.
 Free body diagram of upper section of hook is given below

At point A tensile stress due to bending is given by

At point A tensile stress due to tension is given by

Solution Contd.
 Combined tensile stress will be

From Stress concentration figures Kt =1.14

Put the given values
σ = 7.2 ksi
 Solution Contd.
Free body diagram of lower section of hook is given below

 Combined tensile stress will be

From Stress concentration figures Kt = 1.1

Put the given values
σ = 9.2 ksi
 Stress Concentration
 Any discontinuity in machine parts such as key seats, shoulders
on shafts, fillets etc alters stress distribution in the vicinity of
the discontinuity. Such discontinuities are referred as stress
raisers and those irregularities causes localization of maximum
stresses called as stress concentration.

Fig.Stress concentration.

Internal force lines are

denser near the hole
Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor

 The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is

defined as the ratio of the maximum stress in a member
(at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at the same
section based upon net area.
 Mathematically, theoretical or form stress concentration
factor,

 The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry

of the part.
Stress concentration factor
 Stress concentration factor is used to relate the actual
maximum stress at discontinuity to the nominal stress.
The factors are defined by the equations.
 max, t  max, s
Kt = K ts =
o o

Kt for normal stress.

Kts for shear stress
Stress concentration factor
Stress concentration factor
Stress concentration factor
Stress concentration factor
Stress concentration factor
Stress concentration factor
Stress concentration factor
Methods to reduce stress concentration
• The presence of stress concentration can not be totally
eliminated but it may be reduced to some extent.
• A device or concept that is useful in assisting a design
engineer to visualize the presence of stress concentration
and how it may be mitigated is that of stress flow lines.
• The mitigation of stress concentration means that the stress
flow lines shall maintain their spacing as far as possible.
Methods to reduce stress concentration effects:
 Problem
The geometry and tensile force acting on a bar shown in figure are
known. Determine maximum stress at both hole and notch.
Solution
Nominal stress in bar is given by
σ = P/A = P/(H-d-2r)x t
Put values σ = 1.43 Mpa
For given H/h, and r/h find value of Kt
Kt = 2.45
σNmax = σ x Kt
For given value of d/b find value of Kt
σhmax = σ x Kt
Problem
Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases
taking stress concentration into account:
1. A rectangular plate 60 mm × 10 mm with a hole 12
diameter as shown in Fig. (a) and subjected to a tensile load
of 12 kN.
2. A stepped shaft as shown in Fig. (b) and carrying a tensile
load of 12 kN.
 Solution

Theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt ) for a shaft with

transverse hole (of diameter d ) in bending.
Theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt ) for a plate with hole
(of diameter d ) in tension
Theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt ) for stepped
shaft with a shoulder fillet (of radius r ) in tension.
Solution

r/d
 Solution
Case 1. Given : b = 60 mm ; t = 10 mm ; d = 12 mm ;
W = 12 kN = 12 × 103 N
We know that cross-sectional area of the plate,
A = (b – d) t = (60 – 12) 10 = 480 mm2
∴ Nominal stress = W/A= 25 MPa
Ratio of diameter of hole to width of plate,

From Table, we find that for d / b = 0.2, theoretical stress

concentration factor, Kt = 2.5
∴ Maximum stress = Kt × Nominal stress = 2.5 × 25 = 62.5 MPa
 Solution
Given : D = 50 mm ; d = 25 mm ; r = 5 mm ;
W = 12 kN = 12 × 103 N
We know that cross-sectional area for the stepped shaft,
A = 491 mm2
∴ Nominal stress = 24.4 N/mm2 24.4 MPa
Ratio of maximum diameter to minimum diameter,
D/d = 50/25 = 2
Ratio of radius of fillet to minimum diameter,
r/d = 5/25 = 0.2
From Table, we find that for D/d = 2 and r/d = 0.2, theoretical
stress concentration factor, Kt = 1.64.
∴ Maximum stress = Kt × Nominal stress = 1.64 × 24.4
= 40 MPa Ans
Fatigue consideration in design
 Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable
loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing or straining
of a material. Metallic components subjected to variable
loading get fatigue, which leads to their premature
failure under specific conditions.
 In reality most mechanical components experience
variable loading due to:
 Change in the magnitude of applied load Example: punching
or shearing operations-
 Change in direction of load application Example: a connecting
rod
 Change in point of load application Example: a rotating shaft
ASTM Definition of fatigue
 The process of progressive localized permanent structural
changes occurring in a material subjected to conditions that
produce fluctuating stresses at some point or points and that
may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient
number of fluctuations.
Fatigue Failure- Mechanism
 A fatigue failure begins with a small crack; the initial
crack may be so minute and can not be detected. The
crack usually develops at a point of localized stress
concentration like discontinuity in the material, such as
a change in cross section, a keyway or a hole. Once a
crack is initiated, the stress concentration effect become
greater and the crack propagates. Consequently the
stressed area decreases in size, the stress increase in
magnitude and the crack propagates more rapidly. Until
finally, the remaining area is unable to sustain the load
and the component fails suddenly. Thus fatigue loading
results in sudden, unwarned failure.
 Endurance Limit and Fatigue Failure
 It has been found experimentally that when a material is
subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as
fatigue.
 The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation
which are usually fine and of microscopic size. The failure may
occur even without any prior indication.
 The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component,
relative magnitude of static and fluctuating loads and the number
of load reversals.
Endurance limit and Fatigue failure
 Endurance or Fatigue limit (σe) is defined as maximum
value of the completely reversed bending stress which a
polished standard specimen can withstand without failure,
for infinite number of cycles (usually 107 cycles).
 It may be noted that the term endurance limit is used for
reversed bending only while for other types of loading, the
term endurance strength may be used when referring the
fatigue strength of the material.
 It may be defined as the safe maximum stress which can be
applied to the machine part working under actual
conditions.
Endurance limit and Fatigue failure
 A standard mirror polished specimen, as shown in figure is rotated in a fatigue testing
machine while the specimen is loaded in bending.

 As the specimen rotates, the bending stress at the upper fibres varies from maximum
compressive to maximum tensile while the bending stress at the lower fibres varies from
maximum tensile to maximum compressive.
 In other words, the specimen is subjected to a completely reversed stress cycle. This is
represented by a time-stress diagram as shown in Fig. (a).
 Endurance limit and Fatigue failure

 The following relations are derived from Fig. (c):

Alternating stress

max min
a = 2
Mean stress
max + min
m = 2
Relationship between uts and fatigue strength

Behavior in Steel
 Endurance Strength
 sn = Endurance strength
 Listed in tables

 If no information is available, use

 sn  0.5 su (Steel)
 sn  0.4 su (Aluminum)
 Relationship Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Strength
Steel
Steel
0.5Sut Sut ≤ 200 ksi (1400 MPa)
Se′ = 100 ksi Sut > 200 ksi
700 MPa Sut > 1400 MPa

Cast iron Cast iron

0.4Sut Sut < 60 ksi (400 MPa)

Se′ = 24 ksi Sut ≥ 60 ksi
160 MPa Sut < 400 MPa
Relationship Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Strength

Aluminum
Aluminum alloys
0.4Sut Sut < 48 ksi (330 MPa)
Se′ = 19 ksi Sut ≥ 48 ksi
130 MPa Sut ≥ 330 MPa

For N = 5x108 cycle

Copper alloys
Copper alloys
0.4Sut Sut < 40 ksi (280 MPa)
Se′ = 14 ksi Sut ≥ 40 ksi
100 MPa Sut ≥ 280 MPa
For N = 5x108 cycle
 Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit

Se = kakbkckdkekfSe’

Where Se = endurance limit of component

Se’ = endurance limit experimental
ka = surface finish factor (machined parts have different finish)
kb = size factor (larger parts greater probability of finding defects)
kc = reliability / statistical scatter factor (accounts for random
variation)
kd = loading factor (differences in loading types)
ke = operating T factor (accounts for diff. in working T & room T)
kf = stress concentration factor
Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit
• surface factor, ka

The rotating beam test specimen has a polished surface. Most components do not
have a polished surface. Scratches and imperfections on the surface act like a
stress raisers and reduce the fatigue life of a part. Use either the graph or the
equation with the table shown below.
ka= A (Sut)b
Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit
• Size factor, kb
Larger parts fail at lower stresses than smaller parts. This is mainly
due to the higher probability of flaws being present in larger
components.

For solid round cross section

d ≤ 0.3 in. (8 mm) kb = 1

0.3 in. < d ≤ 10 in. kb = .869(d)-0.097
8 mm < d ≤ 250 mm kb = 1.189(d)-0.097

If the component is larger than 10 in., use kb = .6

Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit

• Reliability factor, kc

The reliability correction factor accounts for the scatter and

uncertainty of material properties (endurance limit).
Correction Factors for Specimen’s Endurance Limit

• Load factor, kd

Pure bending kd = 1
Pure axial kd = 0.7
Pure torsion kd = 1 if von Mises stress is used, use
0.577 if von Mises stress is NOT used.
Combined loading kd = 1
Operating temperature factor
 Accounts for the difference between the test temperature and
operating temperature of the component
 For carbon and alloy steels, fatigue strength not affected by
operating temperature – 45 to 4500C ke = 1
 At higher operating temperature
 ke = 1 – 5800( T – 450 ) for T between 450 and 550oC,
or
 ke = 1 – 3200( T – 840 ) for T between 840 and 1020oF
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor, Kf
Experimental data shows that the actual stress concentration factor is not as
high as indicated by the theoretical value, Kt. The stress concentration factor
seems to be sensitive to the notch radius and the ultimate strength of the
material.
Notch sensitivity
Kf = 1 + (Kt – 1)q factor
 Notch Sensitivity
 Notch Sensitivity: It may be defined as the degree to which
the theoretical effect of stress concentration is actually
reached.
 Notch Sensitivity Factor “q”: Notch sensitivity factor is
defined as the ratio of increase in the actual stress to the
increase in the nominal stress near the discontinuity in the
specimen.

Where, Kf and Kt are the fatigue stress concentration factor and

theoretical stress concentration factor.
 The stress gradient depends mainly on the radius of the notch,
hole or fillet and on the grain size of the material.
 Since the extensive data for estimating the notch sensitivity factor (q) is not available,
therefore the curves, as shown in figure may be used for determining the values of q
for two steels.
Notch sensitivity curves
Factors to be Considered while Designing Machine Parts to Avoid
Fatigue Failure
• The following factors should be considered while designing
machine parts to avoid fatigue failure:
1. The variation in the size of the component should be as gradual
as possible.
2. The holes, notches and other stress raisers should be avoided.
3. The proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and notches
should be provided wherever necessary.
4. The parts should be protected from corrosive atmosphere.
5. A smooth finish of outer surface of the component increases
the fatigue life.
6. The material with high fatigue strength should be selected.
7. The residual compressive stresses over the parts surface
increases its fatigue strength.
Failure Theories

 Stress in machine components should be accurately

computed.

 Designer must understand material limits to ensure a

safe design.
 Static Stresses
 Brittle Materials Percent elongation < 5%
Brittle materials (fracture criteria)
• Maximum normal stress (MNS)
• Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
• Modified Mohr (MM)
 Ductile Materials Percent elongation > 5%
 Ductile materials (yield criteria)
• Maximum shear stress (MSS)
• Distortion energy (DE)
• Ductile oulomb-Mohr (DCM)
 Static Failure
 Ductile Behavior
 Maximum Shear-Stress Theory (Tresca/Coulomb/Guest
Theory) Sy
σ1  σ 3 
FS
 Distortion Energy Theory (von Mises)
2 Sy
σ eff  (σ1  σ 2 ) 2  (σ 2  σ 3 ) 2  (σ 3  σ1 ) 2 
2 FS

 Brittle Behavior (even and uneven materials)

σ3
 Coulomb-Mohr Theory -Suc, Sut -Sut, Sut
Sut, Sut
σ1
τ
Sut, -Sut
σ uneven
Compression
test Tension Sut, -Sut
test
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for Ductile Materials
 The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding begins
whenever the maximum shear stress in any element equals or
exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension-test specimen of
the same material when that specimen begins to yield. The MSS
theory is also referred to as the Tresca or Guest theory. For a
general state of stress, the maximum-shear-stress theory predicts
yielding when

Note that this implies that the yield strength in shear is given by
Ssy = 0.5Sy
Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials
 The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs
when the distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or
exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in
simple tension or compression of the same material. For the
general state of stress given , yield is predicted if

For plane stress von Mises stress, σ ′ is given by

 '   12   22   1 2
Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory for Brittle Materials
 The maximum-normal-stress (MNS) theory states that failure
occurs whenever one of the three principal stresses equals or
exceeds the strength. Again we arrange the principal stresses
for a general stress state in the ordered form σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 .
This theory then predicts that failure occurs whenever
 σ1 ≥ Sut or σ3 ≤ −Suc
 Problem
 The cantilevered tube shown in Fig. is to be made of 2014
aluminum alloy treated to obtain a specified minimum yield
strength of 276 MPa. We wish to select a stock-size tube from
Table A–8 using a design factor nd = 4. The bending load is
F = 1.75 kN, the axial tension is P = 9.0 kN, and the torsion is
T = 72 N · m. What is the realized factor of safety?
 Solution
 Since the maximum bending moment is M = 120F , the normal
stress, for an element on the top surface of the tube at the origin,

where, if millimeters are used for the area properties, the stress is in
gigapascals.
The torsional stress at the same point is

 we choose the distortion-energy theory as the design basis. The

von Mises stress,
Lab 3
 Development of drawings illustrating stress
concentration factors using AutoCAD