Data Collection Methods

Source- Chapters 7,8 & 9

Research Methods for Business
A Skill Building Approach
Uma Sekaran and Roger Bougie
.John Wiley & Sons Ltd 2009 ©
www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran

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Chapter Objectives
 Know the difference between primary and
secondary data and their sources.
 Know the advantages and disadvantages of each
data collection method.
 Make logical decisions as to the appropriate
data collection methods for specific study.
 Be able to demonstrate your skills in
interviewing others, and to design
questionnaires.
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Sources of Data
 Primary data: information obtained firsthand by the
researcher on the variables of interest for the specific
purpose of the study.

 Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels

 Secondary data: information gathered from

sources already existing.

 Examples: company records or archives, government

publications, industry analyses offered by the media,
web sites, the Internet, and so on.

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Sources of Data
1. Primary sources: Refer to information
obtained firsthand by the researcher on the
variables of interest for the specific purpose
of the study. Examples of sources of Primary
data are individuals, focus groups, the
internet could also serve as a primary data
source when questionnaires are administered
over it.

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Sources of Data
2. Secondary sources: Refer to
information gathered from sources
already existing from several sources.
As for example, company records,
government publications, industry
analyses offered by the media, web
sites, the internet, and so on.

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Data collection Methods
 Data collection Methods are an
integral part of research design. There
are several data collection methods,
each with its own advantages and
disadvantages.

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Data collection Methods
 Data collection methods include three
main methods:
1- Interviewing: It could be unstructured or
structured interviews.
2- Questionnaires
3- Other Methods of Data Collection

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Principles of Questionnaire
.Design

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Interviewing

 The unstructured and structured

interviews have several forms:
Interviews Face-to-face
Telephone interviews
Computer-assisted interviews
Electronic media interviews

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Unstructured Interviews
 Unstructured Interviews are so labeled
because the interviewer does not enter the
interview setting with a planned sequence of
questions to be asked of the respondent.
 The objective of the unstructured
interview is to bring some preliminary issues
to the surface so that the researcher can
determine what variables need further in-
depth investigation.
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Structured Interviews
 Structured Interviews are those conducted when
it is known at the outset what information is needed.
 The interviewer has a list of predetermined
questions to be asked of the respondents either
personally, through the telephone or through the
medium of a PC.
 The questions are likely to focus on factors that
had surfaced during the unstructured
interviews and are considered relevant to the
problem.

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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique
 Funneling
In the beginning of an unstructured interview, it
is advisable to ask open-ended questions to get
a broad idea and form some impressions about
the situation. For example a question that could
be asked, would be:
“what are some of your feelings about working for
this organization?”

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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique
 Unbiased Questions
It is important to ask questions in a way
that would ensure the least bias in the
response. For example:
“Tell me how you experience your job”
this question is better than,
“The work you do must be really boring;
let me hear how you experience it”
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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique
 Clarifying Issues
To make sure that the researcher understands issues as the
respondent intends to represent them, it is advisable to
restate or rephrase important information given by the
respondent. For example, if the interviewee says,
“There is an unfair promotion policy in this organization;
seniority does not count at all. It is the juniors who always
get promoted”.
The researcher might interject and ask,
“So you are saying that juniors always get promoted over
the heads of even capable seniors.”

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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique
 Helping the Respondent to Think Through Issues.

If the respondent is not able to verbalize his

perceptions, or replies, “I don’t know,” the
researcher should ask the question in a simpler
way or rephrase it. For example, the respondent
might be asked which task he would prefer to do:
serve a customer or do some filing work. If the
answer is “serve the customer,” the researcher
might use another aspect of the respondent’s job
and ask the paired-choice question again. The
respondent can sort out which aspects of the job
he likes better than others.

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Interviewing
 The Questioning Technique
 Taking Notes
when conducting interviews, it is important that
the researcher makes written notes as the
interviews are taking place, or as soon as the
interview is terminated. The interviewer should
not rely on memory. Information based solely on
recall introduces bias into the research.
 The interviews can be recorded on tape if the
respondent has no objections.

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Personal Interview

 Advantages
 Can clarify doubts about questionnaire
 Can pick up non-verbal cues
 Relatively high response/cooperation
 Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used

 Disadvantages
 High costs and time intensive
 Geographical limitations
 Response bias / Confidentiality difficult to be assured
 Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers
 Trained interviewers

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Telephone Interview

 Advantages
 Discomfort of face to face is avoided
 Faster / Number of calls per day could be high
 Lower cost

 Disadvantages
 Interview length must be limited
 Low response rate
 No facial expressions

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Tips for Interviews

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Data collection Methods
Administering Questionnaires
 Personally administered.
 Sent through the mail.
 Electronically administered.

 Other techniques.
(see Figure 8.2)

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 Questionnaire Design

 Definition
A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of
questions to which the respondent records his answers

 Steps
1. Determine the content of the questionnaire
2. Determine the form of response
3. Determine the wording of the questions
4. Determine the question sequence
5. Write cover letter

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Question Wording

 Avoid double-barreled questions

 Avoid ambiguous questions and words
 Use of ordinary words
 Avoid leading or biasing questions
 Social desirability
 Avoid recall depended questions

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Question Wording


Use positive and negative statements
 Dresdner delivers high quality banking service
Dresdner has poor customer operational support
 Avoid double negatives

 Limit the length of the questions

Rules of thumb:
 < 20 words

 < one full line in print

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Question Sequence

Personal and sensitive data at the end

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Guidelines for Questionnaire
Design
 Classification Data or Personal
Information.
Personal information elicit such
information as age, educational level,
marital status, and income.
 Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to
ask for the name of the respondent.
 It is a matter of choice for the researcher to
let the personal information appears in the
beginning or at the end of the questionnaire.

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Guidelines for Questionnaire
Design
 Classification Data or Personal
Information.
 It is a wise policy to ask for the
personal information by providing a
range of response options, rather than
asking exact figures. For example, the
variables can be tapped as shown
below:
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Guidelines for Questionnaire
Design
 Example 1
Age (years) Annual Income
 Under 20 □ Less than $20,000
 20 – 30 □ $20,000-30,000
 31 – 40 □ $30,001-40,000
 41 – 50 □ $40,001-50,000
 51 – 60 □ $50,001-70,000
 Over 60 □ $ Over 70,000

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Principles of Measurement
 There are some principles of
measurement to be followed to ensure that
the data collected are appropriate to test our
hypotheses.
 These refer to the scales and scaling
techniques used in measuring concepts, as
well as the assessment of reliability and
validity or the measures used, which were
all discussed before.
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Principles of Measurement
 Appropriate scales have to be used depending on
the type of data that need to be obtained.
 Wherever possible, the interval and ratio scales
should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal
scales.
 Once data are obtained, the “goodness of data” is
assessed through tests of validity and reliability.
Validity establishes how well a technique,
instrument, or process measures a particular
concept, and reliability indicates how stably and
consistently the instrument taps the variable.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
 It is necessary to pay attention to how the
questionnaire looks. An attractive and neat
questionnaire have the following elements:
 A good introduction
 Organizing questions

 Giving instructions and guidance

 Good alignment

These elements are briefly discussed with examples.

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Cover Letter

 The cover letter is the introductory page

of the questionnaire
 It includes:
 Identification of the researcher
 Motivation for respondents to fill it in
 Confidentiality
 Thanking of the respondent
.
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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
 Example 2
A production manager wants to assess the reactions
of the blue-collar workers in his department to the
introduction of computer-integrated manufacturing
(CIM) systems. He is particularly interested to know
how they would perceive the effects of CIM on:
a. their future jobs
b. additional training that they will have to
receive
c. future job advancement.
 Design a questionnaire for the production
manager.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
Questionnaire
Infosystem Software Enterprises
P.O.Box 2231
Bangalore
Date-----
Dear Employee,
As we had discussed in our meetings, Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) will form a part of our operations in the future.
We would like to know how you visualize certain aspects of the future
environment as we introduce the changes.
Please take a few minutes to complete this short questionnaire and
return it to the locked box in the headquarter office.
Thank you for responding within the next five days.
R. Krishnamurthy
Production Manager

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
1. Personal information ( place a mark on
the appropriate place)
Job Status Number of years
Worked in the Department
--Machinist -- Less than 1
--Inspector -- 1-2--
--Forman -- 3-5
--Surveyor -- 5-10
-- Other -- Over 10 years

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
2. Your Opinion regarding the following.
Please circle the appropriate number for each of the following
items using the scale below.
Strongly Neither Agree Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5
1. I will need additional training 1 2 3 4 5
to work in the changed
environment.
2. The new system will offer me 1 2 3 4 5
better opportunities for
advancement.
3. The opportunities for training 1 2 3 4 5
will have to be enhanced with
CIM.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
4. I am not sure if CIM will need 1 2 3 4 5
all the people we now have in
this department.
5. I feel that most of us may not 1 2 3 4 5
have better opportunities for future
promotions in the new manufacturing
environment.
6. Most of us will need special 1 2 3 4 5
training to work with CIM.
7. I am sure the future looks bright 1 2 3 4 5
for most of us here.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
 Items 4 and 7 measure opinion about
their future jobs.
 1, 3, and 6 measure perceived training
needs.
 2, and 5 measure job advancement.

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General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
 Example 3
The president of Mideast Co. suspects that
most of the 500 male and female employees
of the organization are somewhat alienated
from work.
He is also of the view that those who are
more involved (less alienated) are also the
ones who experience greater satisfaction with
their work lives.
 Design a questionnaire the president
could use to test his hypothesis.
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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
Before we can design a questionnaire,
we need to list the variables to be
tapped and operationally define the
more abstract concepts. The following
variables are mentioned in the study:
1. Involvement (or the other end,
alienation).
2. Satisfaction with work life.

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
 The following demographic variables might be of
interest to the study:
3. Gender
4. Tenure (number of years in the organization)
5. Job level
6. Age
7. Education
 These demographic variables help to describe the
sample, also, they might have an influence on the
involvement (or alienation) of the employees, their
level of satisfaction, and the relationship between
the two.

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
 Operational Definition of Involvement would include the
dimensions of the job being of central interest to individuals,
and the major happiness being derived from the job. Low
involvement can be considered as alienation.
 Items that measure involvement are:
1. The major happiness of my life is derived from my job.

2. Time at work flies by quickly.

3. Working here is boring.
4. Nothing in life is as important as work.
5. I live, eat, and breathe my job.
6. My work helps me establish who I am.

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
 Operational Definition of Satisfaction would
include dimensions of satisfactions with various
aspects of the work environment such as with pay,
supervision, promotion, and the like.
 Questions that describe satisfaction at work
place are:
To what extent would you agree with the
following statements?
1. My work is fascinating.
2. My work gives me a sense of accomplishment.
3. My supervisor praises good work.

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
4. My pay is barely adequate to take care of my
expenses.
5. My co-workers are very stimulating.
6. The opportunities for advancement are very
good here.
7. I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace.
8. People can live comfortably with their pay in this
organization.
9. My supervisor is not very capable.
10. The promotion policies here are very unfair.

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 Questionnaire
Hitech Company, Inc.
P.O.Box 2345
Mumbai

December 4, 2016

Dear Employee,
As the president of your company, I am interested in conducting a
mini survey on your reactions to working in this organization. Your
responses would give me an indication of any changes that may be
necessary for offering you a better quality of work life. Your honest
and straightforward answers will aid me to help you. I do not need
your names- only truthful answers. Suggestions from you will be
implemented by a Committee if considered suitable.
Thank you for responding within a week’s time.
My best wishes
Shirish Apte
President

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
Please check the blanks most appropriate for the items
below.
1. Personal Data
Department in which you are working:-------------
i. Age (years) ii. Education iii. Sex
- under 25 - high school -F
- 25-35 - college -M
- 36-45 - bachelor’s degree
- 46-55 - master’s degree
- over 55 - doctoral degree
- other

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3

iv. Job Level v. Number of years in this

organization
- manager - less than 1
- supervisor - 1-3
- clerk - 4-8
- secretary - 9-15
- technician - over 15 years
- other (specify)
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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3

2.Here are some questions that ask you to tell us how

experience your work life in general. Please circle the
appropriate number of the scales below.

On a scale of 1 to 5, (1) denoting very low agreement

and (5) denoting very high agreement, to what extent
would you agree with the following statements?

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
Very Very
Low High
1. The major happiness
Of my life is derived
From my job. 1 2 3 4 5
2. Time at work flies by
Quickly. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Working here is boring 1 2 3 4 5
4. Nothing in life is more
important than work. 1 2 3 4 5
5. I live, eat , and breathe
my job. 1 2 3 4 5

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
6. My work helps me
establish who I am. 1 2 3 4 5
7. My work is fascinating. 1 2 3 4 5
8. My work gives me a
sense of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 5
9. My supervisor praises
good work. 1 2 3 4 5
10.My pay is not adequate 1 2 3 4 5
to take care of my
expenses.
11.My co-workers are
very stimulating. 1 2 3 4 5

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
12.The opportunity for
advancement is very
good here. 1 2 3 4 5
13.I get a lot of co-
operation at the
workplace. 1 2 3 4 5
14.People can live comfortably
with their pay in this
organization. 1 2 3 4 5

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General Appearance of the Questionnaire:
Example 3
15.My supervisor is not
much capable. 1 2 3 4 5
16.The promotion policies
are very unfair. 1 2 3 4 5
In the space provided below, please make any comments you
wish regarding any aspect of the work or organization. Your
suggestions for improvement will be very much appreciated.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------

Thank you

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Data collection Methods: Other
Methods of Data Collection
Observational Surveys.
It is possible to gather data without asking questions of
respondents. People can be observed in their natural
work environment or in the lab setting, and their
activities and behaviors can be noted and recorded.

 People movements, work habits, their facial expressions

of joy, anger, and other emotions , and body language
can be observed.

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Structured Observations

 Recording pre-specified behavioral patterns of

people, objects and events in a systematic
manner.
 Quantitative in nature
 Different types
 Personal observation

 Electronic observation

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Observational Surveys
 The researcher can play one of two
roles while gathering field
observational data:
 Nonparticipant-Observer
 Participant-Observer

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Nonparticipant-Observer
 The researcher may collect the needed data
without becoming an integral part of the
organizational system.
 For example, the researcher might sit in the
corner of an office and watch and record how
the manager spends his time.
 Observation of all the activities of managers,
over a period of several days, will allow the
researcher to make some generalizations on
how managers spend their time.
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Participant-Observer
 The researcher may play the role of the
participant-observer. The researcher
enters the organization or the research
setting, and becomes a part of the work
team.
 For instance, if a researcher wants to study
group dynamics in work organization, then he
may join the organization as an employee
and observe the dynamics in groups while
being a part of the work groups.

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Structured Versus Unstructured
Observational Studies
 Structured Observational Studies
Both the nonparticipant-observer and
participant-observer could be either
structured or unstructured.

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Structured Versus Unstructured
Observational Studies
 Structured Observational Studies
The observer has a predetermined
set of categories of activities or
phenomena planned to be studied.
 People can be observed in their
natural work environment and their
normal activities and behaviors, and can
be noted and recorded.

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Structured Versus Unstructured
Observational Studies
 Unstructured Observational
Studies
If the observer has no definite ideas of
the particular aspects that need focus,
he could record everything that is
observed.

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Mechanical Observation
 Machines can provide data by
recording the events of interest as they
occur, without a researcher being
physically present. Films and electronic
recording devices such as video
cameras can be used to record data.
Such mechanically observed data are
error-free.
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Advantages of Observational Studies
1. The data are more reliable and free from respondent
bias.
2. It is easier to note the effects of environmental
influences on specific outcomes.
3. It is easier to observe certain groups of individuals
whom are unable to give information
( like small children).
4. It captures the attitudes, facial expressions and other
nonverbal behaviors, but cannot capture the thought
of the individuals.
5. Observer have to be trained in what and how to
observe, and ways to avoid observer bias.

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Disadvantages of Observational
Studies
1. It is necessary for the observer to be
physically present over a long period of time
(unless a camera or another mechanical
system can capture the events of interest).
2. It is slow, tedious, and expensive.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of
Summary of Observational Studies

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Mulimethods of Data Collection

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Ethics and the Researcher
 Several ethical issues should be
addressed while collecting data. These
pertain to:
 those who sponsor the research
 those who collect the data
 and those who offer them.

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Ethics and the Sponsors
1. The sponsors should ask for the study to be done
to better the purpose of the organization, and not
for any other self-serving reason.
2. They should respect the confidentiality of the data
obtained by the researcher, and not ask for the
individual or group responses to be disclosed to
them, or ask to see the questionnaires.
3. They should have an open mind in accepting the
results and recommendations in the report
presented by the researcher.

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Ethics and the Researcher
1. Treating the information given by the
respondent as strictly confidential and
guarding his privacy is one of the primary
responsibilities of the researcher.
2. The researcher should not misrepresent the
nature of the study to subjects, especially in
lab experiments. The purpose of the
research must be explained to them.

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Ethics and the Researcher
3. Personal information should not be solicited,
and if it is absolutely necessary for the
project, it should be tapped with high
sensitivity to the respondent, offering
specific reasons therefore.
4. Whatever be the nature of data collection
method, the self-esteem and self-respect of
the subjects should never be violated.

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Ethics and the Researcher
5. No one should be forced to respond to the
survey .
6. Nonparticipant-observers should be as
nonintrusive as possible. His personal values
could easily bias the data.
7. Subjects should never be exposed to
situations where they could be subject to
physical or mental harm.
8. There should be absolutely no
misrepresentation or distortion in reporting
the data collected during the study.
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Ethical Behavior of the Respondents
1. The subject, once having exercised the
choice to participate in a study, should
cooperate fully in the tasks ahead, such as
responding to a survey or taking part in an
experiment.
2. The respondent also has an obligation to be
truthful and honest in the responses.
Misrepresentation or giving information,
knowing it to be untrue, should be avoided.
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Practice Exercise on Good and Bad
Questions
 Comment on each of the following questions
stating whether they are good or bad and the
reasons for your answer. Do not worry about
their scaling.
1. If you have been in the company for over 15
years, please indicate the date of your joining
this company.
2. My boss is good but excitable in his dealing
with others.
3. Working women should opt not to have
children.
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Practice Exercise on Good and Bad
Questions
4. Investment in children’s future should
be an important goal of the
administration.
5. This job uses a lot of the skills that I
possess.
6. If this country is to remain competitive,
should we not be spending more on
research?

72
Answers
1. Bad question: recall dependent.
2. Bad: Double-barreled.
3. Bad: Loaded question; an emotional
issue for women.
4. Bad: Social desirability.
5. Good question. No problem with
wording.
6. Bad question: Leading question.
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Practice Exercise on Data Collection
 What data collection methods would most
appropriately be used for the following and
why?
a. A study of audience reactions to a political speaker.

Answer: Both observation and unstructured

interviews.
b. A study of students’ reactions to how the University
is run.
Answer: Probably a short questionnaire, with
an open-ended question at the end.

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Practice Exercise on Data Collection
c. A study of the student parking problems in Yarmouk
University area.
Answer: unstructured interviews in the beginning,
and later, a short questionnaire.
d. A study of the performance of Yarmouk U. graduates
in their jobs.
Answer: A questionnaire to the employers.
e. A study by the university head seeking the student
opinions about the quality of education in their
departments.
Answer: In the beginning, unstructured interviews
and later, a questionnaire.

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