2.

1 Rates of Change and Limits

Suppose you drive 200 miles, and it takes you 4 hours.
mi
Then your average speed is: 200 mi  4 hr  50
hr

distance x
average speed  
elapsed time t

If you look at your speedometer during this trip, it might

read 65 mph. This is your instantaneous speed.
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
A rock falls from a high cliff.
The position of the rock is given by: y  16t 2

After 2 seconds: y  16  22  64

64 ft ft
average speed: Vav   32
2 sec sec

What is the instantaneous speed at 2 seconds?

 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

16  2  h   16  2 
2 2
y
Vinstantaneous  
t h

for some very small where h = some very

change in t small change in t

We can use the TI-84 to evaluate this expression for smaller and
smaller values of h.
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
y 16  2  h   16  2 
2 2
Vinstantaneous  
t h y
h t
We can see that the velocity approaches
64 ft/sec as h becomes very small. 1 80
0.1 65.6
We say that the velocity has a limiting .01 64.16
value of 64 as h approaches zero. .001 64.016
(Note that h never actually becomes .0001 64.0016
zero.) .00001 64.0002
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
The limit as h
approaches zero:

16  2  h   64
2
16  4  4h  h 2   64
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
0
64  64h  16h  642
lim 64  16h  64
lim h 0
h 0 h
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

Definition: Limit
Let c and L be real numbers. The function f has limit L
as x approaches c if, for any given positive number ε,
there is a positive number δ such that for all x,

0  |x  c|  δ  |f(x)  L|  ε
lim f ( x)  L
xc
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

L L1
f L2 f

a a

lim f ( x)  L lim f ( x)  DNE

x a x a

DNE = Does Not Exist

 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
Definition: One Sided Limits
Left-Hand Limit: The limit of f as x approaches
a from the left equals L is denoted
lim f ( x)  L
x a
Right-Hand Limit: The limit of f as x
approaches a from the right equals L is denoted
lim f ( x)  L
x a
2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

Definition: Limit

lim f ( x)  L if and only if

xa

lim f ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  L

x a x a
2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
Possible Limit Situations
f f

a a

lim f ( x)   lim f ( x)  DNE

x a x a

DNE = Does Not Exist

 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
lim f  x 
2
x 1 does not exist
because the left and right
1
hand limits do not match!

1 2 3 4

At x = 1: lim f  x   0 left hand limit


x 1

lim f  x   1 right hand limit

x 1

f  1  1 value of the function

 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

2 lim f  x   1
x 2
1
because the left and right
hand limits match.
1 2 3 4

At x = 2: lim f  x   1 left hand limit


x 2

lim f  x   1 right hand limit

x2

f  2  2 value of the function

 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

2 lim f  x   2
x 3
1
because the left and right
hand limits match.
1 2 3 4

At x =3: lim f  x   2 left hand limit

x 3

lim f  x   2 right hand limit

x 3

f  3  2 value of the function

 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

Use your calculator to

determine the following:
sin x
(a) lim 1
x 0 x

1
(b) lim cos  DNE
x 0
 x
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

Suppose that c is a constant and the following

limits exist lim f ( x) and lim g ( x)
x a xa

1. lim f ( x)  g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

xa xa xa

2. lim f ( x)  g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

xa xa x a

3. lim cf ( x)  c lim f ( x)

xa xa
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

Suppose that c is a constant and the following

limits exist lim f ( x) and lim g ( x)
x a xa

4. lim f ( x) g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

xa xa xa

 f ( x)  lim f ( x)
5. lim   xa
xa g ( x) 
  lim
xa
g ( x)
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

x a
n

6. lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)
x a
 n
where n is a positive integer.
7. lim c  c
x a

8. lim x  a
xa

9. lim x  a where n is a positive integer.

n n
xa

10. lim n x  n a where n is a positive integer.

x a

11 . lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x) where n is a positive integer.

x a x a
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

Evaluate the following limits. Justify each step

using the laws of limits.
1. lim  3x  2 x  5
2  sin x 
16 4. lim  6
x  3 x 
 n 
 3x  2  -5/4
2. lim 
x 1
 x 5 

3. lim 3 x 2  2 x 2
x2
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
1. If f is a rational function or complex:
a. Eliminate common factors.
b. Perform long division.
c. Simplify the function (if a complex fraction)
2. If radicals exist, rationalize the numerator or
denominator.
3. If absolute values exist, use one-sided limits and
the following property. a if a  0
a 
 a if a  0
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

x 1
3
x2
1. lim 2 3/2 4. lim DNE
x 1 x  1 x2 x2

1 h 1
2. lim 1/2
h 0 h
1 1 
3. lim  2  DNE
t 0  t t 1
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

Theorem
If f(x)  g(x) when x is near a (except
possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both
exist as x approaches a, then

lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)
xa x a
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

The Squeeze (Sandwich) Theorem

If f(x)  g(x)  h(x) when x is near a (except

possibly at a) and

lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  L then lim g ( x)  L

xa x a xa
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

1
Show that: lim x sin    0
2
x 0
x
1
The maximum value of sine is 1, so x sin    x 2
2

 x
1
The minimum value of sine is -1, so x sin     x 2
2

 x
1
So:  x  x sin    x 2
2 2

 x
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits

1
lim  x  lim x sin    lim x 2
2 2
x 0 x 0
 x  x 0
1
0  lim x sin    0
2
x 0
 x
By the sandwich theorem:
2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
sin( / x )
lim x e 0
x 0
x
 1  sin( / x)  1 lim  0 and lim e x  0
x 0 e x 0

e 1  e sin( / x )  e1 Therefore,
x lim xe sin( / x )  0
 xe sin( / x )  x e x 0
e
2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
sinθ
Prove lim 1 Area Δ 0AP  Sector OAP  Δ OAT
θ0 θ
1 θ 1
sinθ (1)  * π(1)2  tanθ (1)
2 2π 2
1 θ 1 simplify and
sin θ   tan θ divide by sin θ
2 2 2
θ tan θ sin θ
1  1  cos θ
sin θ sin θ θ
Since lim 1  lim cos θ  1
θ 0 θ 0

sinθ
By the pinching theorem lim 1
θ 0 θ
 2.1 Rates of Change and Limits
___
1- cos θ 0  PQ  PQ
Prove lim 0
θ 0 θ
0  (cos θ  1) 2  (sin θ  0) 2  θ
P(cos , sin )
0  (cos2 θ  2 cos θ  1  sin 2 θ  θ

0  2  2 cos θ  θ 1  cos θ θ
 0 
Q(1,0) θ 2
0  2 1  cos θ  θ
θ
θ Since lim 0
0  1  cos θ  θ0 2
2
1- cos θ
θ2 lim 0
0  1  cos θ  θ 0 θ
2
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

The notation
lim f ( x)  
x a

means that the values of f(x) can be made

arbitrarily large (as large as we please) by
taking x sufficiently close to a (on either
side) but not equal to a.
2.2 Limits Involving Infinity
Vertical Asymptote
f
lim f ( x)  
x a

a
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity
Vertical Asymptote
The line x = a is called a vertical
asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if at least
one of the following statements is true:
lim f ( x)  
lim f ( x)   x a
x a
lim f ( x)  
x a
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

f(x) = ln x has a vertical asymptote at x = 0 since

lim ln x  
x 0

f(x) = tan x has a vertical asymptote at x = /2

since
lim  tan x  
x  / 2
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity
Find the limit
x
e
lim -∞
x 5 ( x  5)
3

Determine the equations of

the
vertical asymptotes
2 x  5 of x = 3
f ( x)  2
x  4x  3 x=1
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

Let f be a function defined on some interval

(a, ∞). Then
lim f ( x)  L
x

means that the value of f(x) can be made as

close to L as we like by taking x sufficiently
large.
2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

Horizontal Asymptote
lim f ( x)  L
L x
f
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

Definition End Behavior Model

Suppose that f is a rational function as follows:
an x n  an1 x n1  ...  a0 1. lim f ( x)  0 if n  m
f ( x) 
bm x m  bm1 x m1  ...  b0 x 
a
2. lim f ( x)  if n  m
x  b
3. lim f ( x)   if n  m
x 
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity
Horizontal Asymptote
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote
of the curve y = f(x) if either

lim f ( x)  L or lim f ( x)  L
x x 
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

f(x) = e x has a horizontal

asymptote at y = 0 since

lim e x  0
x 
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

If n is a positive integer, then

1 1
lim n  0 lim n  0
x  x
x  x
2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

Find the limit

y2
lim -1/3
y 
9 y 1
2

2 x3  4 x
lim 2/3
x  3 x 3
 5x

t 2
2
lim 2 1/3
t  3t  t  1
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

Find the limit

sin x
lim
x x
Use squeeze theorem

 1  sin x  1
 1 sin x 1
  x0
x x x
1 1 sin x
lim
x x
 0, lim  0
x  x
lim
x x
0
 2.2 Limits Involving Infinity

sin x
lim
x x
 2.3 Continuity
A function is continuous at a point if the limit is the same as the
value of the function.

This function has discontinuities at

2 x = 1 and x = 2.
1
It is continuous at x = 0 and x =4,
1 2 3 4 because the one-sided limits match
the value of the function
 2.3 Continuity

Definition: Continuity
A function is continuous at a number
a if lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a
That is,
1. f(a) is defined
2. lim
x a
f ( x) exists
3. lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a
 2.3 Continuity
Definition: One Sided Continuity
A function f is continuous from the right
at a number a if
lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

and f is continuous from the left at a if

lim f ( x)  f (a )
x a 
2.3 Continuity

1. Removable discontinuity

x 2  3x  2
f ( x) 
x 1
2.3 Continuity

2. Infinite discontinuity

1
f ( x)  2
x
2.3 Continuity

3. Jump discontinuity

x
f ( x) 
x
2.3 Continuity

4. Oscillating discontinuity

1
f ( x)  sin  
 x
 2.3 Continuity
Definition: Continuity On An Interval
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is
continuous at every number in the interval. (If f
is defined on one side of an endpoint of the
interval, we understand continuous at the
endpoints to mean continuous from the right or
continuous from the left).
 2.3 Continuity
Theorem
If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant,
then the following functions are also continuous
at a:
1. f + g
2. f–g
3. cf
4. fg
5. f / g if g(a)  0
6. f(g(x))
 2.3 Continuity

Theorem
(a) Any polynomial is continuous
everywhere; that is, it is continuous on
 = (-∞, ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous
whenever it is defined; that is, it is
continuous on its domain.
 2.3 Continuity

Any of the following types of functions are

continuous at every number in their
domain: Polynomials; Rational Functions,
Root Functions; Trigonometric Functions;
Inverse Trigonometric Functions;
Exponential Functions; and Logarithmic
Functions.
 2.3 Continuity

If f is continuous at b and lim f ( x)  b , then

x a
lim f ( g ( x))  f (b) . In other words,
x a

lim f ( g ( x))  f (lim g ( x))

x a xa
 2.3 Continuity

If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a),

then the composite function f(g(x)) is continuous
at a.
 2.3 Continuity

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose that f is
continuous on the closed
f(a)
interval [a, b] and let N f(c)=N
be any number between f(b) f
f(a) and f(b). Then there
a c b
exists a number c in (a,
b) such that f(c) = N.
 2.3 Continuity

Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show

that there is a root of the given equation in the
specified interval.

x  x  1; (1, 2)
2
f (1)  1  1  1  0
2

f ( x)  x  x  1
2 f ( 2)  2  2  1  0
2
 y  f (x) Graph f (0) lim f ( x)
x0
Continuous at
x=0?

f ( x)  x

x2
f ( x) 
x
1
f ( x) 
x
x
f ( x) 
x

f ( x) | x |

sin x
f ( x) 
x
x
f ( x) 
x
f ( x)  x

1  cos x
f ( x) 
x
 y  f (x) Graph f (0) lim f ( x)
x0
Continuous at
x = 0?

f ( x)  x 0 0 yes
x2
f ( x)  undefined 0 no
x
1
f ( x)  undefined DNE no
x
x
f ( x)  undefined 1 no
x

f ( x) | x | 0 0 yes

sin x 1 no
f ( x) 
x undefined

x undefined DNE no
f ( x) 
x
f ( x)  x 0 DNE no

1  cos x undefined 0 no
f ( x) 
x
 2.3 Continuity

Definition: Limit
Let c and L be real numbers. The function f has limit L
as x approaches c if, for any given positive number ε,
there is a positive number δ such that for all x,

0  |x  c|  δ  |f(x)  L|  ε
lim f ( x)  L
xc
 2.3 Continuity

Show that lim (5x  3)  2

x1

Solution Set c = 1 and f(x) = 5x - 3 and L = 2.

For any given  > 0, there exists a  > 0 such that

0 < |x - 1| <  whenever |f(x) - 2| < 

 2.3 Continuity

•|(5x - 3) - 2| <  2+

•|5x - 5| <  2
•5|x - 1| <  2-
•|x - 1| < /5
1- 1 1+
•So if  = /5
Then lim (5x  3)  2
x1
 2.3 Continuity

Show that lim 3x - 1  5

x 2

Solution Set c = 2 and f(x) = 3x - 1 and L = 5.

For any given  > 0, there exists a  > 0 such that

0 < |x - 2| <  whenever |f(x) - 5| < 

 2.3 Continuity

•|(3x - 1) - 5| <  5+

•|3x - 6| <  5
•3|x - 2| <  5-
•|x - 2| < /3
2- 2 2+
•So if  = /3
lim 3 x  1  5
x2
 2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines
Definition
Average Rate of Change
The average rate of change of a quantity
over a period of time is the amount of
change divided by the time it takes.
 2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines

Find the average rate of

change of f(x) = x2 - 2x
over the interval [1,3] and (3,3)
the equation of the secant
line.
f(1) = -1 f( 3 )  f( 1 ) 3  (  1 ) (1,-1)
 2
f(3) = 3 3 1 3 1

y = mx + b 3 = 2*3 + b
b = -3 y = 2x - 3
2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines
 2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines

Slope of a Curve
Definition Slope of a Curve at a Point The slope of the curve
y = f(x) at the point P(a, f(a)) is

f ( a  h)  f ( a ) f ( x)  f (a )
m  lim or m  lim
h 0 h xa xa
provided the limit exists
The tangent line to the curve at P is the line through P with
this slope.
 2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines
Find the slope of the parabola y = x2 at the point (2,4)

Demonstration
2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines
 2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines

Normal to a curve

The normal line to a curve at a point is the line perpendicular

to the tangent at that point.
 2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines

Find an equation of the normal line to the curve

y = 9 – x2 at x = 2
 2 xh  h 2
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) m  lim
m  lim h 0 h
h0 h
9  ( x  h) 2  (9  x 2 ) m  lim  2 x  h
m  lim h0
h0 h
9  ( x 2  2 xh  h 2 )  (9  x 2 ) m   2x
m  lim
h0 h
 2.4 Rates of Change and Tangent
Lines

At x = 2, the slope of the tangent line is -2(2) = -4,

so the slope of the normal line is ¼.

y = mx + b

5= (1/4) (2) + b
5= 1/2 + b
b = 9/2
y= (1/4) x + 9/2