MEng 4221 Extension

Mekelle University
Ethiopian Institute of Technology - Mekelle
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Machining and Cutting Tools (MEng4221) Course material
Lecture Notes
By Redae Alemayehu (MSc.)
October 2014
Course Contents
Chapter 1 Principles of Metal Cutting
Chapter 2 Mechanics of Machining
Chapter 3 Cutting Tool Technology
Chapter 4 Grinding and Other Abrasive
Processes
Chapter 5 Introduction to Non-traditional
Machining (Optional)
Chapter 1
PMC
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of Metal

Machining and
Cutting Tools
Chapter 1
 The word manufacture is
PMC derived from two Latin
words,
1.1 Definition of  Manus - hand and
Manufacturing  Factus - make
1.2 Definition of  the combination means made

by hand.
Manufacturing
Process  As a field of study in the modern
context, manufacturing can be
1.3 Overview of Metal defined in to two ways
Machining and 1.Technologic
Cutting Tools 2.Economic
Chapter 1 Technologically
PMC Þ Manufacturing is the application of
physical and chemical processes to
1.1 Definition of alter the geometry, properties, and/or
appearance of a given starting
Manufacturing material to make parts or products.
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process

Machining and
Cutting Tools Figure 1.1 Definition of manufacturing
as a technical process
Þ Manufacturing is almost always carried
out as a sequence of operations.
Chapter 1 Technologically
PMC Economically
Manufacturing is the transformation of
1.1 Definition of materials into items of greater value by
Manufacturing means of one or more processing and/or
assembly operations.
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process

Machining and
Cutting Tools
Figure 1.2 Definition of manufacturing

as an economic process
Chapter 1 1.1.1 Manufacturing – Need and
PMC Concept
The successful creation of Men’s
1.1 Definition of Material Welfare (MMW) depends
Manufacturing mainly on
 Availability of natural resources
1.2 Definition of (NR).
Manufacturing  Exertion of human effort (HE),
Process both physical and mental.
 Development and use of power
tools and machines (Tools).
Machining and
Cutting Tools Þ MMW = NR(HE)TOOLS
Chapter 1 Þ A Manufacturing Process is a
PMC designed procedure that results
1.1 Definition of in physical and/or chemical
Manufacturing changes to a starting work
material with the intention of
1.2 Definition of increasing the value of that
material.
Manufacturing
Þ The manufacturing process are
Process collected together to form a
Manufacturing system (MS).
Þ The manufacturing system is a
Machining and
complex arrangement of physical
Cutting Tools
elements characterized by
measurable parameters (Figure 1-3).
Chapter 1 Þ There fore all manufacturing
PMC processes, systems, techniques
1.1 Definition of have to be
Manufacturing i. Technologically acceptable
ii. Technically feasible
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing iii.Economically viable
Process iv. Eco-friendly

Machining and
Cutting Tools
Chapter 1 1.2.1 Classification of
PMC Manufacturing Process
1.1 Definition of  A classification of manufacturing
Manufacturing processes is presented in Figure 1.4.
 Manufacturing operations can be
1.2 Definition of divided into two basic types:
Manufacturing (1) Processing Operations
 A processing operation transforms a
Process work material from one state of
completion to a more advanced state
1.3 Overview of Metal that is closer to the final desired
Machining and product.
Cutting Tools  It adds value by changing the
geometry, properties, or appearance
of the starting material.
Chapter 1 1.2.1 Classification of
PMC Manufacturing Process
1.1 Definition of  A classification of manufacturing
Manufacturing processes is presented in Figure 1.4.
 Manufacturing operations can be
1.2 Definition of divided into two basic types:
Manufacturing (1) Processing Operations
(2) Assembly operations
Process
 An assembly operation joins
two or more components to
1.3 Overview of Metal create a new entity, called an
Machining and assembly, subassembly, or
Cutting Tools some other term that refers to
the joining process (e.g., a
welded assembly is called a
weldment)
Chapter 1 Þ The material removal processes
PMC are a family of shaping
1.1 Definition of operations in which excess
Manufacturing material is removed from a
starting workpart so that what
1.2 Definition of remains is the desired final
geometry.
Manufacturing
Process Þ The most important branch of
the family is conventional
machining, in which a sharp
1.3 Overview of cutting tool is used to
Metal Machining mechanically cut the material to
and Cutting Tools achieve the desired geometry.
Chapter 1 Þ Another group of material
PMC removal processes is the
1.1 Definition of abrasive processes, which
Manufacturing mechanically remove material
by the action of hard, abrasive
particles.
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing Þ Finally, there are the
Process nontraditional processes, which
use various energy forms other
than a sharp cutting tool or
1.3 Overview of abrasive particles to remove
Metal Machining material.
and Cutting Tools Þ The ‘‘family tree’’ is shown in
Figure 1.5.
Chapter 1 1.3.1 Machining Process
PMC Definitions of machining
1.1 Definition of Þ Machining is a term used to
Manufacturing describe a variety of material
removal processes (in the form of
1.2 Definition of chips) in which a cutting tool
removes unwanted material from
Manufacturing
a workpiece to produce the
Process desired shape.
Þ The process is illustrated in the
1.3 Overview of diagram of Figures 1.6.
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
PMC Definitions of machining
1.1 Definition of Þ In machining, the workpiece is
Manufacturing typically cut from a larger piece
of stock, which is available in a
1.2 Definition of variety of standard shapes, such
as flat sheets, solid bars, hollow
Manufacturing
tubes, and shaped beams.
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
Chapter 1 1.3.1 Machining Process (Continued….)
PMC Þ Machining is important commercially
1.1 Definition of and technologically for several
reasons:
Manufacturing  Variety of work materials.
 Variety of part shapes and
1.2 Definition of geometric features.
Manufacturing  Dimensional accuracy.
 Good surface finishes.
Process
Þ On the other hand, certain
1.3 Overview of disadvantages are associated with
machining and other material
Metal Machining removal processes:
and Cutting Tools  Wasteful of material.
 Time consuming.
 Energy, capital and labor
intensive.
PMC (a) Machining – Purpose
1.1 Definition of Þ Machining to high accuracy and
Manufacturing finish essentially enables a product
to:
 Fulfill its functional
1.2 Definition of requirements
Manufacturing  Improve its performance
Process  Prolong its service
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
(b) Machining - Principle
1.1 Definition of
Þ A metal rod of irregular shape, size
Manufacturing
and surface is converted into a
finished rod of desired dimension and
1.2 Definition of surface by machining by proper
Manufacturing relative motions of the tool-work pair.
Process Þ The basic principle of machining is
typically illustrated in Figure 1.7.
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
(c) Machining - Requirements
Manufacturing
The essential basic requirements for
machining work are schematically
1.2 Definition of illustrated in Figure 1.8 below.
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing (D) Machining - System
Þ A machining system consists of three
1.2 Definition of components:
Manufacturing  Machine tool
Process  Cutting tool and
 Workpiece (part to be machined)
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
(E) Machining - Needs
1.2 Definition of  Most of the engineering components
Manufacturing such as gears, bearings, clutches,
Process tools, screws and nuts etc. need
dimensional and form accuracy and
good surface finish for serving their
1.3 Overview of purposes.
Metal Machining  Manufacturing processes like casting,
and Cutting Tools forging etc. generally cannot provide
the desired accuracy and finish.
1.1 Definition of
(E) Machining - Needs (Continued….)
1.2 Definition of  Machining operation can provides
Manufacturing good surface finish and precision
Process dimension to the part.
 Nearly all mechanical components are
machined at some stages of the
1.3 Overview of manufacturing process.
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
1.2 Definition of (F) Machining - Products
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
1.2 Definition of (F) Machining – Products (Continued….)
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
Introduction
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing (G) Machining - Tools
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
Introduction
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing (G) Machining – Tools (Continued….)
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
Introduction
1.1 Definition of
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
Introduction
1.1 Definition of
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
Manufacturing (H) Machining - System
Functions of Machine Tools
1.2 Definition of Þ The physical functions of a Machine
Manufacturing Tool in machining are:
Process  Firmly holding the blank and the
tool.
1.3 Overview of  transmit motions to the tool and
the blank.
Metal Machining  Provide power to the tool-work
and Cutting Tools pair for the machining action.
 Control of the machining
parameters, i.e., speed, feed and
depth of cut.
PMC 1.3.2 Machining Parameters
Þ The three dimensions of the
1.1 Definition of machining process are:
Manufacturing − Cutting speed v (m/s) - Surface
speed – primary motion
1.2 Definition of − Feed f (mm) – the lateral distance
traveled by the tool during one
Manufacturing
revolution - secondary motion.
Process − Depth of cut d (mm) – penetration
of tool below original work
1.3 Overview of surface.
Þ For certain operations (mostly for
Metal Machining single point tool operation, material
and Cutting Tools removal rate can be found as
MRR = v f d
Where MRR = material removal rate
v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut
PMC 1.3.2 Machining Parameters (Continued….)
1.1 Definition of The machining parameters (cutting

conditions) for a turning operation
Manufacturing are depicted in Figure 1.9 below.
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of Þ Machining operations usually divide

into two categories, distinguished by
Manufacturing
purpose and cutting conditions:
(i) Roughing cuts
1.2 Definition of
 Removes large amounts of material
Manufacturing
from starting workpart.
Process
 Close to desired geometry (not to full
depth).
1.3 Overview of
 Feeds and depths: large
Metal Machining
 Cutting speeds: slow
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of Þ Machining operations usually divide

into two categories, distinguished by
Manufacturing
purpose and cutting conditions:
(i) Roughing cuts
1.2 Definition of (ii) Finishing cuts
Manufacturing  Completes part geometry
Process
 Used for final dimensions, tolerances,
and surface finish.
1.3 Overview of  Feeds and depths: small
Metal Machining  Cutting speeds: fast
and Cutting Tools
1.3.3 Machining and Part
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
Manufacturing Þ Machined parts can be classified
as rotational or non-rotational.
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
Manufacturing
i. Rotational
 A rotational work part has a cylindrical
1.2 Definition of or disk-like shape.
Manufacturing  The characteristic operation that
Process produces this geometry is one in which
a cutting tool removes material from a
1.3 Overview of rotating workpart.
Metal Machining  Examples include turning and boring.

 Drilling is closely related except that an
and Cutting Tools
internal cylindrical shape is created and
the tool rotates (rather than the work) in
most drilling operations.
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
Manufacturing
i. Rotational
ii. Non-rotational
1.2 Definition of  A non-rotational (also called
Manufacturing prismatic) workpart is block-like or
Process plate-like.
 Operations in this category include
1.3 Overview of milling, shaping, planing, and
sawing.
Metal Machining  This geometry is achieved by linear
and Cutting Tools motions of the workpart, combined
with either rotating or linear tool
motions.
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
Manufacturing Þ Depending on the part shape created,
machining operations can be classified
1.2 Definition of as generating, forming and
Manufacturing combination of generating & forming.
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
Manufacturing i. Generating
 In generating, the geometry of the
1.2 Definition of workpart is determined by the feed
Manufacturing trajectory of the cutting tool.
Process  The path followed by the tool during its
feed motion is imparted to the work
surface in order to create shape.
1.3 Overview of
 Examples of generating the work shape
Metal Machining in machining include straight turning,
and Cutting Tools taper turning, contour turning,
peripheral milling, and profile milling.
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
 In each of these operations, material
1.2 Definition of removal is accomplished by the speed
Manufacturing motion in the operation, but part shape
is determined by the feed motion.
Process
 The feed trajectory may involve
variations in depth or width of cut
1.3 Overview of during the operation.
Metal Machining  For example, in the contour turning and
and Cutting Tools profile milling operations shown in our
figure, the feed motion results in
changes in depth and width,
respectively, as cutting proceeds.
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
ii. Forming
1.2 Definition of  In forming, the shape of the part is
Manufacturing created by the geometry of the cutting
tool.
Process
 In effect, the cutting edge of the tool
has the reverse of the shape to be
1.3 Overview of produced on the part surface.
Metal Machining  Form turning, drilling, and broaching
and Cutting Tools are examples of this case.
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
ii. Forming
1.2 Definition of  the shape of the cutting tool is
Manufacturing imparted to the work in order to create
part geometry.
Process
 The cutting conditions in forming
usually include the primary speed
1.3 Overview of motion combined with a feeding motion
Metal Machining that is directed into the work.
and Cutting Tools  Depth of cut in this category of
machining usually refers to the final
penetration into the work after the feed
motion has been completed.
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
ii. Forming
1.2 Definition of iii. Combinations of generating
and forming
Manufacturing
Process  Forming and generating are sometimes
combined in one operation, as for
thread cutting on a lathe and slotting on
1.3 Overview of a milling machine.
Metal Machining  In thread cutting, the pointed shape of
and Cutting Tools the cutting tool determines the form of
the threads, but the large feed rate
generates the threads.
1.1 Definition of
Geometry
ii. Forming
1.2 Definition of iii. Combinations of generating
and forming
Manufacturing
Process  In slotting (also called slot milling), the
width of the cutter determines the width
of the slot, but the feed motion creates
1.3 Overview of the slot.
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
1.1 Definition of 1.3.4 Basic Functional Principles
Manufacturing of Machine Tool Operations
Þ Machine Tools produce desired
geometrical surfaces on solid bodies
1.2 Definition of and for that they are basically
Manufacturing comprised of:
Process  Devices for firmly holding the
tool and work.
1.3 Overview of  Drives for providing power and
motions to the tool and work.
Metal Machining  Kinematic system.
and Cutting Tools  Automation and control systems.
 Structural body.
(i) Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
(a) Generation of flat surface
1.2 Definition of The principle is shown in Figure 1.10
Manufacturing where on a flat plain a straight line
Process called Generatrix (G) is traversed in a
perpendicular direction called
Directrix (D) resulting a flat surface.
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
(a) Generation of flat surface
1.2 Definition of (b) Generation of cylindrical surfaces
Manufacturing The principles of production of various
Process cylindrical surfaces (of revolution) are
shown in Figure 1.11.
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
and Cutting Tools
(ii) Tool – Work Motions
1.2 Definition of Þ The lines representing the Generatrix
Manufacturing and Directrix are actually obtained by
Process the motions of the tool-tip (point)
relative to the work surface.
1.3 Overview of Þ For machining flat or curved surfaces,
the machine tools need relative tool
Metal Machining work motions, which are categorized
and Cutting Tools in the following two groups.
1.2 Definition of a. Formative motions
Manufacturing  Cutting motion (CM)
Process  Feed motion (FM)
b.Auxiliary motions
 Indexing motion
1.3 Overview of  Additional feed motion
Metal Machining  Relieving motion
and Cutting Tools
1.2 Definition of Þ The Generatrix and Directrix, tool
Manufacturing and the work and their motions
Process generally remain interconnected and
in different way for different
machining work.
1.3 Overview of
Þ Such interconnections are typically
Metal Machining shown in Figure 1.12 for straight
and Cutting Tools turning and in Figure 1.13 for
shaping.
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining
FIGURE 1.12 Principle of turning (cylindrical surface)
and Cutting Tools Connections:
Generatrix (G) – Cutting motion (CM) – Work (W)
Directrix (D) – Feed motion (FM) – Tool (T)
1.2 Definition of
Manufacturing
Process
1.3 Overview of
Metal Machining FIGURE 1.13 Principle of producing flat surface in
and Cutting Tools shaping machine
Connections:
Generatrix (G) – Cutting motion (CM) – Tool (T)
Directrix (D) – Feed motion (FM) – Work (W)
1.2 Definition of (iii) Machine Tool Drives
Manufacturing Þ For the desired tool-work motions
Process with power, machine tools are driven
by electric motors and use of some
mechanisms like belt-pulley, gears
1.3 Overview of etc.
Metal Machining Þ In some machine tools, the tool-work
and Cutting Tools motions are provided by hydraulic
drive.
Manufacturing Þ Machine tools need wide ranges of
Process cutting speed and feed rate to enable:
 Machining different jobs (material and
size)
1.3 Overview of
 Using different cutting tools (material,
Metal Machining geometry and size)
and Cutting Tools  Various machining operations like high
speed turning to low speed thread
cutting in lathes
 Degree of surface finish desired.
Manufacturing Machine tool drives may be:
Process A. Stepped Drive
Þ Stepped drives are very common in
1.3 Overview of conventional machine tools where a
discrete number of speeds and feeds
Metal Machining are available
and Cutting Tools Þ Stepped drive is attained by using gear
boxes or cone pulley (old method)
along with the power source.
B. Stepless Drive
Þ Stepless drives enabling optimum
1.3 Overview of selection and flexibly automatic control
Metal Machining of the speeds and feeds as in the case of
modern CNC machine tools .
and Cutting Tools
B. Stepless Drive
1.3 Overview of Þ Stepless drive is accomplished
usually by:
Metal Machining  Variable speed AC or DC
and Cutting Tools motors
 Stepper or servomotors
 Hydraulic power pack
Individual
Assignment
END
OF
CH01
Chapter 2
Mechanics of
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
2.4 Force Relationships
and the Merchant

2.5 Equation
Power and Energy
Relationships in
Machining
Chapter 2 Introduction
Mechanics of Þ Cutting tools can be divided into
(i) Single-point tools
Machining (ii) Multiple-cutting-edge tools
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation
2.5 Power and Energy

Relationships in
Machining
Machining Single-point tools are used in turning,
2.1 Tool Geometry boring, shaping, and planing.
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry  Multiple-cutting-edge tools are
2.2 Orthogonal and used in drilling, reaming,
Oblique Cutting tapping, milling, broaching, and
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
sawing.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Chapter 2 2.1.1 Single-Point Tool Geometry
Mechanics of (Turning)
Þ Both material and geometry of the
Machining cutting tools play very important roles
2.1 Tool Geometry on their performances in achieving
2.2 Orthogonal and
 effectiveness,
Oblique Cutting  efficiency and
 overall economy of machining.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation Þ The word tool geometry is basically
referred to some specific angles or slope
2.4 Force Relationships of the salient faces and edges of the tools
and the Merchant at their cutting point.
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
(i) Concept of rake and clearance
Machining angles of cutting tools.
2.1 Tool Geometry  The concept of rake angle and
2.2 Orthogonal and clearance angle will be clear from
Oblique Cutting some simple operations shown in
Figure 2.1.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation  Rake angle is provided for ease of
chip flow and overall machining.
and the Merchant  Rake angle may be positive, or
Equation negative or even zero as shown in
Figure 2.2.
Relationships in
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry (ii) Systems of description of tool
2.2 Orthogonal and
geometry
Oblique Cutting
A. Tool-in-Hand System
2.3 Mechanism of Þ where only the salient features of the
Chip Formation
cutting tool point are identified or
2.4 Force Relationships visualized.
and the Merchant Þ There is no quantitative information,
Equation i.e., value of the angles.
Relationships in
Machining
2.2 Orthogonal and
geometry
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of B. Machine Reference System – ASA system
Chip Formation
Þ This system is also called ASA system;
2.4 Force Relationships ASA stands for American Standards
and the Merchant Association.
Equation
Þ Geometry of a cutting tool refers
2.5 Power and Energy mainly to its several angles or slope
Relationships in of its salient working surfaces and
Machining cutting edges.
2.2 Orthogonal and
geometry
Oblique Cutting
Chip Formation
Þ Those angles are expressed w.r.t. some
2.4 Force Relationships planes of reference.
and the Merchant
Þ In Machine Reference System (ASA),
Equation
the three planes of reference and the
2.5 Power and Energy coordinates are chosen based on the
Relationships in configuration and axes of the machine
Machining tool concerned.
2.2 Orthogonal and
geometry
Oblique Cutting
Chip Formation
C. Tool Reference Systems
C1. Orthogonal Rake System – ORS
and the Merchant
Equation C2. Normal Rake System – NRS
2.5 Power and Energy D. Work Reference System – WRS

Relationships in
Machining
geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and (iii) Designation of Tool Geometry
Oblique Cutting
Þ The geometry of a single point tool is
2.3 Mechanism of designated or specified by a series of
Chip Formation values of the salient angles and nose
radius arranged in a definite sequence
as follows:
and the Merchant
Equation ASA System: αy, αx, y, x, φe, φs, r (inch)
ORS System: λ, αo, o, o’, φ1, φ, r (mm)
2.5 Power and Energy NRS System: λ, αn, n, n’, φ1, φ, r (mm)
Relationships in
Machining
Machining (iv) Conversion of Tool Angles from
one System to Another
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ Purposes of conversion of tool angles
2.2 Orthogonal and from one system to another
Oblique Cutting
 To understand the actual tool
2.3 Mechanism of geometry in any system of choice or
Chip Formation convenience from the geometry of a
tool expressed in any other systems
 To derive the benefits of the various
and the Merchant
Equation systems of tool designation as and
when required
2.5 Power and Energy  Communication of the same tool
Relationships in geometry between people following
Machining different tool designation systems.
Machining (iv) Conversion of Tool Angles from
one System to Another
2.1 Tool Geometry
Þ Methods of conversion of tool angles
2.2 Orthogonal and from one system to another
Oblique Cutting
 Analytical (geometrical) method:
2.3 Mechanism of simple but tedious
Chip Formation
 Graphical method – Master line
2.4 Force Relationships principle: simple, quick and popular
and the Merchant
 Transformation matrix method:
Equation
suitable for complex tool geometry
2.5 Power and Energy  Vector method: very easy and quick
Relationships in but needs concept of vectors
Machining
Chapter 2 Þ All metal cutting operations involve a
Mechanics of wedge shaped tool with a straight
Machining cutting edge, having a relative velocity
with reference to the workpiece.
2.1 Tool Geometry
Þ It appears from the diagram in Figure
2.2 Orthogonal and 2.3 that while turning ductile material
Oblique Cutting by a sharp tool,
2.3 Mechanism of  the continuous chip would flow over the
Chip Formation tool’s rake surface and in the direction
apparently perpendicular to the principal
2.4 Force Relationships cutting edge, i.e., along orthogonal plane
and the Merchant which is normal to the cutting plane
Equation containing the principal cutting edge. But
practically, the chip may not flow along the
orthogonal plane for several factors like
presence of inclination angle, λ, etc.
Relationships in
Machining
Chapter 2
Mechanics of
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and

Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
2.4 Force Relationships FIGURE 2.3 Ideal direction of chip flow in turning
and the Merchant
Equation Þ For analytical purpose, the two basic
methods of metal cutting using a single
2.5 Power and Energy point tool are the orthogonal (2D) and
Relationships in oblique (3D) as shown in Figure 2.4.
Machining
Chapter 2 (i) Causes And Amount of Chip Flow
Mechanics of
Þ Deviation
The deviation of chip flow in machining
Machining like turning by single point tool may
2.1 Tool Geometry deviate from the orthogonal plane due
to the following three factors:
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting  Restricted cutting effect (RCE)
 Tool-nose radius (r)
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation  Presence of inclination angle, λ≠0.

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of
(a)Deviation
Restricted cutting effect
Machining  In machining like turning, shaping etc
2.1 Tool Geometry by single point turning tool, the metal
removal is accomplished mainly by the
2.2 Orthogonal and
principal cutting edge.
Oblique Cutting
 But the auxiliary cutting edge also takes
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
part in machining to some extent
depending upon the auxiliary cutting
2.4 Force Relationships edge angle, φ1 and the magnitude of
and the Merchant feed, so, as indicated in Figure 2.5.
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of
(a)Deviation
Machining  A small volume of the job in the form of
2.1 Tool Geometry a helical rib of small triangular section
remains uncut. This causes surface
2.2 Orthogonal and
roughness, in the form of fine threads
Oblique Cutting
called feed marks or scallop marks as
2.3 Mechanism of shown in Figure 2.5.
Chip Formation
 The work material flows out in the form
2.4 Force Relationships of chip at velocity VA when the auxiliary
and the Merchant cutting edge plays negligible role on
Equation chip formation.
Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of
(a)Deviation
Machining  But when the auxiliary cutting edge
2.1 Tool Geometry keeps sizeable contact with the
workpiece, then the material that comes
2.2 Orthogonal and
out from that edge at velocity say VB,
Oblique Cutting
interferes with the main stream of the
2.3 Mechanism of chip causing chip flow deviation from
Chip Formation the direction of VA by an angle say ѱ
2.4 Force Relationships from the direction of VA as shown in
and the Merchant Figure 2.5. This phenomenon is called
Equation restricted contact cutting effect (RCE).

Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of
(a) Deviation
Machining (b) Effect of tool nose radius, r
2.1 Tool Geometry  In nose radiused tool, the value of φ
2.2 Orthogonal and continuously varies starting from zero
Oblique Cutting over the curved portion of the principal
cutting edge.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation  Such variation in φ reasonably
influences the chip flow deviation.
and the Merchant
 Therefore, to incorporate the effect of
Equation tool nose radiusing also, the φ in RCE
need to be replaced by the average
2.5 Power and Energy value of φ i.e., φavg which can be
Relationships in determined with the help of the
Machining diagram shown in Figure 2.6.
Mechanics of
(a) Deviation
2.1 Tool Geometry (c) Effect of inclination angle, λ
2.2 Orthogonal and  In absence of RCE and nose radius the
chip flow deviation will be governed
Oblique Cutting
only by the value of λ as indicated in
2.3 Mechanism of Figure 2.7.
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of
(a) Deviation
2.2 Orthogonal and  Therefore the combined effects of RCE,
Oblique Cutting tool nose radiused and presence of λ will
cause chip flow deviation angle, ρc as
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation ρc = ψ + λ

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of
(a) Deviation
2.2 Orthogonal and  Generally, compared to λ, ψ is very
Oblique Cutting small.
2.3 Mechanism of
 So approximately, ρc = λ where λ may be
Chip Formation positive or negative.

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Chapter 2 (i) Causes And Amount of Chip Flow Deviation
(ii) Effects of oblique cutting
Mechanics of
In contrary to simpler orthogonal cutting,
Machining oblique cutting causes the following
2.1 Tool Geometry effects on chip formation and mechanics of
machining:
2.2 Orthogonal and • Chip does not flow along the orthogonal
Oblique Cutting plane; Positive λ causes
o Chip flow deviation away from the
2.3 Mechanism of
finished surface, which may result
Chip Formation
 lesser further damage to the
2.4 Force Relationships finished surface
and the Merchant  but more inconvenience to the
Equation operator
o reduction of mechanical strength of the
2.5 Power and Energy tool tip
Relationships in o increase in temperature at the tool tip
Machining o more vibration in turning slender rods
due to increase in PY (transverse force)
Chapter 2 (i) Causes And Amount of Chip Flow Deviation
(ii) Effects of oblique cutting
Mechanics of
In contrary to simpler orthogonal cutting,
Machining oblique cutting causes the following
2.1 Tool Geometry effects on chip formation and mechanics of
machining:
2.2 Orthogonal and • On the other hand, negative λ may enhance
Oblique Cutting tool life by increasing mechanical strength
and reducing temperature at the tool tip but
2.3 Mechanism of
may impair the finished surface.
Chip Formation
• The chip cross-section may change from
2.4 Force Relationships rectangle (ideal) to skewed trapezium
and the Merchant • The ductile metals( materials) will produce
Equation more compact helical chips if not broken by
chip breaker
2.5 Power and Energy • Analysis of cutting forces, chip-tool friction
Relationships in etc. becomes more complex.
Machining
Chapter 2 (i) Mechanism of Chip Formation in
Mechanics of Machining
Þ Machining is a semi-finishing or
Machining finishing process essentially done to
2.1 Tool Geometry impart required or stipulated
dimensional and form accuracy and
2.2 Orthogonal and
surface finish to enable the product to:
Oblique Cutting
 fulfill its basic functional
2.3 Mechanism of requirements
Chip Formation
 provide better or improved
2.4 Force Relationships performance
and the Merchant
Equation
 Render long service life.

Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of Machining (Continued…..)
Þ Machining is also a process of gradual
Machining removal of excess material from the
2.1 Tool Geometry preformed blanks in the form of chips.
2.2 Orthogonal and Þ The form of the chips is an important
Oblique Cutting index of machining because it directly or
indirectly indicates:
2.3 Mechanism of  Nature and behavior of the work
Chip Formation material under machining condition
2.4 Force Relationships  Specific energy requirement (amount
and the Merchant of energy required to remove unit
Equation volume of work material) in
machining work
2.5 Power and Energy  Nature and degree of interaction at
Relationships in
the chip-tool interfaces.
Machining
(a) Mechanism of chip formation in
Machining machining ductile materials
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation
2.5 Power and Energy FIGURE 2.7 Compression of work material

Relationships in (layer) ahead of the tool tip
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation
FIGURE 2.8 Piispanen model of card analogy to
2.5 Power and Energy explain chip formation in machining ductile materials
Relationships in
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ As on the stress-strain diagram of a metal,
the elastic deformation is followed by
2.2 Orthogonal and plastic deformation.
Oblique Cutting
Þ The material ultimately must yield in shear.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
FIGURE 2.9 stress-strain diagram
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ The pattern and extent of total
2.2 Orthogonal and deformation of the chips due to the
Oblique Cutting primary and the secondary shear
deformations of the chips ahead and
2.3 Mechanism of along the tool face, as indicated in
Chip Formation Figure 2.10, depend upon
2.4 Force Relationships  Work material
and the Merchant
 Tool; material and geometry
Equation
 The machining speed (VC) and
2.5 Power and Energy feed (so)
Relationships in
Machining  Cutting fluid application
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation FIGURE 2.10 Primary and secondary deformation
zones in the chip.
Relationships in
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ According to experimental observations,
machined material is deformed in three
2.2 Orthogonal and
areas:
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation
2.5 Power and Energy Þ The heat generated directly affect surface
Relationships in integrity of the final part(finish, thermal
Machining expansion, residual stresses, etc.).
(b) Mechanism of chip formation
2.1 Tool Geometry
in machining brittle materials
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation
FIGURE 2.11 Development and propagation of
2.5 Power and Energy crack causing chip separation
Relationships in
Machining
(b) Mechanism of chip formation
2.1 Tool Geometry
in machining brittle materials
2.2 Orthogonal and Þ Machining of brittle material produces
Oblique Cutting discontinuous chips and mostly of
2.3 Mechanism of irregular size and shape.
Chip Formation Þ The process of forming such chips is
schematically shown in Figure 2.12.
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining FIGURE 2.12 Schematic view of chip formation in
machining brittle materials.
Chapter 2 (i) Mechanism of Chip Formation in Machining
(ii) Geometry and Characteristics of
Mechanics of
Machining Þ Chip Formsof the chips being formed
The geometry
2.1 Tool Geometry at the cutting zone follow a particular
pattern especially in machining ductile
2.2 Orthogonal and materials.
Oblique Cutting Þ The major sections of the engineering
materials being machined are ductile in
2.3 Mechanism of nature; even some semi-ductile or semi-
Chip Formation brittle materials behave ductile under the
2.4 Force Relationships compressive forces at the cutting zone
and the Merchant during machining.
Equation Þ The pattern and degree of deformation
during chip formation are quantitatively
2.5 Power and Energy assessed and expressed by some factors,
Relationships in the values of which indicate about the
Machining forces and energy required for a particular
machining work.
Mechanics of
Machining (a) Chip
Chip reduction
Forms coefficient or
(Continued…..)
cutting ratio
2.1 Tool Geometry
Þ Chip reduction coefficient, ζ is generally
2.2 Orthogonal and assessed and expressed by the ratio of the
Oblique Cutting chip thickness, after (tc) and before cut (to).
2.3 Mechanism of Þ But ζ can also be expressed or assessed by
Chip Formation the ratio of
 Total length of the chip before (L1) and
2.4 Force Relationships after cut (L2) or
and the Merchant  Cutting velocity, VC and chip velocity,
Equation Vf
2.5 Power and Energy Þ The significant geometrical parameters
Relationships in involved in chip formation are shown in
Machining Figure 2.13 .
Mechanics of
Machining (a) Chip
Chip reduction
Forms coefficient or
(Continued…..)
cutting ratio
2.1 Tool Geometry
Þ The role of rake angle and friction
2.2 Orthogonal and at the chip-tool interface on chip
Oblique Cutting reduction coefficient are also
schematically shown in Figure
2.3 Mechanism of 2.14.
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining FIGURE 2.14 Role of rake angle and
friction on chip reduction coefficient
Mechanics of
Machining (a) Chip
Chip reduction
Forms coefficient or cutting ratio
(Continued…..)
(b) Shear angle
2.1 Tool Geometry
Þ It has been observed that during
2.2 Orthogonal and machining, particularly ductile
Oblique Cutting materials, the chip sharply changes
its direction of flow (relative to the
2.3 Mechanism of tool) from the direction of the
Chip Formation cutting velocity, VC to that along the
2.4 Force Relationships tool rake surface after thickening by
and the Merchant shear deformation or slip or lamellar
Equation sliding along a plane. This plane is
called shear plane and is
2.5 Power and Energy schematically shown in Figure 2.15.
Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of
Machining (a) Chip
Chip reduction
Forms
(b) Shear angle
coefficient or cutting ratio
(Continued…..)
2.1 Tool Geometry (c) Velocity relationships

2.2 Orthogonal and Þ As the tool advances, the metal gets
Oblique Cutting cut and chip is formed. The chip
glides over the rake surface of the
2.3 Mechanism of tool. With the advancement of the
Chip Formation tool, the shear plane also moves as
shown in Figure 2.16.
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Mechanics of
Machining (a) Chip
Chip reduction
Forms
(b) Shear angle
coefficient or cutting ratio
(Continued…..)
2.1 Tool Geometry (c) Velocity relationships

2.2 Orthogonal and
(d) Cutting strain
Oblique Cutting Þ The magnitude of strain, that develops
along the shear plane due to machining
2.3 Mechanism of action, is called cutting strain (shear).
Chip Formation Þ Due to presence of the tool as an
2.4 Force Relationships obstruction the layer 1 has been shifted
and the Merchant to position 2 by sliding along the shear
Equation plane.
Þ The relationship of this cutting strain,
2.5 Power and Energy ε with the governing parameters can be
Relationships in derived from Figure 2.17.
Machining
(ii) Geometry and Characteristics of Chip Forms
Mechanics of (iii) Built-up-Edge (BUE) formation
Machining (a) Causes of formation
Þ In machining ductile metals like steels
2.1 Tool Geometry
with long chip-tool contact length, lot of
2.2 Orthogonal and stress and temperature develops in the
Oblique Cutting secondary deformation zone at the chip-
tool interface.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation Þ Under such high stress and temperature in
between two clean surfaces of metals,
2.4 Force Relationships strong bonding may locally take place due
and the Merchant to adhesion similar to welding.
Equation
Þ Such bonding will be encouraged and
accelerated if the chip tool materials have
Relationships in mutual affinity or solubility.
Machining
Þ The weldment starts forming as an
2.1 Tool Geometry
embryo at the most favourable location
2.2 Orthogonal and and thus gradually grows as schematically
Oblique Cutting shown in Figure 2.18.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Þ With the growth of the BUE, the force, F
2.1 Tool Geometry
also gradually increases due to wedging
2.2 Orthogonal and action of the tool tip along with the BUE
Oblique Cutting formed on it.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Þ Whenever the force, F exceeds the
2.1 Tool Geometry
bonding force of the BUE, the BUE is
2.2 Orthogonal and broken or sheared off and taken away by
Oblique Cutting the flowing chip.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Þ Then again BUE starts forming and
2.1 Tool Geometry
growing. This goes on repeatedly.
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
(a) Causes of formation
Machining (b) Characteristics of BUE
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ Built-up-edges are characterized by its
2.2 Orthogonal and shape, size and bond strength, which
Oblique Cutting depend upon:
2.3 Mechanism of  work tool materials
Chip Formation  stress and temperature, i.e.,
cutting velocity and feed
and the Merchant  Cutting fluid application
Equation governing cooling and
lubrication.
Relationships in
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ BUE may develop basically in three
2.2 Orthogonal and different shapes as schematically
Oblique Cutting shown in Figure 2.19.
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation
FIGURE 2.19 Different forms of built-up-edge.
Relationships in
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ In machining too soft and ductile metals
2.2 Orthogonal and by tools like high speed steel or
Oblique Cutting uncoated carbide the BUE may grow
larger and overflow towards the
2.3 Mechanism of finished surface through the flank as
Chip Formation shown in Figure 2.20.
and the Merchant
FIGURE 2.20
Equation Overgrowing and
overflowing of BUE
2.5 Power and Energy causing surface
Relationships in roughness
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ While the major part of the detached
2.2 Orthogonal and BUE goes away along the flowing chip,
Oblique Cutting a small part of the BUE may remain
stuck on the machined surface and
2.3 Mechanism of spoils the surface finish.
Chip Formation Þ BUE formation needs certain level of
2.4 Force Relationships temperature at the interface depending
and the Merchant upon the mutual affinity of the work-
Equation tool materials.
Þ With the increase in VC and so the
2.5 Power and Energy cutting temperature rises and favours
Relationships in BUE formation.
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ But if VC is raised too high beyond
2.2 Orthogonal and certain limit, BUE will be squashed out
Oblique Cutting by the flowing chip before the BUE
grows.
2.3 Mechanism of Þ Figure 2.21 shows schematically the
Chip Formation role of increasing VC and so on BUE
2.4 Force Relationships formation (size).
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry (c) Effects of BUE formation
Þ Formation of BUE causes several harmful
2.2 Orthogonal and
effects, such as:
Oblique Cutting  It unfavourably changes the rake angle
2.3 Mechanism of at the tool tip causing increase in
cutting forces and power consumption
Chip Formation  Repeated formation and dislodgement
2.4 Force Relationships of the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting
and the Merchant forces and thus induces vibration which
Equation is harmful for the tool, job and the
machine tool.
2.5 Power and Energy  Surface finish gets deteriorated
Relationships in  May reduce tool life by accelerating
Machining tool-wear at its rake surface by
adhesion and flaking.
(iv) Types of chips and conditions for
Machining
formation
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ Different types of chips of various shape,
2.2 Orthogonal and size, colour etc. are produced by
Oblique Cutting machining depending upon
 Type of cut, i.e., continuous (turning,
2.3 Mechanism of boring etc.) or intermittent cut
Chip Formation (milling)
 Work material (brittle or ductile etc.)
2.4 Force Relationships  Cutting tool geometry (rake, cutting
and the Merchant
angles etc.)
Equation
 Levels of the cutting velocity and feed
(low, medium or high)
Relationships in
 Cutting fluid (type of fluid and method
Machining of application)
Machining
formation
2.1 Tool Geometry Þ The basic major types of chips and the
2.2 Orthogonal and conditions generally under which such
Oblique Cutting types of chips form are:
1. Discontinuous chip
2.3 Mechanism of  When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast
Chip Formation irons) are machined at low cutting speeds,
the chips often form into separate segments
2.4 Force Relationships (sometimes the segments are loosely
and the Merchant attached). This tends to impart an irregular
Equation texture to the machined surface.
2.5 Power and Energy  High tool–chip friction and large feed and
Relationships in depth of cut promote the formation of this
Machining chip type.
Machining
formation
2.3 Mechanism of  These chips are small segments, which
Chip Formation adhere loosely to each other.
2.4 Force Relationships  They are formed when the amount of
and the Merchant deformation to which chips undergo is
Equation limited by repeated fracturing.
 Hard and brittle materials like bronze,
2.5 Power and Energy brass and cast iron will produce such chips.
Relationships in
Machining  Good for automation.
Machining
formation
2.3 Mechanism of  Brittle failure takes place along the shear
Chip Formation plane before any tangible plastic flow
occurs.
and the Merchant  Causes machine tool chatter (vibration) due
Equation to fluctuating forces, which in turn, causes
poor surface finish and dimensional
2.5 Power and Energy accuracy, and excessive tool wear and/or
Relationships in premature failure.
Machining
Machining
formation
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
2.3 Mechanism of 2. Continuous chip
Chip Formation  In continuous chip formation, the
pressure of the work piece builds until
2.4 Force Relationships the material fails by slip along the plane.
and the Merchant
 The inside on the chip displays steps
Equation
produced by the intermittent slip, but the
2.5 Power and Energy outside is very smooth.
Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation  It has its elements bonded together in the
form of long coils and is formed by the
2.4 Force Relationships continuous plastic deformation of
and the Merchant material without fracture ahead of the
Equation cutting edge of the tool and is followed
by the smooth flow of chip up the tool
2.5 Power and Energy face.
Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation  When ductile work materials are cut at
high speeds and relatively small feeds
2.4 Force Relationships and depths, long continuous chips are
and the Merchant formed.
Equation  A good surface finish typically results
when this chip type is formed.
2.5 Power and Energy  A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low
Relationships in
tool–chip friction encourage the
Machining
formation of continuous chips.
Machining
formation
Chip Formation  Long, continuous chips (as in turning)
can cause problems with regard to chip
2.4 Force Relationships disposal and/or tangling about the tool.
and the Merchant
Equation  Bad for automation (use chip breakers)
 tend to get tangled around the tool,
workpiece, and fixturing. Can cause injury
to operator or scratch the workpiece
Relationships in surface.
Machining  operation has to be stopped to clear away
the chips.
Machining
formation
Chip Formation  Ductile work materials (e.g., low carbon
steel) and positive rake angles.
and the Merchant  High cutting speeds, Small feeds and
Equation depth of cut.

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
3. Continuous chip with built-up edge
Chip Formation  When machining ductile materials at
2.4 Force Relationships low to medium cutting speeds, friction
and the Merchant between tool and chip tends to cause
Equation portions of the work material to adhere
to the rake face of the tool near the
2.5 Power and Energy cutting edge. This formation is called a
Relationships in built-up edge (BUE).
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation  This type of chip is very similar to that
2.4 Force Relationships of continuous type, with the difference
and the Merchant that it is not as smooth as the previous
Equation one.
 This type of chip is associated with poor
2.5 Power and Energy surface finish, but protects the cutting
Relationships in edge from wear due to movement of
Machining chips and the action of heat causing the
increase in tool life.
Machining
formation
Chip Formation  The formation of a BUE is cyclical; it
2.4 Force Relationships forms and grows, then becomes unstable
and the Merchant and breaks off.
Equation  Much of the detached BUE is carried
away with the chip, sometimes taking
2.5 Power and Energy portions of the tool rake face with it,
Relationships in which reduces the life of the cutting
Machining tool.
Machining
formation
Chip Formation  Portions of the detached BUE that are
2.4 Force Relationships not carried off with the chip become
and the Merchant imbedded in the newly created work
Equation surface, causing the surface to become
rough.
2.5 Power and Energy  have a considerable influence on cutting
Relationships in tool wear.
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation  Results in poor surface finish, poor
2.4 Force Relationships dimensional accuracy, faster tool wear,
and the Merchant and higher cutting forces, and higher
Equation temperatures.
 Bad for automation.
 Excessive machine chatter.
Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
Effects of BUE formation
2.4 Force Relationships Þ Formation of BUE causes several
and the Merchant harmful effects, such as:
Equation  changes the rake angle at the tool-tip
causing increase in cutting forces and
2.5 Power and Energy power consumption.
Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
Equation  Repeated formation and dislodgement
of the BUE causes fluctuation in
2.5 Power and Energy cutting forces and thus induces
Relationships in vibration which is harmful for the
Machining tool, job and the machine tool.
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
Equation  Surface finish gets deteriorated.
 May reduce tool life by accelerating
2.5 Power and Energy tool-wear at its rake surface by
Relationships in adhesion and flaking.
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
2.4 Force Relationships Þ However, BUE protects the tool face
and the Merchant when stable.
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
Chip Formation
2.4 Force Relationships Þ The size of BUE can be reduced by:
and the Merchant  Increasing the cutting speed.
Equation  Decreasing the depth of cut.
 Increasing the rake angle.
 Using a sharp tool.
2.5 Power and Energy  Using cutting fluid.
Relationships in  Cutting hard metals.
Machining  Lower affinity (bond) between the tool and
workpiece materials.
Machining
formation
Chip Formation 4. Serrated/Segmented chip
 These chips are semi-continuous in the
sense that they possess a saw-tooth
and the Merchant
Equation
appearance that is produced by a
cyclical chip formation of alternating
2.5 Power and Energy high shear strain followed by low shear
Relationships in strain.
Machining
Machining
formation
 This type of chip is most closely
associated with certain difficult-to-
and the Merchant
Equation
machine metals such as titanium alloys,
nickel-base super alloys, and austenitic
2.5 Power and Energy stainless steels when they are machined
Relationships in at higher cutting speeds.
Machining
Machining
formation
 However, the phenomenon is also found
with more common work metals (e.g.,
and the Merchant
Equation
steels) when they are cut at high speeds.

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Machining
formation
2.1 Tool Geometry Actual Chip Forms and Classifications
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Chapter 2
Mechanics of
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
WORK SHEET 01
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation
(Q07, 08 and 09)
and the Merchant

Equation
Relationships in
Machining
Chapter 2
Mechanics of
Machining
2.1 Tool Geometry
2.2 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting
2.3 Mechanism of
Chip Formation

and the Merchant
Equation

Relationships in
Machining
Chapter 3
Cutting Tool
Technology
3.1 Tool Life
3.2 Tool Materials
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Chapter 3
Introduction
Cutting Tool
Þ Machining operations are
Technology accomplished using cutting tools.
3.1 Tool Life Þ The high forces and temperatures
during machining create a very harsh
3.2 Tool Materials environment for the tool.
3.3 Cutting Fluids Þ If cutting force becomes too high, the
tool fractures.
Þ If cutting temperature becomes too
high, the tool material softens and
fails.
Þ If neither of these conditions causes
the tool to fail, continual wear of the
cutting edge ultimately leads to failure.
Chapter 3 3.1 Tool Life
Cutting Tool
Þ There are three possible modes by which
Technology a cutting tool can fail in machining:
 Fracture failure - occurs when the cutting
3.1 Tool Life force at the tool point becomes excessive,
causing it to fail suddenly by brittle
3.1.1 Tool Wear
fracture.
3.1.2 Tool Life and  Temperature failure - occurs when the
the Taylor cutting temperature is too high for the tool
Tool Life material, causing the material at the tool
Equation point to soften, which leads to plastic
deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
3.2 Tool Materials  Gradual wear - causes loss of tool shape,
reduction in cutting efficiency, i.e. an
3.3 Cutting Fluids
acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes
heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a
manner similar to a temperature failure.
Cutting Tool
Þ Fracture and temperature failures
Technology result in premature loss of the cutting
tool.
3.1 Tool Life
Þ These two modes of failure are
3.1.1 Tool Wear therefore undesirable.
3.1.2 Tool Life and Þ Of the three possible tool failures,
the Taylor gradual wear is preferred because it
Tool Life
leads to the longest possible use of the
Equation
tool, with the associated economic
advantage of that longer use.
3.2 Tool Materials
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Cutting Tool
Þ Product quality must also be
Technology considered when attempting to control
the mode of tool failure.
3.1 Tool Life
Þ When the tool point fails suddenly
3.1.1 Tool Wear during a cut, it often causes damage to
3.1.2 Tool Life and the work surface.
the Taylor Þ This damage requires either
Tool Life  rework of the surface or
Equation
 possible scrapping of the part.
3.2 Tool Materials

3.3 Cutting Fluids
Cutting Tool
Þ The damage can be avoided by
Technology selecting cutting conditions that favor
gradual wearing of the tool rather than
3.1 Tool Life fracture or temperature failure, and by
3.1.1 Tool Wear changing the tool before the final
catastrophic loss of the cutting edge
3.1.2 Tool Life and
occurs.
the Taylor
Tool Life
Equation
3.2 Tool Materials

3.3 Cutting Fluids
Cutting Tool 3.1.1 Tool Wear
Technology
Þ Gradual wear occurs at two principal
3.1 Tool Life locations on a cutting tool:
 the top rake face and
3.1.1 Tool Wear  the flank.
3.1.2 Tool Life and Þ Accordingly, two main types of tool
the Taylor wear can be distinguished:
Tool Life  Crater wear and
Equation  Flank wear, illustrated in Figures
3.1 and 3.2.
3.2 Tool Materials
Þ We will use a single-point tool to
3.3 Cutting Fluids explain tool wear and the mechanisms
that cause it.
Technology
(i) Crater wear
3.1 Tool Life Þ Consists of a cavity in the rake face of
the tool that forms and grows from the
3.1.1 Tool Wear action of the chip sliding against the
3.1.2 Tool Life and surface.
the Taylor
Þ High stresses and temperatures
Tool Life
characterize the tool–chip contact
Equation
interface, contributing to the wearing
action.
3.2 Tool Materials
Þ The crater can be measured either by its
3.3 Cutting Fluids depth or its area.
Technology
(i) Crater wear
3.1 Tool Life (ii) Flank wear
Þ occurs on the flank, or relief face,
3.1.1 Tool Wear of the tool.
3.1.2 Tool Life and Þ It results from rubbing between the
the Taylor
newly generated work surface and
Tool Life
Equation
the flank face adjacent to the
cutting edge.
3.2 Tool Materials Þ Flank wear is measured by the
width of the wear band, FW.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Þ This wear band is sometimes called
the flank wear land.
Technology
(i) Crater wear
Features of flank wear
3.1.1 Tool Wear
(a) Notch wear
3.1.2 Tool Life and  It is an extreme condition of flank
the Taylor
wear often appears on the cutting
Tool Life
Equation
edge at the location corresponding
to the original surface of the
workpart.
3.2 Tool Materials
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology
(i) Crater wear
3.1.1 Tool Wear
(a) Notch wear
3.1.2 Tool Life and  It occurs because the original
the Taylor
work surface is harder and/or
Tool Life
Equation
more abrasive than the internal
material, which could be caused
by work hardening from cold
3.2 Tool Materials drawing or previous machining,
3.3 Cutting Fluids sand particles in the surface from
casting, or other reasons.
Technology
(i) Crater wear
3.1.1 Tool Wear
(a) Notch wear
3.1.2 Tool Life and  As a consequence of the harder
the Taylor
surface, wear is accelerated at this
Tool Life
Equation
location.
3.2 Tool Materials

3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology
(i) Crater wear
3.1.1 Tool Wear
(a) Notch wear
3.1.2 Tool Life and (b) Nose radius wear
the Taylor
Tool Life  This occurs on the nose radius
Equation leading into the end cutting edge.
3.2 Tool Materials

3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology The mechanisms that cause wear at the
tool–chip and tool–work interfaces in
3.1 Tool Life machining are:
3.1.1 Tool Wear (i) Abrasion
3.1.2 Tool Life and  This is a mechanical wearing action
the Taylor caused by hard particles in the work
Tool Life material gouging and removing small
Equation portions of the tool.
 This abrasive action occurs in both
3.2 Tool Materials flank wear and crater wear; it is a
3.3 Cutting Fluids significant cause of flank wear.
3.1.1 Tool Wear (i) Abrasion
3.1.2 Tool Life and (ii) Adhesion
the Taylor  When two metals are forced into
Tool Life contact under high pressure and
Equation temperature, adhesion or welding
occur between them. These conditions
3.2 Tool Materials are present between the chip and the
rake face of the tool.
3.3 Cutting Fluids  As the chip flows across the tool,
small particles of the tool are broken
away from the surface, resulting in
attrition of the surface.
3.1.1 Tool Wear (i) Abrasion (ii) Adhesion
3.1.2 Tool Life and (iii) Diffusion
the Taylor  This is a process in which an exchange
Tool Life of atoms takes place across a close
Equation contact boundary between two
materials.
3.2 Tool Materials  In the case of tool wear, diffusion
3.3 Cutting Fluids occurs at the tool–chip boundary,
causing the tool surface to become
depleted of the atoms responsible for
its hardness.
the Taylor  As this process continues, the tool
Tool Life surface becomes more susceptible to
Equation abrasion and adhesion.
 Diffusion is believed to be a principal
3.2 Tool Materials mechanism of crater wear.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
the Taylor (iv) Chemical reactions
Tool Life  The high temperatures and clean
Equation
surfaces at the tool–chip interface in
machining at high speeds can result
3.2 Tool Materials in chemical reactions, in particular,
3.3 Cutting Fluids oxidation, on the rake face of the
tool.
the Taylor (iv) Chemical reactions
Tool Life  The oxidized layer, being softer than
Equation
the parent tool material, is sheared
away, exposing new material to
3.2 Tool Materials sustain the reaction process.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1.2 Tool Life and (iii) Diffusion (iv) Chemical reactions
the Taylor (v) Plastic deformation
Tool Life
 Another mechanism that contributes
Equation
to tool wear is plastic deformation of
the cutting edge.
3.2 Tool Materials
 The cutting forces acting on the
3.3 Cutting Fluids cutting edge at high temperature
cause the edge to deform plastically,
making it more vulnerable to
abrasion of the tool surface.
3.1.2 Tool Life and (iii) Diffusion (iv) Chemical reactions
the Taylor (v) Plastic deformation
Tool Life
 Plastic deformation contributes
Equation
mainly to flank wear.
3.2 Tool Materials
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology
Þ Most of these tool-wear mechanisms
3.1 Tool Life are accelerated at higher cutting speeds
and temperatures.
3.1.1 Tool Wear
Þ Diffusion and chemical reaction are
3.1.2 Tool Life and especially sensitive to elevated
the Taylor
temperature.
Tool Life
Equation
3.2 Tool Materials

3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology 3.1.2 Tool Life and the Taylor Tool
Life Equation
3.1 Tool Life  As cutting proceeds, the various wear
3.1.1 Tool Wear mechanisms result in increasing levels of
wear on the cutting tool.
3.1.2 Tool Life and
 The general relationship of tool wear
versus cutting time is shown in Figure 3.3.
the Taylor
 Although the relationship shown is for
Tool Life flank wear, a similar relationship occurs for
Equation crater wear.
3.2 Tool Materials
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Life Equation
3.1 Tool Life Þ Three regions can usually be identified in
3.1.1 Tool Wear the typical wear growth curve.
(1) Break-in period
3.1.2 Tool Life and
 In this region the sharp cutting edge wears
rapidly at the beginning of its use.
the Taylor
 This first region occurs within the first few
Tool Life minutes of cutting.
Equation
3.2 Tool Materials  The break-in period is followed by wear
that occurs at a fairly uniform rate.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Life Equation
(1) Break-in period
3.1.2 Tool Life and
(2) Steady-state wear region
 The break-in period is followed by wear
the Taylor that occurs at a fairly uniform rate.
Tool Life  This is called the steady-state wear region.
Equation
3.2 Tool Materials  In figure 3.3, this region is pictured as a
linear function of time, although there are
3.3 Cutting Fluids
deviations from the straight line in actual
machining.
Life Equation
(1) Break-in period
3.1.2 Tool Life and
(2) Steady-state wear region
(3) Failure region
the Taylor  Finally, wear reaches a level at which the
Tool Life wear rate begins to accelerate.
Equation  This marks the beginning of the failure
3.2 Tool Materials
region, in which cutting temperatures are
3.3 Cutting Fluids higher, and the general efficiency of the
machining process is reduced.
 If allowed to continue, the tool finally fails
by temperature failure.
Life Equation
3.1 Tool Life  The slope of the tool wear curve in the
3.1.1 Tool Wear steady-state region is affected by work
material and cutting conditions.
3.1.2 Tool Life and
 Harder work materials cause the wear rate
(slope of the tool wear curve) to increase.
the Taylor
 Increased speed, feed, and depth of cut
Tool Life have a similar effect, with speed being the
Equation most important of the three.
3.2 Tool Materials
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Life Equation
3.1 Tool Life  If the tool wear curves are plotted for
3.1.1 Tool Wear several different cutting speeds, the results
appear as in Figure 3.4.
3.1.2 Tool Life and
 As cutting speed is increased, wear rate
increases so the same level of wear is
the Taylor reached in less time.
Tool Life
Equation
3.2 Tool Materials
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Life Equation
3.1 Tool Life  Tool life is defined as the length of cutting
3.1.1 Tool Wear time that the tool can be used.
 Operating the tool until final catastrophic
3.1.2 Tool Life and failure is one way of defining tool life. This
is indicated in Figure 3.4 by the end of
the Taylor each tool wear curve.
Tool Life  However, in production, it is often a
Equation disadvantage to use the tool until this
3.2 Tool Materials failure occurs because of difficulties in re-
3.3 Cutting Fluids sharpening the tool and problems with
work surface quality.
Life Equation
3.1 Tool Life  As an alternative, a level of tool wear can
3.1.1 Tool Wear be selected as a criterion of tool life, and the
tool is replaced when wear reaches that
3.1.2 Tool Life and level.
 A convenient tool life criterion is a certain
the Taylor flank wear value, such as 0.5 mm illustrated
Tool Life as the horizontal line on the graph.
Equation  When each of the three wear curves
3.2 Tool Materials intersects that line, the life of the
3.3 Cutting Fluids corresponding tool is defined as ended.
 If the intersection points are projected down
to the time axis, the values of tool life can
be identified.
Life Equation
3.1 Tool Life Taylor Tool Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  If the tool life values for the three wear
curves in Figure 3.4 are plotted on a natural
3.1.2 Tool Life and log–log graph of cutting speed versus tool
life, the resulting relationship is a straight
the Taylor line as shown in Figure 3.5.
Tool Life
Equation
3.2 Tool Materials
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  It can be expressed in equation form and is
called the Taylor tool life equation:
3.1.2 Tool Life and
vTn = C……..(3.1)
the Taylor
where v = cutting speed, m/min (ft/min); T = tool
Tool Life life, min; and n and C are parameters whose
Equation values depend on
3.2 Tool Materials  Feed,
3.3 Cutting Fluids  Depth of cut,
 Work material,
 Tooling (material in particular), and
 Tool life criterion used.
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  It can be expressed in equation form and is
called the Taylor tool life equation:
3.1.2 Tool Life and
vTn = C……..(3.1)
the Taylor
 The value of n is relative constant for a
Tool Life given tool material, whereas the value of C
Equation depends on
3.2 Tool Materials
 Tool material,
3.3 Cutting Fluids
 Work material, and
 Cutting conditions.
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  Basically, Eq. (3.1) states that higher
cutting speeds result in shorter tool lives.
3.1.2 Tool Life and
 Relating the parameters n and C to Figure
3.5, n is the slope of the plot (expressed in
the Taylor linear terms rather than in the scale of the
Tool Life axes), and C is the intercept on the speed
Equation axis. C represents the cutting speed that
3.2 Tool Materials results in a 1-min tool life.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  The problem with Eq. (3.1) is that the units
on the right-hand side of the equation are
3.1.2 Tool Life and not consistent with the units on the left-
hand side.
the Taylor  To make the units consistent, the equation
Tool Life should be expressed in the form:
Equation
3.2 Tool Materials vTn = C(Trefn) ……(3.2)
3.3 Cutting Fluids
where Tref = a reference value for C. Tref is simply
1 min when m/min (ft/min) and minutes are used
for v and T, respectively.
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  The advantage of Eq. (3.2) is seen when it
is desired to use the Taylor equation with
3.1.2 Tool Life and units other than m/min (ft/min) and
minutes—for example, if cutting speed
the Taylor were expressed as m/sec and tool life as
Tool Life sec.
Equation  In this case, Tref would be 60 sec and C
3.2 Tool Materials would therefore be the same speed value as
3.3 Cutting Fluids in Eq. (3.1), although converted to units of
m/sec.
 The slope n would have the same
numerical value as in Eq. (3.1).
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  An expanded version of Eq. (3.2) can be
formulated to include the effects of feed,
3.1.2 Tool Life and depth of cut, and even work material
hardness:
the Taylor
Tool Life vTnfmdpHp = KTrefnfrefmdrefpHrefq ……..(3.3)
Equation where f = feed, mm (in); d = depth of cut, mm (in); H =

3.2 Tool Materials hardness, expressed in an appropriate hardness scale; m, p,
3.3 Cutting Fluids and q are exponents whose values are experimentally
determined for the conditions of the operation; K = a
constant analogous to C in Eq. (3.2); and fref, dref, and Href
are reference values for feed, depth of cut, and hardness.
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  The values of m and p, the exponents for
feed and depth, are less than 1.0.
3.1.2 Tool Life and
 This indicates the greater effect of cutting
speed on tool life, because the exponent of
the Taylor v is 1.0.
Tool Life  After speed, feed is next in importance, so
Equation m has a value greater than p.
3.2 Tool Materials
 The exponent for work hardness, q, is also
3.3 Cutting Fluids less than 1.0.
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  Perhaps the greatest difficulty in applying
Eq. (3.3) in a practical machining operation
3.1.2 Tool Life and is the tremendous amount of machining data
that would be required to determine the
the Taylor parameters of the equation.
Tool Life  Variations in work materials and testing
Equation conditions also cause difficulties by
3.2 Tool Materials introducing statistical variations in the data.
3.3 Cutting Fluids  Equation (3.3) is valid in indicating general
trends among its variables, but not in its
ability to accurately predict tool life
performance.
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear  To reduce these problems and make the
scope of the equation more manageable,
3.1.2 Tool Life and some of the terms are usually eliminated.
For example, omitting depth and hardness
the Taylor reduces Eq. (3.3) to the following:
Tool Life
Equation vTnfm = KTrefnfrefm….…(3.4)
3.2 Tool Materials
where the terms have the same meaning as
3.3 Cutting Fluids before, except that the constant K will have a
slightly different interpretation.
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear Tool Life Criteria in Production
 Although flank wear is the tool life
3.1.2 Tool Life and criterion in our previous discussion of the
Taylor equation, this criterion is not very
the Taylor practical in a factory environment because
Tool Life of the difficulties and time required to
measure flank wear.
Equation
3.2 Tool Materials  Following are nine alternative tool life
3.3 Cutting Fluids criteria that are more convenient to use in
a production machining operation, some of
which are admittedly subjective:
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear Tool Life Criteria in Production (Continued….)
1. Complete failure of the cutting edge
3.1.2 Tool Life and (fracture failure, temperature failure, or
wearing until complete breakdown of the
the Taylor tool has occurred). This criterion has
Tool Life disadvantages, as discussed earlier.
Equation 2. Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater
3.2 Tool Materials wear) by the machine operator (without a
3.3 Cutting Fluids toolmaker’s microscope).
3. Fingernail test across the cutting edge by
the operator to test for irregularities.
Life Equation
3.1.1 Tool Wear Tool Life Criteria in Production (Continued….)
4. Changes in the sound emitting from the
3.1.2 Tool Life and operation, as judged by the operator.
5. Chips become ribbony, stringy, and
the Taylor difficult to dispose of.
Tool Life 6. Degradation of the surface finish on the
Equation work.
3.2 Tool Materials
7. Increased power consumption in the
3.3 Cutting Fluids operation, as measured by a wattmeter
connected to the machine tool.
8. Workpiece count.
9. Cumulative cutting time.
Cutting Tool 3.2 Tool Materials
Technology The three modes of tool failure allow us to
3.1 Tool Life identify three important properties
required in a tool material are:
3.2 Tool Materials
(i) Toughness
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel
and Its Predecessors  To avoid fracture failure, the tool
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys material must possess high toughness.
3.2.3 Cemented  Toughness is the capacity of a material
Carbides, Cermets, to absorb energy without failing. It is
and Coated usually characterized by a combination
Carbides of strength and ductility in the material.
3.2.4 Ceramics
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.2 Tool Materials
(i) Toughness
(ii) Hot hardness
and Its Predecessors
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys  Hot hardness is the ability of a material
3.2.3 Cemented to retain its hardness at high
Carbides, Cermets, temperatures.
and Coated  This is required because of the high-
Carbides
temperature environment in which the
3.2.4 Ceramics tool operates.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.2 Tool Materials
(i) Toughness
(ii) Hot hardness
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys
(iii) Wear resistance
3.2.3 Cemented  Hardness is the single most important
Carbides, Cermets, property needed to resist abrasive
and Coated wear.
Carbides
 All cutting-tool materials must be
3.2.4 Ceramics
hard. However, wear resistance in
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds metal cutting depends on more than
and Cubic Boron
just tool hardness, because of the other
Nitride
tool-wear mechanisms.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.2 Tool Materials
(i) Toughness
(ii) Hot hardness
(iii) Wear resistance
3.2.3 Cemented  Other characteristics affecting wear
Carbides, Cermets, resistance include surface finish on the
and Coated tool (a smoother surface means a lower
Carbides coefficient of friction), chemistry of
3.2.4 Ceramics tool and work materials, and whether a
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds cutting fluid is used.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology Þ Cutting-tool materials achieve this
3.1 Tool Life combination of properties in varying degrees.
Þ Commercially, the most important tool
3.2 Tool Materials materials are
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel  High-speed steel and cemented
and Its Predecessors carbides,
 Cermets, and coated carbides.
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets, Þ These two categories account for more than
and Coated 90% of the cutting tools used in machining
Carbides operations.
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology Þ Table 3.1 and Figure 3.6 present data on
3.1 Tool Life properties of various tool materials.
Þ The properties are those related to the
3.2 Tool Materials requirements of a cutting tool:
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel  Hardness,
and Its Predecessors  Toughness, and
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys  Hot hardness.
3.2.3 Cemented Þ Table 3.1 lists room temperature hardness
Carbides, Cermets, and transverse rupture strength for selected
and Coated materials.
Carbides
Þ Transverse rupture strength is a property
3.2.4 Ceramics
used to indicate toughness for hard materials.
and Cubic Boron Þ Figure 3.6 shows hardness as a function of
Nitride temperature for several of the tool materials.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology Þ In addition to these property comparisons, it
3.1 Tool Life is useful to compare the materials in terms of
the parameters n and C in the Taylor tool life
3.2 Tool Materials equation.
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel Þ In general, the development of new cutting-
and Its Predecessors tool materials has resulted in increases in the
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys values of these two parameters.
3.2.3 Cemented Þ Table 3.2 provides a listing of representative
Carbides, Cermets, values of n and C in the Taylor tool life
and Coated equation for selected cutting-tool materials.
Carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology Þ The chronological development of tool
3.1 Tool Life materials has generally followed a path in
which new materials have permitted higher
3.2 Tool Materials and higher cutting speeds to be achieved.
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel Þ Table 3.3 identifies the cutting-tool
and Its Predecessors materials, together with their approximate
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys year of introduction and typical maximum
3.2.3 Cemented allowable cutting speeds at which they can
Carbides, Cermets, be used.
and Coated Þ Dramatic increases in machining
Carbides
productivity have been made possible
3.2.4 Ceramics because of advances in tool material
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds technology, as indicated in the table.
and Cubic Boron
Þ Machine tool practice has not always kept
Nitride
pace with cutting-tool technology.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology Þ Limitations on horsepower, machine tool
3.1 Tool Life rigidity, spindle bearings, and the
widespread use of older equipment in
3.2 Tool Materials industry have acted to underutilize the
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel possible upper speeds permitted by available
and Its Predecessors cutting tools.
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated
Carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology 3.2.1 High-Speed Steel and Its
3.1 Tool Life Predecessors
3.2 Tool Materials Þ Before the development of high-speed steel,
plain carbon steel and Mushet’s steel were
the principal tool materials for metal cutting.
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ Today, these steels are rarely used in
3.2.3 Cemented industrial machining applications.
Carbides, Cermets, Þ The plain carbon steels used as cutting tools
and Coated
could be heat-treated to achieve relatively
Carbides
high hardness (Rockwell C 60), because of
3.2.4 Ceramics their fairly high carbon content.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.2 Tool Materials Þ However, because of low alloying levels,
they possess poor hot hardness (Figure 3.6),
which renders them unusable in metal
cutting except at speeds too low to be
practical by today’s standards.
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated
Carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.2 Tool Materials Þ However, because of low alloying levels,
they possess poor hot hardness (Figure 3.6),
which renders them unusable in metal
cutting except at speeds too low to be
practical by today’s standards.
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets, Þ Mushet’s steel has been displaced by
and Coated advances in tool steel metallurgy.
Carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.2 Tool Materials High-speed steel (HSS)
 Is a highly alloyed tool steel capable of
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel maintaining hardness at elevated
temperatures better than high carbon and
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys low alloy steels.
3.2.3 Cemented  Its good hot hardness permits tools made
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated
of HSS to be used at higher cutting
Carbides speeds.
3.2.4 Ceramics  Compared with the other tool materials at
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds the time of its development, it was truly
and Cubic Boron deserving of its name ‘‘high speed.’’
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
 A wide variety of high-speed steels are
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel available, but they can be divided into
two basic types:
(1) Tungsten-type, designated T-grades
3.2.3 Cemented
by the American Iron and Steel
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated
Institute (AISI); and
Carbides (2) Molybdenum-type, designated M-
3.2.4 Ceramics grades by AISI.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
(i) Tungsten-type HSS
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel  Contains tungsten (W) as its principal
alloying ingredient.
 Additional alloying elements are chromium
3.2.3 Cemented
(Cr), and vanadium (V).
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated  One of the original and best known HSS
Carbides grades is T1, or 18-4-1 high-speed steel,
3.2.4 Ceramics containing 18%W, 4%Cr, and 1%V.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
(i) Tungsten-type HSS
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel (ii) Molybdenum HSS
 grades contain combinations of tungsten
and molybdenum (Mo), plus the same
3.2.3 Cemented
additional alloying elements as in the T-
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated
grades.
Carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel  Cobalt (Co) is sometimes added to HSS to

and Its Predecessors enhance hot hardness.
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys  Of course, high-speed steel contains
3.2.3 Cemented carbon, the element common to all steels.
Carbides, Cermets,  Typical alloying contents and functions of
and Coated each alloying element in HSS are listed in
Carbides Table 3.4.
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.2 Tool Materials Facts about HSS
 Commercially, high-speed steel is one of the
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel most important cutting-tool materials in use
and Its Predecessors today, despite the fact that it was introduced
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys more than a century ago.
3.2.3 Cemented  HSS is especially suited to applications
Carbides, Cermets,
involving complicated tool geometries, such
and Coated
Carbides
as drills, taps, milling cutters, and broaches.
3.2.4 Ceramics  These complex shapes are generally easier
and less expensive to produce from
and Cubic Boron unhardened HSS than other tool materials.
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
 They can then be heat-treated so that cutting-
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel edge hardness is very good (Rockwell C 65),
and Its Predecessors whereas toughness of the internal portions of
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys the tool is also good.
3.2.3 Cemented  HSS cutters possess better toughness than
Carbides, Cermets,
any of the harder non-steel tool materials
and Coated
Carbides
used for machining, such as cemented
carbides and ceramics.
3.2.4 Ceramics
 Even for single-point tools, HSS is popular
and Cubic Boron among machinists because of the ease with
Nitride which desired tool geometry can be ground
into the tool point.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
 Over the years, improvements have been
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel made in the metallurgical formulation and
and Its Predecessors processing of HSS so that this class of tool
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys material remains competitive in many
3.2.3 Cemented applications.
Carbides, Cermets,  Also, HSS tools, drills in particular, are often
and Coated
Carbides
coated with a thin film of titanium nitride
(TiN) to provide significant increases in
3.2.4 Ceramics
cutting performance.
and Cubic Boron
 Physical vapor deposition processes are
Nitride commonly used to coat these HSS tools.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology 3.2.1 High-Speed Steel and Its Predecessors
3.1 Tool Life 3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys

3.2 Tool Materials  Cast cobalt alloy cutting tools consist of
cobalt, around 40% to 50%; chromium,
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel about 25% to 35%; and tungsten, usually
15% to 20%; with trace amounts of other
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys elements.
3.2.3 Cemented  These tools are made into the desired shape
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated
by casting in graphite molds and then
Carbides grinding to final size and cutting-edge
sharpness.
3.2.4 Ceramics
 High hardness is achieved as cast, an
and Cubic Boron advantage over HSS, which requires heat
Nitride treatment to achieve its hardness.
3.3 Cutting Fluids

3.2 Tool Materials  Wear resistance of the cast cobalts is better
than high-speed steel, but not as good as
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel cemented carbide.
 Toughness of cast cobalt tools is better than
carbides but not as good as HSS.
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets,  Hot hardness also lies between these two
and Coated materials.
Carbides  As might be expected from their properties,
3.2.4 Ceramics applications of cast cobalt tools are
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds generally between those of high-speed steel
and Cubic Boron and cemented carbides.
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids

3.2 Tool Materials  They are capable of heavy roughing cuts at
speeds greater than HSS and feeds greater
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel than carbides.
 Work materials include both steels and non-
steels, as well as non-metallic materials such
3.2.3 Cemented
as plastics and graphite.
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated  Today, cast cobalt alloy tools are not nearly
Carbides as important commercially as either high-
3.2.4 Ceramics speed steel or cemented carbides.
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds  They were introduced around 1915 as a tool
and Cubic Boron material that would allow higher cutting
Nitride speeds than HSS.
3.3 Cutting Fluids

3.2 Tool Materials  The carbides were subsequently developed
and proved to be superior to the cast Co
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel alloys in most cutting situations.
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated
Carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.3 Cemented Carbides, Cermets,
3.2 Tool Materials and Coated Carbides
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel  Cermets are defined as composites of ceramic
and Its Predecessors and metallic materials.
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys  Technically speaking, cemented carbides are
3.2.3 Cemented included within this definition; however,
Carbides, Cermets, cermets based on WC–Co, including WC–TiC–
and Coated
TaC–Co, are known as carbides (cemented
Carbides
carbides) in common usage.
3.2.4 Ceramics
 In cutting-tool terminology, the term cermet is
applied to ceramic-metal composites
and Cubic Boron
Nitride containing TiC, TiN, and certain other
ceramics not including WC.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel  One of the advances in cutting-tool materials
and Its Predecessors involves the application of a very thin coating
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys to a WC–Co substrate. These tools are called
3.2.3 Cemented coated carbides.
Carbides, Cermets,  Thus, we have three important and closely
and Coated
related tool materials to discuss:
Carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
(1) Cemented carbides,
(2) Cermets, and
(3) Coated carbides.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel (i) Cemented Carbides
 Also called sintered carbides are a class of
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys hard tool material formulated from tungsten
3.2.3 Cemented carbide (WC) using powder metallurgy
Carbides, Cermets, techniques with cobalt (Co) as the binder.
and Coated
Carbides  There may be other carbide compounds in
3.2.4 Ceramics
the mixture, such as titanium carbide (TiC)
and/or tantalum carbide (TaC), in addition to
WC.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
 The first cemented carbide cutting tools were
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys made of WC–Co and could be used to
3.2.3 Cemented machine cast irons and non-steel materials at
Carbides, Cermets, cutting speeds faster than those possible with
and Coated
high-speed steel and cast cobalt alloys.
Carbides
 However, when the straight WC–Co tools
3.2.4 Ceramics
were used to cut steel, crater wear occurred
rapidly, leading to early failure of the tools.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
 A strong chemical affinity exists between
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys steel and the carbon in WC, resulting in
3.2.3 Cemented accelerated wear by diffusion and chemical
Carbides, Cermets, reaction at the tool–chip interface for this
and Coated
work-tool combination.
Carbides
 Consequently, straight WC–Co tools cannot
3.2.4 Ceramics
be used effectively to machine steel.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
 It was subsequently discovered that additions
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys of titanium carbide and tantalum carbide to
3.2.3 Cemented the WC–Co mix significantly retarded the
Carbides, Cermets, rate of crater wear when cutting steel.
and Coated
Carbides  These new WC–TiC–TaC–Co tools could be
3.2.4 Ceramics
used for steel machining.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
 The result is that cemented carbides are
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys divided in to two basic types:
3.2.3 Cemented
(1) non-steel-cutting grades, consisting of
Carbides, Cermets,
and Coated only WC– Co; and
Carbides (2) steel-cutting grades, with combinations
3.2.4 Ceramics
of TiC and TaC added to the WC–Co.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
 The general properties of the two types of
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys cemented carbides are similar:
3.2.3 Cemented (1) high compressive strength but low-to-
Carbides, Cermets, moderate tensile strength;
and Coated
(2) high hardness (90 to 95 HRA);
Carbides
(3) good hot hardness;
3.2.4 Ceramics (4) good wear resistance;
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds (5) high thermal conductivity;
and Cubic Boron (6) high modulus of elasticity—E values up to
Nitride
around 600X103 MPa (90X106 lb/in2); and
3.3 Cutting Fluids (7) toughness lower than high-speed steel.
3.1 Tool Life
Non-steel-cutting grades
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys  Refer to those cemented carbides that are
3.2.3 Cemented suitable for machining aluminum, brass,
Carbides, Cermets, copper, magnesium, titanium, and other
and Coated
nonferrous metals; anomalously, gray cast
Carbides
iron is included in this group of work
3.2.4 Ceramics materials.
 In the non-steel cutting grades, grain size and
and Cubic Boron
Nitride cobalt content are the factors that influence
properties of the cemented carbide material.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys  The typical grain size found in conventional
3.2.3 Cemented cemented carbides ranges between 0.5 and 5
Carbides, Cermets, µm (20 and 200µ-in).
and Coated
Carbides  As grain size is increased, hardness and hot
3.2.4 Ceramics
hardness decrease, but transverse rupture
strength increases.
and Cubic Boron  The typical cobalt content in cemented
Nitride carbides used for cutting tools is 3% to 12%.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys  The effect of cobalt content on hardness and
3.2.3 Cemented transverse rupture strength is shown in
Carbides, Cermets, Figure 3.5.
and Coated
Carbides  As cobalt content increases, TRS improves at
3.2.4 Ceramics
the expense of hardness and wear resistance.
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds  Cemented carbides with low percentages of
and Cubic Boron cobalt content (3% to 6%) have high hardness
Nitride and low TRS, whereas carbides with high Co
3.3 Cutting Fluids (6% to 12%) have high TRS but lower
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys  Accordingly, cemented carbides with higher
3.2.3 Cemented cobalt are used for roughing operations and
Carbides, Cermets, interrupted cuts (such as milling), while
and Coated
carbides with lower cobalt (therefore, higher
Carbides
hardness and wear resistance) are used in
3.2.4 Ceramics finishing cuts.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Steel-cutting grades
3.2.3 Cemented  are used for low carbon, stainless and other
Carbides, Cermets, alloy steels.
and Coated
Carbides  For these carbide grades, titanium carbide
3.2.4 Ceramics
and/or tantalum carbide is substituted for
some of the tungsten carbide.
and Cubic Boron  TiC is the more popular additive in most
Nitride applications.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Steel-cutting grades
3.2.3 Cemented  Typically, from 10% to 25% of the WC might
Carbides, Cermets, be replaced by combinations of TiC and TaC.
and Coated
Carbides  This composition increases the crater wear
3.2.4 Ceramics
resistance for steel cutting, but tends to
adversely affect flank wear resistance for non-
steel-cutting applications.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride  That is why two basic categories of cemented
3.3 Cutting Fluids carbide are needed.
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ One of the important developments in
cemented carbide technology in recent years
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets, is the use of very fine grain sizes (submicron
and Coated sizes) of the various carbide ingredients
Carbides (WC, TiC, and TaC).
3.2.4 Ceramics Þ Although small grain size is usually
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds associated with higher hardness but lower
and Cubic Boron transverse rupture strength, the decrease in
Nitride TRS is reduced or reversed at the submicron
3.3 Cutting Fluids particle sizes.
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ Therefore, these ultrafine grain carbides
possess high hardness combined with good
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets, toughness.
and Coated Þ Since the two basic types of cemented
Carbides carbide were introduced in the 1920s and
3.2.4 Ceramics 1930s, the increasing number and variety of
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds engineering materials have complicated the
and Cubic Boron selection of the most appropriate cemented
Nitride carbide for a given machining application.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ To address the problem of grade selection,
two classification systems have been
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets, developed:
and Coated (1) the ANSI (American National Standards
Carbides Institute) C-grade system, developed in the
3.2.4 Ceramics United States starting around 1942; and
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds (2) the ISO R513-1975(E) system, introduced
and Cubic Boron by the International Organization for
Nitride Standardization (ISO) around 1964.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ In the C-grade system, summarized in Table
3.5, machining grades of cemented carbide
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets, are divided into two basic groups,
and Coated corresponding to non-steel-cutting and steel-
Carbides cutting categories.
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ Within each group there are four levels,
corresponding to
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets,  Roughing,
and Coated  General purpose,
Carbides  Finishing, and
3.2.4 Ceramics  Precision finishing.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ The ISOR513-1975(E) system, titled
‘‘Application of Carbides for Machining by
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets, Chip Removal,’’ classifies all machining
and Coated grades of cemented carbides into three basic
Carbides groups, each with its own letter and color
3.2.4 Ceramics code, as summarized in Table 3.6.
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds Þ Within each group, the grades are numbered
and Cubic Boron on a scale that ranges from maximum
Nitride hardness to maximum toughness.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ Harder grades are used for finishing
operations (high speeds, low feeds and
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets, depths), whereas tougher grades are used for
and Coated roughing operations.
Carbides Þ The ISO classification system can also be
3.2.4 Ceramics used to recommend applications for cermets
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds and coated carbides.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ The two systems map into each other as
follows:
3.2.3 Cemented
Carbides, Cermets,  The ANSI C1 through C4-grades
and Coated map into the ISO K-grades, but in
Carbides reverse numerical order, and
3.2.4 Ceramics  the ANSI C5 through C8 grades
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds translate into the ISO P-grades, but
and Cubic Boron again in reverse numerical order.
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
and Its Predecessors (ii) Cermets
Þ Although cemented carbides are technically
3.2.3 Cemented classified as cermet composites, the term
Carbides, Cermets, cermet in cutting-tool technology is
and Coated
generally reserved for combinations of TiC,
Carbides
TiN, and titanium carbonitride (TiCN), with
3.2.4 Ceramics
nickel and/or molybdenum as binders.
Þ Some of the cermet chemistries are more
and Cubic Boron
Nitride complex (e.g., ceramics such as TaxNbyC
and binders such as Mo2C).
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
Þ However, cermets exclude metallic
3.2.3 Cemented composites that are primarily based on WC–
Carbides, Cermets, Co.
and Coated
Carbides Þ Applications of cermets include high-speed
3.2.4 Ceramics finishing and semi-finishing of steels,
stainless steels, and cast irons.
and Cubic Boron Þ Higher speeds are generally allowed with
Nitride these tools compared with steel-cutting
3.3 Cutting Fluids carbide grades.
3.1 Tool Life
Þ Lower feeds are typically used so that better
3.2.3 Cemented surface finish is achieved, often eliminating
Carbides, Cermets, the need for grinding.
and Coated
Carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.1 High-Speed Steel (i) Cemented Carbides (ii) Cermets
and Its Predecessors (iii) Coated Carbides
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ The development of coated carbides around
3.2.3 Cemented 1970 represented a significant advance in
Carbides, Cermets, cutting-tool technology.
and Coated
Þ Coated carbides are a cemented carbide
Carbides
insert coated with one or more thin layers of
3.2.4 Ceramics
wear-resistant material, such as titanium
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds carbide, titanium nitride, and/or aluminum
and Cubic Boron oxide (Al2O3).
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ The coating is applied to the substrate by
3.2.3 Cemented chemical vapor deposition or physical vapor
Carbides, Cermets, deposition.
and Coated
Þ The coating thickness is only 2.5 to 13 µm
Carbides
(0.0001 to 0.0005 in).
3.2.4 Ceramics
Þ It has been found that thicker coatings tend
and Cubic Boron
to be brittle, resulting in cracking, chipping,
Nitride and separation from the substrate.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ The first generation of coated carbides had
3.2.3 Cemented only a single layer coating (TiC, TiN, or
Carbides, Cermets, Al2O3).
and Coated
Þ More recently, coated inserts have been
Carbides
developed that consist of multiple layers.
3.2.4 Ceramics
Þ The first layer applied to the WC–Co base is
and Cubic Boron
usually TiN or TiCN because of good
Nitride adhesion and similar coefficient of thermal
expansion.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ Additional layers of various combinations of
3.2.3 Cemented TiN, TiCN, Al2O3, and TiAlN are subsequently
Carbides, Cermets, applied.
and Coated
Þ Coated carbides are used to machine cast
Carbides
irons and steels in turning and milling
3.2.4 Ceramics
operations.
Þ They are best applied at high cutting speeds
and Cubic Boron
Nitride in situations in which dynamic force and
thermal shock are minimal.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ If these conditions become too severe, as in
3.2.3 Cemented some interrupted cut operations, chipping of
Carbides, Cermets, the coating can occur, resulting in premature
and Coated tool failure.
Carbides
Þ In this situation, uncoated carbides
3.2.4 Ceramics
formulated for toughness are preferred.
Þ When properly applied, coated carbide tools
and Cubic Boron
Nitride usually permit increases in allowable cutting
speeds compared with uncoated cemented
3.3 Cutting Fluids carbides.
3.1 Tool Life
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Þ Use of coated carbide tools is expanding to
3.2.3 Cemented nonferrous metal and nonmetal applications
Carbides, Cermets, for improved tool life and higher cutting
and Coated speeds.
Carbides
Þ Different coating materials are required,
3.2.4 Ceramics
such as
 Chromium carbide (CrC),
and Cubic Boron
Nitride  Zirconium nitride (ZrN), and
3.3 Cutting Fluids  Diamond.
3.1 Tool Life 3.2.3 Cemented Carbides, Cermets, and Coated
Carbides
3.2 Tool Materials
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Its Predecessors Þ Cutting tools made from ceramics were first
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys used commercially in the United States in
3.2.3 Cemented the mid-1950s, although their development
Carbides, Cermets, and use in Europe dates back to the early
and Coated 1900s.
Carbides
Þ Today’s ceramic cutting tools are composed
3.2.4 Ceramics primarily of fine-grained aluminum oxide
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds (Al2O3), pressed and sintered at high
and Cubic Boron pressures and temperatures with no binder
Nitride
into insert form.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2 Tool Materials
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Its Predecessors Þ The aluminum oxide is usually very pure
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys (99% is typical), although some
3.2.3 Cemented manufacturers add other oxides (such as
Carbides, Cermets, zirconium oxide) in small amounts.
and Coated Þ In producing ceramic tools, it is important
Carbides
to use a very fine grain size in the alumina
3.2.4 Ceramics powder, and to maximize density of the mix
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds through high-pressure compaction to
and Cubic Boron improve the material’s low toughness.
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2 Tool Materials
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Its Predecessors Þ Aluminum oxide cutting tools are most
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys successful in high-speed turning of cast
3.2.3 Cemented iron and steel.
Carbides, Cermets, Þ Applications also include finish turning of
and Coated hardened steels using high cutting speeds,
Carbides
low feeds and depths, and a rigid work
3.2.4 Ceramics setup.
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds Þ Many premature fracture failures of ceramic
and Cubic Boron
tools are because of non-rigid machine tool
Nitride
setups, which subject the tools to
3.3 Cutting Fluids mechanical shock.
Carbides
3.2 Tool Materials
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Its Predecessors Þ When properly applied, ceramic cutting
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys tools can be used to obtain very good
3.2.3 Cemented surface finish.
Carbides, Cermets, Þ Ceramics are not recommended for heavy
and Coated interrupted cut operations (e.g., rough
Carbides
milling) because of their low toughness.
3.2.4 Ceramics
Þ In addition to its use as inserts in
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds conventional machining operations, Al2O3 is
and Cubic Boron
widely used as an abrasive in grinding and
Nitride
other abrasive processes.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2 Tool Materials
3.2.4 Ceramics
and Its Predecessors Þ Other commercially available ceramic
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys cutting-tool materials include
3.2.3 Cemented  Silicon nitride (SiN),
Carbides, Cermets,  Sialon (silicon nitride and aluminum
and Coated oxide, SiN–Al2O3),
Carbides  Aluminum oxide and titanium
3.2.4 Ceramics carbide (Al2O3–TiC), and
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds  Aluminum oxide reinforced with
and Cubic Boron single crystal whiskers of silicon
Nitride carbide.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2 Tool Materials 3.2.4 Ceramics
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds and Cubic
3.2.2 Cast Cobalt Alloys Boron Nitride
3.2.3 Cemented Þ Diamond is the hardest material known.
Carbides, Cermets, Þ By some measures of hardness, diamond is
and Coated three to four times as hard as tungsten
Carbides
carbide or aluminum oxide.
3.2.4 Ceramics
Þ Since high hardness is one of the desirable
properties of a cutting tool, it is natural to
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
think of diamonds for machining and
grinding applications.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2.3 Cemented Þ Synthetic diamond cutting tools are made
Carbides, Cermets, of sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD),
and Coated which dates from the early 1970s.
Carbides
Þ Sintered polycrystalline diamond is
3.2.4 Ceramics fabricated by sintering fine-grained
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds diamond crystals under high temperatures
and Cubic Boron and pressures into the desired shape.
Nitride
Þ Little or no binder is used.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2.3 Cemented Þ The crystals have a random orientation and
Carbides, Cermets, this adds considerable toughness to the
and Coated SPD tools compared with single crystal
Carbides diamonds.
3.2.4 Ceramics Þ Tool inserts are typically made by
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds depositing a layer of SPD about 0.5mm
and Cubic Boron (0.020 in) thick on the surface of a
Nitride cemented carbide base.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2.3 Cemented Þ Very small inserts have also been made of
Carbides, Cermets, 100% SPD.
and Coated Þ Applications of diamond cutting tools
Carbides
include high-speed machining of
3.2.4 Ceramics nonferrous metals and abrasive nonmetals
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds such as fiberglass, graphite, and wood.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2.3 Cemented Þ Machining of steel, other ferrous metals
Carbides, Cermets, and nickel-based alloys with SPD tools is
and Coated not practical because of the chemical
Carbides affinity that exists between these metals
3.2.4 Ceramics and carbon (a diamond, after all, is carbon).
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2.3 Cemented Þ Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the
Carbides, Cermets, hardest material known, and its fabrication
and Coated in to cutting tool inserts is basically the
Carbides same as SPD; that is, coatings on WC–Co
3.2.4 Ceramics inserts.
and Cubic Boron
Nitride
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Carbides
3.2.3 Cemented Þ Cubic boron nitride (symbolized cBN) does
Carbides, Cermets, not react chemically with iron and nickel as
and Coated SPD does; therefore, the applications of
Carbides cBN-coated tools are for machining steel
3.2.4 Ceramics and nickel-based alloys.
3.2.5 Synthetic Diamonds Þ Both SPD and cBN tools are expensive, as
and Cubic Boron one might expect, and the applications
Nitride must justify the additional tooling cost.
3.3 Cutting Fluids
Technology 3.3 Cutting Fluids

Þ A cutting fluid is any liquid or gas that is
3.1 Tool Life applied directly to the machining operation
3.2 Tool Materials to improve cutting performance.
Þ Cutting fluids address two main problems:
3.3 Cutting Fluids
(1) Heat generation at the shear zone and
3.3.1 Types of Cutting friction zone, and
Fluids (2) Friction at the tool–chip and tool–
3.3.2 Application of work interfaces.
Cutting Fluids

Þ In addition to removing heat and reducing
3.1 Tool Life friction, cutting fluids provide additional
3.2 Tool Materials benefits, such as
 Washing away chips (especially in
3.3 Cutting Fluids grinding and milling),
3.3.1 Types of Cutting  Reducing the temperature of the
Fluids workpart for easier handling,
3.3.2 Application of  Reducing cutting forces and power
Cutting Fluids requirements,
 Improving dimensional stability of the
workpart, and
 Improving surface finish.

3.3.1 Types of Cutting Fluids
3.1 Tool Life
Þ A variety of cutting fluids are commercially
3.2 Tool Materials available.
3.3 Cutting Fluids Þ It is appropriate to discuss them first
according to function and then to classify
3.3.1 Types of Cutting them according to chemical formulation.
Fluids
3.3.2 Application of
Cutting Fluids

3.1 Tool Life
Cutting Fluid Functions
3.2 Tool Materials There are two general categories of cutting
3.3 Cutting Fluids fluids, corresponding to the two main
problems they are designed to address:
3.3.1 Types of Cutting coolants and lubricants.
Fluids
Cutting Fluids

3.1 Tool Life
3.2 Tool Materials (i) Coolants
3.3 Cutting Fluids  are cutting fluids designed to reduce the
effects of heat in the machining
3.3.1 Types of Cutting operation.
Fluids  They have a limited effect on the
3.3.2 Application of amount of heat energy generated in
Cutting Fluids cutting; instead, they carry away the
heat that is generated, thereby reducing
the temperature of tool and workpiece.
 This helps to prolong the life of the
cutting tool.

3.1 Tool Life
3.3 Cutting Fluids  The capacity of a cutting fluid to reduce
temperatures in machining depends on
3.3.1 Types of Cutting its thermal properties.
Fluids  Specific heat and thermal conductivity
3.3.2 Application of are the most important properties.
Cutting Fluids  Water has high specific heat and thermal
conductivity relative to other liquids,
which is why water is used as the base
in coolant-type cutting fluids.

3.1 Tool Life
3.3 Cutting Fluids  These properties allow the coolant to
draw heat away from the operation,
3.3.1 Types of Cutting thereby reducing the temperature of the
Fluids cutting tool.
3.3.2 Application of  Coolant-type cutting fluids seem to be
Cutting Fluids most effective at relatively high cutting
speeds, in which heat generation and
high temperatures are problems.

3.1 Tool Life
3.3 Cutting Fluids  They are most effective on tool
materials that are most susceptible to
3.3.1 Types of Cutting temperature failures, such as high-speed
Fluids steels, and are used frequently in turning
3.3.2 Application of and milling operations, in which large
Cutting Fluids amounts of heat are generated.

3.1 Tool Life
3.3 Cutting Fluids (ii) Lubricants
 are usually oil-based fluids (because oils
3.3.1 Types of Cutting possess good lubricating qualities)
Fluids formulated to reduce friction at the tool–
3.3.2 Application of chip and tool–work interfaces.
Cutting Fluids  Lubricant cutting fluids operate by
extreme pressure lubrication, a special
form of lubrication that involves
formation of thin solid salt layers on the
hot, clean metal surfaces through
chemical reaction with the lubricant.

3.1 Tool Life
 Compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and
3.3.1 Types of Cutting phosphorus in the lubricant cause the
Fluids formation of these surface layers, which
3.3.2 Application of act to separate the two metal surfaces
Cutting Fluids (i.e., chip and tool).
 These extreme pressure films are
significantly more effective in reducing
friction in metal cutting than
conventional lubrication, which is based
on the presence of liquid films between
the two surfaces.

3.1 Tool Life
 Lubricant-type cutting fluids are most
3.3.1 Types of Cutting effective at lower cutting speeds.
Fluids  They tend to lose their effectiveness at
3.3.2 Application of high speeds (above about 120 m/min)
Cutting Fluids because the motion of the chip at these
speeds prevents the cutting fluid from
reaching the tool– chip interface.
 In addition, high cutting temperatures at
these speeds cause the oils to vaporize
before they can lubricate.

3.1 Tool Life
 Machining operations such as drilling
3.3.1 Types of Cutting and tapping usually benefit from
Fluids lubricants.
3.3.2 Application of  In these operations, built-up edge
Cutting Fluids formation is retarded, and torque on the
tool is reduced.

3.1 Tool Life
 Although the principal purpose of a
3.3.1 Types of Cutting lubricant is to reduce friction, it also
Fluids reduces the temperature in the operation
3.3.2 Application of through several mechanisms.
Cutting Fluids  First, the specific heat and thermal
conductivity of the lubricant help to
remove heat from the operation,
thereby reducing temperatures.
 Second, because friction is reduced,
the heat generated from friction is

3.1 Tool Life
 Although the principal purpose of a
3.3.1 Types of Cutting lubricant is to reduce friction, it also
Fluids reduces the temperature in the operation
3.3.2 Application of through several mechanisms.
Cutting Fluids  Third, a lower  means a lower
friction angle. According to
Merchant’s equation, Eq. (2.57), a
lower friction angle causes the shear
plane angle to increase, hence
reducing the amount of heat energy
generated in the shear zone.

3.1 Tool Life
 There is typically an overlapping effect
3.3.1 Types of Cutting between the two types of cutting fluids.
Fluids  Coolants are formulated with ingredients
3.3.2 Application of that help reduce friction.
Cutting Fluids  And lubricants have thermal properties
that, although not as good as those of
water, act to remove heat from the
cutting operation.

3.1 Tool Life
 Cutting fluids (both coolants and
3.3.1 Types of Cutting lubricants) manifest their effect on the
Fluids Taylor tool life equation through higher
3.3.2 Application of C values.
Cutting Fluids  Increases of 10% to 40% are typical.
 The slope n is not significantly affected.

3.1 Tool Life
3.2 Tool Materials Chemical Formulation of Cutting Fluids
3.3 Cutting Fluids Þ There are four categories of cutting fluids
according to chemical formulation:
3.3.1 Types of Cutting (i) Cutting oils
Fluids  are based on oil derived from petroleum,
3.3.2 Application of animal, marine, or vegetable origin.
Cutting Fluids  Mineral oils (petroleum based) are the
principal type because of their
abundance and generally desirable
lubricating characteristics.
 To achieve maximum lubricity, several
types of oils are often combined in the
same fluid.

3.1 Tool Life
Fluids  Chemical additives are also mixed with
3.3.2 Application of the oils to increase lubricating qualities.
Cutting Fluids  These additives contain compounds of
sulfur, chlorine, and phosphorus, and are
designed to react chemically with the
chip and tool surfaces to form solid films
(extreme pressure lubrication) that help
to avoid metal-to-metal contact between
the two.

3.1 Tool Life
Fluids (ii) Emulsified oils
3.3.2 Application of  Consist of oil droplets suspended in
Cutting Fluids water.
 The fluid is made by blending oil
(usually mineral oil) in water using an
emulsifying agent to promote blending
and stability of the emulsion.
 A typical ratio of water to oil is 30:1.

3.1 Tool Life
Fluids (ii) Emulsified oils
3.3.2 Application of  Chemical additives based on sulfur,
Cutting Fluids chlorine, and phosphorus are often used
to promote extreme pressure lubrication.
 Because they contain both oil and water,
the emulsified oils combine cooling and
lubricating qualities in one cutting fluid.

3.1 Tool Life
3.3.1 Types of Cutting (i) Cutting oils (ii) Emulsified oils
Fluids (iii) Chemical fluids
3.3.2 Application of  are chemicals in a water solution rather
Cutting Fluids than oils in emulsion.
 The dissolved chemicals include
compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and
phosphorus, plus wetting agents.
 The chemicals are intended to provide
some degree of lubrication to the solution.

3.1 Tool Life
3.3.2 Application of  Chemical fluids provide good coolant
Cutting Fluids qualities but their lubricating qualities are
less than the other cutting fluid types.

3.1 Tool Life
3.3.2 Application of  Semi-chemical fluids have small amounts
Cutting Fluids of emulsified oil added to increase the
lubricating characteristics of the cutting
fluid.
 In effect, they are a hybrid class
between chemical fluids and
emulsified oils.

3.1 Tool Life
3.3.2 Application of Cutting Fluids
3.2 Tool Materials
Application Methods
3.3 Cutting Fluids (i) Flooding
 Sometimes called flood cooling because
3.3.1 Types of Cutting it is generally used with coolant-type
Fluids cutting fluids.
3.3.2 Application of  In flooding, a steady stream of fluid is
Cutting Fluids directed at the tool–work or tool–chip
interface of the machining operation.

3.1 Tool Life
3.2 Tool Materials
Application Methods
(ii) Mist application
3.3.1 Types of Cutting  primarily used for water based cutting
Fluids fluids.
3.3.2 Application of  In this method the fluid is directed at the
Cutting Fluids operation in the form of a high-speed
mist carried by a pressurized air stream.
 Mist application is generally not as
effective as flooding in cooling the tool.

3.1 Tool Life
3.2 Tool Materials
Application Methods
3.3.1 Types of Cutting  However, because of the high-velocity air
Fluids stream, mist application may be more
3.3.2 Application of effective in delivering the cutting fluid to
Cutting Fluids areas that are difficult to access by
conventional flooding.

3.1 Tool Life
3.2 Tool Materials
Application Methods
3.3.1 Types of Cutting (iii) Manual application
Fluids  By means of a squirt can or paint brush
3.3.2 Application of is sometimes used for applying
Cutting Fluids lubricants in tapping and other
operations in which cutting speeds are
low and friction is a problem.
 It is generally not preferred by most
production machine shops because of its
variability in application.

3.1 Tool Life
3.2 Tool Materials Application Methods
3.3 Cutting Fluids Cutting Fluid Filtration and Dry Machining
 Cutting fluids become contaminated
3.3.1 Types of Cutting over time with a variety of foreign
Fluids substances, such as tramp oil (machine
3.3.2 Application of oil, hydraulic fluid, etc.), garbage
Cutting Fluids (cigarette butts, food, etc.), small chips,
molds, fungi, and bacteria.
 In addition to causing odors and health
hazards, contaminated cutting fluids do
not perform their lubricating function as
well.

3.1 Tool Life
 Alternative ways of dealing with this
3.3.1 Types of Cutting problem are to:
Fluids (1) replace the cutting fluid at regular
3.3.2 Application of and frequent intervals (perhaps
Cutting Fluids twice per month);
(2) use a filtration system to
continuously or periodically clean
the fluid; or
(3) dry machining; that is, machine
without cutting fluids.

3.1 Tool Life
 Because of growing concern about
3.3.1 Types of Cutting environmental pollution and associated
Fluids legislation, disposing old fluids has
3.3.2 Application of become both costly and contrary to the
Cutting Fluids general public welfare.

3.1 Tool Life
Filtration Systems
3.3.1 Types of Cutting  are being installed in numerous machine
Fluids shops today to solve the contamination
3.3.2 Application of problem.
Cutting Fluids

3.1 Tool Life
Filtration Systems
3.3.1 Types of Cutting Advantages of filtration systems include:
Fluids (1) prolonged cutting fluid life between
3.3.2 Application of changes instead of replacing the fluid
Cutting Fluids once or twice per month, coolant lives
of 1 year have been reported;
(2) reduced fluid disposal cost, since
disposal is much less frequent when a
filter is used;

3.1 Tool Life
Filtration Systems
3.3.1 Types of Cutting Advantages of filtration systems include:
Fluids (3) cleaner cutting fluid for better working
3.3.2 Application of environment and reduced health
Cutting Fluids hazards;
(4) lower machine tool maintenance; and
(5) longer tool life.
 There are various types of filtration systems
for filtering cutting fluids.

3.1 Tool Life
Filtration Systems
3.3.1 Types of Cutting Dry Machining
Fluids  Meaning that no cutting fluid is used.
Cutting Fluids

3.1 Tool Life
Filtration Systems
Fluids  Dry machining avoids the problems of
3.3.2 Application of cutting fluid contamination, disposal,
Cutting Fluids and filtration, but can lead to problems
of its own:
(1) overheating the tool,
(2) operating at lower cutting speeds
and production rates to prolong
tool life, and

3.1 Tool Life
Filtration Systems
Fluids  Dry machining avoids the problems of
3.3.2 Application of cutting fluid contamination, disposal,
Cutting Fluids and filtration, but can lead to problems
of its own:
(3) absence of chip removal benefits in
grinding and milling.
 Cutting-tool producers have developed
certain grades of carbides and coated
carbides for use in dry machining.
Chapter 4
Economics of
Machining
4.1 Production Rate And
Cutting Speed
4.2 Experimental
Determination of
Production
4.3 Cost of Production and
Cutting Speed
4.4 Experimental
Determination of Cost
of Production
5.5 Evaluation of Cutting
Speeds
5.5 Break-even Point
Chapter 5 Þ Abrasive machining involves material
Grinding and removal by the action of hard, abrasive
particles that are usually in the form of a
other Abrasive bonded wheel.
Process Þ Grinding is the most important abrasive
process.
5.1 Grinding Þ In terms of number of machine tools in
use, grinding is the most common of all
5.2 Related Abrasive metalworking operations.
Processes Þ Other traditional abrasive processes
include honing, lapping, super-finishing,
polishing, and buffing.
Þ The abrasive machining processes are
generally used as finishing operations,
although some abrasive processes are
capable of high material removal rates
rivaling those of conventional machining
operations.
Chapter 5 Þ Abrasive processes are important
Grinding and commercially and technologically for the
following reasons:
other Abrasive  They can be used on all types of
Process materials ranging from soft metals to
hardened steels and hard nonmetallic
5.1 Grinding materials such as ceramics and silicon.
 Some of these processes can produce
5.2 Related Abrasive extremely fine surface finishes, to 0.025
Processes m (1 -in).
 For certain abrasive processes,
dimensions can be held to extremely
close tolerances.
Chapter 5 5.1 Grinding
Grinding and Þ Grinding is a material removal process
other Abrasive accomplished by abrasive particles that are
contained in a bonded grinding wheel
Process rotating at very high surface speeds.
5.1 Grinding Þ The grinding wheel is usually disk-shaped,
and is precisely balanced for high
5.2 Related Abrasive rotational speeds.
Processes Þ Grinding can be likened to the milling
process. i.e. Cutting occurs on either the
periphery or the face of the grinding wheel,
similar to peripheral and face milling.
Þ Peripheral grinding is much more common
than face grinding.
Grinding and Þ The rotating grinding wheel consists of
other Abrasive many cutting teeth (the abrasive particles),
and the work is fed relative to the wheel to
Process accomplish material removal.
5.1 Grinding
5.2 Related Abrasive
Processes
Grinding and Þ Despite these similarities, there are
other Abrasive significant differences between grinding
and milling:
Process (1) the abrasive grains in the wheel are much
smaller and more numerous than the teeth
5.1 Grinding on a milling cutter;
5.2 Related Abrasive (2) cutting speeds in grinding are much higher
Processes than in milling;
(3) the abrasive grits in a grinding wheel are
randomly oriented and possess on average a
very high negative rake angle; and
(4) a grinding wheel is self-sharpening as the
wheel wears, the abrasive particles become
dull and either fracture to create fresh
cutting edges or are pulled out of the
surface of the wheel to expose new grains.
Grinding and 5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel
other Abrasive Þ A grinding wheel consists of abrasive
Process particles and bonding material.
Þ The bonding material holds the particles in
5.1 Grinding place and establishes the shape and structure
of the wheel.
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ These two ingredients and the way they are
Grinding Process fabricated determine the five basic
parameters of a grinding wheel:
5.1.3 Application
(1) Abrasive material,
Considerations in
(2) Grain size,
Grinding
(3) Bonding material,
5.1.4 Grinding
(4) Wheel grade, and
Operations and
(5) Wheel structure.
Grinding Machines
Þ To achieve the desired performance in a
5.2 Related Abrasive given application, each of the parameters
Processes must be carefully selected.
other Abrasive (i) Abrasive Material
Process  Different abrasive materials are
appropriate for grinding different work
5.1 Grinding materials.
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel  General properties of an abrasive
5.1.2 Analysis of the material used in grinding wheels include
Grinding Process high hardness, wear resistance,
toughness, and friability.
5.1.3 Application
Considerations in  Hardness, wear resistance, and
Grinding toughness are desirable properties of any
5.1.4 Grinding cutting-tool material.
Operations and  Friability refers to the capacity of the
Grinding Machines abrasive material to fracture when the
5.2 Related Abrasive cutting edge of the grain becomes dull,
thereby exposing a new sharp edge.
Processes
Process  Today, the abrasive materials of greatest
commercial importance are aluminum
5.1 Grinding oxide, silicon carbide, cubic boron
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel nitride, and diamond.
5.1.2 Analysis of the  They are briefly described in Table 5.1,
Grinding Process together with their relative hardness
values.
5.1.3 Application
Considerations in
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process (ii) Grain Size
 The grain size of the abrasive particle is
5.1 Grinding important in determining surface finish
and material removal rate.
 Small grit sizes produce better finishes,
5.1.2 Analysis of the
whereas larger grain sizes permit
Grinding Process
larger material removal rates.
5.1.3 Application  Thus, a choice must be made between
Considerations in these two objectives when selecting
Grinding abrasive grain size.
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and  The selection of grit size also depends
Grinding Machines to some extent on the hardness of the
work material.
Processes
Process (ii) Grain Size
 Harder work materials require smaller
5.1 Grinding grain sizes to cut effectively, whereas
softer materials require larger grit
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel sizes.
5.1.2 Analysis of the  Smaller grit sizes have larger numbers
Grinding Process
and vice versa.
5.1.3 Application  Grain sizes used in grinding wheels
Considerations in typically range between 8 and 250.
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding  Grit size 8 is very coarse and size 250
Operations and is very fine.
Grinding Machines  Even finer grit sizes are used for
5.2 Related Abrasive lapping and super-finishing.
Processes
other Abrasive (i) Abrasive Material (ii) Grain Size
Process (iii) Bonding Materials
 The bonding material holds the
5.1 Grinding abrasive grains and establishes the
shape and structural integrity of the
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel grinding wheel.
5.1.2 Analysis of the  Desirable properties of the bond
Grinding Process
material include strength, toughness,
5.1.3 Application hardness, and temperature resistance.
Considerations in
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
 The bonding material must be able to
5.1 Grinding withstand the centrifugal forces and
high temperatures experienced by the
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel grinding wheel, resist shattering in
5.1.2 Analysis of the shock loading of the wheel, and hold
Grinding Process the abrasive grains rigidly in place to
5.1.3 Application accomplish the cutting action while
Considerations in allowing those grains that are worn to
Grinding be dislodged so that new grains can be
5.1.4 Grinding exposed.
Operations and  Bonding materials commonly used in
Grinding Machines grinding wheels are identified and
5.2 Related Abrasive briefly described in Table 5.2.
Processes
other Abrasive (i) Abrasive Material(ii) Grain Size
(iv) Wheel Structure and Wheel Grade
5.1 Grinding Wheel structure
 Refers to the relative spacing of the abrasive
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel grains in the wheel.
5.1.2 Analysis of the  In addition to the abrasive grains and bond
Grinding Process material, grinding wheels contain air gaps
5.1.3 Application or pores, as illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Considerations in  The volumetric proportions of grains,
Grinding bond material, and pores can be expressed
5.1.4 Grinding as
Operations and
Grinding Machines
where Pg = proportion of abrasive grains in the total
5.2 Related Abrasive wheel volume, Pb = proportion of bond material, and Pp
Processes = proportion of pores (air gaps).
 Wheel structure is measured on a scale that
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel ranges between ‘‘open’’ and ‘‘dense.’’
5.1.2 Analysis of the  An open structure is one in which Pp is
Grinding Process relatively large, and Pg is relatively small.
5.1.3 Application That is, there are more pores and fewer
Considerations in grains per unit volume in a wheel of open
Grinding structure.
5.1.4 Grinding  By contrast, a dense structure is one in
Operations and which Pp is relatively small, and Pg is larger.
Grinding Machines
Processes
 Generally, open structures are recommended
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel in situations in which clearance for chips
5.1.2 Analysis of the must be provided.
Grinding Process  Dense structures are used to obtain better
5.1.3 Application surface finish and dimensional control.
Considerations in
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Wheel grade
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel  Indicates the grinding wheel’s bond strength
5.1.2 Analysis of the in retaining the abrasive grits during cutting.
Grinding Process  This is largely dependent on the amount of
5.1.3 Application bonding material present in the wheel
Considerations in structure - Pb in Eq. (5.1).
Grinding  Grade is measured on a scale that ranges
5.1.4 Grinding
between soft and hard.
Operations and
Grinding Machines  ‘‘Soft’’ wheels lose grains readily, whereas
‘‘hard’’ wheels retain their abrasive grains.
Processes
Wheel grade
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel  Soft wheels are generally used for
5.1.2 Analysis of the applications requiring low material removal
Grinding Process rates and grinding of hard work materials.
5.1.3 Application  Hard wheels are typically used to achieve
Considerations in high stock removal rates and for grinding of
Grinding relative soft work materials.
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
5.1 Grinding (v) Grinding Wheel Specification
 The preceding parameters can be concisely
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel designated in a standard grinding wheel
5.1.2 Analysis of the marking system defined by the American
Grinding Process National Standards Institute (ANSI).
5.1.3 Application  This marking system uses numbers and
Considerations in letters to specify abrasive type, grit size,
Grinding grade, structure, and bond material.
5.1.4 Grinding  Table 5.3 presents an abbreviated version of
Operations and the ANSI Standard, indicating how the
Grinding Machines numbers and letters are interpreted.
Processes
 The standard also provides for additional
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel identifications that might be used by the
5.1.2 Analysis of the grinding wheel manufacturers.
Grinding Process  The ANSI Standard for diamond and cubic
5.1.3 Application boron nitride grinding wheels is slightly
Considerations in different than for conventional wheels.
Grinding  The marking system for these newer
5.1.4 Grinding grinding wheels is presented in Table 5.4.
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
 Grinding wheels come in a variety of shapes
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel and sizes, as shown in Figure 5.2.
5.1.2 Analysis of the  Configurations (a), (b), and (c) are
Grinding Process peripheral grinding wheels, in which
5.1.3 Application material removal is accomplished by the
Considerations in outside circumference of the wheel.
Grinding  A typical abrasive cutoff wheel is shown in
5.1.4 Grinding (d), which also involves peripheral cutting.
Operations and
 Wheels (e), (f), and (g) are face grinding
Grinding Machines
wheels, in which the flat face of the wheel
5.2 Related Abrasive removes material from the work surface.
Processes
other Abrasive 5.1.2 Analysis of the Grinding
Process Process
Þ The cutting conditions in grinding are
5.1 Grinding characterized by very high speeds and very
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel small cut size, compared to milling and
5.1.2 Analysis of the other traditional machining operations.
Grinding Process Þ Using surface grinding to illustrate, Figure
5.1.3 Application 5.3(a) shows the principal features of the
Considerations in process.
Grinding Þ The peripheral speed of the grinding wheel
5.1.4 Grinding is determined by the rotational speed of the
Operations and wheel:

Grinding Machines where v = surface speed of wheel, m/min (ft/min); N = spindle
5.2 Related Abrasive speed, rev/min; and D = wheel diameter, m (ft).
Processes
Process Process
Þ Depth of cut d, called the in feed, is the
5.1 Grinding penetration of the wheel below the original
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel work surface.
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ As the operation proceeds, the grinding
Grinding Process wheel is fed laterally across the surface on
5.1.3 Application each pass by the work. This is called the
Considerations in cross-feed, and it determines the width of
Grinding the grinding path w in Figure 5.3(a).
5.1.4 Grinding Þ This width, multiplied by depth d determines
Operations and the cross-sectional area of the cut.
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Process
Þ In most grinding operations, the work moves
5.1 Grinding past the wheel at a certain speed vw, so that
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel the material removal rate is
Grinding Process Þ Each grain in the grinding wheel cuts an
5.1.3 Application individual chip whose longitudinal shape
Considerations in before cutting is shown in Figure 5.3(b) and
Grinding whose assumed cross-sectional shape is
5.1.4 Grinding triangular, as in Figure 5.3(c).
Operations and Þ At the exit point of the grit from the work,
Grinding Machines where the chip cross section is largest, this
5.2 Related Abrasive triangle has height t and width w’.
Processes
Process Process
Þ In a grinding operation, we are interested in
5.1 Grinding how the cutting conditions combine with the
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel grinding wheel parameters to affect
5.1.2 Analysis of the (1) surface finish,
Grinding Process (2) forces and energy,
5.1.3 Application (3) temperature of the work surface, and
Considerations in (4) wheel wear.
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Process
5.1 Grinding (i) Surface Finish
Þ Most commercial grinding is performed to
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel achieve a surface finish that is superior to
5.1.2 Analysis of the that which can be accomplished with
Grinding Process conventional machining.
5.1.3 Application Þ The surface finish of the workpart is
Considerations in affected by the size of the individual chips
Grinding formed during grinding.
5.1.4 Grinding Þ One obvious factor in determining chip
Operations and size is grit size i.e. smaller grit sizes yield
Grinding Machines better finishes.
5.2 Related Abrasive Þ Let us examine the dimensions of an
Processes individual chip.
Process Process
(i) Surface Finish
5.1 Grinding Þ From the geometry of the grinding process
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel in Figure 5.3, it can be shown that the
5.1.2 Analysis of the average length of a chip is given by
Grinding Process
5.1.3 Application where lc is the length of the chip, mm(in); D =
Considerations in wheel diameter, mm(in); and d = depth of cut, or
Grinding infeed, mm (in).
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Process
(i) Surface Finish
5.1 Grinding (ii) Forces and Energy
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel Þ If the force required to drive the work past
5.1.2 Analysis of the the grinding wheel were known, the
Grinding Process specific energy in grinding could be
determined as
5.1.3 Application
Considerations in
Where U = specific energy, J/mm3 (in-lb/in3); Fc =
Grinding
cutting force, which is the force to drive the work
5.1.4 Grinding
past the wheel, N (lb); v = wheel speed, m/min
Operations and (ft/min); vw = work speed, mm/ min (in/min); w =
Grinding Machines
width of cut, mm (in); and d = depth of cut, mm
5.2 Related Abrasive (in).
Processes
Process Process
(i) Surface Finish (ii) Forces and Energy
5.1 Grinding (iii) Temperatures at the Work Surface
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel Þ Because of the size effect, high negative
5.1.2 Analysis of the rake angles, and plowing and rubbing of
Grinding Process the abrasive grits against the work surface,
the grinding process is characterized by
5.1.3 Application
high temperatures.
Considerations in
Grinding Þ Unlike conventional machining operations
5.1.4 Grinding in which most of the heat energy generated
Operations and in the process is carried off in the chip,
Grinding Machines much of the energy in grinding remains in
the ground surface, resulting in high work
surface temperatures.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel Þ The high surface temperatures have several
5.1.2 Analysis of the possible damaging effects, primarily
Grinding Process surface burns and cracks.
5.1.3 Application Þ The burn marks show themselves as
Considerations in discolorations on the surface caused by
Grinding oxidation.
5.1.4 Grinding Þ Grinding burns are often a sign of
Operations and metallurgical damage immediately beneath
Grinding Machines the surface.
5.2 Related Abrasive Þ The surface cracks are perpendicular to the
Processes wheel speed direction.
Process Process
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel Þ They indicate an extreme case of thermal
5.1.2 Analysis of the damage to the work surface.
Grinding Process
5.1.3 Application
Considerations in
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Process
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel (iv) Wheel Wear
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ Grinding wheels wear, just as conventional
Grinding Process cutting tools wear.
Þ Three mechanisms are recognized as the
5.1.3 Application
principal causes of wear in grinding
Considerations in
wheels:
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding (1) grain fracture,
Operations and (2) attritious wear, and
Grinding Machines (3) bond fracture.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Grain fracture
Grinding Process  Occurs when a portion of the grain breaks
off, but the rest of the grain remains
5.1.3 Application
bonded in the wheel.
Considerations in
Grinding  The edges of the fractured area become
5.1.4 Grinding new cutting edges on the grinding wheel.
Operations and  The tendency of the grain to fracture is
Grinding Machines called friability.
Processes
Process Process
Grinding Process  High friability means that the grains
fracture more readily because of the
5.1.3 Application
cutting forces on the grains Fc’.
Considerations in
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Process
Grinding Process Attritious wear
 Involves dulling of the individual grains,
5.1.3 Application resulting in flat spots and rounded edges.
Considerations in
 Attritious wear is analogous to tool wear in a
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding conventional cutting tool.
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Process
 It is caused by similar physical mechanisms
5.1.3 Application including friction and diffusion, as well as
Considerations in chemical reactions between the abrasive
Grinding material and the work material in the
5.1.4 Grinding
presence of very high temperatures.
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Process
Bond fracture
5.1.3 Application  Occurs when the individual grains are pulled
Considerations in out of the bonding material.
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding  The tendency toward this mechanism
Operations and depends on wheel grade, among other
Grinding Machines factors.
Processes
Process Process
Bond fracture
5.1.3 Application  Bond fracture usually occurs because the
Considerations in grain has become dull because of attritious
Grinding wear, and the resulting cutting force is
5.1.4 Grinding
excessive.
Operations and
Grinding Machines  Sharp grains cut more efficiently with lower
cutting forces; hence, they remain attached
5.2 Related Abrasive in the bond structure.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ The three mechanisms combine to cause the
Grinding Process grinding wheel to wear as depicted in
Figure 5.5.
5.1.3 Application
Þ Three wear regions can be identified. In the
Considerations in
first region, the grains are initially sharp, and
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding wear is accelerated because of grain fracture.
Operations and Þ This corresponds to the ‘‘break-in’’ period in
Grinding Machines conventional tool wear.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ In the second region, the wear rate is fairly
Grinding Process constant, resulting in a linear relationship
between wheel wear and volume of metal
5.1.3 Application removed.
Considerations in
Þ This region is characterized by attritious
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding wear, with some grain and bond fracture.
Operations and Þ In the third region of the wheel wear curve,
Grinding Machines the grains become dull, and the amount of
5.2 Related Abrasive plowing and rubbing increases relative to
cutting.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ In addition, some of the chips become
Grinding Process clogged in the pores of the wheel. This is
called wheel loading, and it impairs the
5.1.3 Application cutting action and leads to higher heat and
Considerations in work surface temperatures.
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding Þ As a consequence, grinding efficiency
Operations and decreases, and the volume of wheel removed
Grinding Machines increases relative to the volume of metal
removed.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ The grinding ratio is a term used to indicate
Grinding Process the slope of the wheel wear curve.
Specifically
5.1.3 Application
Considerations in
where GR = the grinding ratio, Vw = the volume of
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding work material removed, and Vg = the corresponding
Operations and volume of the grinding wheel that is worn in the
Grinding Machines process.

Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ The grinding ratio has the most significance
Grinding Process in the linear wear region of Figure 5.5.
Þ Typical values of GR range between 95 and
5.1.3 Application
125, which is about five orders of magnitude
Considerations in
less than the analogous ratio in conventional
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding machining.
Operations and Þ Grinding ratio is generally increased by
Grinding Machines increasing wheel speed v.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ The reason for this is that the size of the chip
Grinding Process formed by each grit is smaller with higher
speeds, so the amount of grain fracture is
5.1.3 Application reduced.
Considerations in
Þ Because higher wheel speeds also improve
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding surface finish, there is a general advantage
Operations and in operating at high grinding speeds.
Grinding Machines Þ However, when speeds become too high,
5.2 Related Abrasive attritious wear and surface temperatures
increase.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ When the wheel is in the third region of the
Grinding Process wear curve, it must be re-sharpened by a
procedure called dressing, which consists of
5.1.3 Application
(1) breaking off the dulled grits on the
Considerations in
outside periphery of the grinding wheel
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding in order to expose fresh sharp grains
Operations and and
Grinding Machines (2) removing chips that have become
5.2 Related Abrasive clogged in the wheel.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ It is accomplished by a rotating disk, an
Grinding Process abrasive stick, or another grinding wheel
operating at high speed, held against the
5.1.3 Application wheel being dressed as it rotates.
Considerations in
Þ Although dressing sharpens the wheel, it
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding does not guarantee the shape of the wheel.
Operations and Þ Truing is an alternative procedure that not
Grinding Machines only sharpens the wheel, but also restores its
5.2 Related Abrasive cylindrical shape and ensures that it is
straight across its outside perimeter.
Processes
Process Process
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ The procedure uses a diamond-pointed tool
Grinding Process (other types of truing tools are also used)
that is fed slowly and precisely across the
5.1.3 Application wheel as it rotates.
Considerations in
Þ A very light depth is taken (0.025 mm or
Grinding
5.1.4 Grinding less) against the wheel.
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
other Abrasive 5.1.2 Analysis of the Grinding Process
Process 5.1.3 Application Considerations in
5.1 Grinding Grinding

(i) Application Guidelines
5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel Þ There are many variables in grinding that
affect the performance and success of the
operation.
Grinding Process
5.1.3 Application Þ The guidelines listed in Table 5.5 are helpful
Considerations in in sorting out the many complexities and
selecting the proper wheel parameters and
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding grinding conditions.
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes

5.1.1 The Grinding Wheel (ii) Grinding Fluids
5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ The proper application of cutting fluids has
Grinding Process been found to be effective in reducing the
5.1.3 Application thermal effects and high work surface
Considerations in temperatures described previously.
Þ When used in grinding operations, cutting
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding fluids are called grinding fluids.
Operations and Þ The functions performed by grinding fluids
Grinding Machines are similar to those performed by cutting
5.2 Related Abrasive fluids.
Processes

5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ Types of grinding fluids by chemistry
Grinding Process include grinding oils and emulsified oils.
5.1.3 Application Þ The grinding oils are derived from
Considerations in petroleum and other sources.
Þ These products are attractive because
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding friction is such an important factor in
Operations and grinding.
Grinding Machines Þ However, they pose hazards in terms of fire
5.2 Related Abrasive and operator health, and their cost is high
Processes relative to emulsified oils.

5.1.2 Analysis of the Þ In addition, their capacity to carry away
Grinding Process heat is less than fluids based on water.
5.1.3 Application Þ Accordingly, mixtures of oil in water are
Considerations in most commonly recommended as grinding
fluids.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding Þ These are usually mixed with higher
Operations and concentrations than emulsified oils used as
Grinding Machines conventional cutting fluids.
5.2 Related Abrasive Þ In this way, the friction reduction
Processes mechanism is emphasized.
5.1.3 Application Considerations in
Process Grinding
5.1 Grinding 5.1.4 Grinding Operations and

Grinding Machines
Þ Grinding is traditionally used to finish parts
whose geometries have already been created
Grinding Process
by other operations.
5.1.3 Application
Considerations in Þ Accordingly, grinding machines have been
developed to grind plain flat surfaces,
external and internal cylinders, and contour
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
shapes such as threads.
Operations and
Grinding Machines Þ The contour shapes are often created by
special formed wheels that have the opposite
5.2 Related Abrasive of the desired contour to be imparted to the
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Þ Grinding is also used in tool rooms to form
the geometries on cutting tools.
Grinding Process
5.1.3 Application Þ In addition to these traditional uses,
Considerations in applications of grinding are expanding to
include more high speed, high material
removal operations.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Þ Types of grinding operation includes:
Grinding Process (1) Surface grinding,
5.1.3 Application (2) Cylindrical grinding,
Considerations in (3) Centerless grinding,
(4) Creep feed grinding, and
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding (5) Other grinding operations.
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
(i) Surface Grinding
Þ Surface grinding is normally used to grind
Grinding Process
plain flat surfaces.
5.1.3 Application
Considerations in Þ It is performed using either the periphery of
the grinding wheel or the flat face of the
wheel.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Þ Because the work is normally held in a
Grinding Process
horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding
5.1.3 Application
is performed by rotating the wheel about a
Considerations in
horizontal axis, and face grinding is
performed by rotating the wheel about a
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding vertical axis.
Operations and
Þ In either case, the relative motion of the
Grinding Machines
workpart is achieved by reciprocating the
5.2 Related Abrasive work past the wheel or by rotating it.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Þ These possible combinations of wheel
Grinding Process
orientations and workpart motions provide
5.1.3 Application
the four types of surface grinding machines
Considerations in
illustrated in Figure 5.7.
Þ Of the four types, the horizontal spindle
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
machine with reciprocating worktable is the
Operations and
most common, shown in Figure 5.8.
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Þ In addition to its conventional application, a
Grinding Process
grinding machine with horizontal spindle
5.1.3 Application
and reciprocating table can be used to form
Considerations in
special contoured surfaces by employing a
formed grinding wheel.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
Þ Instead of feeding the wheel transversely
Operations and
across the work as it reciprocates, the wheel
Grinding Machines
is plunge-fed vertically into the work.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Þ The shape of the formed wheel is therefore
Grinding Process
imparted to the work surface.
5.1.3 Application
Considerations in Þ Grinding machines with vertical spindles
and reciprocating tables are set up so that the
wheel diameter is greater than the work
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
width.
Operations and
Grinding Machines Þ Accordingly, these operations can be
performed without using a transverse feed
5.2 Related Abrasive motion.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Þ Instead, grinding is accomplished by
Grinding Process
reciprocating the work past the wheel, and
5.1.3 Application
feeding the wheel vertically into the work to
Considerations in
the desired dimension.
Þ This configuration is capable of achieving a
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
very flat surface on the work.
Operations and
Grinding Machines Þ Of the two types of rotary table grinding in
Figure 5.7(b) and (d), the vertical spindle
5.2 Related Abrasive machines are more common.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Þ Owing to the relatively large surface contact
Grinding Process
area between wheel and workpart, vertical
5.1.3 Application
spindle-rotary table grinding machines are
Considerations in
capable of high metal removal rates when
equipped with appropriate grinding wheels.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
5.1.2 Analysis of the (ii) Cylindrical Grinding
Grinding Process
5.1.3 Application Þ As its name suggests, cylindrical grinding is
Considerations in used for rotational parts.
Þ These grinding operations divide into two
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding basic types (Figure 5.9):
Operations and (a) External cylindrical grinding and
Grinding Machines (b) Internal cylindrical grinding.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Grinding Process (a) External cylindrical grinding
5.1.3 Application  Also called center-type grinding to
Considerations in distinguish it from centerless grinding) is
performed much like a turning operation.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding  The grinding machines used for these
Operations and operations closely resemble a lathe in
Grinding Machines which the tool post has been replaced by a
5.2 Related Abrasive high-speed motor to rotate the grinding
Processes wheel.
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
5.1.3 Application  The cylindrical workpiece is rotated
Considerations in between centers to provide a surface speed
of 18 to 30 m/min (60 to 100 ft/min), and
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding the grinding wheel, rotating at 1200 to
Operations and 2000 m/min (4000 to 6500 ft/min), is
Grinding Machines engaged to perform the cut.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
5.1.3 Application  There are two types of feed motion possible,
Considerations in traverse feed and plunge-cut, shown in
Figure 5.10.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding  In traverse feed, the grinding wheel is fed
Operations and in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation
Grinding Machines of the workpart.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
5.1.3 Application  The infeed is set within a range typically
Considerations in from0.0075 to 0.075mm (0.0003 to 0.003
in).
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding  A longitudinal reciprocating motion is
Operations and sometimes given to either the work or the
Grinding Machines wheel to improve surface finish.
5.2 Related Abrasive  In plunge-cut, the grinding wheel is fed
Processes radially into the work.
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
5.1.3 Application  Formed grinding wheels use this type of
Considerations in feed motion.
 External cylindrical grinding is used to
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding finish parts that have been machined to
Operations and approximate size and heat treated to desired
Grinding Machines hardness.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
5.1.3 Application  The parts include axles, crankshafts,
Considerations in spindles, bearings and bushings, and rolls
for rolling mills.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding  The grinding operation produces the final
Operations and size and required surface finish on these
Grinding Machines hardened parts.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
5.1.3 Application (b) Internal cylindrical grinding
Considerations in  Operates somewhat like a boring operation.
 The workpiece is usually held in a chuck
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding and rotated to provide surface speeds of 20
Operations and to 60m/min (75 to 200 ft/min).
Grinding Machines  Wheel surface speeds similar to external
5.2 Related Abrasive cylindrical grinding are used.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Considerations in  The wheel is fed in either of two ways:
traverse feed, Figure 5.9(b), or plunge feed.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding  Obviously, the wheel diameter in internal
Operations and cylindrical grinding must be smaller than
Grinding Machines the original bore hole.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Considerations in  This often means that the wheel diameter is
quite small, necessitating very high
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding rotational speeds in order to achieve the
Operations and desired surface speed.
Grinding Machines  Internal cylindrical grinding is used to
5.2 Related Abrasive finish the hardened inside surfaces of
Processes bearing races and bushing surfaces.
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Considerations in (c) Centerless Grinding
 Centerless grinding is an alternative
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding process for grinding external and internal
Operations and cylindrical surfaces.
Grinding Machines  As its name suggests, the workpiece is not
5.2 Related Abrasive held between centers.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
 This results in a reduction in work handling
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding time; hence, centerless grinding is often
Operations and used for high-production work.
Grinding Machines  The setup for external centerless grinding
5.2 Related Abrasive (Figure 5.11) consists of two wheels: the
grinding wheel and a regulating wheel.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
 The workparts, which may be many
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding individual short pieces or long rods (e.g., 3
Operations and to 4m long), are supported by a rest blade
Grinding Machines and fed through between the two wheels.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
 The grinding wheel does the cutting,
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding rotating at surface speeds of 1200 to 1800
Operations and m/min (4000 to 6000 ft/min).
Grinding Machines  The regulating wheel rotates at much lower
5.2 Related Abrasive speeds and is inclined at a slight angle I to
control through feed of the work.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Considerations in (c) CenterlessGrinding
 The following equation can be used to
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding predict through feed rate, based on
Operations and inclination angle and other parameters of
Grinding Machines the process:
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
where fr = through feed rate, mm/min (in/min); Dr =
diameter of the regulating wheel, mm (in); Nr =
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding rotational speed of the regulating wheel, rev/min; and I
Operations and = inclination angle of the regulating wheel.
Grinding Machines  The typical setup in internal centerless
5.2 Related Abrasive grinding is shown in Figure 5.12.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
 In place of the rest blade, two support rolls
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding are used to maintain the position of the
Operations and work.
Grinding Machines  The regulating wheel is tilted at a small
5.2 Related Abrasive inclination angle to control the feed of the
work past the grinding wheel.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
 Because of the need to support the grinding
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding wheel, through feed of the work as in
Operations and external centerless grinding is not possible.
Grinding Machines  Therefore this grinding operation cannot
5.2 Related Abrasive achieve the same high-production rates as
in the external centerless process.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
 Its advantage is that it is capable of
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding providing very close concentricity between
Operations and internal and external diameters on a
Grinding Machines tubular part such as a roller bearing race.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
(i) Surface Grinding (ii) Cylindrical Grinding
5.1.2 Analysis of the (iii) Creep Feed Grinding
Grinding Process Þ A relatively new form of grinding is creep
5.1.3 Application feed grinding, developed around 1958.
Considerations in
Þ Creep feed grinding is performed at very
high depths of cut and very low feed rates;
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding hence, the name creep feed.
Operations and
Grinding Machines Þ The comparison with conventional surface
grinding is illustrated in Figure 5.13.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Grinding Process Þ Depths of cut in creep feed grinding are
5.1.3 Application 1000 to 10,000 times greater than in
Considerations in conventional surface grinding, and the feed
rates are reduced by about the same
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding proportion.
Operations and Þ However, material removal rate and
Grinding Machines productivity are increased in creep feed
5.2 Related Abrasive grinding because the wheel is continuously
Processes cutting.
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Grinding Process Þ This contrasts with conventional surface
5.1.3 Application grinding in which the reciprocating motion
Considerations in of the work results in significant lost time
during each stroke.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding Þ Creep feed grinding can be applied in both
Operations and surface grinding and external cylindrical
Grinding Machines grinding.
5.2 Related Abrasive Þ Surface grinding applications include
Processes grinding of slots and profiles.
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Grinding Process Þ The process seems especially suited to those
5.1.3 Application cases in which depth-to-width ratios are
Considerations in relatively large.
Þ The cylindrical applications include threads,
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding formed gear shapes, and other cylindrical
Operations and components.
Grinding Machines
Þ The term deep grinding is used in Europe to
5.2 Related Abrasive describe these external cylindrical creep feed
Processes grinding applications.
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Grinding Process Þ The introduction of grinding machines
5.1.3 Application designed with special features for creep feed
Considerations in grinding has spurred interest in the process.
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding
Operations and
Grinding Machines
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Grinding Process Þ The features include high static and dynamic
5.1.3 Application stability, highly accurate slides, two to three
Considerations in times the spindle power of conventional
grinding machines, consistent table speeds
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding for low feeds, high-pressure grinding fluid
Operations and delivery systems, and dressing systems
Grinding Machines capable of dressing the grinding wheels
5.2 Related Abrasive during the process.
Processes
Process Grinding

Grinding Machines
Grinding Process Þ Typical advantages of creep feed grinding
5.1.3 Application include:
Considerations in
(1) high material removal rates,
5.1.4Grinding
Grinding (2) improved accuracy for formed surfaces,
Operations and and
Grinding Machines (3) reduced temperatures at the work
surface.
Processes
Grinding and 5.2 Related Abrasive Processes
other Abrasive Þ Other abrasive processes include honing,
lapping, super-finishing, polishing, and
Process buffing.
5.1 Grinding Þ They are used exclusively as finishing
operations.
5.2 Related Abrasive Þ The initial part shape is created by some
Processes other process; then the part is finished by
one of these operations to achieve superior
5.2.1 Honing surface finish.
5.2.2 Lapping Þ The usual part geometries and typical
surface roughness values for these processes
5.2.3 Super-finishing are indicated in Table 5.6. For comparison,
5.2.4 Polishing and the corresponding data for grinding are
Buffing presented.
other Abrasive Þ Another class of finishing operations, called
mass finishing is used to finish parts in bulk
Process rather than individually.
5.1 Grinding Þ These mass finishing methods are also used
for cleaning and deburring.
Processes
5.2.1 Honing
5.2.2 Lapping
5.2.3 Super-finishing
5.2.4 Polishing and
Buffing
other Abrasive 5.2.1 Honing
Process Þ Honing is an abrasive process performed by
a set of bonded abrasive sticks.
5.1 Grinding Þ A common application is to finish the bores
5.2 Related Abrasive of internal combustion engines.
Processes Þ Other applications include bearings,
hydraulic cylinders, and gun barrels.
5.2.1 Honing Þ Surface finishes of around 0.12 m (5 -in)
5.2.2 Lapping or slightly better are typically achieved in
these applications.
5.2.3 Super-finishing Þ In addition, honing produces a characteristic
5.2.4 Polishing and cross-hatched surface that tends to retain
Buffing lubrication during operation of the
component, thus contributing to its function
and service life.
Process Þ The honing process for an internal
cylindrical surface is illustrated in Figure
5.1 Grinding 5.16.
5.2 Related Abrasive Þ The honing tool consists of a set of bonded
Processes abrasive sticks.
Þ Four sticks are used on the tool shown in the
5.2.1 Honing figure, but the number depends on hole size.
5.2.2 Lapping Þ Two to four sticks would be used for small
holes (e.g., gun barrels), and a dozen or
5.2.3 Super-finishing more would be used for larger diameter
holes.
5.2.4 Polishing and
Buffing
Process Þ The motion of the honing tool is a
combination of rotation and linear
5.1 Grinding reciprocation, regulated in such a way that a
given point on the abrasive stick does not
trace the same path repeatedly.
Processes
Þ This rather complex motion accounts for the
5.2.1 Honing crosshatched pattern on the bore surface.
Þ Honing speeds are 15 to 150 m/min (50 to
5.2.2 Lapping 500 ft/min).
5.2.3 Super-finishing Þ During the process, the sticks are pressed
outward against the hole surface to produce
5.2.4 Polishing and
the desired abrasive cutting action.
Buffing
Þ Hone pressures of 1 to 3 MPa (150 to 450
lb/in2) are typical.
Process Þ The honing tool is supported in the hole by
two universal joints, thus causing the tool to
5.1 Grinding follow the previously defined hole axis.
5.2 Related Abrasive Þ Honing enlarges and finishes the hole but
Processes cannot change its location.
Þ Grit sizes in honing range between 30 and
5.2.1 Honing 600.
5.2.2 Lapping Þ The same trade-off between better finish and
faster material removal rates exists in honing
5.2.3 Super-finishing as in grinding.
5.2.4 Polishing and Þ The amount of material removed from the
Buffing work surface during a honing operation may
be as much as 0.5mm(0.020 in), but is
usually much less than this.
Process Þ A cutting fluid must be used in honing to
cool and lubricate the tool and to help
5.1 Grinding remove the chips.
Processes
5.2.1 Honing
5.2.2 Lapping
5.2.4 Polishing and
Buffing
Process 5.2.2 Lapping
Þ Lapping is an abrasive process used to
5.1 Grinding
produce surface finishes of extreme accuracy
5.2 Related Abrasive and smoothness.
Processes Þ It is used in the production of optical lenses,
metallic bearing surfaces, gages, and other
5.2.1 Honing parts requiring very good finishes.
5.2.2 Lapping Þ Metal parts that are subject to fatigue loading
or surfaces that must be used to establish a
5.2.3 Super-finishing seal with a mating part are often lapped.
5.2.4 Polishing and Þ Instead of a bonded abrasive tool, lapping
Buffing uses a fluid suspension of very small abrasive
particles between the workpiece and the
lapping tool.
Þ The process is illustrated in Figure 5.17 as
5.1 Grinding
applied in lens-making.
5.2 Related Abrasive Þ The fluid with abrasives is referred to as the
Processes lapping compound and has the general
appearance of a chalky paste.
5.2.1 Honing
Þ The fluids used to make the compound
5.2.2 Lapping include oils and kerosene.
Þ Common abrasives are aluminum oxide and
5.2.3 Super-finishing silicon carbide with typical grit sizes between
5.2.4 Polishing and 300 and 600.
Buffing Þ The lapping tool is called a lap, and it has the
reverse of the desired shape of the workpart.
Þ To accomplish the process, the lap is pressed
5.1 Grinding
against the work and moved back and forth
5.2 Related Abrasive over the surface in a figure-eight or other
Processes motion pattern, subjecting all portions of the
surface to the same action.
5.2.1 Honing Þ Lapping is sometimes performed by hand,
but lapping machines accomplish the process
5.2.2 Lapping
with greater consistency and efficiency.
5.2.3 Super-finishing Þ Materials used to make the lap range from
5.2.4 Polishing and steel and cast iron to copper and lead. Wood
laps have also been made.
Buffing
Þ Because a lapping compound is used rather
5.1 Grinding
than a bonded abrasive tool, the mechanism
5.2 Related Abrasive by which this process works is somewhat
Processes different than grinding and honing.
Þ It is hypothesized that two alternative cutting
5.2.1 Honing mechanisms are at work in lapping.
5.2.2 Lapping i. The first mechanism is that the abrasive
particles roll and slide between the lap and
5.2.3 Super-finishing the work, with very small cuts occurring in
both surfaces.
5.2.4 Polishing and
ii.The second mechanism is that the abrasives
Buffing
become embedded in the lap surface and the
cutting action is very similar to grinding.
Þ It is likely that lapping is a combination of
5.1 Grinding
these two mechanisms, depending on the
5.2 Related Abrasive relative hardnesses of the work and the lap.
Processes Þ For laps made of soft materials, the
embedded grit mechanism is emphasized;
5.2.1 Honing and for hard laps, the rolling and sliding
mechanism dominates.
5.2.2 Lapping
5.2.4 Polishing and
Buffing
5.2.2 Lapping
Process
5.1 Grinding Þ Super-finishing is an abrasive process similar
5.2 Related Abrasive to honing.
Processes Þ Both processes use a bonded abrasive stick
moved with a reciprocating motion and
5.2.1 Honing pressed against the surface to be finished.
5.2.2 Lapping
5.2.4 Polishing and
Buffing
5.2.2 Lapping
Process
5.1 Grinding Þ Super-finishing differs from honing in the
5.2 Related Abrasive following respects:
Processes (1) the strokes are shorter, 5 mm (3/16 in);
(2) higher frequencies are used, up to 1500
5.2.1 Honing strokes per minute;
5.2.2 Lapping (3) lower pressures are applied between the
tool and the surface, below 0.28 MPa (40
5.2.3 Super-finishing lb/in2);
5.2.4 Polishing and (4) workpiece speeds are lower, 15 m/min (50
Buffing ft/min) or less; and
(5) grit sizes are generally smaller.
5.2.2 Lapping
Process
5.1 Grinding Þ The relative motion between the abrasive
5.2 Related Abrasive stick and the work surface is varied so that
Processes individual grains do not retrace the same
path.
5.2.1 Honing Þ A cutting fluid is used to cool the work
surface and wash away chips.
5.2.2 Lapping
Þ In addition, the fluid tends to separate the
5.2.3 Super-finishing abrasive stick from the work surface after a
certain level of smoothness is achieved, thus
5.2.4 Polishing and
preventing further cutting action.
Buffing
5.2.2 Lapping
Process
5.1 Grinding Þ The result of these operating conditions is
5.2 Related Abrasive mirror-like finishes with surface roughness
Processes values around 0.025 m (1 -in).
Þ Super-finishing can be used to finish flat and
5.2.1 Honing external cylindrical surfaces.
5.2.2 Lapping Þ The process is illustrated in Figure 25.18 for
the latter geometry.
5.2.4 Polishing and
Buffing
5.2.2 Lapping
Process 5.2.3 Super-finishing
5.1 Grinding 5.2.4 Polishing and Buffing
5.2 Related Abrasive (i) Polishing
Processes  Is used to remove scratches and burrs and
to smooth rough surfaces by means of
5.2.1 Honing abrasive grains attached to a polishing
wheel rotating at high speed—around
5.2.2 Lapping 2300 m/min (7500 ft/min).
5.2.3 Super-finishing  The wheels are made of canvas, leather,
felt, and even paper; thus, the wheels are
5.2.4 Polishing and somewhat flexible.
Buffing
 The abrasive grains are glued to the
outside periphery of the wheel.
5.2.2 Lapping
Processes  After the abrasives have been worn down
and used up, the wheel is replenished with
5.2.1 Honing new grits.
 Grit sizes of 20 to 80 are used for rough
5.2.2 Lapping
polishing, 90 to 120 for finish polishing,
5.2.3 Super-finishing and above 120 for fine finishing.
 Polishing operations are often
5.2.4 Polishing and
accomplished manually.
Buffing
5.2.2 Lapping
Processes (ii) Buffing
 Is similar to polishing in appearance, but
5.2.1 Honing its function is different.
5.2.2 Lapping  Buffing is used to provide attractive
surfaces with high luster.
5.2.3 Super-finishing  Buffing wheels are made of materials
5.2.4 Polishing and similar to those used for polishing wheels
Buffing —leather, felt, cotton, etc.—but buffing
wheels are generally softer.
5.2.2 Lapping
 The abrasives are very fine and are
5.2.1 Honing contained in a buffing compound that is
pressed into the outside surface of the
5.2.2 Lapping
wheel while it rotates.
5.2.3 Super-finishing  This contrasts with polishing in which the
abrasive grits are glued to the wheel
5.2.4 Polishing and
surface.
Buffing
 As in polishing, the abrasive particles
must be periodically replenished.
5.2.2 Lapping
 Buffing is usually done manually,
5.2.1 Honing although machines have been designed to
perform the process automatically.
5.2.2 Lapping
 Speeds are generally 2400 to 5200 m/min
5.2.3 Super-finishing (8000 to 17,000 ft/min).
5.2.4 Polishing and
Buffing
Chapter 6 Þ Conventional machining processes (i.e.,
turning, drilling, and milling) use a
Non- sharp cutting tool to form a chip from
Traditional the work by shear deformation.
Machining Þ In addition to these conventional
6.1 Mechanical Energy
methods, there is a group of processes
Processes that uses other mechanisms to remove
material.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
Þ The term nontraditional machining
refers to this group that removes excess
6.3 Thermal Energy material by various techniques
Processes involving mechanical, thermal,
electrical, or chemical energy (or
6.4 Chemical Machining
combinations of these energies).
6.5 Application Þ They do not use a sharp cutting tool in
Considerations the conventional sense.
Chapter 6 Þ Commercial and technological
importance of the nontraditional
Non- processes, include:
Traditional  The need to machine newly
Machining developed metals and nonmetals.
These new materials often have
Processes special properties (e.g., high
strength, high hardness, and high
6.2 Electrochemical toughness) that make them difficult
Machining Processes or impossible to machine by
conventional methods.
6.3 Thermal Energy
Processes  The need for unusual and/or
complex part geometries that cannot
easily be accomplished and in some
6.5 Application cases are impossible to achieve by
Considerations conventional machining.
Chapter 6 Þ Commercial and technological
importance of the nontraditional
Non- processes, include:
Traditional  The need to avoid surface damage
Machining that often accompanies the stresses
created by conventional machining.
Processes
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Chapter 6 6.1 Mechanical Energy Processes
Non- Þ Mechanical energy in some form
other than the action of a conventional
Traditional cutting tool is used in these
Machining nontraditional processes.
6.1 Mechanical Energy Þ Erosion of the work material by a high
Processes velocity stream of abrasives or fluid
(or both) is a typical form of
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes mechanical action in these processes.
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Non- 6.1.1 Ultrasonic Machining
Traditional Þ Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a
nontraditional machining process in
Machining which abrasives contained in a slurry
6.1 Mechanical Energy are driven at high velocity against the
Processes work by a tool vibrating at low
amplitude and high frequency.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes Þ The amplitudes are around 0.075 mm
(0.003 in), and the frequencies are
6.3 Thermal Energy approximately 20,000 Hz.
Processes
Þ The tool oscillates in a direction
6.4 Chemical Machining perpendicular to the work surface, and
is fed slowly into the work, so that the
6.5 Application
shape of the tool is formed in the part.
Considerations
Traditional Þ However, it is the action of the
abrasives, impinging against the work
Machining surface that performs the cutting.
6.1 Mechanical Energy Þ The general arrangement of the USM
Processes
process is depicted in Figure below.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Traditional Þ Common tool materials used in USM
include soft steel and stainless steel.
Machining
Þ Abrasive materials in USM include
6.1 Mechanical Energy boron nitride, boron carbide, aluminum
Processes
oxide, silicon carbide, and diamond.
6.2 Electrochemical Þ Grit size ranges between 100 and 2000.
Machining Processes
Þ The vibration amplitude should be set
6.3 Thermal Energy approximately equal to the grit size,
Processes and the gap size should be maintained
at about two times grit size.
Þ To a significant degree, grit size
6.5 Application determines the surface finish on the
Considerations new work surface.
Traditional Þ In addition to surface finish, material
removal rate is an important
Machining performance variable in ultrasonic
6.1 Mechanical Energy machining.
Processes
Þ For a given work material, the removal
6.2 Electrochemical rate in USM increases with increasing
Machining Processes frequency and amplitude of vibration.
6.3 Thermal Energy

Þ The slurry in USM consists of a
Processes mixture of water and abrasive
particles. Concentration of abrasives in
6.4 Chemical Machining water ranges from 20% to 60%.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Traditional Þ The development of ultrasonic
machining was motivated by the need
Machining to machine hard, brittle work materials,
6.1 Mechanical Energy such as ceramics, glass, and carbides.
Processes
Þ It is also successfully used on certain
6.2 Electrochemical metals, such as stainless steel and
Machining Processes titanium.
6.3 Thermal Energy

Þ Shapes obtained by USM include non-
Processes round holes, holes along a curved axis,
and coining operations, in which an
6.4 Chemical Machining image pattern on the tool is imparted to
a flat work surface.
6.5 Application
Considerations
6.1.2 Processes Using Water Jets
Traditional
Þ Removes material by means of high-
Machining velocity streams of water or a
6.1 Mechanical Energy combination of water and abrasives.
Processes
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Traditional
Water Jet Cutting
Machining  Water jet cutting (WJC) uses a fine, high-
6.1 Mechanical Energy pressure, high-velocity stream of water
Processes directed at the work surface to cause
cutting of the work, as illustrated in Figure
6.2 Electrochemical 6.2.
Machining Processes
 To obtain the fine stream of water a small
6.3 Thermal Energy nozzle opening of diameter 0.1 to 0.4 mm
Processes (0.004 to 0.016 in) is used.
 To provide the stream with sufficient
6.4 Chemical Machining energy for cutting, pressures up to 400MPa
(60,000 lb/in2) are used, and the jet reaches
6.5 Application
velocities up to 900 m/s (3000 ft/sec).
Considerations
Traditional
Water Jet Cutting
Machining  The fluid is pressurized to the desired level
6.1 Mechanical Energy by a hydraulic pump.
Processes  The nozzle unit consists of a holder made
of stainless steel, and a jewel nozzle made
6.2 Electrochemical
of sapphire, ruby, or diamond. Diamond
Machining Processes
lasts the longest but costs the most.
6.3 Thermal Energy  Filtration systems must be used in WJC to
Processes separate the swarf produced during cutting.
6.4 Chemical Machining  Cutting fluids in WJC are polymer
solutions, preferred because of their
6.5 Application tendency to produce a coherent stream.
Considerations
Traditional
Water Jet Cutting
Machining  Important process parameters include
6.1 Mechanical Energy  Standoff distance,
Processes  Nozzle opening diameter,
 Water pressure, and
6.2 Electrochemical  Cutting feed rate.
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Traditional
Water Jet Cutting
Machining  Important process parameters include
6.1 Mechanical Energy  Standoff distance,
Processes  Nozzle opening diameter,
 Water pressure, and
6.2 Electrochemical  Cutting feed rate.
Machining Processes  Water jet cutting can be used effectively to
cut narrow slits in flat stock such as
6.3 Thermal Energy plastic, textiles, composites, floor tile,
Processes carpet, leather, and cardboard.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Traditional
Water Jet Cutting
Machining Advantages of WJC include:
6.1 Mechanical Energy (1) No crushing or burning of the work surface
Processes typical in other mechanical or thermal
processes,
6.2 Electrochemical
(2) Minimum material loss because of the
Machining Processes
narrow cut slit,
6.3 Thermal Energy (3) No environmental pollution, and
Processes (4) Ease of automating the process.
A limitation of WJC is that the process is not
suitable for cutting brittle materials (e.g., glass)
6.5 Application because of their tendency to crack during
Considerations cutting.
Traditional Water Jet Cutting
Machining Abrasive Water Jet Cutting
6.1 Mechanical Energy  When WJC is used on metallic workparts,
Processes abrasive particles must usually be added to
the jet stream to facilitate cutting. This
6.2 Electrochemical process is therefore called abrasive water jet
Machining Processes cutting (AWJC).
 Introduction of abrasive particles into the
6.3 Thermal Energy stream complicates the process by adding to
Processes the number of parameters that must be
controlled.
 Among the additional parameters are
6.5 Application abrasive type, grit size, and flow rate.
Considerations
Traditional Water Jet Cutting
Machining Abrasive Water Jet Cutting
6.1 Mechanical Energy  Aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, and garnet
Processes (a silicate mineral) are typical abrasive
materials, at grit sizes ranging between 60
6.2 Electrochemical and 120.
Machining Processes  The abrasive particles are added to the water
stream at approximately 0.25 kg/min (0.5
6.3 Thermal Energy lb/min) after it has exited the WJC nozzle.
Processes
 The remaining process parameters include
6.4 Chemical Machining those that are common to WJC: nozzle
opening diameter, water pressure, and
6.5 Application standoff distance.
Considerations
Traditional 6.1.3 Other Nontraditional Abrasive
Machining Processes
Abrasive Jet Machining
Processes  Not to be confused with AWJC is the
process called abrasive jet machining
6.2 Electrochemical (AJM), a material removal process caused
Machining Processes by the action of a high-velocity stream of
gas containing small abrasive particles, as
6.3 Thermal Energy in Figure 6.3.
Processes
 The gas is dry, and pressures of 0.2 to 1.4
6.4 Chemical Machining MPa (25 to 200 lb/in2) are used to propel it
through nozzle orifices of diameter 0.075
6.5 Application to1.0mm (0.003 to 0.040 in) at velocities of
Considerations 2.5 to 5.0 m/s (500 to 1000 ft/ min).
Machining Processes
Processes
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining Processes
Processes  Gases include dry air, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and helium.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes  The process is usually performed manually
by an operator who directs the nozzle at the
6.3 Thermal Energy work.
Processes  Typical distances between nozzle tip and
work surface range between 3 mm and
75mm (0.125 in and 3 in).
6.5 Application  The workstation must be set up to provide
Considerations proper ventilation for the operator.
Machining Processes
Processes  AJM is normally used as a finishing
process rather than a production cutting
6.2 Electrochemical process.
Machining Processes
 Applications include deburring, trimming
6.3 Thermal Energy and deflashing, cleaning, and polishing.
Processes  Cutting is accomplished successfully on
hard, brittle materials (e.g., glass, silicon,
mica, and ceramics) that are in the form of
6.5 Application thin flat stock.
Considerations
Machining Processes
Processes  Typical abrasives used in AJM include
aluminum oxide (for aluminum and brass),
6.2 Electrochemical silicon carbide (for stainless steel and
Machining Processes ceramics), and glass beads (for polishing).
6.3 Thermal Energy  Grit sizes are small, 15 to 40 m (0.0006 to

Processes 0.0016 in) in diameter, and must be
uniform in size for a given application.
 It is important not to recycle the abrasives
6.5 Application because used grains become fractured (and
Considerations therefore smaller in size), worn, and
contaminated
Machining Processes
6.1 Mechanical Energy Abrasive Flow Machining
Processes
 This process was developed in the 1960s to
6.2 Electrochemical deburr and polish difficult-to-reach areas
Machining Processes using abrasive particles mixed in a
viscoelastic polymer that is forced to flow
6.3 Thermal Energy through or around the part surfaces and
Processes edges.
 The polymer has the consistency of putty.
 Silicon carbide is a typical abrasive.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining Processes
Processes
 Abrasive flow machining (AFM) is
6.2 Electrochemical particularly well-suited for internal
Machining Processes passageways that are often inaccessible by
conventional methods.
6.3 Thermal Energy  The abrasive-polymer mixture, called the
Processes media, flows past the target regions of the
part under pressures ranging between 0.7
and 20MPa (100 and 3000 lb/ in2).
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining Processes
Processes
 In addition to deburring and polishing,
6.2 Electrochemical other AFM applications include forming
Machining Processes radii on sharp edges, removing rough
surfaces on castings, and other finishing
6.3 Thermal Energy operations.
Processes  These applications are found in industries
such as aerospace, automotive, and die-
making.
6.5 Application  The process can be automated to
Considerations economically finish hundreds of parts per
hour.
Non- 6.2 Electrochemical Machining
Processes
Traditional
Þ An important group of nontraditional
Machining processes use electrical energy to
6.1 Mechanical Energy remove material.
Processes
Þ This group is identified by the term
6.2 Electrochemical electrochemical processes, because
Machining Processes electrical energy is used in combination
with chemical reactions to accomplish
6.3 Thermal Energy material removal.
Processes
Þ In effect, these processes are the
6.4 Chemical Machining reverse of electroplating.
6.5 Application Þ The work material must be a conductor
Considerations in the electrochemical machining
processes.
Processes
Traditional
6.2.1 Electrochemical Machining
Machining  The basic process in this group is
6.1 Mechanical Energy electrochemical machining (ECM).
Processes  Electrochemical machining removes metal
from an electrically conductive workpiece
6.2 Electrochemical
by anodic dissolution, in which the shape
Machining Processes
of the workpiece is obtained by a formed
6.3 Thermal Energy electrode tool in close proximity to, but
Processes separated from, the work by a rapidly
flowing electrolyte.
6.4 Chemical Machining  ECM is basically a deplating operation.
6.5 Application  As illustrated in Figure 6.4, the workpiece
Considerations is the anode, and the tool is the cathode.
Processes
Traditional
Machining
Processes
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
FIGURE 6.4 Electrochemical machining (ECM).
Considerations
Processes
Traditional
Machining  The principle underlying the process is that
6.1 Mechanical Energy material is deplated from the anode (the
Processes positive pole) and deposited onto the
cathode (the negative pole) in the presence
6.2 Electrochemical of an electrolyte bath.
Machining Processes
 The difference in ECM is that the
6.3 Thermal Energy electrolyte bath flows rapidly between the
Processes two poles to carry off the deplated
material, so that it does not become plated
6.4 Chemical Machining onto the tool.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Processes
Traditional
Machining  The electrode tool, usually made of
6.1 Mechanical Energy copper, brass, or stainless steel, is
Processes designed to possess approximately the
inverse of the desired final shape of the
6.2 Electrochemical part.
Machining Processes
 An allowance in the tool size must be
6.3 Thermal Energy provided for the gap that exists between
Processes the tool and the work.
 To accomplish metal removal, the
6.4 Chemical Machining electrode is fed into the work at a rate
equal to the rate of metal removal from the
6.5 Application
work.
Considerations
Processes
Traditional
Machining  Metal removal rate is determined by
6.1 Mechanical Energy Faraday’s First Law, which states that the
Processes amount of chemical change produced by
an electric current (i.e., the amount of
6.2 Electrochemical metal dissolved) is proportional to the
Machining Processes quantity of electricity passed (current x
time):
6.3 Thermal Energy
Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Processes
Traditional
Machining  Water is used as the base for the electrolyte
6.1 Mechanical Energy in ECM.
Processes  To reduce electrolyte resistivity, salts such
as NaCl or NaNO3 are added in solution.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes  Large amounts of electrical power are
required to perform ECM.
6.3 Thermal Energy
 Electrochemical machining is generally
Processes
used in applications in which the work
6.4 Chemical Machining metal is very hard or difficult to machine,
or the workpart geometry is difficult (or
6.5 Application impossible) to accomplish by conventional
Considerations machining methods.
Processes
Traditional
Machining  Work hardness makes no difference in
6.1 Mechanical Energy ECM, because the metal removal is not
Processes mechanical.
Typical ECM applications include:
6.2 Electrochemical
(1) die sinking - involves machining of
Machining Processes
irregular shapes and contours into forging
6.3 Thermal Energy dies, plastic molds, and other shaping tools;
Processes (2) multiple hole drilling
(3) holes that are not round, because ECM
6.4 Chemical Machining does not use a rotating drill; and
6.5 Application (4) deburring
Considerations
Processes
Traditional
Machining Advantages of ECM include:
6.1 Mechanical Energy (1) Little surface damage to the workpart,
Processes (2) No burrs as in conventional machining,
6.2 Electrochemical (3) Low tool wear (the only tool wear results
Machining Processes from the flowing electrolyte), and
(4) Relatively high metal removal rates for
6.3 Thermal Energy hard and difficult-to-machine metals.
Processes
Disadvantages of ECM are:
6.4 Chemical Machining (5) Significant cost of electrical power to
drive the operation and
6.5 Application
(6) Problems of disposing of the electrolyte
Considerations
sludge.
Processes
Traditional
Machining 6.2.2 Electrochemical Deburring
6.1 Mechanical Energy and Grinding
Processes Electrochemical Deburring (ECD)
 It is an adaptation of ECM designed to
6.2 Electrochemical remove burrs or to round sharp corners on
Machining Processes metal workparts by anodic dissolution.
6.3 Thermal Energy
Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Processes
Traditional
 One possible setup for ECD is shown in
6.2 Electrochemical Figure 6.5.
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
FIGURE 6.5 Electrochemical deburring (ECD).
Processes
Traditional
 The hole in the workpart has a sharp burr
6.2 Electrochemical of the type that is produced in a
Machining Processes conventional through-hole drilling
operation.
6.3 Thermal Energy
Processes  The electrode tool is designed to focus the
metal removal action on the burr.
6.4 Chemical Machining  Portions of the tool not being used for
machining are insulated.
6.5 Application
 The electrolyte flows through the hole to
Considerations
carry away the burr particles.
Processes
Traditional
 The same ECM principles of operation
6.2 Electrochemical also apply to ECD.
Machining Processes
 However, since much less material is
6.3 Thermal Energy removed in electrochemical deburring,
Processes cycle times are much shorter.
 A typical cycle time in ECD is less than a
6.4 Chemical Machining minute.
 The time can be increased if it is desired to
6.5 Application
Considerations round the corner in addition to removing
the burr.
Processes
Traditional
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
6.2 Electrochemical  It is a special form of ECM in which a
Machining Processes rotating grinding wheel with a conductive
bond material is used to augment the
6.3 Thermal Energy anodic dissolution of the metal workpart
Processes surface, as illustrated in Figure 6.6.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Processes
Traditional
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
FIGURE 6.6 Electrochemical grinding (ECG).
Processes
Traditional
6.2 Electrochemical  Abrasives used in ECG include aluminum
Machining Processes oxide and diamond.
 The bond material is either metallic (for
6.3 Thermal Energy
diamond abrasives) or resin bond
Processes
impregnated with metal particles to make it
6.4 Chemical Machining electrically conductive (for aluminum
oxide).
6.5 Application  The abrasive grits protruding from the
Considerations grinding wheel at the contact with the
workpart establish the gap distance in ECG.
Processes
Traditional
6.2 Electrochemical  The electrolyte flows through the gap
Machining Processes between the grains to play its role in
electrolysis.
6.3 Thermal Energy
 Applications of ECG include sharpening of
Processes
cemented carbide tools and grinding of
6.4 Chemical Machining surgical needles, other thin wall tubes, and
fragile parts.
6.5 Application
Considerations
6.2 Electrochemical Machining Processes
Non-
6.3 Thermal Energy Processes
Traditional Þ Material removal processes based on
Machining thermal energy are characterized by
6.1 Mechanical Energy very high local temperatures - hot
Processes enough to remove material by fusion or
vaporization.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes Þ Because of the high temperatures, these
processes cause physical and
6.3 Thermal Energy metallurgical damage to the new work
Processes surface.
6.4 Chemical Machining Þ In some cases, the resulting finish is so
poor that subsequent processing is
6.5 Application required to smooth the surface.
Considerations
Non-
6.3 Thermal Energy Processes
Traditional
6.3.1 Electric Discharge Processes
Machining  Electric discharge processes remove metal
6.1 Mechanical Energy by a series of discrete electrical discharges
Processes (sparks) that cause localized temperatures
high enough to melt or vaporize the metal
6.2 Electrochemical in the immediate vicinity of the discharge.
Machining Processes
 The two main processes in this category are
6.3 Thermal Energy (1) electric discharge machining and
Processes (2) wire electric discharge machining.
 These processes can be used only on
6.4 Chemical Machining electrically conducting work materials.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Non- 6.3 Thermal Energy Processes
Traditional 6.4 Chemical Machining
Machining Þ Chemical machining (CHM) is a
nontraditional process in which material is
removed by means of a strong chemical
Processes
etchant.
6.2 Electrochemical Þ The use of chemicals to remove unwanted
Machining Processes material from a workpart can be
accomplished in several ways, and
6.3 Thermal Energy different terms have been developed to
Processes distinguish the applications. These terms
include chemical milling, chemical
blanking, chemical engraving, and
6.5 Application photochemical machining (PCM).
Considerations
Machining Þ They all use the same mechanism of
material removal, and it is appropriate to
discuss the general characteristics of
Processes
chemical machining before defining the
6.2 Electrochemical individual processes.
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining 6.4.1 Mechanics and Chemistry of
Chemical Machining
Processes Þ The chemical machining process
consists of several steps.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes Þ Differences in applications and the ways
in which the steps are implemented
6.3 Thermal Energy account for the different forms of CHM.
Processes
Þ The steps are:
6.5 Application
Considerations
Chemical Machining
6.1 Mechanical Energy 1. Cleaning
Processes  The first step is a cleaning operation to
6.2 Electrochemical ensure that material will be removed
Machining Processes uniformly from the surfaces to be
etched.
6.3 Thermal Energy
Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Chemical Machining
Processes 2. Masking
6.2 Electrochemical  A protective coating called a maskant is
Machining Processes applied to certain portions of the part
surface.
6.3 Thermal Energy  This maskant is made of a material that
Processes is chemically resistant to the etchant
(the term resist is used for this masking
6.4 Chemical Machining material).
 It is therefore applied to those portions
6.5 Application of the work surface that are not to be
Considerations etched.
Chemical Machining
6.2 Electrochemical 3. Etching
Machining Processes  This is the material removal step.
 The part is immersed in an etchant that
6.3 Thermal Energy chemically attacks those portions of the
Processes part surface that are not masked.
 The usual method of attack is to
convert the work material (e.g., a
6.5 Application metal) into a salt that dissolves in the
Considerations etchant and is thereby removed from
the surface.
Chemical Machining
Machining Processes  When the desired amount of material
has been removed, the part is
6.3 Thermal Energy withdrawn from the etchant and
Processes washed to stop the process.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Chemical Machining
Machining Processes 4. Demasking
 The maskant is removed from the part.
6.3 Thermal Energy Hence, the two steps in chemical machining
Processes that involve significant variations in methods,
materials, and process parameters are
masking and etching - steps 2 and 3.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Chemical Machining
Processes Þ Maskant materials include
 Neoprene,
6.2 Electrochemical  Polyvinylchloride,
Machining Processes  Polyethylene, and
 Other polymers.
6.3 Thermal Energy Þ Masking can be accomplished by any of
Processes three methods:
(1) Cut and peel,
6.4 Chemical Machining (2) Photographic resist, and
(3) Screen resist.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining 6.4.1 Mechanics and Chemistry of Chemical
Machining
6.1 Mechanical Energy (1) Cut and Peel Method
Processes  The cut and peel method applies the
maskant over the entire part by
6.2 Electrochemical
dipping, painting, or spraying.
Machining Processes
 The resulting thickness of the maskant
6.3 Thermal Energy is 0.025 to 0.125mm (0.001 to 0.005
Processes in).
 After the maskant has hardened, it is
6.4 Chemical Machining cut using a scribing knife and peeled
away in the areas of the work surface
6.5 Application
that are to be etched.
Considerations
Machining
Processes  The maskant cutting operation is
6.2 Electrochemical performed by hand, usually guiding
Machining Processes the knife with a template.
 The cut and peel method is generally
6.3 Thermal Energy used for large workparts, low
Processes production quantities, and where
accuracy is not a critical factor.
 This method cannot hold tolerances
6.5 Application tighter than ±0.125 mm (±0.005 in)
Considerations except with extreme care.
Machining
Processes (2) Photographic resist
 As the name suggests, the photographic
6.2 Electrochemical
resist method (called the photoresist
Machining Processes
method for short) uses photographic
techniques to perform the masking step.
6.3 Thermal Energy
Processes  The masking materials contain
photosensitive chemicals.
6.4 Chemical Machining  They are applied to the work surface
and exposed to light through a negative
6.5 Application
image of the desired areas to be etched.
Considerations
Machining
6.2 Electrochemical  These areas of the maskant can then be
Machining Processes removed from the surface using
photographic developing techniques.
6.3 Thermal Energy  This procedure leaves the desired
Processes surfaces of the part protected by the
maskant and the remaining areas
6.4 Chemical Machining unprotected, vulnerable to chemical
etching.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining
6.2 Electrochemical  Photoresist masking techniques are
Machining Processes normally applied where small parts are
produced in high quantities, and close
6.3 Thermal Energy tolerances are required.
Processes  Tolerances closer than ±0.0125 mm
(±0.0005 in) can be held.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining
(3) Screen resist
6.2 Electrochemical  The screen resist method applies the
Machining Processes
maskant by means of silk screening
methods.
6.3 Thermal Energy
Processes  In these methods, the maskant is painted
onto the workpart surface through a silk
6.4 Chemical Machining or stainless steel mesh.
 Embedded in the mesh is a stencil that
6.5 Application
protects those areas to be etched from
Considerations
being painted.
Machining
(3) Screen resist
6.2 Electrochemical  The maskant is thus painted onto the
Machining Processes
work areas that are not to be etched.
6.3 Thermal Energy  The screen resist method is generally
Processes used in applications that are between the
other two masking methods in terms of
6.4 Chemical Machining accuracy, part size, and production
quantities.
6.5 Application
 Tolerances of ±0.075 mm (±0.003 in) can
Considerations
be achieved with this masking method.
Machining
6.1 Mechanical Energy Þ Selection of the etchant depends on
Processes  work material to be etched,
 desired depth and rate of material
6.2 Electrochemical
removal, and
Machining Processes  surface finish requirements.
6.3 Thermal Energy Þ The etchant must also be matched with the
Processes type of maskant that is used to ensure that
the maskant material is not chemically
6.4 Chemical Machining attacked by the etchant.
Þ Table 6.2 lists some of the work materials
6.5 Application
machined by CHM together with the
Considerations
etchants that are generally used on these
materials.
Machining
6.1 Mechanical Energy TABLE 6.2 Common work materials and etchants in CHM,
Processes with typical penetration rates and etch factors.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining
6.1 Mechanical Energy 6.4.2 CHM Processes
Processes Chemical Milling
 Chemical milling was the first CHM
6.2 Electrochemical
process to be commercialized.
Machining Processes
 They referred to their process as the
6.3 Thermal Energy ‘‘chem-mill’’ process.
Processes  Today, chemical milling is still used
largely in the aircraft industry, to remove
6.4 Chemical Machining material from aircraft wing and fuselage
panels for weight reduction.
6.5 Application  It is applicable to large parts where
Considerations substantial amounts of metal are removed
during the process.
Machining
6.2 Electrochemical  The cut and peel maskant method is
Machining Processes employed.
 A template is generally used that takes
6.3 Thermal Energy into account the undercut that will result
Processes during etching.
6.4 Chemical Machining  The sequence of processing steps is
illustrated in Figure 6.16.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes

FIGURE 6.16 Sequence of processing steps in chemical
milling: (1) clean raw part, (2) apply maskant, (3) scribe,
6.5 Application
cut, and peel the maskant from areas to be etched, (4)
Considerations etch, and (5) remove maskant and clean to yield finished
part.
Machining
6.2 Electrochemical  Chemical milling produces a surface
Machining Processes finish that varies with different work
materials.
6.3 Thermal Energy  Table 6.3 provides a sampling of the
Processes values.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Machining
6.2 Electrochemical  Surface finish depends on depth of
Machining Processes penetration.
 As depth increases, finish becomes
6.3 Thermal Energy worse, approaching the upper side of the
Processes ranges given in the table.
6.4 Chemical Machining  Metallurgical damage from chemical
milling is very small, perhaps around
6.5 Application 0.005 mm (0.0002 in) into the work
Considerations surface.
Machining 6.5 Application Considerations

Þ Typical applications of nontraditional
processes include special geometric
Processes
features and work materials that cannot be
6.2 Electrochemical readily processed by conventional
Machining Processes techniques.
6.3 Thermal Energy

Processes
6.5 Application
Considerations

Workpart Geometry and Work Materials
6.1 Mechanical Energy  Some of the special workpart shapes for
Processes which nontraditional processes are well
6.2 Electrochemical suited are listed in Table 6.4 along with the
Machining Processes nontraditional processes that are likely to be
appropriate.
6.3 Thermal Energy  As a group, the nontraditional processes
Processes can be applied to nearly all work materials,
metals and nonmetals.
 However, certain processes are not suited to
6.5 Application certain work materials.
Considerations

6.1 Mechanical Energy  Table 6.5 relates applicability of the
Processes nontraditional processes to various types of
6.2 Electrochemical materials.
Machining Processes  Several of the processes can be used on
metals but not nonmetals. For example,
6.3 Thermal Energy ECM, EDM, and PAM require work
Processes materials that are electrical conductors.
 This generally limits their applicability to
metal parts.
6.5 Application
Considerations

6.1 Mechanical Energy  Chemical machining depends on the
Processes availability of an appropriate etchant for the
6.2 Electrochemical given work material. Because metals are
Machining Processes more susceptible to chemical attack by
various etchants, CHM is commonly used
6.3 Thermal Energy to process metals.
Processes  With some exceptions, USM, AJM, EBM,
and LBM can be used on both metals and
6.4 Chemical Machining nonmetals.
6.5 Application  WJC is generally limited to the cutting of
Considerations plastics, cardboards, textiles, and other
materials that do not possess the strength of

6.1 Mechanical Energy Performance of Nontraditional Processes
Processes  The nontraditional processes are generally
characterized by low material removal rates
6.2 Electrochemical and high specific energies relative to
Machining Processes conventional machining operations.
6.3 Thermal Energy  The capabilities for dimensional control and

Processes surface finish of the nontraditional
processes vary widely, with some of the
6.4 Chemical Machining processes providing high accuracies and
good finishes, and others yielding poor
6.5 Application accuracies and finishes.
Considerations

Processes  Surface damage is also a consideration.
6.2 Electrochemical  Some of these processes produce very little
Machining Processes metallurgical damage at and immediately
below the work surface, whereas others
6.3 Thermal Energy (mostly the thermal based processes) do
Processes considerable damage to the surface.
6.4 Chemical Machining  Table 6.6 compares these features of the

prominent nontraditional methods, using
6.5 Application conventional milling and surface grinding
Considerations for comparison.

Processes  Inspection of the data reveals wide
differences in machining characteristics.
6.2 Electrochemical
Machining Processes  In comparing the characteristics of
nontraditional and conventional machining,
6.3 Thermal Energy it must be remembered that nontraditional
Processes processes are generally used where
conventional methods are not practical or
6.4 Chemical Machining economical.
6.5 Application
Considerations
Cheerio!!
Figure 1.3 The manufacturing system converts inputs to outputs using
processes to add value to the goods for the external customer.
Metal Removal
Generating shape in machining: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning,
(d) plain milling, and (e) profile milling.
Forming to create shape in machining: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and
(c) broaching.
Combination of forming and generating to create shape in thread cutting on a lathe
Combination of forming and generating to create shape slot milling.
Individual Assignment 1
1. Show the tool-work motions and the Generatrix
and Directrix in external thread cutting in Centre
lathe. Also state how those ‘G’ & ‘D’ are obtained
with the help of a diagram.
2. Repeat problem 1 for making
A. Flat surface in planning machine.
B. Spur gears in milling machine.
Submission date: 17/03/2007

FIGURE 2.1 Rake and clearance angles of cutting tools.
 Rake angle (α): Angle of inclination of rake surface from

reference plane
 Clearance angle (): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank
surface from the finished surface
FIGURE 2.2 Three possible types of rake angles
Þ Relative advantages of such rake angles are:

 Positive rake – helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting
power requirement.
 Negative rake – to increase edge-strength and life of the tool
 Zero rake – to simplify design and manufacture of the form
tools.
FIGURE 2.2 Three possible types of rake angles
Þ Clearance angle is essentially provided
 to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the machined surface which
causes loss of energy and damages of both the tool and the job surface.
 Hence, clearance angle is a must and must be positive (30 ~ 150
depending upon tool-work materials and type of the machining
operations like turning, drilling, boring etc.)
FIGURE 2.3 Basic features of single point tool (turning) in Tool-in-hand system
Figure 2.4: Tool angles in the tool-in-hand system.
´𝒄
𝑽
R
´𝒄
𝑽
R
´𝒄
𝑽 Zm
x
Xm
R
´𝒄
𝑽 Zm
x y
Ym
Xm
R
´𝒄
𝑽 Zm
x y
Ym Ym
Xm
Xm
x R R
R
y
´𝒄
𝑽 Zm
x y
Ym Ym
Xm
Xm
R R
φe
φs x
y
R  φs = approach angle: angle between the principal
cutting edge (its projection on πR) and πY and
measured on πR
 φe = end cutting edge angle: angle between the
end cutting edge (its projection on πR) from πX
and measured on πR
´𝒄
𝑽 Zm
x yy
Ym Ym
Xm
x Zm R R
x
αy y
 x = side clearance: angle of inclination of the principal

flank from the machined surface (or ) and measured on
πXplane.
 αy = back rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface
R from the reference plane and measured on Machine
Transverse plane, πY.
´𝒄
𝑽 Zm
x yy
𝑽´ 𝒄 Zm

Ym
Xm
Xm
αx R R R
x
x
 αx = side (axial) rake: angle of inclination of
the rake surface from the reference plane
(πR) and measured on Machine Longitudinal
Plane, πX.
 x = side clearance: angle of inclination of the
y principal flank from the machined surface (or
) and measured on πX plane.
In Orthogonal Cutting:
 The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of
tool feed or work feed.
 The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting
edge of the tool.
 Here only two components of forces are acting: Cutting Force
and Thrust Force. So the metal cutting may be considered as a
two dimensional cutting.
In Orthogonal Cutting:
 The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of
tool feed or work feed.
 The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting
edge of the tool.
 Here only two components of forces are acting: Cutting Force
and Thrust Force. So the metal cutting may be considered as a
two dimensional cutting.
In Oblique Cutting:
 The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an acute angle to the
direction of tool feed or work feed.
 The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle with the normal to
the cutting edge of the tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
 Here three components of forces are acting: Cutting Force, Radial
force and Thrust Force or feed force. So the metal cutting may be
considered as a three dimensional cutting.
 The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts on a larger area
and thus tool life is increased.
In Oblique Cutting:
 The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an acute angle to the
direction of tool feed or work feed.
 The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle with the normal to
the cutting edge of the tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
 Here three components of forces are acting: Cutting Force, Radial
force and Thrust Force or feed force. So the metal cutting may be
considered as a three dimensional cutting.
 The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts on a larger area
and thus tool life is increased.
Angle ∠APB = 180o – (φ + φ1)
And ∠AOB = (φ + φ1)
From properties of triangle,
ΔAMN,
𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝜙+𝜙1 −𝜓 )
𝑉𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝜙 +𝜙1 − 𝜓 )
𝑜𝑟 , = (𝑖)
𝑉𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓
Assuming, [Rozeinberg and Evemeim]

𝑉 𝐴 ( 𝑡 / 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ) 2𝑡
= = (ii)
𝑉𝐵 𝑠0 / 2 𝑠 𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝜙+𝜙 1) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝜙+ 𝜙1 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓 2𝑡
Combining (i) and (ii), =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜓 𝑠 𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝓 + 𝝓𝟏 )
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝝍 =
𝟐𝒕
+𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓 +𝝓𝟏 )
𝒔𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓
´ 𝑥 𝜙 + 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵 ´ 𝑥𝜙
2
𝜙 𝑎𝑣𝑔=
𝐴𝐵+
´ 𝐵𝐶´
𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒
´
, 𝐴𝐵=𝑟 𝜙
´ 𝑡2 𝑡 − 𝑡1
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 1=𝑟 −𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙

𝝓 𝒕 𝟏

𝑇h𝑢𝑠 , 𝝓 𝒂𝒗𝒈=
𝟐
+
[𝒓
+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓 − 𝟏
]
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓
𝒕
𝟏+
𝒓 [
+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓 − 𝟏 ]
𝝓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝝓𝒂𝒗𝒈 + 𝝓𝟏 )
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝝍 =
𝟐𝒕
+𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝝓+𝝓 𝒂𝒗𝒈 )
𝒔𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓 𝒂𝒗𝒈
The parameters are defined (in
respect of straight turning) as:
t = depth of cut (mm) –
perpendicular penetration
of the cutting tool tip in
work surface
so = feed (mm/rev) – axial
travel of the tool per
revolution of the job
wo = width (mm) of chip
before cut
wc = width (mm) of chip after
cut
to = thickness (mm) of uncut
layer (or chip before cut)
tc = chip thickness (mm) –
thickness of chip after cut
A1 = cross section (area, mm2)
of chip before cut
𝒕𝒄
𝜻 = = ¿𝟏 ( 𝒕 𝒄 > 𝒕 𝟎 )
𝒕𝟎
Where ζ = chip reduction coefficient
𝒕 𝟎=𝒔𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅
where  = principal cutting edge angle
Chip thickening is also often
expressed by the reciprocal of ζ as,
where, r = cutting ratio

The value of chip reduction coefficient, ζ (and
hence cutting ratio) depends mainly upon
• tool rake angle,α
• chip-tool interaction, mainly friction,
in the following way
Roughly
Þ The simple but very significant expression of the above equation

clearly depicts that the value of ζ can be desirably reduced by
 Using tool having larger positive rake
 Reducing friction by using lubricant
Chip reduction coefficient, ζ is generally
assessed and expressed by the ratio of
the chip thickness, after (tc) and before
cut (to). But ζ can also be expressed or
assessed by the ratio of
 Total length of the chip before
(L0) and after cut (Lc)
 Cutting velocity, VC and chip
velocity, Vf
Considering total volume of chip produced
in a given time,
t o wo L 0 = t c w c L c
The width of chip, w generally does not
change significantly during machining
unless there is side flow for some adverse
situation.
Therefore assuming, wo=wc, ζcomes up to be,
Again considering unchanged material flow (volume) ratio, Q
Q = (t0wo)VC = (tcwc)Vf, Taking wo= wc,
The above Equation reveals that the chip velocity, Vfwill be lesser than the cutting velocity,
VC and the ratio is equal to the cutting ratio,
Shear plane: Shear plane is the plane of
separation of work material layer in the form of
chip from the parent body due to shear along
that plane.
Shear angle: Angle of inclination of the shear
plane from the direction of cutting velocity [as
shown in the Figure].
The
value of shear angle, denoted by
(taken in orthogonal plane) depends upon
 Chip thickness before and after cut
i.e. ζ
 Rake angle, α (in orthogonal plane)
From the Figure,
AC = tc= OAcos( - α)
And AB = to= OAsin
Or,
Dividing tcby to:
Replacing chip reduction coefficient, ζ by

cutting ratio, r, the above equation changes to:
Þ There are three velocities of
interest in the cutting process
which include:
 Vc = velocity of the tool
relative to the workpiece. It
is called cutting velocity
 Vf = velocity of the chip
(over the tool rake) relative
to the tool. It is called chip
flow velocity
 Vs= velocity of
displacement of formation
of the newly cut chip
elements, relative to the
workpiece along the shear
plane. It is called velocity
of shear
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑠
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤 : = =
0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 90 +𝛼 −∅ ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 900 −𝛼 )

where ε = shear strain, mm/mm (in/in); s = the deflection of the element, mm (in); and Y
= the orthogonal distance over which deflection occurs, mm (in).
Actual Chip Forms and Classifications
C-type and ε-type Short helical broken

broken chips chips
Medium helical Long helical broken

broken chips chips
Desired
Not Desired
Long helical
unbroken chips Long and snarled
unbroken chips
FIGURE 3.1 Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the
principal locations and types of wear that occur.
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.2 (a) Crater wear and (b) flank wear on a cemented
carbide tool, as seen through a toolmaker’s microscope.
FIGURE 3.3 Tool wear as a function of cutting time. Flank wear (FW) is used here as
the measure of tool wear. Crater wear follows a similar growth curve.
FIGURE 3.4 Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting speeds.
Hypothetical values of speed and tool life are shown for a tool life criterion of 0.50-mm
flank wear.
FIGURE 3.5 Natural log–log plot of cutting speed vs. tool life.
TABLE 3.1 Typical hardness values (at room temperature) and transverse rupture
strengths for various tool materials.a
FIGURE 3.6 Typical hot hardness relationships for selected tool materials. Plain carbon
steel shows a rapid loss of hardness as temperature increases. High-speed steel is
substantially better, whereas cemented carbides and ceramics are significantly harder at
elevated temperatures.
TABLE 3.2 Representative values of n and C in the Taylor tool life equation, Eq. (3.1), for
selected tool materials.
Note: The parameter values are approximated for turning at feed = 0.25 mm/rev (0.010
in/rev) and depth = 2.5 mm (0.100 in). Non-steel cutting refers to easy-to-machine metals
such as aluminum, brass, and cast iron. Steel cutting refers to the machining of mild
(unhardened) steel. It should be noted that significant variations in these values can be
expected in practice.
TABLE 3.3 Cutting-tool materials with their approximate dates of initial use and allowable
cutting speeds.
TABLE 3.4 Typical contents and functions of alloying elements in high-speed
steel.
FIGURE 9.9 Typical plot of hardness and transverse rupture strength as a function of
cobalt content.
TABLE 3.5 The ANSI C-grade classification system for cemented carbides.
TABLE 3.6 ISO R513-1975(E) ‘‘Application of Carbides for Machining by Chip Removal.’’
TABLE 5.1 Abrasives of greatest importance in grinding.
Description Knoop Hardness
Abrasive
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) Most common abrasive material used to grind 2100
steel and other ferrous, high-strength alloys.
Silicon carbide (SiC) Harder than Al2O3, but not as tough. Applications 2500
include ductile metals such as aluminum, brass,
and stainless steel, as well as brittle materials
such as some cast irons and certain ceramics.
Cannot be used effectively for grinding steel
because of the strong chemical affinity between
the carbon in SiC and the iron in steel.
Cubic boron nitride (cBN) When used as an abrasive, cBN is produced 5000
under the trade name Borazon by the General
Electric Company. cBN grinding wheels are used
for hard materials such as hardened tool steels
and aerospace alloys.
Diamond Diamond abrasives occur naturally and are also 7000

made synthetically. Diamond wheels are
generally used in grinding applications on hard,
abrasive materials such as ceramics, cemented
carbides, and glass.
TABLE 5.2 Bonding materials used in grinding wheels.
Bonding Material Description
Consists chiefly of baked clay and ceramic materials. Most grinding wheels
Vitrified bond in common use are vitrified bonded wheels. They are strong and rigid,
resistant to elevated temperatures, and relatively unaffected by water and oil
that might be used in grinding fluids.
Consists of sodium silicate (Na 2SO3). Applications are generally limited to
Silicate bond situations in which heat generation must be minimized, such as grinding
cutting tools.
Rubber bond Most flexible of the bonding materials and used as a bonding material in
cutoff wheels.
Consists of various thermosetting resin materials, such as phenol-
Resinoid bond formaldehyde. It has very high strength and is used for rough grinding and
cutoff operations.
Shellac bond Relatively strong but not rigid; often used in applications requiring a good
finish.
Metal, usually bronze, is the common bond material for diamond and cBN
Metallic bond grinding wheels. Particulate processing is used to bond the metal matrix and
abrasive grains to the outside periphery of the wheel, thus conserving the
costly abrasive materials.
FIGURE 5.1 Typical structure of a grinding wheel.
TABLE 5.3 Marking system for conventional grinding wheels as defined by ANSI Standard.
TABLE 5.4 Marking system for diamond and cubic boron nitride grinding
wheels as defined by ANSI Standard.
FIGURE 5.3 (a) The geometry of surface grinding, showing the cutting conditions; (b)
assumed longitudinal shape and (c) cross section of a single chip.
FIGURE 5.5 Typical wear curve of a grinding wheel. Wear is conveniently plotted as a
function of volume of material removed, rather than as a function of time.
FIGURE 5.6 Grinding ratio and surface finish as a function of wheel speed.
FIGURE 5.7 Four types of surface grinding: (a) horizontal spindle with reciprocating
worktable, (b) horizontal spindle with rotating worktable, (c) vertical spindle with
reciprocating worktable, and (d) vertical spindle with rotating worktable.
FIGURE 5.8 Surface grinder with horizontal spindle and reciprocating worktable.
FIGURE 5.9 Two types of cylindrical grinding: (a) external, and (b) internal.
FIGURE 5.10 Two types of feed motion in external cylindrical grinding: (a) traverse feed,
and (b) plunge-cut.
FIGURE 5.11 External centerless grinding.
FIGURE 5.12 Internal centerless grinding.
FIGURE 5.13 Comparison of (a) conventional surface grinding and (b) creep feed grinding.
TABLE 5.6 Usual part geometries for honing, lapping, super-finishing, polishing and buffing
FIGURE 5.16 The honing process: (a) the honing tool used for internal bore surface, and (b)
cross-hatched surface pattern created by the action of the honing tool.
FIGURE 5.17 The lapping process in lens-making.
FIGURE 5.18 Super-finishing on an external cylindrical surface
TABLE 6.4 Workpart geometric features and appropriate nontraditional processes.
TABLE 6.5 Applicability of selected nontraditional machining processes to various work
materials. For comparison, conventional milling and grinding are included in the
compilation.
A - Good application, B - fair application, C - poor application; D - not applicable;

and blank entries indicate no data available during compilation.
a
Refers to silicon used in fabricating integrated circuit chips.
b
Includes other paper products.
c
Includes felt, leather, and similar materials.
TABLE 6.6 Machining characteristics of the nontraditional machining processes
A – Excellent, B - good, C - fair, D - poor.

a
Rating depends on size of work and masking method.
b
Rating depends on cutting conditions.
c
In surface damage a good rating means low surface damage and poor rating means deep
penetration of surface damage; thermal processes can cause damage up to 0.020 in (0.50
mm) below the new work surface.

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Mekelle University

Ethiopian Institute of Technology - Mekelle

Department of Mechanical Engineering

By Redae Alemayehu (MSc.)

1.3 Overview of Metal

1.2 Definition of  the combination means made

1.3 Overview of Metal

1.3 Overview of Metal

Figure 1.2 Definition of manufacturing

Process iv. Eco-friendly

1.3 Overview of Metal

1.1 Definition of The machining parameters (cutting

1.1 Definition of Þ Machining operations usually divide

1.1 Definition of Þ Machining operations usually divide

Metal Machining  Examples include turning and boring.

and the Merchant

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships

2.5 Power and Energy

2.4 Force Relationships