Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or electron spin

resonance (ESR) 
 Hydrogen Bonding

• A hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole

attraction which occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to a
strongly electronegative atom exists in the vicinity of
another electronegative atom with a lone pair of electrons.
These bonds are generally stronger than ordinary dipole-
dipole and dispersion forces, but weaker than
true covalent and ionic bonds.
• For a hydrogen bond to occur there must be both a hydrogen
donor and an acceptor present. The donor in a hydrogen bond is
the atom to which the hydrogen atom participating in the
hydrogen bond is covalently bonded, and is usually a strongly
electronegative atom such as N, O, or F. The hydrogen acceptor
is the neighboring electronegative ion or molecule, and must
posses a lone electron pair in order to form a hydrogen bond.
Since the hydrogen donor is strongly electronegative, it pulls the
covalently bonded electron pair closer to its nucleus, and away from
the hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom is then left with a partial
positive charge, creating a dipole-dipole attraction between the
hydrogen atom bonded to the donor, and the lone electron pair on the
acceptor.

Types of hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen bonds can occur within one single molecule, between two
like molecules, or between two unlike molecules.
• Intramolecular hydrogen bonds: are those which occur within one
single molecule. This occurs when two functional groups of a
molecule can form hydrogen bonds with each other. In order for this
to happen, both a hydrogen donor an acceptor must be present
within one molecule, and they must be within close proximity of
each other in the molecule.

Why Phenol is more soluble than o.NOPh in methnol

• Intermolecular hydrogen bonds: Occur between separate
molecules. They can occur between any numbers of like or unlike
molecules as long as hydrogen donors and acceptors are present in
positions in which they can interact. For example, intermolecular
hydrogen bonds can occur between NH3 molecules alone,
between H2O molecules alone, or between NH3 and H2O molecules.
• Factors Preventing Hydrogen Bonding
Electronegativity: Hydrogen bonding cannot occur without
significant electronegativity differences between
hydrogen and the atom it is bonded to. Molecules such
as PH3, with no hydrogen bonding. PH3 exhibits a trigonal
pyramidal molecular geometry like that of ammonia, but
unlike NH3 it cannot hydrogen bond. This is due to the
similarity in the electronegativities of phosphorous and
hydrogen. electronegativity of 2.1, and thus, no dipole
moment occurs. This prevents the hydrogen bonding from
acquiring the partial positive charge needed to hydrogen
bond with the lone electron pair in another molecule.
Atom Size: The size of donors and acceptors can also affect the
ability to hydrogen bond. This can account for the relatively low
ability of Cl to form hydrogen bonds. When the radii of two
atoms differ greatly or are large, their nuclei cannot achieve close
proximity when they interact, resulting in a weak interaction.
 To form H-bond , the electron density must uneven distributed in
electronegativity atom, but H-S-H , the linear bonding between
H-S and S-H will cancel off each other therefore , it would not
form H-bond, the H-Br and the H-Cl, with dissolve in water and
be ionised so it would form any H-bond.
sp Hybridization
  Beryllium Chloride (BeCl2)

The electronic configuration of 'Be' in ground state is 1s2 2s2. Since there

are no unpaired electrons, it undergoes excitation by promoting one of its
2s electron into empty 2p orbital.  Thus in the excited state, the
electronic configuration of Be is 1s2 2s1 2p1. If the beryllium atom forms
bonds using these pure orbitals, the molecule might be angular. However
the observed shape of BeCl2 is linear. To account for this, following sp
hybridization was proposed.

* In the excited state, the beryllium atom undergoes 'sp' hybridization by

mixing a 2s and one 2p orbitals. Thus two half filled 'sp' hybrid orbitals
are formed, which are arranged linearly. 
* These half filled sp-orbitals form two σ bonds with two 'Cl' atoms. 
* Thus BeCl2 is linear in shape with the bond angle of 180o.
Acetylene (C2H2)
 sp2 Hybridization
Boron trichloride (BCl3)

Boron forms three σsp-p bonds with three chlorine atoms by using its half
filled sp2 hybrid orbitals. Each chlorine atom uses it's half filled p-orbital
for the σ-bond formation.  Thus the shape of BCl3 is trigonal planar with
Ethylene (C2H4)
sp3 Hybridization
Ammonia (NH3)

Nitrogen atom forms 3 σsp3-s bonds with three hydrogen atoms by using

three half filled sp3 hybrid orbitals. There is also a lone pair on nitrogen
atom belonging to the full filled sp3 hybrid orbital. It occupied more space
than the bond pairs.
Water molecule (H2O) 

Now the oxygen atom forms two σsp3-s bonds with hydrogen atoms by
using half filled hybrid orbitals. 
* The  reported bond angle is 104o28' instead of regular tetrahedral
angle: 109o28'. It is again due to repulsions caused by two lone pairs on
the bond pairs.  Thus water molecule gets angular shape (V shape).
 sp3d Hybridization
Phosphorus pentachloride(PCl5)
* The ground state electronic configuration of phosphorus atom is:
1s2 2s22p6 3s23px13py13pz1. 

* The formation of PCl5 molecule requires 5 unpaired electrons.

Hence the phosphorus atom undergoes excitation to promote one
electron from 3s orbital to one of empty 3d orbital.
* Thus the electronic configuration of 'P' in the excited state is
1s2 2s22p6 3s23px13py13pz1 3d1
In the excited state, intermixing of a 3s, three 3p and one 3d
orbitals to give five half filled sp3d hybrid orbitals, which are
arranged in trigonal bipyramidal symmetry.i.e., Three orbitals
are arranged in trigonal planar symmetry, whereas the
remaining two are arranged perpendicularly above and below
this plane. * By using these half filled sp3d orbitals,
phosphorous forms five σsp3d-p bonds with chlorine atoms.

Each chlorine atom makes use of half filled 3pz orbital for the
bond formation. 
* The shape of PCl5 molecule is trigonal bipyramidal with
 sp3d2 Hybridization
Sulfur hexaflouride (SF6)

*The electronic configuration of 'S' in ground state is

1s2 2s22p6 3s23px23py13pz1.

* In SF6 molecule, there are six bonds formed by sulfur atom.

Hence there must be 6 unpaired electrons. However there are
only 2 unpaired electrons in the ground state of sulfur. Hence
it promotes two electrons into two of the 3d orbitals (one from
3s and one from 3px).
* Thus the electronic configuration of 'S' in its 2nd excited state
Thus formed six half filled sp3d2 hybrid orbitals are arranged in octahedral
symmetry.  Sulfur atom forms six σsp3d2-p bonds with 6 fluorine atoms by
using these sp3d2 orbitals. Each fluorine atom uses is half-filled
2pz orbitals for the bond formation. SF6 is octahedral in shape with bond
angles equal to 90o.
Sp3d3 Hybridization
Iodine heptafluoride (IF7):
* The electronic configuration of Iodine atom in the ground
state is: [Kr]4d105s25p5. Since the formation of IF7 requires 7
unpaired electrons, the iodine atom promotes three of its
electrons (one from 5s orbital and two from 5p sublevel) into
empty 5d orbitals. This state is referred to as third excited
state.
* The electronic configuration of Iodine in the third excited
state can be written as: [Kr]4d105s15p35d3.
In the third excited state, iodine atom undergoes
sp3d3 hybridization to give 7 half filled sp3d3 hybrid
orbitals in pentagonal bipyramidal symmetry. These will
form 7 σsp3d3-p bonds with fluorine atoms. Thus the shape

of IF7 is pentagonal bipyramidal. The ∠F-I-F bond angles

in the pentagonal plane are equal to 72o, whereas two
fluorine are present perpendicularly to the pentagonal
plane above and below
Determine the hybridization of the indicated atoms.