POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION

AND CONTROL

Dr Mousa Marzband
Faculty of Engineering and Environment
Northumbria University
Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST
E-mail: mousa.marzband@northumbria.ac.uk
Ellison Building E406
Ext 4734
 POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND
CONTROL
• Introduction
• Active and Reactive Power Flow
• Voltage Control
• Frequency Control
– Turbo-Alternator Control System
– Governor Droop Characteristics
– Division of Load Between Generators
• Optimization of Power System Operation
– Heat Rate Characteristics
– Incremental Fuel Cost
References
1.Weedy, B.M., Cory, B.J., Jenkins, N., Ekanayake, J. and Strbac, G. (2012),
“Electric power systems”, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
2.Grainger, J.J. and Stevenson W.D. (1994), ‘Power System Analysis’,
McGraw Hill.
Apparent power, active power and reactive power
Basic Maths-1

Definitions of trigonometric functions

A right triangle has three sides, which can be uniquely identified as the
hypotenuse, adjacent to a given angle , or opposite .

opposite side o
sin( )  
hypotenuse h
adjacent side a
cos( )  
hypotenuse h
opposite side o
tan( )  
adjacent side a
 Formulas needed in this section
sin( u  v)  sin( u ) cos(v)  cos(u ) sin( v) Subtraction formula

1
sin( t ) cos(t )  sin( 2t )
2
1  cos( 2t ) Double angle formulae
sin (t ) 
2

1  e j  cos( )  j sin   Euler formula

1    e  j  cos( )  j sin   Phasor expression

 Power in single-phase AC circuit
i
The voltage and current are:
v  Vm sin t
~ v Z
i  I m sin( t  )

The instantaneous power is:

(a) circuit diagram
p  vi
sin( u  v)  sin( u ) cos(v)  cos(u ) sin( v)
 Vm sin  t I m sin  t  

 Vm I m sin  t [ sin  t cos   cos  t sin  ] 1  cos( 2t )

sin 2 (t ) 
2
 Vm I m [ cos  sin 2  t  sin  sin  t cos  t ]
1
Vm I m Vm I m sin( t ) cos(t )  sin( 2t )
 cos  1  cos 2t   sin sin 2t 2
2 2
Instantaneous power:
Vm I m V I
p  vi  cos  1  cos 2t   m m sin sin 2t
2 2 sin(wt)
1
sin(2wt)
The average power is given by: 0.8 cos(2wt)

0.6

sin(wt), sin(2wt), and cos(2wt)

tT 0.4
1
Pav 
T 
t
p dt 0.2

-0.2
It is noted that
-0.4

-0.6
t T

 cos( 2wt )dt  0

t
-0.8

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
tt
wt
T
t T

 sin( 2wt )dt  0

t
The average power is given by: Vm I m V I
p  vi  cos  1  cos 2t   m m sin sin 2t
2 2
1 T V I V I V I
pav   pdt   m m cos   m m cos 2t  m m sin sin 2t
2 2 2
T 0
1 T t0 Vm I m 1 T t0 Vm I m
  cos dt   cos    cos 2t  dt
T t0 2 T t0 2
1 T t0 Vm I m
  ( sin  ) sin 2tdt
T t0 2 Apparent power
V I
 m m cos 
2 S VI
2V 2 I
 cos  Power factor
2
 VI cos 
P P
Real power or cos   
P VI cos  active power VI S
 Look at the instantaneous power again:
Vm I m V I
p  vi  cos  1  cos 2t   m m sin sin 2t
2 2
 VI cos  1  cos 2t   VI sin sin 2t

Reactive power (VAR)

Real power or
active power (W) Q VI sin 
P VI cos 
P 2 Q 2 S 2
Apparent power (VA, Voltamper)
P

S VI Q
S
 i ip
I p =Icos o V
iq
o
v L R
I q =Isin o I

(a) R-L circuit (b) Phasor diagram

I  I p  Iq P

Ip 
V VI p  VI cos 
R
V V V VI q  VI sin  Q
Iq    j    90o
jX X X

V V2 V V2
P  VI p  V  Q  VI q  V 
R R X X
 Example:
The voltage across and current through a circuit are:
v  339.4 sin(t  10 ) V
o
i  12 sin(t  20 o ) A
Find
1) The r.m.s values of the voltage and current.
2) The phasor expression of the voltage and current (the voltage is taken as reference)
3) The power factor
4) The apparent, active and reactive power

Solution: 2) Phasor expression

1) r.m.s values
V  240V0o I  12A  30o
339.4
V  240V
2 V
  30o

12
I  8.5 A I
2
3) Power factor

cos( ) I  cos(30 o )  0.866

4) Apparent, real and reactive power

S  VI  240  8.5  2040VA

P  VI cos( )  240  8.5  0.866  1766W

Q  VI sin( )  240  8.5  0.5  1020VAR

5) If the circuit consists of a series resistive and reactive elements R and X, calculate
R and X.

P  VI cos( )  240  8.5  0.866  1766W

Q  VI sin( )  240  8.5  0.5  1020VAR
12
I  8.5 A
2

P 1766
PI R 2
R 2  2
 24.44
I 8.5

Q 1020
QI X 2 X 2  2
 14.12
I 8.5
6) If the circuit consists of a parallel resistive and reactive elements R and
X, calculate
R and X.
P  VI cos( )  240  8.5  0.866  1766W
Q  VI sin( )  240  8.5  0.5  1020VAR
12 339.4
I  8.5 A V  240V
2 2

V2 V 2 240 2
P R   32.6
R P 1766

V2 V 2 240 2
Q X   56.47
X Q 1020
 ,

Complex power
The complex power can be defined as
V
S = P + j Q = V I*
o I
To verify this, let V  V I  I  


V I * V  I    V I   V I 
P
= V I cos  + j V I sin 
=P+jQ  Q
S
 , ...

3-phase system ...

P = 3 VL I L cos 

Q = 3 VL I L sin 

S = 3 VL I L

Can you verify this result?

 Direction of power Flow
S = V I* =P+jQ. The positive sign or negative sign of P and Q determine
the a.c. circuit absorb or supply real or reactive power.
P(+) indicate that the circuit is absorbing real power;
Q(+) indicate that the circuit is absorbing reactive power;
P(-) indicate that the circuit is supplying real power
Q(-) indicate that the circuit is supplying reactive power.
Q (-)

consumer of P
generator of P and Q generator of Q
~ quadrants
I I
a.c. V
S=P+jQ equivalent P (-)
O (-)
V O (+)
P (+)
circuit
generator of P
I
consumer of Q consumer of P and Q
~
P  jQ = V I cos + j V I sin
(a) Q (+)

(b)
Example: Assume a current direction as shown in the circuit given
below:

a)Determine the amount of active power and reactive power supplied

or absorbed by each of the networks (1 & 2)

b) The active and reactive power absorbed by the impedance (Z)

 I_ I_
1 2
For the network 2:

E2  10030 o

I2  I   

E1  E2 1000o  10030o 100  100 cos(30o )  j sin( 30 o ) 
Z 1  j5 1  j5
13.4  j 50
  9.1  j 4.5  10.15206.3o
1  j5

S 2  P2  jQ2  E2 I 2*  10030 o  10.15  206.3o

 1015  176.3o  1012.9  j 65.5

The network 2 supplies real power P2=1012.9W

The network 2 supplies real reactive power Q2=65.5VAR

For the network 1:

E1  1000o

I1   I  9.1  j 4.5  10.1526.3 o

S1  P1  jQ1  E1 I1*  1000 o  10.15  26.3o

 1015  26.3o  909.9  j 449.7

The network 1 absorbs real power P1=909.9W

The network 1 supplies real reactive power Q1=449.7VAR

 For the impedance Z:

I Z  I  10.15206.3o

VZ  E1  E2  1000o  10030 o  13.4  j 50

 51.76  75o

S Z  PZ  jQZ  VZ I Z*  51.76  75o  10.15  206.3o

 525.364  281.3o  525.36478.7 o
 103  j 515.2

The impedance Z consumes the real power 103W

And absorbs the reactive power 515.2VAR
  P  P1  P2  PZ
 909.9  1012.9  103  0

 Q  Q1  Q2  QZ
 449.7  65.5  515.2  0
 The per-unit System
n1 n2 n3 n4 n5

22kV 400kV 132kV 66kV 11kV 415V z

The main idea of a per unit system is to absorb large differences in absolute
values into base relationships. Thus, representations of elements in
the system with per unit values become more uniform. A per-unit
system provides units for power, voltage, current, impedance, and
admittance.

Actual value
p.u. value 
Base value
Simplified calculation.
 Two important p.u. parameters:

o Base voltage, denoted by Vbase or KVbase

o Base power, denoted by Sbase or MVAbase

Base current (Ibase or KAbase) & base impedance (Z base)

Rules of selecting:
The base power (MVAbase) is chosen to be the same for all items
in the whole network.
The base voltages MUST be in the ratio of the turns of
transformers. –rating values.
 per unit system 3 phase star-connected systems

Base current: MVAbase Sbase

KAbase  or I base 
3KVbase 3Vbase

2
KVbase ( KVbase ) 2 Vbase
Base impedance: Z base   or Z base 
3KAbase MVAbase S base

Z MVAbase Sbase
p.u. impedance: Z p.u  Z or Z p.u  Z 2
Z base ( KVbase ) 2 Vbase
 Example
Consider now a 415:200 V 3 phase transformer:
1) Calculate the base impedances on both
primary side and secondary side 10kVA
415V
Primary side base impedance:
200V Z=10 
VB  415 S B  10 kVA
VB2 4152
ZB    17.22 
S B 10 10 3

Secondary side base impedance:

VB  200 V S B  10 kVA
VB2 200 2
Z B   4
S B 10  103
 b) If the 10  load is referred to the primary side, calculate the
corresponding value. .

Z   n 2 Z  (415 / 200) 2 10  43.06 

c) Calculate the p.u. values of the 10  load on both sides:

Secondary Z pu  10 / 4  2.5 p.u. 2.5p.u. V2

Primary Z pu  43.056 / 17.22  2.5 p.u. V1

i.e. they are the same. The transformer turns ratio has
disappeared in the p.u. system. In other words, the turns ratio of
the ideal transformer is 1:1 and can be ignored. The equivalent
circuit of a transformer is now very simple.
 If base power and base voltage are both chosen new ones, Z p.u. will change
2
 KVbase ( given )  MVAbase (new)
Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given )  
 KV base ( new)  MVAbase ( given )
2
Vbase ( given )  Sbase (new)
Or Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given )  
V
 base ( new)  Sbase ( given )

If only base power change, but base voltage stays unchanged, Z p.u. will become

MVAbase (new)
Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given )
MVAbase ( given )

Sbase (new)
Or Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given )
Sbase ( given )
Example:
An 11kV, 200MVA alternator has a reactance of 0.25p.u. on rating.
Find the p.u. reactance based on:
(1) 500MVA
(2) 66kV, and 500MVA

(1) Base voltage keeps unchanged, but based power changes

S (new)
Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given ) base
S base ( given )
500
 0.25  0.625 p.u.
200

(1) Base voltage and based power both changes

2
V ( given )  Sbase (new)
Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given )  base 
V
 base ( new)  Sbase ( given )
2
 11  500
 0.25   0.0173 p.u.
 66  200
Example:
Solution.

Let Sbase  50 MVA

(1) p.u. reactance of the line

Sbase 50
Z Linep.u  Z Line 2
 100  2
 0.287 p.u.
Vbase 132

(2) p.u. reactance of the sending-end and receiving end transformers

Z T 1 p.u  0.1 p.u. Z T 2 p.u  0.12 p.u.

(3) p.u. load current

Pload 50
I load    1.2028kA
3Vload cos  3  30  0.8

Sbase 50
I base    0.8748kA
3Vbase 3  33

I load 1.2028
I loadp.u.    1.375 p.u.
I base 0.8748

(4) p.u. voltage at the load end

VL 30
VLp .u .    0.9091 p.u.
Vbase 33
 j j j
(5) The supply voltage (Vs)

1.375 p.u.
VL


cos   0.8   36.87

VL  0.90910 o I  1.375  36.87 o

Vsp.u .  VL  I ( X T 1  X Line  X T 2 )
Vs  Vsp.u .Vbase
 0.90910  1.375  36.87 (0.1  0.287  0.12)90
o o o

 1.43922.8o 11
 0.90910 o  0.697153.13o  1.3274  j 0.5577
 15.83kV22.8o
 1.439 p.u.22.8o
Class test:

A 20MVA transformer with 11KV primary and 66KV

secondary, has a reactance of 0.242 referred to the
primary.
a) What is the per-unit reactance on the primary side?
b) What is the per-unit reactance to the secondary?
Solutions:
a) Primary side:
S B  20 MVA, VB  11KV ZB 
V

11 10 
B
2 3 2
 6.05
SB 20 10 6

Z 0.242
Z pu    0.04 pu
ZB 6.05
VB22 (66 10 3 ) 2
b) Secondary side: Z B2    217.8
SB 20 10 6

Z 2  0.242  (66 / 11) 2  8.712 Z 2 8.712

Z pu 2    0.04
Z B 2 217.8
Fault calculations in power systems
Causes of Transmission Line Faults
 Tree branches near the right-of-way falling on transmission lines and shorting them to ground

 Sagging transmission lines touching the trees

 Backflash when the transmission line tower or one of the ground wires is struck by lighting
can raise the tower potential
 Reason to analyse short-cicuit
faults

 Set the relays so they can detect it

 Make sure that the circuit breakers rating are such that they are capable of interrupting the
fault currents.
 Faults calculations

Rf
(a) Balanced faults

(b) Unbalanced faults

Figure (1)

Why do we need to do fault calculations?

 Select circuit-breaker or fuses
 Set protection system
 Modify the system to reduce fault level
Key assumption:
The magnitudes in the three phase voltages (or
three phase currents) are the same, and they
displaced each other by 120 degrees

Single phase equivalent circuit

p.u. equivalent circuit

Fault
current
 Fault current calculation via p.u. system method
F

Example 1. A 3-phase fault develops at point F of the system shown in a

single-line diagram in the following figure. Determine the short-circuit
current and the fault MVA. The lines have a reactance of 0.43 /phase/km.
Assume that all loads do not contribute to system fault level.

22/132 kV 132/11 kV
F T.L.
G1 G2
40 km 80 km
   60 MW
100 MW
125 MVA 75 MVA 75 MVA
125 MVA X=j18% Fault
X=j12.5% X=j17.5%
X=j28%
Fault 80 MW 50 MW
0.9 p.f. 0.8 p.f.
lagging lagging

Solution: To get p.u. equivalent circuit

(1) All given reactances are based on the appropriate voltage and the
device power VA rating. Thus the only change required is that of Base VA,
since the components are of different sizes. Select a common base VA as
follows:
Sbase  125MVA
 Balanced fault calculation: example
22/132 kV 132/11 kV
T.L.
(2) Based on new base power G1
40 km 80 km G2
  
(125MVA), calculate new p.u. 100 MW
125 MVA
125 MVA
X=j18% Fault 75 MVA
X=j12.5%
60 MW
75 MVA
X=j17.5%
impedances: X=j28%
80 MW 50 MW
0.9 p.f. 0.8 p.f.
Sbase (new) lagging lagging

Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given )

Sbase ( given )
X G1 p.u .  0.28 p.u. X T 1 p.u .  0.18 p.u.
125 125
X G 2 p.u .  0.175   0.292 p.u. X T 2 p.u .  0.125   0.208 p.u.
75 75
Z Sbase
The line reactances in p.u. are: Z p.u  Z
Z base (Vbase ) 2

125
X L1 p.u .  (40  0.43) 2
 0.123 p.u.
132
125
X L 2 p.u .  (80  0.43) 2
 0.247 p.u.
132
Therefore, the reactance diagram is redrawn as follows:
0.28 0.18 0.123 0.247 0.208 0.292
G1 G2

p.u. equivalent circuit

F
0.747
0.583 0.747 0.327
G1 G2 G G

F 0.583 F F
(b) (c) (d)

1 .0
Fault current: I F . p.u .   3.058 p.u.
0.327
Sbase 125 I F  I Fp .u . I B  3.058  0.5467
I base    0.5467 kA
3Vbase 3  132
 1.672 kA

Fault power: S Fault  3KV  I F

 3  132 1.672  382 MVA
 Example
In the 2 :
system shown in the one-line diagram, there is a grid feed of 500MVA
onto the 132kV bus-bar at the point P. A symmetrical short circuit occurs on the
22kV bus-bar. Calculate the fault current and apparent power.

Solution:
Base power: 5MVA

Base voltages: 132kV (grid); 22kV(loads)

Sbase  3VbaseI base
S grid  3Vgrid I grid

I grid S grid 500

I grid. p.u .     100 p.u.
I base Sbase 5
Vgrid. p.u .  1 p.u.
0.05p.u.
0.01p.u.
Vgrid. p.u . 1
Z grid. p.u .    0.01 p.u.
I grid. p.u . 100

1
I fault. p.u .   16.67 p.u.
0.01  0.05

Sbase 5
I base    0.1312kA
3Vbase 322

I fault  I faultp.u . I base  16.67 p.u.  0.1312kA  2.2 KkA

S fault  3Vload I fault  3  22  2.2  83.8MVA

Exercise 1 A balanced three-phase short circuit occurs on the 22kV
busbars of the circuit shown in the figure A. Calculate the fault current
and fault power.

Solution:

Choose base power: 100MVA T1 T2

100 1
X G  0.15   0.6 p.u. I faultp.u .   0.718 p.u.
25 0.6  0.3  0.4  0.092
100 Sbase 100
X T 1  0.09   0.3 p.u. I base    2.624kA
30 3Vbase 322

100 I fault  0.718 p.u.  2.624kA  1.88kA

X T 2  0.02   0.4 p.u.
5
X Line  0.092 p.u. S fault  3Vload I fault  3  22 1.88  71.6 MVA
Class test. Three 11kV, 100MVA generators are connected to common
busbars. Each is connected via a 100MVA inductors and an identical
circuit breakers. The inductors have reactances of 0.15p.u., 0.2p.u. and
0.30p.u.. If the generators each have a transient reactance 0.25p.u.. What
is the minimum circuit-breaker rating to protect the generators against a
fault on the common busbars?
100MVA
G
11kV,
Solution: 100MVA
load
Choose XL=0.15p.u.
1 1
I p.u .    2.5 p.u.
0.25  0.15 0.4
I fault 2.5 14kA  35kA
11
VL   0.15  4.125kV
0.25  0.15
S fault  3VL I fault
Sbase 100
I base    14kA  3  4.125  35  250 MVA
3Vbase 34.125
Review of Power System

Power and power flow

Per unit system

Fault calculation
Power and power flow

Real power or
Apparent power (VA)
active power (W)

S VI P VI cos 

Complex power

Reactive power (VAR) S  VI *  P  jQ

Q VI sin  P

 Q
S
 Three phase system
Real power or
active power (W)
Apparent power (VA)

S  3VI P  3VI cos 

Complex power

Q  3VI sin  S  VI  P  jQ
*

 Q
S
 The per-unit System
n1 n2 n3 n4 n5

22kV 400kV 132kV 66kV 11kV 415V z

Actual value
p.u. value 
Base value

Simplified calculation.
 Two important p.u. parameters:

o Base voltage, denoted by Vbase

o Base power, denoted by Sbase

Base current (Ibase) & base impedance (Z base)

Rules of selecting:
The base power (Sbase) is chosen to be the same for all items in the
whole network.
The base voltages MUST be in the ratio of the turns of
transformers. –rating values.
 per unit system 3 phase star-connected systems

Base current: Sbase

I base 
3Vbase

2
Vbase
Z base 
Sbase
Base impedance:

S base
Z p .u Z 2
p.u. impedance: Vbase
 If base power and base voltage are both chosen new ones, Z p.u. will change

2
Vbase ( given )  S base (new)
Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given )  
V
 base ( new)  Sbase ( given )

If only base power change, but base voltage stays unchanged, Z p.u. will become

S base (new)
Z p.u (new)  Z p.u ( given )
Sbase ( given )
 Faults calculations

Rf
(a) Balanced faults

(b) Unbalanced faults

Figure (1)

Why do we need to do fault calculations?

 Select circuit-breaker or fuses
 Set protection system
 Modify the system to reduce fault level
Key assumption:
The magnitudes in the three phase voltages (or
three phase currents) are the same, and they
displaced each other by 120 degrees

Single phase equivalent circuit

p.u. equivalent circuit

Fault
current
Example. Three 11kV, 100MVA generators are connected to common
busbars. Each is connected via a 100MVA inductors and an identical
circuit breakers. The inductors have reactances of 0.15p.u., 0.2p.u. and
0.30p.u.. If the generators each have a transient reactance 0.25p.u.. What
is the minimum circuit-breaker rating to protect the generators against a
fault on the common busbars?
100MVA
G
11kV,
Solution: 100MVA
load
a) Choose XL=0.15p.u.
1 1
I p.u .    2.5 p.u.
0.25  0.15 0.4
I fault 2.5 14kA  35kA
11
VL   0.15  4.125kV
0.25  0.15
S fault  3VL I fault
Sbase 100
I base    14kA  3  4.125  35  250 MVA
3Vbase 34.125
 b) Choose XL=0.2p.u.
c) Choose XL=0.3p.u.
1 1
I p.u .    2.22 p.u.
0.25  0.2 0.45 1 1
I p.u .    1.82 p.u.
0.25  0.3 0.55
11
VL   0.2  4.89kV
0.25  0.2 11
VL   0.3  6kV
0.25  0.3
Sbase 100
I base    11 .8kA
3Vbase 34.89 Sbase 100
I base    9.62kA
3Vbase 36
I fault 2.22  11 .8kA  26.2kA
I fault 9.62  1.82  17.5kA
S fault  3VL I fault
S fault  3VL I fault
 3  4.89  26.2  222 MVA
 3  6 17.5  182 MVA
 I fault 35kA I fault 17.5kA
S fault  250 MVA S fault  182 MVA

I fault 35kA
I fault 26.2kA

S fault  222MVA S fault  250 MVA

 Class exercise.
In the system shown in the one-line diagram, there is a grid feed of 500MVA
onto the 132kV bus-bar at the point P. A symmetrical short circuit occurs on the
22kV bus-bar. The circuit breakers are located between the 132kV busbar and
the primary side of the transformer. Calculate the rating of the circuit breakers.

Solution:
Base power: 5MVA

Base voltages: 132kV (grid); 22kV(loads)

Sbase  3VbaseI base
S grid  3Vgrid I grid

I grid S grid 500

I grid. p.u .     100 p.u.
I base Sbase 5
 132kV
Vgrid. p.u .  1 p.u.
0.05p.u. 22kV
0.01p.u.
Vgrid. p.u . 1
Z grid. p.u .    0.01 p.u.
I grid. p.u . 100

1
I fault. p.u .   16.67 p.u.
0.01  0.05

Sbase 5
I base    0.1312kA
3Vbase 322

I fault  I faultp.u . I base  16.67 p.u.  0.1312kA  2.2kA 132

V   0.05
0.01  0.05
S fault  3V I fault  3  110  2.2  420 MVA  110 kV
 Example: A symmetrical three-phase fault occurs on the 11kV busbars of
the circuit shown in the figure below. Calculate the fault apparent power
and fault current.
G1
Solution:

Sbase 60 MVA

Vbase 22kV (G1 side )

G2
Vbase 132kV ( Line side )

Vbase 11kV ( Load side )

X G1  0.1 p.u. 60
X T 1  0.1 p.u.   0.15 p.u.
40
 60 G1
XT2  0.15 p.u.   0.45 p.u.
20
60
X G 2  0.1 p.u.   0.2 p.u.
30
G2
Sbase 60
X Line  X 2
 126  2
 0.434 p.u.
Vbase 132

1.134pu
0.15pu 0.434pu 0.45pu
0.1pu
1p.u.

1p.u.
0.2pu
 0.17p.u.
1p.u.

1
I faultp.u .   5.88 p.u.
0.17

Sbase 60
I base    3.15kA
3Vbase 311

I fault 5.88  3.15kA  18.5kA

S fault  3VI  3 11 18.5kA  353MVA

 Class exercise
If the balanced fault occurs in G1
the 22kV bus, calculate the
fault current and fault power.

1.234p.u.
0.45pu 0.2pu G2
0.1pu 0.15pu 0.434pu

1p.u. 1
I faultp.u .   10.8 p.u.
0.0925p.u. 0.0925
 G1

Sbase 60
I base    1.575kA
3Vbase 322
G2

I fault 10.8  1.575kA  17 kA

S fault  3VI  3  22  17kA  647.8MVA

Main Objectives of Electricity Supply
Industry

• Minimize cost (maximize efficiency)

• Deliver high quality and reliable supply
• Maintain environmental improvements and
sustainable development

Conflicting Objectives
Therefore, a compromise is sought
 Meeting the Objectives
• Long-term and Short-term Load Forecasts
• Plan Network Development
• Power System Operation and Control
– Generation Scheduling (Economic Load Dispatch) and
turbine speed governors
 Control of P & f
– Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) on alternators,
transformers tap changers and VAr compensators
 Control of Q & V
– Optimization of System Operation
 Generation Scheduling or Economic Load Dispatch
 Minimizing Transmission Losses
 Methods of Voltage Control
• Tap changing transformers
– To avoid large voltage disturbances, the voltage change between taps is normally
small; about 1.25 % of the nominal voltage.
– The total range of tapping varies with the transformer usage, a typical figure for
generator transformers is +2% to -16% in 18 steps.

o o
o o

Symbol A o o B
o o o
o o
o
o o o o
o S1 S2
o
o L L o
off-load tap changer on-load tap changer
 Methods of Voltage Control
• Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) on alternators
– An over-excited machine generates reactive power while an under-excited
machine absorbs it.
– Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) on alternators are usually used to control the
terminal voltage, by suitably adjusting the reactive power in response to a control
signal representing the alternator terminal voltage.
– The generator is the main source of supply to the system of both positive and
negative VArs, as reactive power is generated at no cost (i.e. no fuel or additional
capital cost).

• Reactive power compensation

– Implemented by using shunt capacitors (supply VArs) and reactors (absorbs Vars).
– They can be directly connected to the busbar or connected through switches to
provide controlled VArs to maintain the specified voltage.
– Modern VAr compensators employ thyristors, IGBTs, etc. for the generation or
absorption of reactive power.
 Optimization of Power System
Operation
• Generation Scheduling or Economic Load Dispatch
• Factors to be considered:
– Fixed costs of supply; e.g. interest, depreciation and salaries.
– Variable costs of supply; e.g. fuel.
– Transmission losses
– Transportation of Fuel
– Plant Rating and stability Limits must be observed
• The allocation of generation to meet demand is usually
based on the variable costs (fuel costs, generation
efficiency, maintenance costs etc.) using thermal input-
electrical output characteristics.
• Unit Commitment and Merit Order
 Heat Rate Characteristics
• This is the thermal input - electrical output characteristics of a Turbine-
Generator set.

Heat input Heat input

Joules per hour Joules per hour
(i.e. cost/hour) (i.e. cost/hour)

Pmin Pmax Pmin Pmax

Output Power Output Power
Single valve units Multiple valve units
(preferred in the UK) (preferred in the USA)
Input-Output Characteristics of Turbine-Generator Sets

• The slope of the line joining any point on the curve to the origin represents the
generation cost for that output power in £/hour per MW, i.e. £/MWh. This is
defined as the heat rate and its reciprocal is defined as the fuel efficiency.
• Maximum fuel efficiency occurs at the point where the slope of the line from
the origin to a point on the curve is a minimum.
 Incremental Fuel Cost () in £/MWh
• This is defined as the additional cost in £/hour to increase the output
by 1 MW. It is usually based on the variable generation costs.
• For economical division of load between units (optimum operation),
the incremental fuel cost for all contributing turbine-generator sets
should be the same.

£/MWh £/MWh

Pmin Pmax Pmin Pmax

Output Power Output Power

Single valve units Multiple valve units

Incremental Fuel Cost () of Turbine-Generator Sets
 Unit Commitment, Scheduling and
Merit Order
• Select a number of generating units with sufficient capacity
to meet the demand and some spare capacity.
• Units selected (committed) must have the lowest production
costs in order to minimize generation costs.
• Need to minimize the cost of starting-up and shutting-down
of units.
• Units committed must be at appropriate locations, in order
minimize transmission losses.
• Once a unit has been committed, it must deliver at least Pmin.
Since the cost of generating Pmin have been accounted for,
the only additional costs when loading the unit is the
incremental cost. That is, the levels of units loading
(generation schedule) is determined by the incremental costs
of the units.
 Unit Commitment, Scheduling and
Merit Order
• For single valve units, minimum production costs are
achieved when units with minimum  are chosen first,
(note that generation costs are minimum when units are
operated at full rated power).
• For multiple valve units, generation schedule must also
involve the level of loading of each unit.
• Therefore, generating stations are normally listed in
order of economic merit which is used to determine
when each unit is to be committed and its output power
at any loading conditions (generation scheduling).