www.covenantuniversity.edu.

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Raising a new Generation of Leaders

Selected topics in Chemistry for

non-major 1
Mr Adedapo E. A.
Department of Chemistry,
Covenant University, Ota.
 OUTLINES
 Chemistry of noble gases

 Kinetic theory of gases

 Molecular velocities and their distribution

 Second law of thermodynamics

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CHEMISTRY OF NOBLE GASES

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 NOBLE GASES
 The noble gases (Group 8) are located in the far right
of the periodic table.

 The are referred to as the "inert gases" due to the fact

that their filled valence shells (octets).

 They are extremely nonreactive.

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 NOBLE GASES
 They are characterized by ns2 np6 electronic configuration.

 Their electronic structure are particular stable.

 The group 8 elements are called the noble gases.

 This is because they rarely combine with other elements

and are found as uncombined element in nature.
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Atomic Number Element Number of Electrons/Shell

2 Helium 2

10 Neon 2,8

18 Argon 2,8,8

36 Krypton 2,8,18,8

54 Xenon 2,8,18,18,8

86 Radon 2,8,18,32,18,8

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 OCCURRENCE OF NOBLE GASES
 All the noble gases with the exception of radon are
constituents of the air.

 Argon is the most abundant while other noble gases are

relatively scarce.

 Neon, argon, krypton and xenon can be isolated during the

fractional distillation of liquid.
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 PROPERTIES OF NOBLE GASES
 All noble gases are colourless, odourless and low boiling
points.

 They vaporize easily because of the weak interatomic

attractive forces.

 Noble gases have a relatively high solubility in water, which

increases down the group.

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 PROPERTIES OF NOBLE GASES
 Atomic mass, boiling point, and atomic radii INCREASE down
a group in the periodic table. 

 The first ionization energy DECREASES down a group in the

periodic table. 

 The noble gases have the largest ionization

energies, reflecting their chemical inertness
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 PROPERTIES OF NOBLE GASES
 Down Group 8, atomic radius and interatomic forces
INCREASE resulting in an INCREASED melting point, boiling
point, enthalpy of vaporization, and solubility.
 
 Overall, noble gases have weak interatomic forces, and
therefore very low boiling and melting points compared
with elements of other groups.

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 IMPORTANCE OF HELIUM
 Helium is less dense than air so, it is great for all kinds of
ballons.

 Helium balloons lift instruments into the upper atmosphere

to measure atmospheric conditions.

 Even though hydrogen is lighter than helium, Helium is

preferred for these purposes because helium will not burn.
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 USES OF NOBLES GASES
INDUSTRY
 These gases are widely used in lighting e.g Krypton and
Xenon. It ensure greater light efficacy.

 Neon and Xenon are both used in lighted advertising, in

the form of luminescent tubes called “Neon” tubes.

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 USES OF NOBLES GASES
AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
 Xenon is used for headlights.

 Xenon lamps produce a very powerful white light, similar to

daylight.

 They increase contrasts and color vision and thus contribute

to road safety.

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 USES OF NOBLES GASES
SPACE INDUSTRY
 Xenon is used as satellite propellant and enables to adjust
orbital paths with precision.

 This gas is used because of its mass that ensures adequate

thrust in space in order to put the satellite in movement.

 Krypton and Xenon are also used in some types of lasers

and in flat panel display manufacturing.
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 USES OF NOBLES GASES
ENVIRONMENT
 In order to contain energy loss and ensure optimal
insulation in buildings.

 An inert and heavy gas- it offers good insulation because

its molecules move less quickly than air molecules.

 Krypton delivers insulation efficiency six times higher than

traditional windows.

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 USES OF NOBLES GASES
HEALTH
 Xenon is a natural anesthetic. Administered with Oxygen during
anesthesia.

 It enables rapid post-surgical reanimation and recovery.

 It helps to maintain the stability of blood pressure and heart rate

during operations.

 It is easily eliminated by the body through the lungs, without being

metabolized
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 DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGY
An elastic collision is one in which the total transitional kinetic
energy of a pair of molecules is the same before and after a
collision.

No energy is transferred to their internal modes of motion.

The assumption that the molecules do not interact implies that

there is no potential energy of interaction between them
(i.e T = K.E. + P.E = K.E)

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 Collision Frequency: The collisions ensure that the molecules
constantly change their speed and direction.

 The average number of collisions per unit time made by a single

molecule is called the collision frequency, z.

 The mean free path  is the average distance a molecule travels

between collisions.

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 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF
GASES
 Gases are composed of separate, tiny particles called
molecules dispersed throughout the container.

 The actual volumes of the molecules is negligible compared

to the total volume of the gas. Molecules are identical.

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 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
 Gas molecules are in constant, rapid, straight line motion
(which means that gas molecules have kinetic energy ( KE =
½ mv² ) at high velocities.

 The collisions between molecules are completely elastic

when molecules collide, there is no loss of kinetic energy of
a molecule during collision.

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 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
 The molecules of a gas have no attraction or repulsion for
each other therefore gas molecules can move freely
independent of each other.

 The pressure of a gas is caused by the hits recorded by

molecules on the walls of the container.

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 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
 The average kinetic energy (½ mv²) of the gas molecules is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature(kelvin
temperature)

 This implies that the average kinetic energy of molecules is

the same at a given temperature

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IDEAL AND
REAL GAS
 Ideal gas has no definite volume while real gas has definite
volume.

 Ideal gas has no mass whereas real gas has mass.

 Collision of ideal gas particles is elastic while non-elastic for real

gas.

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IDEAL AND
REAL GAS
 No energy involved during collision of particles in ideal gas.
Collision of particles in real gas has attracting energy.

 Pressure is high in ideal gas compared to real gas.

 Ideal gas follows the equation PV=nRT. Real gas follows the
equation (P + a/V2) (V – b) = nRT.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IDEAL AND REAL GASES

Ideal Gas Real Gas

Obey PV=nRT Always Only at very low P and
high T

Molecular volume Zero Small but nonzero

Molecular attractions Zero Small

Molecular repulsions Zero Small

 GASES AND THE KINETIC THEORY

Pressure of an ideal gas

Kinetic theory leads to a mathematical relationship
between the pressure of a gas and the average kinetic
energy of its molecules

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Consider a cubical vessel of
each side L with perfect
elastic walls containing ‘n’
molecules each of mass ‘m’
with velocities v1, v2,……vn

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Consider a cubic container of size l cm containing a total of N molecules of gas.
-1
Assume the velocity u of the molecule is u cms . This can be decomposed into three
components along the coordinates axes
i.e. u = ux + uy + uz
2 2 2 2
and u = u x + u y + u z
Consider one molecule of the gas starting from face A and moving in the x direction
with a velocity ux towards the opposite face. When it hits this face it rebounds and
travels back to strike A.
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According to kinetic theory, a molecule of a gas can
move with velocity U in any direction.

Velocity is a vector quantity and can be resolved into

the components Ux ,Uy and Uz along the X,Y and Z axes.

These components are related to the velocity U by the

following expression.

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 U
2 = Ux2 + U y2 + Uz 2

Considering the motion of a single molecule moving

with the component velocities independent in each
direction.

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Consider the force
exerted on the wall by
the component of
velocity along the x axis.

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 Consider one molecule in the cuboid, moving in x-
direction perpendicular to face A with velocity UX.

 the momentum of the molecule relative to the x- axis

= mUx. After striking, it rebounds with the same
velocity, -UX ( since velocity is a vector quantity), and
the momentum is –mUX in the backward direction.

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 Therefore, the change in momentum per molecule per
single collision in the x- direction at face A is:

 change in momentum = mUX – (- mUX) = 2 mUX

 The molecules now move to the opposite wall A’ and

rebound to face A after covering a distance 2L. The
time taken for the molecules to rebound from the
opposite wall and hit A’ again is
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KINETIC GAS EQUATION IN TERMS OF KINETIC
ENERGY

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41
DEDUCTIONS OF GAS LAWS FROM THE KINETIC GAS
EQUATION.

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43
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

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 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
 As kinetic energy increases, the velocity of the gas molecules
increases.

 Root mean square speed, u, is the speed of a gas molecule having

average kinetic energy.

 Average kinetic energy, , is related to root mean square speed:

1 2
  2 mu
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THE MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION OF VELOCITIES

Note that the mean value of

velocity is zero!
 ROOT MEAN SQUARE VELOCITY (URMS)

urms = √(3RT/M)
 R = 8.3145 J/K(mol)

 T = temp in KELVIN

 M = mass of one mole in KILOGRAMS (use the molar mass from

the periodic table and convert to kg/mol)

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 ROOT MEAN SQUARE VELOCITY
PROBLEM
 What is the average velocity or root mean square velocity of a
molecule in a sample of oxygen at 0 °C?

 The average velocity of gas particles is found using the root mean
square velocity formula

 μrms = (3RT/M)½

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where
μrms = root mean square velocity in m/sec

R = ideal gas constant = 8.3145 (kg·m2/sec2)/K·mol

T = absolute temperature in Kelvin

M = mass of a mole of the gas in kilograms.

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 Really, the RMS calculation gives you root mean square speed, not
velocity. This is because velocity is a vector quantity, which has
magnitude and direction. The RMS calculation only gives the
magnitude or speed.

 The temperature must be converted to Kelvin and the molar mass

must be found in kg to complete this problem.

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Step 1.
Find the absolute temperature using the Celsius to Kelvin
conversion formula:

T = °C + 273
T = 0 + 273
T = 273 K

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Step 2
Find molar mass in kg:

From the periodic table, molar mass of oxygen = 16 g/mol.

Oxygen gas (O2) is comprised of two oxygen atoms bonded together. Therefore:

molar mass of O2 = 2 x 16
molar mass of O2 = 32 g/mol

Convert this to kg/mol:

molar mass of O2 = 32 g/mol x 1 kg/1000 g

molar mass of O2 = 3.2 x 10-2 kg/mol

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Step 3 - Find μrms

μrms = (3RT/M)½
μrms = [3(8.3145 (kg·m2/sec2)/K·mol)(273 K)/3.2 x 10 -2
kg/mol]½
μrms = (2.128 x 105 m2/sec2)½
μrms = 461 m/sec

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 WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the root mean square velocity for the
atoms in a sample of oxygen gas at 0oC.

 Answer: 461 m/s

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 Step 1- Find absolute temperature

The temperature must be converted to Kelvins and the

molar mass must be found in kg to complete this
problem.

T = °C + 273
T = 0 + 273
T = 273 K

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 Step 2- Find molar mass in kg
From the periodic table, molar mass of oxygen = 16 g/mol.
Oxygen gas (O2) is comprised of two oxygen atoms bonded
together.
Therefore:
molar mass of O2 = 2 x 16
molar mass of O2 = 32 g/mol
Convert this to kg/mol
molar mass of O2 = 32 g/mol x 1 kg/1000 g
molar mass of O2 = 3.2 x 10-2 kg/mol
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 Step 3 - Find μrms
μrms = (3RT/M)½
μrms = [3(8.3145 (kg·m2/sec2)/K·mol)(273 K)/3.2 x 10-2
kg/mol]½
μrms = (2.128 x 105 m2/sec2)½
μrms = 461 m/sec

Answer:
The average velocity or root mean square velocity of a
molecule in a sample of oxygen at 0 °C is 461 m/sec.
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 WORKED EXAMPLES
2. A cylinder contains a mixture of helium and argon gas in
equilibrium at 150 oC.

(a) What is the average kinetic energy of each gas molecule?

(b) What is the root-mean-square speed of each type of

molecule?

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 SOLUTION

(a) The average kinetic energy of each molecule is 

(3/2)kBT = (3/2)1.38*10-23 J/K(423 K) = 8.76*10-21 J.

The average kinetic energy is the same for both types of
atoms,

Note: Boltzman constant: 1.38064852 x 10-23m2kgs-2K-1

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60
 EXERCISE

Some incandescent light bulbs are filled with argon gas.

What is vrms for argon atoms near the filament,
assuming their temperature is 2500 K?

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EXERCISE

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 Ideal Gas Law Questions
How many moles of CO2(g) is in a 5.6 L sample of CO2 measured at
STP?
Moles of CO2 is in a 5.6 L at STP?

P=101.325 kPa, V=5.6 L, T=273 K PV = nRT

(101.325 kPa)(5.6 L)
(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(273 K) = n = 0.25 mol

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 Ideal Gas Law Questions
(a) Calculate the volume of 4.50 mol of SO2(g) measured at STP.
(b) What volume would this occupy at 25°C and 150 kPa?
(a) Volume of 4.50 mol of SO2 at STP.
P= 101.3 kPa, n= 4.50 mol, T= 273 K PV=nRT

(4.50 mol)(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(273 K)

= 100.8 L
(101.3 kPa)

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 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The second law of thermodynamics can be
understood through considering these processes:
 A rock will fall if you lift it up and then let go
 Hot pans cool down when taken out from the stove.
 Ice cubes melt in a warm room.

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WHAT’S HAPPENING IN EVERY ONE OF
THOSE?
 Energy of some kind is changing from being localized
(concentrated) somehow to becoming more spread out.
 i.e in example 1:
 The potential energy localized in the rock is now totally
spread out and dispersed in:
 A little air movement.
 Little heating of air and ground

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 IN THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE

 System: rock above ground then rock on ground.

 Surroundings: air + ground

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 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The second law of thermodynamics states that energy
(and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out
across the universe.

 i.e to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place,

it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy
(as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the
surroundings").

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 WHAT IS ENTROPY?
Entropy just measures the spontaneous dispersal of energy:
or how much energy is spread out in a process as a function
of temperature.

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 THE ENTROPY
 Entropy a measure of disorder in the physical system.

 The second law of thermodynamics – the universe, or in any

isolated system, the degree of disorder (entropy) can only
increase.

 The movement towards a disordered state is a spontaneous

process.

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ENTROPY
A change in order is a change
solid liquid gas in the number of ways of
arranging the particles, and it
more order less order
is a key factor in determining
the direction of a spontaneous
crystal + liquid ions in solution process.
more order less order

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 ENTROPY CHANGE Δ S
 In chemical terms entropy is related to the random
movements of molecules and is measured by T ΔS.

 When a system is at equilibrium, no net reaction

occurs and the system has no capacity to do work.

 Q=TΔS This is a condition of maximum entropy.

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 SO IN A SIMPLE EQUATION:
 Entropy = “ energy dispersed”/ T

 Entropy couldn't be expressed without the inclusion of

absolute temperature.

 Entropy change ΔS shows us exactly how important to a

system is a dispersion of a given amount of energy.

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i.e you can pump heat out of a refrigerator (to make
ice cubes), but the heat is placed in the house and the
entropy of the house increases, even though the local
entropy of the ice cube tray. decreases

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 GIBBS FREE ENERGY
 Gibbs introduced the concept of free energy as an another measure
of the capacity to do useful work.
Free energy G is defined as

 Δ G = ΔH- T ΔS & W = - ΔH + T ΔS

Note that ΔG= -W

 So that when the measure of W is positive (i.e the system is doing
useful work), the measure of ΔG is negative and vice versa.

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 Work can be done by system proceeding to
equilibrium and measure of the maximum useful work
is given by the following equation:

W = - ΔH + T ΔS

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Reaction Spontaneity and the Signs of H0, S0, and G0

H0 S0 -TS0 G0 Description

- + - - Spontaneous at all T

+ - + + Nonspontaneous at all T

+ + - + or - Spontaneous at higher T;
nonspontaneous at lower T

- - + + or - Spontaneous at lower T;
nonspontaneous at higher T
 Free Energy, Equilibrium and Reaction Direction

•If Q/K < 1, then ln Q/K < 0; the reaction proceeds to the right (G < 0)

•If Q/K > 1, then ln Q/K > 0; the reaction proceeds to the left (G > 0)

•If Q/K = 1, then ln Q/K = 0; the reaction is at equilibrium (G = 0)

G = RT ln Q/K = RT lnQ - RT lnK

Under standard conditions (1M concentrations, 1atm for gases), Q = 1 and lnQ = 0 so

G0 = - RT lnK