Chem 781 Part 5

Multiple pulse- and double

resonance experiments
 Heteronuclear Decoupling

Why do we need decoupling ?

•In the 13C spectra of 13C-1Hn groups the signal will be split by large 1JCH.

•This splitting will reduce the sensitivity of signals which often are already naturally
weak

•Such a large splitting can also cause severe overlap of lines and result in complex
spectra.

• Therefore, in routine C-13 NMR spectra this coupling is removed by applying

decoupling.
 Basic idea of decoupling
• From the vector picture one can see that the dephasing of the doublet components
can be reversed by interchanging the α and β states of the coupling partner (here
proton):

e x c h a n g e  /  s p in s
- I C I H C
-I I
H

C y y y y
-Iy - I yC
C H
I I I C I H
x x x x
t = 0 t =  t =  t = 2

• Such an exchange of α/β states can be achieved by application of a 180̊ pulse on the
protons (remember that an 180̊ pulse inverts all spins). In the product operator
formalism, that is equivalent to reversing the sign of the I xCIzH term:
π
-IyC cos(JCHπτ) + IxCIzH sin(πJCHx τ) ─────> -IyC cos(JCHπτ) - IxCIzH sin(πJCHτ)
 Practical application of decoupling
• The ideal solution would therefore be to apply a 180̊ proton pulse between each
sampled data point during acquisition.
• In order to achieve 180̊ pulse between every sampled data point many (32000)
strong pulses (τπ ≪ DW) would have to be applied in rapid succession.
• In a typical 13C spectrum (220 ppm at 75 MHz) DW ≈30 μs or less. That is
usually not achievable experimentally

 /2 (x ) (y )  /   x  /2 (x ) (y )  /   x
C P D d e c o u p lin g 1
w ith M L E V H

id e a l 1
d e c o u p lin g H

13
C

0 2

t ( a c q u is it io n )
 Problems with achieving “ideal“
decoupling requirements
• duty cycle of amplifier

• damage to probe

• sample heating (too much energy absorbed)

 Real life Decoupling sequences
• In practice the requirement for efficient decoupling is less demanding.
• A more realistic requirement is that the dephasing from J coupling during/between
the 180̊ pulses is small:
γB1/2π ≫ J or τP180 ≪ 1/J

• As DW ≪ 1/J (JCH ≈ 150 Hz, 1/J = 6.7ms) dephasing from J coupling is small during
DW, so inversion does not have to occur between every sampled point.

• Typically, decoupler pulses with τ90 = 100 μs are used (γB1/2π = 2.5 kHz).
 Problem of Bandwidth of
decoupling
• Most basic decoupling scheme: continuous wave irradiation with a power of
γB1/2π = 2.5 kHz (cw decoupling)

• However, for more many proton signals over a shift range of 10 ppm to be
decoupled, another requirement is that γB1/2π needs to be strong enough to cover
that range

• For 10 ppm at 300 MHz that is 3 kHz, 5 kHz at 500 MHz

• CW decoupling can often not performed with the power required to achieve the
required bandwidth
 Composite Pulse Decoupling
• It is more efficient to use a series of pulses with variable phases (composite
pulses): => Composite Pulse Decoupling (CPD)

• MLEV (Malcom Levitts CPD-sequence): (90̊x 180̊y 90̊x)n

• WALTZ (1x π/2, 2x π/2, 3x π/2 = 1,2,3) (90̊x 180̊-x 270̊x)n

• other more complex schemes are also in use:

GARP (Globally Optimized Alternating Phase Rectangular Pulse)
Schematics of decoupling
Summary of decoupling techniques
 Nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE):
• In addition to removing couplings from the spectrum, decoupling will also effect
the intensities of the signals

• The effect is non trivial in origin, and will not treated fully from scratch here
 Basic theory of NOE
• The observation of NOE enhancement is a special relaxation effect caused by the
change in population of the proton levels during the decoupling.

• The details of how relaxation is induced will be discussed later.

• For now we accept that in the presence of through space (dipolar) spin-spin
couplings, molecular motion induces random transitions between levels related by
flipping one or both coupled spins.
Transitions in a two spin system

For an isolated C- H pair these transitions

13 1

13
C H

can occur with the rates W1C, W1H, W2HC and

W0HC.
W1 are the observable NMR transitions of C
and H with frequency ν0H and ν0C.

W0 and W2 the two simultaneous flip

transitions not observed in the NMR
spectrum (cross relaxation), with the
frequencies ν0H-ν0C and ν0H + ν0H.
 Rate of NOE buildup
In general, the NOE enhancement η is given by relative rates of cross
relaxation and total relaxation:

   
W 2  W 0 c r o s s r e la x a tio n
  
W 1C  W 1 H  W 0  W 2 s p in  la ttic e r e la x a tio n
        
1
T1
 Nothing better than a picture 
  

 
0   

  13
C   13
C   
   + 
H C


   + 
H C

C

W
     
2

1 1
H H

W 0
1 1

 H H

    
  


  H+ C     
   + 
H C

13 13

   H +  C
C C
1
 13 1
  13 1
  13
H C H C H C
in itia l th e rm a l tu rn o n p ro to n e s ta b lis h n e w e q u ilib riu m
e q u ilib riu m d e c o u p lin g u n d e r d e c o u p lin g c o n d itio n s

P o p u la tio n d iffe re n c e s :
1
H :        0
         } H 0
13
C :       
} > > W 1: /2 + 
1 H C
C C if W 2
          =  C[ 1 + H /( 2 C)]
 m s = 2 :       H + C  C (n o t lo n g e r
 m s = 0 :       H - C  C a t e q u ilib riu m )

Effect of 1H decoupling on 13C population differences. The initial excess

populations are denoted ΔH and ΔC, the spin function for ms = + ½ and - ½ are
α and β, respectively.
 Magnitude of NOE
• For small molecules W2 is dominant over W0 (tumbling rate of molecules ≫ ω0 ) and
under optimal conditions the enhancement will be ηmaxC{H} = γH/(2γC) ≈ 2

Thus the carbon signal will increase up to a factor of three in intensity upon
decoupling of protons:
M0C ∼ ΔC MCNOE ∼ (ΔC + ΔH/2) or MCNOE = MC0 + η M0C

• In large molecules the situation will be different

• W0 and W2 depend only on dipolar interaction between 1H and 13C, whereas W1H and
W1C may also include other contributions to the relaxation (Chemical shift anisotropy,
paramagnetic impurities like oxygen), so the theoretical enhancement will not always
be observed.
• Note that dipolar coupling does not require a bond, but directly bound protons are also
close in space.
 Practical considerations of NOE for
carbon NMR
• Distance dependence: Tertiary carbons like C=O and >C< show only very little
enhancement and show up weaker than protonated carbons => intensities will not be
proportional to number of C-atoms

• additional mechanisms of relaxation will only contribute to W1 and may reduce NOE
(Chemical shift anisotropy, unpaired electrons from oxygen)

• Nuclei with negative will exhibit a negative NOE, which in some cases may decrease
signal (15N: N-15 -1/10 H, 113Cd)

• large molecules (M > 3000): W2CH ≈ W0CH and ήmax ≈ 0.25 (small NOE)

• NOE will depend on molecular size and will be close to zero for macromolecules.

• As NOE is a relaxation phenomenon it will take time to build up after turning the decoupler
on.
 Basic multiple pulse experiments
Quantitative 13C NMR
•Goal: get decoupled spectrum without (or with minimum) NOE:
•Solution: NOE takes time to build up (up to a few seconds). On the other hand
decoupling occurs instantaneously after turning on decoupling:
•decouple only during aq, not during d1: “inverse gated decoupling” (zgig)

•aq needs to be kept to minimum to avoid NOE during acquisition

•d1 needs to be long enough to maintain M0H before each scan and ensure sufficient
relaxation of MzC
•This method is also used for 1D 15N, 113Cd NMR where NOE is undesired
 Get spectrum with coupling to
protons and with NOE:
• Goal: Obtain proton-coupling information, but retain sensitive advantage of NOE

• Solution: Decouple during d1, but not during aq:“gated decoupling” (zggd)

• This will not solve the problem of spreading signal intensity over many multiplet
lines and potential overlap in crowded spectra, but it gives improved sensitivity
over simple one pulse experiment.
 Overview of different decoupling
schemes
d e c o u p le
Regular decoupling
d1

p1

Gated Decoupling

Inverse Gated Decoupling

 Simple Spetrum editing - APT
(Attached Proton Test) experiment
• During decoupling information about coupling partners is lost.
• Goal: Reintroduce this information and still get decoupled spectrum Can we get
the advantage of a decoupled spectrum and still retain some coupling information ?

• Consider an experiment where we add a time τ = 1/1JCH between the 13C excitation
pulse and the start of acquisition with decoupling:

1
H C PD
o
90 x

13 1
C  = /J
Evolution of spins under coupling
after a pulse:
C

C H

C H 2

C H 3

1
t 0 1
/4J /2J 1
/J
Regard a C-Hx fragment: Evolution of 13C x,y -magnetization with 1H
coupling after time t
After τ = 1/J all spins will again be aligned, but their relative phases will
depend on multiplicity.
Obtaining multiplicity edited spectra
in real samples
• On first sight such an experiment looks like a good multiplicity edited spectrum.
• Why will this not work in a real experiment ?
• Above experiment does not take into consideration rotation of spins due to chemical
shift, so it would only work for one spin exactly on resonance.
• For many different spins, dephasing will occur during τ also for different Ω values
as Ω >> πAJ.
• removal of chemical shift evolution necessary during τ:
1
H
o
90 x

13 1 1
C d1  = /J  = /J

c re a te N O E d e fo c u s s p in s re fo c u s c h e m ic a l a c q u ir e F ID
a c c o rd in g to s h if t d iff e re n c e s ,
m u ltip lic ity s to p c o u p lin g

APT (Attached Proton Test) Experiment

 Vectors in APT with chemical shift

1 1
/J /J
APT without refocusing APT with refocusing of
of chemical shift chemical shift
 Notes on the APT experiment
• It is important to turn the decoupler on during the second τ period. With
decoupling on the coupling will be “frozen” after the first τ and only chemical shift
will refocus. With decoupling off during second τ also coupling will be refocused
(it will also act as a decoupling pulse).

• Note that the condition τ = 1/1JCH can not perfectly achieved for all carbons as the
coupling constants can vary (typically 125 - 160 Hz) and non-perfect editing will
occur.

Note: Spectra can be phased arbitrarily, so it can be either CH, CH 3 “up”, C, CH2
“down” or CH,CH3 “down”, C, CH2 “up”. The command apk can give you thus
either result as the computer itself does not know or care whether a signal is CH or
CH2.
 Typical use of 180̊ pulses
o
180x

Combinations of 180̊ pulses are 1

H
frequently used in NMR o
90x r e m o v e C - H c o u p lin g
k e e p c h e m ic a l s h if t

experiments to remove one or 13

C  

more interactions for a period of

time from the spectrum and allow 1
H
for selective manipulation of o
90x o
180x re m o v e C - H c o u p lin g

magnetization. 13
 
A N D c h e m ic a l s h ift

o
180x
1
H
re m o v e c h e m ic a l s h ift
o o k e e p C H c o u p lin g
90x 180x
13
C  

Top: -IyC ───> -IyC cos(ΩC2τ) + IxC sin(ΩC2τ)

middle: -IyC ───> +IyC
bottom: -IyC ───> -IyC cos(πJCH2τ) + IxCIzH sin(πJCH2τ)
Note that the last sequence offers an alternate way of doing APT.
 Magnetization transfer through
scalar coupling
• NOE is one way to transfer half the proton
magnetization through a dipolar “through
space” interactions

• Can we do better ?

• Magnetization can also be transferred by scalar

“through bond” interactions
Selective Polarization Transfer (SPT) 
0
 H s e le c tiv e
   
C C-H
C 
C

   
Consider 13C-1H fragment:  H
 H (C -)  H

doublet split by 1JC-H  H


H


Applying a slective180̊ pulse at   

H+ C H+ C
proton frequency on one of the C    C
two lines of the doublet will 1
 13 1
  13
H C H C
invert the population along that
-H
transition.  -C -C  -C

As a result the population -H -H

difference of the corresponding
1 13
13
C lines will also change H C
-H
-C
1 13
H C
 Result of the SPT experiment
• The result is an enhancement of the carbon signal by | γH/γC |

• Transfer is instantaneous, no need to wait for relaxation to

take place

• The experiment works only in presence of a scalar coupling:

SPT will work only one signal at a time. Also a selective 180̊
pulse (γB1/2π
<< JCH ) not easily implemented.
 Transfer using non selective pulses
(INEPT)
• However, the effect of selective 180̊ pulse can be achieved for all signals by
applying two 90̊ pulses separated by τ = 1/2JCH :
( /2 )x ( /2 )y
1
H  = 1 /(2 J CH )
a b c
(/2 )y
13
C
d

a b c d
z z z z
I zC I H
- I xC I H

y
x y x y x y
x C H
I x C I H Iz I

H
-M 0 I yH -M 0
H
I xH I zC -M 0
H
I zH I zC -M 0
H
I yC I zH
C
-M 0 I zC -M 0
C
I zC -M 0
C
I yC -M 0
C
I yC
 Accounting for chemical shift
dispersion
• This sequence will work for one C-H if pulses are applied on resonance (ΩC and ΩH
= 0).
• In real life however many peaks will be present and additional rotation by Ω H will
occur during τ = 1/2 J . Thus the vectors will not be aligned along x at point b.
• However, insertion of two 180̊ pulses in the center of τ will remove the chemical
shift dephasing but keep the coupling evolution:

INEPT experiment (Insensitive Nucleus Enhancement by Polarization Transfer)

 Result of INEPT experiment
• Enhancement by factor |γH/γX| X = 13C: ≈4 X = 15N: ≈ 10

CH CH2 CH3
|
|
|
| | | |
| J | J J | J | J J
))))))) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) |) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )) ) ) )) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
| | | |
| | | |
|
• One disadvantage of the basic INEPT is that the multiplets appear in anti phase

• No decoupling possible: positive and negative component will cancel. In vector

picture, the magnetization will remain anti phase and will not develop x,y
magnetization (IxCIzH is not observable)

• The multiplets are asymmetric due to natural C-13 magnetization

 Refocused INEPT
• In order to obtain decoupled spectra, add another delay Δ to refocus I yCIzH to IxC
before turning on decoupler and acquiring data:

( /2 )x  ( /2 )y
1
H  
2 2 C PD
( /2 )y
13
C   t2
2 2

• Note that during τ one considers a proton coupled to one carbon, while during Δ
one has to consider a carbon coupled to one, two or three protons
 Editing using INEPT
• The situation in INEPT during the second refocusing is similar, but not identical to
APT (one starts with anti phase magnetization at the beginning of Δ)

• APT: IyC ⇒ ± IyC refocused INEPT: IyCIzH ⇒ ± IxC

• the length of Δ can be used for multiplicity editing

Δ = 1/2J : CH only, optimum value for C-H

Δ = 3/4J: CH, CH3 positive, CH2 negative (or vice versa), but not with
optimum sensitivity
Δ = 1/4J: CH,CH2 and CH3 all positive

• note that non-protonated carbons will not show up in that experiment as all
magnetization arizes from initial proton magnetization
 Editing with INEPT

x  
y re fo c u se d IN E P T :
1 --- ---
H a 2 b c CPD e d itin g w ith d e la y 
2
    J : C H o n l y
 = 3 /( 4 J ): C H ,C H 3 u p , C H 2 d o w n
 = 1 /(4 J ): C H , C h 2 , C h 3 p o s itiv e
13  
C d e
d iffe re n c e s in J v a lu e s e ffe c t p h a s e s
d e c o u p lin g d u r in g o f s ig n a ls
a c q u is itio n
H H H C H
a )-M 0 Iy b )-M 0
H
I xH I zC c )-M 0
H
I zH I zC d )-M 0 Iy Iz e )M 0
H
I xCs in (  J C H  ) (C H )
s in (  J C H  ) c o s (  J C H  ) ( C H 2)
s in (  J C H  ) c o s (  J C H  ) ( C H 3)
2
 Editing using DEPT
• Disadvantage of editing with refocussed INEPT: As in APT it works perfect only if
all coupling constants 1JCH are the same. Typical values vary from 125 Hz - 150 Hz
(up to 200 Hz in some cases)

Better way: DEPT experiment (Distortionless Enhancement by Polarization

Transfer):
Pulse angle θ takes role of Δ :
θ = π/2 (90̊): DEPT-90 CH only
θ = 3π/4 (135̊): DEPT-135
CH, CH3 up, CH2 down (or vice verca)
θ = π/4 (45̊):DEPT-45 CH, CH2, CH3 positive
Editing with DEPT
• The DEPT experiment can not easily visualized by using the vector model but
requires quantum mechanical operator description.

• The problem is the effect of the first 13C π/2 pulse which converts IxHIzC into -IxHIyC.
This is called a double/zero quantum coherence.

• The quality of editing in the DEPT does not depend on the accuracy of matching
the delay τ to the coupling constant but is determined by the pulse width β and
depends on the different operators generated by different numbers of protons
coupled to the 13C.
 Editing with INEPT/DEPT:
Dependence on delay/pulse

• There is no delay/pulse that is optimal for all multiplicities.

• N > possible if experiment gets optimized for couplings over more than one
bond
Example of editing with DEPT
INEPT vs NOE
Example for NOE vs. INEPT
29
Si INEPT
31
P to 103Rh INEPT