Loads

External Forces
1.Surface Forces
- caused by direct contact
of other body’s surface

2.Body Forces
- other body exerts a
force without contact
Reactions
Equilibrium of a Deformable Body
 Stress
Normal Stress σ
• Force per unit area acting normal to ΔA
Fz
 z  lim
A 0 A

Shear Stress τ
• Force per unit area acting tangent to ΔA
Fx
 zx  lim
A0 A

Fy
 zy  lim
A0 A
 Strains
• When a force is applied to a body, it will change
the body’s shape and size.
• These changes are deformation.

Note the before and after

positions of 3 line segments
where the material is subjected
to tension.
Normal strains

s '  1    s

+ε line elongates
-ε line contracts
Normal strains

  𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴   𝑃𝐿
𝜎 =𝐸 𝜖
  ⟹
  𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
  𝛿
𝜖=
𝐿
 Shear strain
• Change in angle between two line segments that
were perpendicular to one another refers to
shear strain.

 𝛾 = 𝜋 − 𝜃 ′
2

θ'<90 +shear strain

θ'>90 -shear strain
Stress-strain behavior
Stress-strain behavior
Poisson’s ratio
Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress
Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress
Hooke’s Law for Triaxial Stress
Shear loading
Material is transversely loaded
Torsional loading

• The sum of the moments from the internal stress

distribution is equal to the torque on the shaft at
the section,

 max 2  max
T   r dA 
c 
r dA  J
c

• The results are known as the elastic torsion

formulas,
Tc Tr
 max  and  
J J
 Torsional failure

Brittle material

max   xy

Ductile material
s2 = -txy s1 = txy
Bending loading
• Resultant moment on the cross section is equal to
the moment produced by the linear normal stress
distribution about the neutral axis.

σ = normal stress in the member

My M = resultant internal moment
 
I I = moment of inertia
y = perpendicular distance from the neutral axi

• By the right-hand rule, negative sign is

compressive since it acts in the negative x
direction.
Stress state
Plane stress
Plane strain

𝑦  𝜖  𝑦

𝛾  𝑥𝑦

𝜖  𝑥

𝑥 
Plane strain and plane stress
Stress transformations
Principal stresses
Principal stresses
Mohr’s Circle t (CW)

sy = -2 ksi
x-axis
sx = 6 ksi (6 ksi, 3 ksi)
2 6
3
txy = 3
s
ksi
Center of Mohr’s
3 Circle

(-2 ksi, -3 ksi)

y-axis
 (savg, tmax)
Mohr’s Circle t (CW)

sy = -2 ksi
x-face
sx = 6 ksi
(6 ksi, 3ksi)

txy = 3
s
ksi
s2 savg = 2 s1
ksi
(-2 ksi, -3ksi)
y-face
x  y (savg, tmin)
 avg   2 ksi
2
 (savg, tmax)
Mohr’s Circle t (CW)
(2 ksi, 5 ksi)
sy = -2 ksi
x-face
sx = 6 ksi
(6 ksi, 3ksi)
R
3 ksi
txy = 3 s
ksi s2 s1
4 ksi
R  (3 ksi) 2  ( 4 ksi) 2
 5 ksi
R  max y-face
s1 = savg + R = 7 ksi (savg, tmin)
s2 = savg – R = -3 ksi (2 ksi, -5 ksi)
 (savg, tmax)
Mohr’s Circle t (CW)
(2 ksi, 5 ksi)
sy = -2 ksi
x-face
sx = 6 ksi
(6 ksi, 3ksi)
3 ksi
txy = 3 2q s
ksi s2 s1
4 ksi
1  3 ksi 
2  Tan  
 4 ksi 
2  36.869
y-face
  18.435
(savg, tmin)
(2 ksi, -5 ksi)
Principal Stresses (savg, tmax)
t (CW)
(2 ksi, 5 ksi)
s2 = -3 ksi x-face

(6 ksi, 3ksi)
q = 18.435°
3 ksi
s1 = 7 ksi 2q s
Principle Stress s2 s1
4 ksi
Element

Rotation on element is
half of the rotation from
the circle in same (savg, tmin)
direction from x-axis (2 ksi, -5 ksi)
Strain transformations for plain strain and plane stress
Exercise
Temperature Effects
Temperature Effects
Cylindrical pressure vessels