QtoQ06-ju

Quanta to Quarks

• Quantum, atomic, and sub-atomic physics;

three parallel, yet strongly interacting topics
• We will concentrate on the “standard
model”
• Highlight features and look at milestones
and some of the background.
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Quanta to Quarks – Nuclear path 1

• Becquerel 1896 radiation
• Rutherford 1911 atom
• Pauli 1930 neutrino
• Chadwick 1932 neutron
• Heisenberg 1932 Nucleus = n and p
• Hahn and Strassman 1938 fission

Nuclei and nucleons probe nucleus

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Rutherford scattering

6 MeV alpha

Closest distance for head–on approach

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Detectors for scattering of electrons by protons and neutrons.

Results consistent with nucleons having a substructure = quarks
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Chadwick detection of the neutron

Note:- charged particles not detected between

beryllium and paraffin so photon or something else
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Chadwick detection of the neutron

Lead plate

Note:- charged particles not detected between

beryllium and paraffin so photon or something else…
Radiation not stopped by inserted lead plate, so must
be another neutral particle
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Heisenberg model of nucleus:-

made up of protons and neutrons

Number of protons Z
Nucleus:-

Z protons
(atomic number)

N neutrons

Total
A=Z+N
(mass number)
nucleons
Number of neutrons N
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Various decay modes of nucleus

protons

Beta minus decay

X(A,Z) => Y(A,Z+1) + e- + 
Beta plus decay
X(A,Z) => Y(A,Z-1) + e+ + 

Alpha decay
X(A,Z) => Y(A-4,Z-2) +

neutron
s
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Alpha decay is
Alpha decay-1 a two body decay
Both the alpha and the recoil nucleus have
the same momentum in opposite directions.

The alphas always get the same proportion

of the available energy, Q

Qmd
E 
md  m

And hence have the same range in matter

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Beta decay In beta decay the electrons have a

range of energies even though the
total energy available is the same.

Pauli proposed that there is a third,

undetected (hence neutral), particle
which shares the energy and balances
the momentum.

The maximum electron energy is

Energy spectrum nearly the total available and so the
of electron third particle must have a very low
mass.

Beta decay
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Quanta to Quarks – Nuclear path 2

• Powell 1947 pion

– pi => mu => electron decay observed
• Strange particles 1947-1950
• Anti-particle – baryons 1955
• Reines - neutrino detected 1956

Too many particles for all to be fundamental

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Quanta to Quarks – Nuclear path 3

• Gell-Mann/Zweig 1964 Quark model

• Weinberg/Salam 1967 electroweak
• Glashow 1970 charm in theory
• Richter/Ting J/ 1974 charm observed
• Perl 1975 tau observed

Standard Model emerges

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Quanta to Quarks – Nuclear path 4

• Lederman  1977 bottom observed

• Rubbia 1983 W’s and Z0
• CDF 1995 top observed

1991-1992 Evidence indicates that

there are only three generations of
leptons from study of Z0.
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Inward bound

object and size

• grain, 1 mm
• virus, 100 nm
• atom, 100 pm
• nucleus, 10 fm
• nucleon, 1 fm
• quark, <1 am

1 am = 10-18 m
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Inward
Inward Bound
bound

object and size

• grain, 1 mm
• virus, 100 nm
• atom, 100 pm
• nucleus, 10 fm
• nucleon, 1 fm
• quark, <1 am

From DESY site

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How can we examine small

objects ?

By the light or particles they emit or reflect

For very small objects the wavelength of the

light or particle plays an important role
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Scattering – wavelength dependence

Diffraction of waves

Note that spread of pattern

depends on /a :

For  < a pattern depends on

structure of object.

For  > a pattern independent

of structure of object
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Particle diffraction
Similar diffraction behaviour is observed for scattering of
electrons, neutrons by nuclei and crystals etc.

Wavelength of particle given by the de Broglie relationship:-

h hc
  2 2 4
p ET  m c

Eg. A 1GeV electron has a wavelength (1.23 fm) about the

same as the diameter of a nucleon.
( note:- for ET >> mc2 ,  = photon with same ET )
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Accelerator -1

CERN

LEP
e+e-
Up to~
200GeV+200GeV

LHC
Pp
8Tev+8Tev

8.6 km
diameter
CERN photo
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Accelerator -2

CERN

LEP
LHC

Tunnel

Beam pipes etc under construction

CERN photo
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Detectors - ATLAS at CERN

physicist
CERN photo
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Visualization of particles tracks - 1

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The standard model

• The standard model describes the universe
in terms of a set of different kinds of
particles and the interactions between them.
• 12 particles (and their 12 antiparticles)
– 6 leptons and their 6 antileptons
– 6 quarks and their 6 antiquarks
• 4 interaction forces:-
– gravity, electromagnetic,
– weak, fundamental strong
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the leptons – charge and mass

name symbol charge MeV/c2 m/mproton

electron e- -e 0.511 0.0055

electron neutrino e 0 ~0
mu-minus  -e 105.66 0.1126

mu-neutrino  0 0
tau-minus  -e 1777 1.894
tau-neutrino  0 ~0
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anti-leptons- charge and mass

name symbol charge mass
MeV/c2 m/mproton
e-plus or positron e+ +e 0.511 0.0055

electron antineutrino e 0 ~0

mu-plus + +e 105.66 0.1126

mu antineutrino  0 ~0

tau-plus
 
+ +e 1777 1.894

tau antineutrino
 
 0 ~0
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Classification of particles – particles/anti particles

Origin:- particles of exactly the same mass but opposite charge
Later found to have other quantum numbers with opposite
values

Symbol:- either
the electric charge as a superscript eg: - and +, e- and e+
or
particle P anti-particle P (often said as P-bar)

Neutral particles/anti-particles:-
some are the same (Majorana) eg 0 and
some are different (Dirac) eg neutron, neutrino
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The first anti-particles:- positrons, 1932 - Anderson

63 MeV positron upwards 3 electrons (bend to left) and

emerges with 23 MeV) 3 positrons ( bend to right)
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lepton numbers
 
  lepton number anti-lepton
lepton   number
le l l le l l
 
electron e- 1 0 0 -1 0 0

electron neutrino e 1 0 0 -1 0 0

mu  0 1 0 0 -1 0

mu-neutrino  0 1 0 0 -1 0

tau  0 0 1 0 0 -1

tau-neutrino  0 0 1 0 0 -1
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Decay + => + => e+

+ => +e+ +  e

+ => + + 

Note lepton numbers are conserved

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quarks – charge and mass

name symbol charge mass
e MeV/c2 m/mproton

down d -1/3 ~3

up u +2/3 ~6

strange s -1/3 100 0.1

charm c +2/3 1250 1.3

bottom b -1/3 4500 4.8

top t +2/3 175000 187

 
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q = +2e/3 q = -e/3
Quark picture 1983
according to

Frank Close
“Cosmic Onion”
Heinemann Educational
Books
1983

Top-quark found 1995

 
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Anti-quark - charge and mass

name symbol charge mass
e MeV/c2 m/mproton

anti- down d -1/3 ~3

anti-up u +2/3 ~6

anti-strange s -1/3 100 0.1

anti-charm c +2/3 1250 1.3

anti-bottom b -1/3 4500 4.8

anti-top t +2/3 175000 187

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quarks – flavour numbers

 
  quark flavour anti-quark flavour
quark numbers numbers
qd qu qs q c qb qt q d qu q s qc q b qt
down d 1 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0

up u 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0

strange s 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

charm c 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0

bottom b 0 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

top t 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 -1
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leptons and quarks - masses

Generations 1 2 3
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Fundamental forces
force exchange "charge" range mass how many
boson m/mp different
kinds?
gravity graviton mass infinite zero one

electro- photon electric infinite zero one

magnetic
W+     85.7  
weak W- weak 1 am 85.7 three
Z0 97.2
Fundamental gluon colour infinite zero eight
strong
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forces acting between particles

 
gravity weak electro- strong
magnetic
 
charged leptons y y y n
neutral leptons y y n n
quarks y y y y
         

photons y n y n
Z0 y y n n
W+, W- y y y n
gluons y n n y
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Conservation laws - 1
The following quantities are conserved in all interactions
Ie:- the total before must be the same as the total afterwards

• Charge
• Energy
• Linear momentum
• Angular momentum
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Conservation laws - 2
The following quantities are conserved in interactions as
indicated:- S strong; E electromagnetic; W weak

S E W
• Baryon number y y y
• Lepton flavour numbers y y y
• Quark flavour numbers y y n
• Colour y n/a n/a
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Classification of particles:
photons, leptons, mesons and baryons

• Originally described mass.

– Photons no mass
– Leptons light 0.5 MeV/c2
– Mesons medium 100-500 MeV/c2
– Baryons heavy > 900 MeV/c2

Still useful:-
turns out that this also describes structure and quark content.
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Classification of particles – baryons and mesons and hadrons

hadrons
Baryons Contain quarks Mesons

three quarks a quark and

or an anti-quark
three anti-quarks
(anti baryons)
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Classification of particles – baryons and mesons and hadrons

hadrons
Baryons Mesons

valence quarks

gluons and
sea quarks a quark and
three quarks
or an anti-quark
three anti-quarks
(anti baryons)
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Baryons:- proton and the neutron

d
the proton uud
u u
+ sea quarks and gluons

the neutron udd d

+ sea quarks and gluons d u
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mesons:- the pion family

+ 0 -

u:d-bar u:u-bar u-bar:d

d:d-bar
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“colour - 1”
Chromodynamics :- theory of the strong interaction,
colour plays the same role as charge in electrodynamics.

Need three colours, but hadrons have to be colourless

Use red, green and blue (parallel to TV and photo and print)
Anti-colours = white – colour ; cyan, magenta and yellow

Gluons have a colour and an anti colour

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“colour - 2”

Quarks have colour, anti-quarks have anti-colour

Baryons:- one (valence) quark of each colour

(anti-baryons have three anti-colours)

Mesons:- quark(colour)+anti-quark(anti-colour)

Leptons, photons, W’s, Z0 do not have a colour

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Classification of particles - generations

leptons quarks

 e  u
First generation:    
e  d 
   c
Second generation:    
  s 
   t 
Third generation:    
  b

The upper member of each doublet is more positive

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Classification of particles – fermions and bosons

Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle:-
“two particles with the same quantum numbers can not
occupy the same quantum state”

Bosons don’t:-
“any number of identical bosons can occupy the same
quantum state”

Another way of saying this is:-

“Fermions follow Fermi/dirac statistics, bosons follow
Bose/Einstein statistics”
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Classification of particles – fermions and bosons

Fermions:- leptons, quarks,

neutron, proton and other baryons

Bosons:- photons, gluons, W’s and Z0

mesons

A nucleus can be either depending on its spin.

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Classification of particles – fermions and bosons

Fermions have half integral spin:- 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2 …..

Bosons have integral spin:- 0, 1, 2, 3 ….

Spin magnitude and its orientation are quantum

numbers,
as are the allowed projections onto a preferred direction.

Eg spin 3/2 : -3/2, -1/2, +1/2, +3/2

spin 2: -2, -1, 0, +1, +2

Are two different quantum states

+1/2 -1/2
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Standard model and Nuclear Physics

The nucleons remain as individual particles in the
quantum well formed by the other nucleons in the
nucleus

Alpha, gamma decays, fission and fusion are reactions

at the nuclear level. They are the result of nucleon to
nucleon interactions via the “strong nuclear force”

Beta decay is an interaction at the quark level

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Standard model and Nuclear Physics

The "strong nuclear force" is an exchange force
mediated by (mostly) pi-mesons:- + (u d ), - (ud),
0 ( mix of u u and d d )

The "strong nuclear force" is like the inter-molecular

Van derWaals force, which is the result of the adding
the electromagnetic forces, from the component
electrons and nuclei, outside the neutral molecule.
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alpha decay – quantum tunneling

Nparent (Z,A) => Ndaughter(Z-2, A-4) +  + Q
Qmd
E 
md  m -log(t1/2)

Geiger–Nuttal rule:-
large Z, low E = long half-life

Gamow-Condon and
Gurney prediction based
on alpha tunneling .
Z
E
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alpha decay – barrier penetration

Alpha pre-formed
in the nucleus
electrical potential of alpha in
field of daughter nucleus
energy

Energy of
free
emitted alpha

bound alpha tunnels through

potential barrier –
a quantum effect

radial distance
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beta decay – nuclear and nucleon level

Nuclear level
Beta minus decay
N*(A, Z) => N(A, Z+1) + e- +  e
Beta plus decay
N*(A, Z) => N(A, Z-1) + e+ + e
Nucleon level –within a nucleus
n => p + e- +  e also for free neutron

p => n + e+ + e
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beta decay – quark level

u => d + W+
 + + e
d
u
d d
u
u
W+ +

e
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beta decay – quark level

u => d + W+
 + + e
d
u
d d
u
u
W+ +

Quark flavour e
changed lepton/antilepton pair
created
 The END
not really, but I’ll stop here anyway
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Exchange potential – Yukawa model

infinite range
g
m  0 : p r  
r
potential p(r)

short range
ge r R
m  0 : p r  
r

R
radial distance r
mc
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Monte-Carlo simulation of nuclear decay

10 sided “dice” – “decay” on 1 and 2
Start with 100 “nuclei”

120
number surviving after N

100

80
throws

Series1
60
Series2
40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40
number of throws, N

Dice thrown for each nucleus until get 1 or 2 then go to next nucleus