Osmoregulation & Excretion

Chapter 44, pp. 931-939

From Leonardo da Vinci’s notebooks

 An organism’s excretory system
helps regulate the chemical composition
of the body’s principal fluid (blood,
coelomic fluid, or hemolymph)

The excretory system selectively

removes excess water and wastes from
the principal fluid
 Excretory systems
Breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
produces ammonia (a toxin)
Many aquatic Fig.
organisms excrete 44.8
ammonia, since it
can be effectively Ammonia NH3

diluted with water

 Excretory systems
Breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
produces ammonia (a toxin)
Mammalian livers Fig.
convert ammonia 44.8
into urea, which is
much less toxic, and Ammonia NH3

requires less water to

excrete
 Excretory systems
Breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
produces ammonia (a toxin)
Birds, reptiles, and Fig.
some other 44.8
organisms convert
ammonia into uric Ammonia NH3

acid, which is
relatively nontoxic,
and can be excreted
as a semisolid
without much water
loss
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems Fig.

Key functions: 44.9

Filtration

Reabsorption

Secretion

Excretion
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems

Blood enters the

kidneys via the renal
arteries and leaves
via the renal veins

Urine (excess water and wastes removed from the

blood) is produced by the kidneys and is conveyed
to the urinary bladder via the ureters

Urine exits the body

via the urethra

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems

Each kidney is divided into a

cortex, medulla, and pelvis

Each kidney processes about

1000 L of blood per day!

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems

Nephrons = the functional

units of the kidneys

Packed into the renal cortex

and medulla

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems

Each kidney has ~ 1 million

nephrons

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
A nephron consists of: a ball of capillaries
known as a glomerulus

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
A nephron consists of: an afferent arteriole that
leads into the glomerulus, and an efferent arteriole
that leads out of the glomerulus

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
A nephron consists of: Bowman’s capsule, that
surrounds the glomerulus and extends into the
proximal tubule, loop of Henle, and distal tubule

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
A nephron consists of: capillaries that surround the
tubules and loop of Henle, and that feed into venules
returning to the renal vein

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
Filtration occurs in Bowman’s capsules: cells and
large molecules remain in the blood, while blood
pressure forces water and small molecules from the
blood into Bowman’s capsules

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
Filtration occurs in Bowman’s capsules: cells and
large molecules remain in the blood, while blood
pressure forces water and small molecules from the
blood into Bowman’s capsules
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
Selective reabsorption returns important nutrients
(glucose, etc.) to the blood, and occurs especially in
proximal and distal tubules

Fig. 44.13
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
Selective reabsorption returns important nutrients
(glucose, etc.) to the blood, and occurs especially in
proximal and distal tubules

Red arrows =
active transport

Blue arrows =
passive transport

Fig. 44.14
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
Selective secretion adds additional waste molecules
to the filtrate, especially in the tubules

Red arrows =
active transport

Blue arrows =
passive transport

Fig. 44.14
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
Reabsorption of water occurs along the tubules,
descending loop of Henle, and collecting duct

Red arrows =
active transport

Blue arrows =
passive transport

Fig. 44.14
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
Reabsorption of water occurs along the tubules,
descending loop of Henle, and collecting duct

Red arrows =
active transport

Blue arrows =
passive transport

Fig. 44.15
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
The descending loop of Henle is permeable to
water, but not very permeable to salt (e.g., NaCl)

Red arrows =
active transport

Blue arrows =
passive transport

Fig. 44.15
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
The ascending loop of Henle is not permeable to
water, but it is to NaCl

Red arrows =
active transport

Blue arrows =
passive transport

Fig. 44.15
 Vertebrate Excretory Systems
High concentration of NaCl outside the nephron deep in
the kidneys helps concentrate urine in the collecting duct

Red arrows =
active transport

Blue arrows =
passive transport

Fig. 44.15
Mammalian excretory systems are adapted
to diverse environments
 Mammalian excretory systems are adapted
to diverse environments
Mammals that live in environments with plenty of
water have short loops of Henle that cannot produce
concentrated urine
 Mammalian excretory systems are adapted
to diverse environments
Mammals that live in very dry environments have very
long loops of Henle that can produce highly
concentrated urine
Hormones and
the Endocrine
System

Chapter 45
The endocrine system = postal
system for the body
The endocrine system = postal
system for the body

Hormones are the chemical messages that:

Regulate aspects of behavior
Regulate growth, development, &
differentiation
Maintain internal homeostatic conditions

4 classes of animal hormones:

Peptide hormones – amino acid chains
Single amino acid derivatives
Steroid hormones – cholesterol based
Prostaglandins – fatty-acid based
The endocrine system = postal
system for the body

Hormones are the chemical messages that:

Maintain internal homeostatic conditions
Regulate growth, development, &
differentiation
Regulate aspects of behavior

4 classes of animal hormones:

Single amino acid derivatives
Peptide hormones – amino acid chains
Steroid hormones – cholesterol based
Prostaglandins – fatty-acid based
The endocrine system = postal
system for the body

Hormones are the chemical messages that:

Maintain internal homeostatic conditions
Regulate growth, development, &
differentiation [often irreversible]
Regulate aspects of behavior

4 classes of animal hormones:

Single amino acid derivatives
Peptide hormones – amino acid chains
Steroid hormones – cholesterol based
Prostaglandins – fatty-acid based
The endocrine system = postal
system for the body

Hormones are the chemical messages that:

Maintain internal homeostatic conditions
Regulate growth, development, &
differentiation [often irreversible]
Regulate aspects of behavior [generally reversible]
The endocrine system = postal
system for the body
Hormone-secreting organs are called endocrine
glands, because they secrete their chemical
messengers directly into body fluids

In contrast, exocrine glands secrete their

products into ducts

Glands that secrete sweat, mucus, digestive

enzymes, and milk are exocrine glands
Since hormones circulate to ALL
cells, how do they act at only
specific sites?
Receptors
Only cells with correct receptors
(target cells) respond to hormones
The target cell response is
idiosyncratic (i.e., it depends on the
type of cell)

Fig. 45.4
Hormones exhibit a diversity of structure and function

Peptides, proteins, glycoproteins, amines,

Table
45.1
Hormones exhibit a diversity of structure and function

Peptides, proteins, glycoproteins, amines, steroids

Table
45.1
Since hormones circulate to ALL
cells, how do they act at only
specific sites?
Receptors
Only cells with correct receptors
(target cells) respond to hormones

Surface receptors

Intracellular receptors
 Surface Receptors
Most amino acid-based hormones are water soluble
and target surface receptors

A signal-transduction pathway is a series of molecular

changes that converts an extracellular chemical signal to
a specific intracellular response

Fig. 45.3
 Intracellular Receptors
Most steroid hormones are lipid soluble
and target intracellular receptors

An intracellular receptor usually performs the entire

task of transducing the signal within the cell
In almost all cases, this is a transcription factor, and the
response is a change in gene expression
Fig. 45.3
Major
endocrine
organs
and
glands

Fig. 45.6
Hypothalamus-Pituitary Complex
The hypothalamus receives nervous input from
throughout the body

The hypothalamus contains two sets of

neurosecretory cells whose hormonal secretions are
stored in or regulate the pituitary gland

The posterior pituitary stores and secretes two

hormones made by the hypothalamus

The anterior pituitary consists of endocrine cells that

synthesize and secrete at least 6 different hormones
Hypothalamus-Pituitary Complex
Pathway

Stimulus
Example

Suckling
The hypothalamus-posterior
Sensory
pituitary provides an example
of a simple neurohormone
neuron

Hypothalamus/
posterior pituitary

Neurosecretory
cell
pathway
Oxytocin
Blood
vessel

Target Smooth muscle

effectors in breast

Response Milk release

Fig. 45.2b
Hypothalamus-Pituitary Complex
Pathway

Stimulus
Example

Hypothalamic
The hypothalamus-anterior
neurohormone
released in
Sensory response to
pituitary provides an example
of a simple neuroendocrine
neuron neural and
hormonal
Hypothalamus signals

Neurosecretory
Prolactin-
pathway
cell
releasing
Blood hormone
capillary

Prolactin
Endocrine
cell of pituitary

Blood
vessel

Target
effectors Mammary glands

Milk production
Response

Fig. 45.2c
Major
endocrine
organs
and
glands

Fig. 45.6
Pancreas

Exocrine function
Digestive secretions released into
pancreatic duct to small intestines

Endocrine function
Islet cells
Insulin
Glucagon
Pancreas

Exocrine function
Digestive secretions released into
pancreatic duct to small intestines

Endocrine function
Islet cells
Insulin
Glucagon
Pancreas

Exocrine function
Digestive secretions released into
pancreatic duct to small intestines

Endocrine function
Islets of Langerhans – endocrine cells
Insulin
antagonistic hormones
Glucagon
Pancreas regulates blood glucose

Insulin – decrease blood glucose

stimulates uptake by cells – use it or
store it as fat and glycogen
Glucagon increase blood glucose
stimulates release by cells – breakdown
fat and glycogen

Diabetes mellitis
defects in production, release or
response to insulin
Pancreas regulates blood glucose

Insulin – decreases blood glucose

Stimulates uptake by cells – cells use it
or store it as fat and glycogen
Glucagon – increase blood glucose
stimulates release by cells – breakdown
fat and glycogen

Diabetes mellitis
defects in production, release or
response to insulin
Pancreas regulates blood glucose

Insulin – decreases blood glucose

Stimulates uptake by cells – cells use it
or store it as fat and glycogen
Glucagon – increases blood glucose
Stimulates release by cells – breakdown
of fat and glycogen

Diabetes mellitis
defects in production, release or
response to insulin
Pancreas regulates blood glucose
Pathway Example Pathway Example Pathway Example

Stimulus High blood

glucose
Stimulus An example of a simple
Suckling Stimulus Hypothalamic
neurohormone
Receptor
protein
Pancreas
endocrine pathway
Sensory Sensory
released in
response to
neural and
secretes neuron neuron
hormonal
insulin Hypothalamus/
Hypothalamus signals
Endocrine posterior pituitary
cell Neurosecretory
Blood Neurosecretory
vessel cell cell Hypothalamus
Posterior pituitary secretes prolactin-
secretes oxytocin Blood releasing
Blood ( ) vessel hormone ( )

Diabetes mellitus (all forms)

vessel
Target
effectors Liver

Results from defects in the

Anterior
Target Smooth muscle pituitary
Glycogen effectors in breast secretes
Response

production, release or
synthesis,
glucose uptake Endocrine prolactin ( )
from blood cell

(a) Simple endocrine pathway Response

response to insulin
Milk release
Blood
vessel

(b) Simple neurohormone pathway

Target
effectors Mammary glands

Milk production
Response

(c) Simple neuroendocrine pathway

Fig. 45.2a
Hormone-like local regulators appear to
be produced by all the body’s cells…

These chemical messengers affect

target cells adjacent to or near their
point of secretion and can act very
rapidly; the process is known as
paracrine signaling
The same
hormones are
found across
diverse taxa
E.g., Insulin is found
in bacteria, fungi,
protists, etc.

E.g., Thyroxin is
found in
many vertebrates;
increases metabolism
in humans & controls
metamorphosis
in amphibians
The same
hormones are
found across
diverse taxa
E.g., Insulin is found
in bacteria, fungi,
protists, etc.

E.g., Thyroxin is
found in
many vertebrates;
increases metabolism
in humans & controls
metamorphosis
in amphibians
The same
hormones are
found across
diverse taxa
E.g., Insulin is found
in bacteria, fungi,
protists, etc.

E.g., Thyroxin is
found in
many vertebrates;
increases metabolism
in humans & controls
metamorphosis
in amphibians