Memory

CS423
Dick Steflik
 DRAM

Dynamic Random Access Memory
 each data bit is stored in a separate capacitive
element in the Integrated Circuit
 Because capacitors leak their charge the memory
must be periodically refreshed, thus the name
Dynamic or Volatile
 requires one transistor and one capacitor per bit

simple, allowing high packaging densities

refresh rate dependent on implementation
 8 usec – 64 msec
 includes DDR and SDRAM
 SRAM
 Static Random Access Memory
 Static in the sense that it does not need refreshing
like DRAM, but is still considered volatile (loses its
memory when power is removed)
 requires six transistors (multi ported memory may
require 8, 10 or more transistors per bit)
 lower packaging density than DRAM
 easier to interface with than DRAM because of
simplicity and no need to refresh
 ROM
 Read-only memory
 mask ROM – non-volatile, permanently programed in the
manufacturing process
 PROM – Programmable Read-Only Memory
 Programmable once then unalterable, non-volatile

essentially a fuse matrix in which programming is done by
blowing the fuses
 EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
semi-permanent in that the memory can be erased (by
exposing to ultrviolet light) and reprogrammed, considered to
be non-volatile
 EEPROM – Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-only
 non-volatile, parallel and serial access.
 serial access via SPI, I2C, 1-wire
 Flash
 Not an Acronym, just a name
 stores one bit per cell, cells are floating gate MOSFETs
 two types, NAND and NOR
 NOR – used like traditional memory, execute-in-place
memory (DRAM, SRAM)
 NAND – accessed like a block device (disk), used for
memory sticks, flash drived, MMC, CF
 finite number of writes, unlimited reads
 need wear leveling and bad block management
 CF
 Compact Flash
 mostly NAND based, interface is smaller than, but
electrically identical to, the ATA interface.
 appears to the host device as if it were a hard disk. The
CF device contains an ATA controller.
 makes it easy to use CF to replace a small hard drive
 used mostly in older digital cameras

convenient to use in ITX, mini-ITX systems that are
IDE/ATA based
 MMC
 MultiMedia card
 NAND technology developed by Siemans and
SanDisk
 been superseded by Secure Digital format
 SD, SDHC
 Secure Digital Card
 NAND Flash
 most commonly found in digital camera equipment
 typically formatted as FAT, FAT32 by manufacturer
but can be reformatted to any file system (ext2, jffs,
cram,yaffs) for embedded systems use
 MMC card can be used in SD slot but not vice-
versa
 JFFS

Journaling Flash File System
 log-structured file system for use on NOR flash
memory devices on the Linux operating system. It
has been superseded by JFFS2
 enforces wear leveling by treating the flash device
as a circular log

At mount time, the file system driver must read the entire
chain and then keep it in memory

The circular log design means all data in the filesystem is
re-written, regardless of whether it is static or not. This
generates many unnecessary erase cycles and reduces
the life of the flash medium.
 JFFS2
 Journaling Flash File System (2)
 includes support for NAND flash
 better performance, JFFS treated the disk as a
circular log. This generated a great deal of
unnecessary I/O. The garbage collection algorithm
in JFFS2 makes this mostly unnecessary.
 supports compression
 supports hard links
 part of Linux kernel since 2.4.10
 YAFFS
 Yet Another Flash File System
 designed specifically for NAND flash cards
 log structured, used both with embedded OSs and
systems with no OS. Simple OS interface
 Compressed File Systems
 FS decompresses data as it is retrieved and
may or may not compress as data is put into
storage
 CramFS
 e2compr
 SquashFS
 JFFS2
 CramFS
 read-only Linux file system

zlib-compressed one page at a time to allow
random read access, files are compressed,
meta-data is not
 comes with a utility (mkcramfs) to pack files into
new cramfs images.
 often used for initrd images
 e2compr
 set of patches for ext2 file system kernel driver
to make it work with compression
 not a new file system, makes ext2 work with
both uncompressed and compressed data
 meta data us left uncompressed (for safety)
 doesn't require a separate partition for
compressed files
 SquashFS
 Compressed read-only file system

uses gzip compression (LZMA being worked on)
 Live CDs
 Ubuntu, Fedora, Gentoo
 often used with UnionFS to provide read/write
environment for Live CDs
 SLAX, Debian Live, Mandiva
 UnionFS
 allows several file systems to be mounted as a single file
system

allows files and directories of separate file systems, to be
transparently overlaid, forming a single coherent file
system.
 Contents of directories which have the same path within
the merged branches will be seen together in a single
merged directory, within the new, virtual filesystem.
 In the case of a union of a read-only and a writable FS
where an identical path is encountered the preference can
be given to the writable path.
 Example: Knoppix Live CD with a USB memorystick