Nonrenewable Energy

Resources (FOSSIL FUELS):

1st- coal
78% of the commercial energy
we use comes from nonrenewable
fossil fuels
Burning fossil fuels causes more
than 80% of US air pollution and
more than 80% CO2 emissions, plus
all of the major criteria air
pollutants!
 COAL
Coal is the most abundant and
cheapest energy resource that is burned
mostly to produce electricity and steel.
Coal is very energy dense: 1 gallon of
American gasoline corresponds to 40
acres of plant matter in terms of energy
Mostly in USA (25%), Russia (16%),
and China (12%). The US has the
largest coal resources on Earth
US coal reserves could last up to 250
years, but an increase of just 4% per
year could reduce that to 64 years!
China and India are increasing in
coal consumption as their
population grows
Though China is investing
in renewables, fossil fuel
consumption is still
increasing. This
contributes to the increase
in soot, ash particulates,
sulfur dioxide and carbon
dioxide air pollutants in
China.
COAL FORMATION occurs in stages as the
heat and pressure is increased on the
plant material after about 250 million
years
RANKS OF COAL IN ORDER OF FORMATION AND
DENSITY

Lignite makes up the largest portion of the

world’s coal reserves.
Both the carbon and energy content increases
as the coal develops. Anthracite is the
hardest coal and gives off the greatest
amount of heat energy when burned
 different types of coal have
different amounts of sulfur

Sulfur becomes sulfur dioxide in air and then sulfuric acid

in rain water (acid rain). Bituminous coal is highest in
sulfur content.
All coals formed from a salt water environment have high
sulfur content. Substituting anthracite coal for bituminous
coal in a power plant could reduce the amount of acid
precipitation.
 Advantages of Coal
 Plentiful world reserves (250 years at
current world consumption rate)
 High (33%) Net Energy Yield (efficiency)
 US subsidies keep prices low. Relatively
cheap fuel.
 Well developed technology and
infrastructure already exists to burn coal
for generating electricity
 Provides employment for thousands
 Disadvantages of Coal as a fuel
 High land (habitat) disturbance to get it- 60 %
surface must mined by bulldozers that clear
vegetation and level mountains
 Health hazards to get it- include “black lung
disease” from breathing coal dust, underground
fires from coal dust and methane gas and mine
collapse. Health hazards to burn it- particulates
released into the air= asthma, emphysema
 High CO2, SOx, NOx, PM emissions when burned
results in climate change, acid deposition,
photochemical smog, reduced photosynthesis and
heavy metal pollutants (like mercury)
contaminating water and soil, and the health risks
described above
Environmental impacts of
mining coal
1. LAND DISTURBANCE:
1. Destruction of forests causing
wildlife and plants to become more
vulnerable to predation
2. Valley fills have buried or silted
1200 miles of streams. Increased
sedimentation lowers productivity
and increases stream temps
3. The loss of vegetation also cause
flood hazards and soil erosion
4. Land subsidence or mine collapse
of underground mines
2. WATER POLLUTION: rain that
flows over mine tailings can
create Acid Mine Drainage
3. Coal Dust particulates cause
AIR and water pollution
Coal must be mined
Mountain Top Removal:
Trees are clear cut and entire
tops of mountains removed
with explosives
Huge shovels dig into the
topsoil and trucks start hauling
it away
The topsoil, OVERBURDEN and
mine tailings are dumped into
low areas called valley fills,
often near rivers and streams
A dragline digs into the rock to
expose the coal seam
 Other mining techniques
Strip mining Open pit mining
Used when coal is Creation of
close to the surface LARGE pit visible
Removal of ‘strips’ of from space
soil and rock
(overburden) to SUBSURFACE MINING
expose the coal • used when coal is vey deep
Underground. A tunnel is dug
The overburden or into the side of the mountain,
tailings is returned to shafts and elevators bring miners
the hole to reclaim down to the coal. More
the area expensive but less surface
impacts
 Habitat disruption
More than 500 million mountains and 560,000
hectares (1.4 million acres) of forest have been
damaged or destroyed in Appalachia since
mountain top removal began in the 1970s.
More than 200 species are impacted by the
practice; 40 or more are already rare or
endangered by the habitat destruction
Construction of roads can result in soil erosion
(decreasing light penetration in streams and
lakes) and habitat fragmentation (preventing
access to more food/water/mates)
 Effects of Acid Mine Drainage
Metals such as Al3+, Ca2+ and
AMD forms when sulfur
Mg2+ in the soil are leached by
bearing minerals in the
acids, reducing productivity and
coal react with water to
increasing the toxicity of the
form sulfuric acid
water
Species vary in their ability to tolerate
low pH levels, disrupting food chains
and lowering biodiversity

Shelled species, such as

corals do not grow well
as their carbonate shells
pH of AMD lowers to
react with the acid
around 4 (natural rain is
5.6)
 Mitigations during mining
DUST can be reduced AMD can be
by sprinkling with prevented by
water covering the mine
Seedlings can be saved tailings or diverting
for replanting after the the runoff from
mining is complete streams to special
LAND SUBSIDENCE lagoons
can be prevented by COAL FIRES can be
stabilizing pits controlled by
sealing the mine
 Remediating polluted soil
1. Acid mine drainage 3. Phytoremediation-
lowers soil pH so using plants to remove
adding lime to the heavy metals such as
soil should raise the mercury, from the soil:
pH. Alkaline soils do sunflowers, indian
not leach heavy mustard and several
metals. grasses are good at
2. Soil that can’t be
bioaccumulating heavy
remediated will have metals in their shoots.
to be extracted and The plants cannot be
landfilled (dig and eaten afterwards.
dump) or treated
MINED LAND MUST BE RECLAIMED, that is, restored
to pre-mining use:
SMCRA
(Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act)
STEPS:
Contouring of the land to prevent http://youtu.be/tlNN
soil erosion xTIEMzk
replacement of topsoil or an good wrap up of
approved substitute on the
graded areas the SMCRA and
Reseeding with native grasses, mitigations
groundcover or trees to
encourage secondary succession The SMCRA also
of flora and fauna prohibits mining on
Years of careful monitoring to agricultural land
ensure success
 Pros and Cons of
phytoremediation
PROS
• Low cost, solar driven
• Most useful for shallow
contaminants, within reach
of roots
• Useful for a wide variety of
contaminants in both soil
and water
• Treatment is ‘in situ’, no
need to remove the soil
CONS
 Ineffective against
deep contaminants or
heavily contaminated
soil
 plants bioaccumulate
toxins so are inedible
and must be landfilled
 Slow process
Coal is used to generate electricity
Coal fired power plants use the
chemical energy from burning
coal to create the mechanical
energy of the steam to turn the
turbine that spins the generator
and creates electrical energy
STILL the cheapest and most
widely used (worldwide) fuel for
generating electricity

BUT a single 500MW plant can

use about 2.2 billion gallons of
water per year in the creation of
the steam and the cooling tower
 THE STORY SO FAR
https://youtu.be/UOu1hVVewzw
 Environmental Impacts From
burning Coal starts with air
pollutants
 Releases CO into atmosphere
 Contributes 35% of all CO2 into atmosphere
(global warming)
 Contributes 70 % of all SO2 (acid deposition)
 Contributes 30% of all NO and NO2 (acid
deposition and photochemical smog)
 Produces more fly ash, toxic metals such as
mercury and lead, and radioactive particles
than a nuclear power plant.
 Acid Deposition SOx
Sulfur in the atmosphere comes from burning
bituminous coal, smelting, volcanic eruptions and organic
decay.
90% is from human sources.
Sulfur in the atmosphere combines with water vapor and
oxygen gas to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

Sulfuric acid may then form sulfate particulates

when they combine with ammonia vapors from animal
feedlots. These sulfates cause grey smog and may be
 Acid Deposition NOx
Major sources of nitrogen oxides include
combustion of gasoline, coal, oil, forest fires,
denitrifying bacterial action in soil, and volcanic
gases

Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water vapor in the

atmosphere to produce hydrogen nitrate particulates
or NITRIC ACID
Reducing the amount of NOx from cars requires a
3 way catalytic converter. Reducing it from power
plants requires other methods described below.
 CLASSIFYING
POLLUTANTS

ACID RAIN IS AN
EXAMPLE OF A
PRIMARY
POLLUTANT (sulfur
dioxide) becoming a
SECONDARY
POLLUTANT
(sulfuric acid)

Secondary pollutants
are formed by the
reaction of the
primary pollutant
with chemicals in the
environment
 Effects of Acid Deposition on
Aquatic Ecosystems are similar to
those of AMD
 Below a pH of 4.5, most fish cannot survive as
their enzymes become denatured
 Acid deposition releases heavy metals like Al3+
ions attached to soil particles into nearby lakes.
These ions asphyxiate many fish, causing excess
mucous formation which clogs their gills
 Norway, Sweden, Canada and Northeastern USA
have 1000’s of “fishless” lakes because they are
downwind of coal burning plants.
 Effects of Acid Deposition on
terrestrial ecosystems
Forests and crops are harmed by leaching essential
plant nutrients such as calcium and magnesium salts
from soils. This reduces the plants primary productivity
and makes the soil less able to buffer future acid inputs.
Acid deposition weakens trees and makes them more
susceptible to other stresses such as severe cold,
diseases, insect attacks, drought, and harmful mosses.
Cloud forests are hardest hit from sitting in acid
clouds. These areas often have thin soils with little
buffering capacity.
 Effects of Acid Deposition on
Human Health and economy
Inhaling acid particulates
contributes to human respiratory
disease (aggravating asthma)
Contributes to toxic metal

 
leaching such as lead from water
pipes impacting neurological
health of children
Damages statues, national
monuments, buildings, car finishes,
water pipes and grave headstones,
which are costly to repair                
               
               
               
Nox from fossil fuels create photochemical smog,
increasing asthma rates and reducing
photosynthesis
Sunlight is required to
Smog in highest around noon
create photochemical smog
UV rays from strong sunlight
split NOx into NO and O
The free O binds with O2 gas
and creates OZONE, O3
Ozone irritates lungs and
contributes to respiratory
illnesses
Burns plant tissue reducing
photosynthesis
Asthma rates in SoCal are
decreasing…
Restricting truck
traffic and requiring
catalytic
converters on
cars has lowered
CO, VOC, and Nox
even as population
increases
 Mitigating pollutants from
burning coal
Pollution is BEST PREVENTED than
mitigated. For prevention methods see
the slides at the end of these notes.
ACID DEPOSITION IN LAKES AND
RIVERS can be mitigated by adding
LIMESTONE to the water or to the soil in
the watershed around the lake or river.
This raises the alkalinity of the soil,
increasing its buffering capacity.
 (Clean Coal?)
Using technology to capture
pollutants before they can
escape into the atmosphere
1. Electrostatic Precipitator – utilized for fly ash
reduction and to remove particulate matter by treating
air with an electrical charge to capture the solid particles
in the gas flow. The particles are collected and sent to a
landfill or for use in making concrete. Particles include
heavy metals such as lead, arsenic and mercury
https://youtu.be/iUXHzYLgrB0

HOW ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATORS WORK
 Clean coal?
2. Scrubbers (wet and dry) –
desulfurization system that clean the
power plant’s exhaust.
As polluted air passes through the scrubber,
LIMESTONE in the scrubber react with the sulfur and
cause it to precipitate or settle out as a solid. This
solid is calcium sulfite otherwise known as gypsum
and can be used as building material or landfilled.
Wet scrubbers can also remove heavy metal
particulates, like mercury, before it is released to the
air
https://youtu.be/yCMchx6Q9Is
Waste from the reaction of limestone and sulfur dioxide is used as
a resource: GYPSUM, for use as wall board, a building material

How scrubbers work

 More Clean Coal technology

3. Fluidized Bed Combustion – mixes crushed coal with

LIMESTONE particles to neutralize acidic
compounds produced during combustion.
1. Produces fewer NOx and SOx from coal.
2. Also produces more heat per given amount of coal
and less CO2 (a greenhouse gas)!
3. The solids produced are landfilled
Fluidized Bed Combustion
4. Coal Gasification turns coal into
a gas that can be cleaned of almost
all pollutants forming what is known
as syngas. Mercury can be removed
by passing the gas through activated
charcoal. Sulfur is removed and
converted to elemental sulfur or
sulfuric acid for sale to industry.
 Pros and Cons of converting
coal to liquid or gaseous fuel
Coal can be converted to synthetic natural gas,
methanol (CH3OH), or synthetic gasoline
through coal liquefaction (synfuels).
Advantages: easily transported through
pipelines, produces less air pollution, large
supply.
Disadvantages: low net energy yield, expensive
to build plants, acceleration of coal depletion,
large amounts of water required, releases large
amounts of CO2, more expensive than coal
 Clean Air Act
Bill mandating a CAP and TRADE system
for reducing SOx emissions from power
plants to 50% of the 1980s amount.
Considered very successful in reducing
acid rain, repairing acid damage to forests
and lakes and reducing rates of asthma
and bronchitis
ALSO regulates other criteria pollutants:
Nox and CO and solid particulates, lead
and ozone
 How cap and trade works to
reduce overall emissions from
burning fossil fuels
 Carbon capture and
sequestration (storage)
Carbon dioxide is released when coal burns
and is trapped by a solvent before it leaves
the smokestack.
A stripper separates CO2 from the solvent and
transports it for industrial use (carbonated
beverages, chemical industry)
Additional CO2 is injected deep underground
into wells, seams and salt formations for long
term storage
 Climate Change
Water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O)
influence climate by trapping long wave
infra-red radiation (heat) in the lower
troposphere and the earth’s surface.
These gases are collectively termed
GREENHOUSE GASES (GHG) because
they blanket the earth trapping heat
Global Air Temperature
Increases
 GHG enhance the natural
Greenhouse Effect
Natural Greenhouse Effect – without it the
planet would be a cold and mostly lifeless
planet
Incoming wave =
visible light wave
(short wave)
Outgoing wave =
infrared wave (long
wave, HEAT)
 “Unnatural (enhanced)
Greenhouse Effect”
There is a high probability (90-99%) that
increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases
in the troposphere are from burning fossil fuels,
deforestation, agriculture and the manufacture
of cement.
 Temperature Changes
Past temperature
changes are estimated
by the analysis of
radioisotopes in rocks
and fossils, plankton
and radioisotopes in
ocean sediments, ice
cores from ancient
glaciers, tree rings, and There has been a 1°C change in
historical records. the past one hundred years
 The Paris Accord, 2015
• 195 Nations around the world have agreed to try to
limit the temperature change to less than 2 degrees
Celsius above pre-industrial levels
• Strengthen societies’ ability to deal with impacts
of climate change, including emergency
preparedness and risk insurance
• Scale up efforts to reduce emissions

The Kyoto Protocol, 1997

•37 nations agreed to reduce GHG emissions
•Invest in clean development projects
•Places heavier burden on developed countries since they are principally
responsible for the current levels due to 150 years of industrial activity
•The USA never ratified this treaty
 Greenhouse gas molecules
Ranking the gases by their
contribution to the
greenhouse effect:
Water vapor 34-70%
Carbon dioxide 9-26%
Methane 4-9%
Tropospheric ozone 3-7%
Nitrous oxide and CFCs are
also GHG (no data)

Water vapor is short lived so

does not contribute to long
term climate change
 Each greenhouse gas has a
specific global warming potential
CO2 levels in Atmosphere have
risen sharply over the years.
The up and
down nature of
the curve
represents
periods of high
photosynthesis
(summer) and
low
photosynthesis
(winter)
Major producers of carbon dioxide
 Predicted Effects of Global
Warming
Agricultural changes : shifting
food-growing areas, changes in crop
yields, increased irrigation demands,
increased pests, diseases and weeds
in warmer latitudes.
Water Resources : changes in
water supply, decreased water
quality, drought, flooding,
snowpack reduction, melting of
glaciers
 Predicted Effects of Global Warming
Forests : shifts and changes in
composition, disappearance of high
altitude forests, increased forest
fires, loss of wildlife habitat and
species.
Biodiversity: Extinction of some
plant and animal species especially
those in high latitude biomes, loss of
habitat, disruption of aquatic life,
increase in pests in new areas
formerly too cold for them
 Predicted Effects of Global Warming
Sea Level and Coastal Areas
:rising sea levels, flooding of low
lying islands and coastal cities,
wetlands, and coral reefs, beach
erosion, disruption of coastal
fisheries, aquifer salt water intrusion.
Human Health: disruption of food
and water supplies, spread of
tropical diseases to temperate areas,
increased deaths from heat,
increased water pollution from
coastal flooding
 Predicted Effects of Global
Warming
 Human Population: Increased deaths from
heat and disruption of food supplies and
disease, increased environmental refugees,
increased migration.
 Weather Extremes :prolonged heat waves
and droughts, increased flooding from more
frequent, intense and heavy rainfall events
in some areas.
Methane Increases in the
Atmosphere
Methane is produced
•By CAFO
•Coal and oil mining
•Growing rice in
flooded fields
•decomposition of
food waste in landfills
•thawing of permafrost
Nitrous Oxide Increases in
Atmosphere
N2O increases
1. During combustion
Of fossil fuels, except
for natural gas;

2. Denitrification
Of excess fertilizer on
farms
 Oceans Moderate Global
Temperature
The oceans help moderate global temperatures by
removing 29% of the excess CO2 we pump into the
atmosphere as part of the anthropogenic carbon
cycle. Oceans are a carbon sink.
The oceans also absorb heat from the atmosphere
and slowly transfer it to the deep ocean. Oceans are
also a heat sink
Ocean currents act as giant convection convection
currents transferring heat from the equator to the
poles.
 Other Synergistic Effects From
climate change
Increased CO2 in the troposphere could increase
photosynthesis, but this would only be temporary. More
carbon dioxide would warm the air, evaporating the water
required for photosynthesis!
Warmer air can release methane stored in permafrost,
arctic bogs, wetlands, and make the air even warmer since
methane is a GHG this is a positive feedback loop
Melting ice caps reduce the Earth’s albedo
(reflectiveness), causing it to absorb more short wave
radiation and get warmer to melt more ice. This is also a
positive feedback loop.
Personal choices that help
Reduce consumption of
electricity and fossil fuels
(conservation)
Turn off and unplug electronics
when not in use
Put outside lights on timers or
motion sensors so they only
come on when needed
Dry clothes in the sunshine
Turn the thermostat down a
couple of degrees in the winter
Use/ develop mass transit or
walk whenever possible