Electronic Devices 10th CH06 NQ 2

Electronic Devices
10th ed., Global Edition
Chapter 6
BJT Amplifiers
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Electronic Devices
10th ed.
Objectives:
◆ Describe amplifier operation
◆ Discuss transistor models
◆ Describe and analyze the operation of common-emitter
amplifiers
◆ Describe and analyze the operation of common-collector
amplifiers
◆ Describe and analyze the operation of common-base
amplifiers
◆ Describe and analyze the operation of multistage
amplifiers
◆ Discuss the differential amplifier and its operation
◆ Troubleshoot amplifier circuits
AC Quantities
AC quantities are indicated

with a italic subscript; rms rms
values are assumed unless avg
Vce Vce
Vce
otherwise stated. VCE Vce
The figure shows an example of vce

a specific waveform for the
collector-emitter voltage. Notice
the DC component is VCE and the 0 t
0
ac component is Vce.
Resistance is also identified with a lower case subscript when analyzed
from an ac standpoint.

Linear Amplifiers
A linear amplifier produces a replica of the input signal at

the output. +V CC
Ic
Vb ICQ
VBQ R1 RC
Vce C2
Rs VCEQ
C1 Ib
I BQ
Vs R2 RE RL

AC Load Line
Operation of the linear

IC
amplifier can be illustrated
using an ac load line.
The ac load line is different Ic
than the dc load line because ICQ

Q
a capacitor looks open to dc

but effectively acts as a
short to ac. Thus the 0 VCE
collector resistor appears to Vce
be in parallel with the load VCEQ
resistor.

Transistor AC Model
The five resistance parameters (r-parameters) can be

used for detailed analysis of a BJT circuit. For most
analysis work, the simplified r-parameters give good
results.
The simplified r-parameters are
C C
shown in relation to the transistor
model. βac Ib βac Ib
An important r-parameter is re'. It re′
B B
appears as a small ac resistance Ib
re′
between the base and emitter.
25 mV
re'  E E
IE

DC and ac
The two graphs best illustrate the difference

between DC and ac. The two only differ slightly.

The Common-Emitter Amplifier
In the common-emitter (CE) amplifier, the input signal is

applied to the base and the inverted output is taken from the
collector. The emitter is common to ac signals.
VCC
RC
C3
R1
Vout
C1
Vin
RL
R2
RE C2

The Common-Emitter Amplifier
The common-emitter amplifier exhibits high voltage and

current gain. The output signal is 180º out of phase
with the input.
Now let’s use our dc and ac analysis methods to view this type
of transistor circuit.
Coupling Capacitor
Load Bypass Capacitor
Source
DC Analysis
The dc component of the circuit “sees” only the

part of the circuit that is within the boundaries of
C1, C2, and C3 as the dc will not pass through these
components.
RIN(base) = βDCRE = 84kΩ >> 6.8k Ω

이므로 무시 가능하여
VB ≈ (R2/(R1+R2) VCC = 2.83 V
VE = VB – VBE = 2.83-0.7 = 2.13 V
IE = VE/RE = 3.80 mA
VC = VCC – ICRC = 8.20
VCE = VC-VE = 6.07

Voltage-Divider Bias
If resistance to In the case where base to ground resistance

ground from the (input resistance) is low enough to consider, we
base is not can determine it by the simplified equation
significant enough RIN(base) = DCRE
to consider (in We can view the voltage at point A of the circuit in
most cases), two ways, with or without the input resistance
(point A to ground) considered.

AC Equivalent Circuit
The ac equivalent circuit basically replaces the capacitors with

shorts, being that ac passes through easily through them. The
power supplies are also effectively shorts to ground for ac
analysis.
Cf. superposition theorem in circuit theory
Superposition Theorem
6
 Set the current source to zero i1  A
9
 Set the voltage source to zero 3 6

i2  2 A
36 9
 The total current is then the sum of i1 and i2 :

12
im  i1  i2  A
9
AC Equivalent Circuit : Signal Voltage at the Base
We can look at the input voltage in terms of the equivalent base circuit
(ignore the other components from the previous diagram). Note the use of
simple series-parallel analysis skills for determining Vin.
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||Rin(base)
Vb = (Rin(tot)/(Rs+Rin(tot))) Vs
Rs 가 충분히 작으면 Vb ~ Vs

AC Equivalent Circuit : Input Resistance at the Base
The input resistance as seen by the input voltage can

be illustrated by the r parameter equivalent circuit. The
simplified formula below is used.
Rin(base) = Vin/Iin = Vb/Ib
Vb = Ier’e (Ie ~ Ic)
Ib ~ Ie/ac
Rin(base) = Vb/Ib = Ier’e/(Ie/ ac)
= ac r’e

AC Equivalent Circuit
Voltage gain can be easily determined

by dividing the ac output voltage by the
ac input voltage.
Av = Vout/Vin = Vc/Vb
Voltage gain can also be determined by
the simplified formula below.
Av = RC/r’e

Attenuation
Taking the attenuation from

the ac supply internal
resistance and input
resistance into consideration is
included in the overall gain.
Overall gain : A’v = (Vb/Vs)Av

Attenuation = (Vb/Vs) = Rin(tot)/(Rs + Rin(tot))

Bypass Capacitor
The emitter bypass

capacitor helps increase
the gain by allowing
the ac signal to pass
more easily.
The XC(bypass) should be
about ten times less
than RE.
Voltage Gain without

Av = RC / (r’e + RE)
Bypass Capacitor

Impedance and Admittance
 Impedance
V Vm  Vm
Z   (   )
I I m  I m
Vm
 magnitude Z  , phase angle     
Im
Z  Z   polar form
 Ze j  exponentia l form
 R  jX  rectangula r form
X
where Z  R  X ,   tan
2 2 1
R
Impedance Admittance
1 1
Resistor Y   Y ( )
Z Z 
V  RI, Z  R
1 R-jX
Inductor   2
R  jX R  X 2
V  jLI, Z  jL  G  jB
Capacitor
I 1 G : Conductance
V , Z
jC jC B : Susceptanc e
reactance susceptance
2kHz ~ 10 kHz, C2 의 최소값은 ?
• RE 의 1/10 인 56 Ohm 보다 작아야 하므로

• C2 = 1/(2 pi f XC) = 1.42 uF

Effect of a Load on the Voltage Gain
Rc = RC RL / (RC +RL)
Av = Rc/r’e (cf. RC/r’e)
Rc < RL 이면 gain 이 감소
RC << RL 이면 RC ~ R c
Electronic Devices
Common-Emitter Amplifier - Example
What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.
VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
68 kW
C1
10 mF
1.0 m F RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
VCC
 27 k  +15 V
VB   15 V = 4.26 V
 68 k  27 k  RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
68 kW
C1
10 mF
1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
VCC
 27 k  +15 V
VB   15 V = 4.26 V
 68 k  27 k  RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
VE = 4.26 V – 0.7 V = 3.56 V C1
68 kW
10 mF
1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
VCC
 27 k  +15 V
VB   15 V = 4.26 V
 68 k  27 k  RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
VE = 4.26 V – 0.7 V = 3.56 V C1
68 kW
10 mF
VE 3.56 V
IE    1.62 mA 1.0 mF RL
RE 2.2 k R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
VCC
 27 k  +15 V
VB   15 V = 4.26 V
 68 k  27 k  RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
VE = 4.26 V – 0.7 V = 3.56 V C1
68 kW
10 mF
VE 3.56 V
IE    1.62 mA 1.0 mF RL
RE 2.2 k R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW
25 mV 25 mV 100 mF
r 
e
'
 
IE 1.62 mA

Electronic Devices
VCC
 27 k  +15 V
VB   15 V = 4.26 V
 68 k  27 k  RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
VE = 4.26 V – 0.7 V = 3.56 V C1
68 kW
10 mF
VE 3.56 V
IE    1.62 mA 1.0 mF RL
RE 2.2 k R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW
25 mV 25 mV 100 mF
r 
e
'
  15.4 W
IE 1.62 mA

Electronic Devices
Half-wave Rectifier
Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.

What is the gain of the amplifier?
VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
68 kW
C1
10 mF
1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
Half-wave Rectifier

VCC
+15 V
Vout R R || R
Av   c'  C ' L RC
Vin re re R1 3.9 kW
C3
68 kW
C1
10 mF
1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
68 kW
C1
10 mF
1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
Half-wave Rectifier

VCC
+15 V
Vout R R || R
Av   c'  C ' L RC
Vin re re R1 3.9 kW
C3
68 kW
3.9 k || 3.9 k C1
10 mF
Av  
15.4  1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
Half-wave Rectifier

VCC
+15 V
Vout R R || R
Av   c'  C ' L RC
Vin re re R1 3.9 kW
C3
68 kW
3.9 k || 3.9 k C1
10 mF
Av   127
15.4  1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW RE C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
Half-wave Rectifier

VCC
+15 V
Vout R R || R
Av   c'  C ' L RC
Vin re re R1 3.9 kW
C3
68 kW
3.9 k || 3.9 k C1
10 mF
Av   127
15.4  1.0 mF RL
R2 3.9 kW
27 kW C2
The gain will be a little lower if the RE
2.2 kW 100 mF
input loading effect is accounted for.

Electronic Devices
Common-Emitter Amplifier
Greater gain stability can be achieved by adding a swamping resistor

to the emitter circuit of the CE amplifier. The gain will be lower as a
result. V CC
+15 V
RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
68 kW
C1
10 mF
1.0 mF
RE1
RL
33 W
3.9 kW
R2
27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices

result. V CC
+15 V
What is the gain with the addition R1

RC
3.9 kW
C3
of the swamping resistor? (Ignore C1

68 kW
10 mF
the small effect on re'.)
1.0 mF
RE1
RL
33 W
3.9 kW
R2
27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices

result. V CC
+15 V

RC
3.9 kW
C3

68 kW
10 mF
1.0 mF
V R R || R RE1
Av  out  ' c  ' C L 33 W
RL
Vin re  RE1 re  RE1 R2

3.9 kW
27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices

result. V CC
+15 V

RC
3.9 kW
C3

68 kW
10 mF
1.0 mF
V R R || R RE1
Av  out  ' c  ' C L 33 W
RL

3.9 kW
27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF
V R R || R
Av  out  ' c  ' C L 
Vin re  RE1 re  RE1

Electronic Devices

result. V CC
+15 V

RC
3.9 kW
C3

68 kW
10 mF
1.0 mF
V R R || R RE1
Av  out  ' c  ' C L 33 W
RL

3.9 kW
27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF
V R R || R
Av  out  ' c  ' C L  38.2
Vin re  RE1 re  RE1

Electronic Devices
Common-Emitter Amplifier - Multisim
Multisim is a good way to check your calculation. For an input of

10 mVpp, the output is 378 mVpp as shown on the oscilloscope
display for the swamped CE amplifier.
input
output

Electronic Devices
In addition to gain stability, swamping has the advantage of increasing

the ac input resistance of the amplifier. For this amplifier, Rin(tot) is given
by Rin(tot) = R1||R2||bac(re' + RE1)
VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
68 kW
C1
10 mF
1.0 mF
RE1
RL
33 W
3.9 kW
R2
27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
R1 3.9 kW
68 kW
C1
10 mF
1.0 mF
RE1
RL
33 W
3.9 kW
R2
27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices

VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
What is Rin(tot) for the amplifier if bac R1
68 kW
3.9 kW
C1
= 200? 10 mF
1.0 mF
RE1
RL
33 W
3.9 kW
R2
27 kW RE2 C2
2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices

VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
68 kW
3.9 kW
C1
= 200? 10 mF
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||bac(re' + RE1) 1.0 mF

RE1
RL
33 W
3.9 kW
= 68 kW||27 kW||200(15.4 W + 33 W) R2
27 kW RE2 C2
= 2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices

VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
68 kW
3.9 kW
C1
= 200? 10 mF
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||bac(re' + RE1) 1.0 mF

RE1
RL
33 W
3.9 kW
= 68 kW||27 kW||200(15.4 W + 33 W) R2
27 kW RE2 C2
= 6.45 kW 2.2 kW 100 mF

Electronic Devices
Common-Collector Amplifier
The common-collector amplifier (emitter-follower) has a voltage gain

of approximately 1, but can have high input resistance and current gain.
The input is applied to the base and taken from the emitter.
+VCC
R1
C1
Vin
C2
Iin
Vout
R2
RE RL

Electronic Devices
The power gain is the ratio of the power delivered to the input resistance
divided by the power dissipated in the load. This is approximately equal
to the current gain. That is, Ap ≈Ai.
VCC
R1
C1
Vin
C2
Vout
R2
RE RL

Electronic Devices
You can also write power gain V
CC
as a ratio of resistances:
VL2 1R
PL RL Rin (tot ) C
Ap   2  Av
2 1
Vin
Pin Vin RL C2
Rin ( tot ) Vout
R2
 Rin ( tot )  Rin ( tot ) RE RL
 1 
R
 L  RL

Electronic Devices
You can also write power gain V
CC
as a ratio of resistances:
VL2 1R
PL RL Rin (tot ) C
Ap   2  Av
2 1
Vin
Pin Vin RL C2
Rin ( tot ) Vout
R2
 Rin ( tot )  Rin ( tot ) RE RL
 1 
R
 L  RL
The next slide is an example…

Electronic Devices
Common-Collector Amplifier - Example
Calculate the power gain to the load for the CC amplifier using a ratio of
resistances. Assume Av = 1 and bac = 200. Use re' = 2 W.
VCC
+15 V
R1
C1 39 kW
Vin
C2
0.22 m F Vout
R2
220 kW RE 3.3 mF RL
1.0 kW 1.0 kW

Electronic Devices
VCC
+15 V
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||bac(re' + RE||RL)
R1
= 39 kW||220 kW||200(2 W + 500 W) C1 39 kW
Vin
= C2
0.22 mF Vout
R2
220 kW RE 3.3 mF RL
1.0 kW 1.0 kW

Electronic Devices
VCC
+15 V
R1
= 39 kW||220 kW||200(2 W + 500 W) C1 39 kW
Vin
= 24.9 kW C2
0.22 mF Vout
R2
220 kW RE 3.3 mF RL
1.0 kW 1.0 kW

Electronic Devices
VCC
+15 V
R1
= 39 kW||220 kW||200(2 W + 500 W) C1 39 kW
Vin
= 24.9 kW C2
0.22 mF Vout
RL = 1.0 kW R2
Rin (tot ) 24.9 k 220 kW RE 3.3 mF RL
Ap    1.0 kW 1.0 kW
RL 1.0 k

Electronic Devices
VCC
+15 V
R1
= 39 kW||220 kW||200(2 W + 500 W) C1 39 kW
Vin
= 24.9 kW C2
0.22 mF Vout
RL = 1.0 kW R2
Rin ( tot ) 24.9 k 220 kW RE 3.3 mF RL
Ap    24.9 1.0 kW 1.0 kW
RL 1.0 k

Electronic Devices
The input voltage-divider in the previous example is not “rock-solid” but

the overall power gain is good. A “rock solid” stiff voltage-divider is not
always the best design. Can you spot the problem illustrated here?
VCC
+10 V
R1
C1 10 kW b = 200
Vin
C2
Vout
R2
10 kW RE RL
4.3 kW 10 kW

Electronic Devices
The input voltage-divider in the previous example is not “rock-solid” but

the overall power gain is good. A “rock solid” stiff voltage-divider is not
always the best design. Can you spot the problem illustrated here?
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||bac(re' + RE||RL) V CC
+10 V
= 10 kW||10 kW||200(25 W + 3.0 kW)
= 4.96 kW R1
C1 10 kW b = 200
Vin
C2
Vout
R2
10 kW RE RL
4.3 kW 10 kW

Electronic Devices
Darlington Pair
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected as shown. The two

transistors act as one “super b” transistor. Darlington transistors are
available in a single package. Notice there are two diode drops from base
to emitter.
V CC
VCC
R1
RC C1
Vin Q1
Q2
C2
Vout
R2
RE RL

Electronic Devices
Darlington Pair
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected as shown. The two

transistors act as one “super b” transistor. Darlington transistors are
available in a single package. Notice there are two diode drops from base
to emitter.
V CC
VCC
R1
RC C1
Vin Q1
Q2
C2
Vout
R2
RE RL
CE Amplifier Darlington CC amplifier Load

Electronic Devices
The Sziklai Pair
Another high b pair is the Sziklai pair (sometimes called a complementary

Darlington), in which a pnp and npn transistor are connected as shown.
This configuration has the advantage of only one diode drop between base
and emitter.
+VCC
Vin βDC1
IB1
βDC2
IC1
IE2
RE

Electronic Devices
The Sziklai Pair

and emitter.
+VCC
What is the relation between IE2 and IB1?

Vin βDC1
IB1
βDC2
IC1
IE2
RE

Electronic Devices
The Sziklai Pair

and emitter.
+VCC

Vin βDC1
IB1
βDC2
The DC currents are: IC1
IE2
IC1 is bDC1 x IB1 and is equal to IB2
RE

Electronic Devices
The Sziklai Pair

and emitter.
+VCC

Vin βDC1
IB1
βDC2
IE2
RE
IE2 is approximately equal to bDC2 x IC1

Electronic Devices
The Sziklai Pair

and emitter.
+VCC

Vin βDC1
IB1
βDC2
IE2
RE
IE2 is approximately equal to bDC2 x IC1
Therefore, IE2 ≈ bDC1bDC2IB1

Electronic Devices
Multistage Amplifiers
To improve amplifier performance, stages are often cascaded where the

output of one drives another. This an example of a two-stage direct-coupled
amplifier in which the input and V CC
output signals are capacitively +12 V
coupled.
R1 RC RE3 C3
10 kW 1.0 kW 330 W Vout
Q2 10 µF RL
C1 2N3906 330 W
V in Q1
2N3904
VS 1.0 µF
100 mV pp R2 RE1
1.0 kHz 4.7 kW
100 W
RE2 C2
330 W 47 µF

Electronic Devices
Differential Amplifiers
A differential amplifier (diff-amp) has two inputs. It amplifies the

difference in the two input voltages. This circuit is widely used as the input
stage to operational amplifiers. Differential-mode inputs are illustrated.
+VCC
Vout 1 Vout 2
RC1 RC2
1 2
Q1 Q2
1 2
Vin1 Vin2
RE
–VEE

IE1= IE2
IE1= IE2= IRE/2
IRE=(VE-VEE)/RE
IC1=IC2 ~ IRE/2
VC1= VC2 =VCC – IC1 RC1
+VB 가 입력되면 Emitter
가 합치는 지점의 전압은 VB
-0.7 이 되어 Q2 의
forward bias VBE 를
감소시켜 IC2 를 감소시켜
결국 V C2 를 증가시킨다 . IC1
의 증가 (+ +VB 에 의한 ) 는
V C1 을 감소시킨다 .
Electronic Devices
Differential Amplifiers
The same amplifier as in the last slide now is shown with common-mode
inputs. Diff-amps tend to reject common-mode signals, which are usually
due to noise. Ideally, the outputs are zero with common-mode inputs.
+VCC
Vout 1 Vout 2
RC1 RC2
1 2
Q1 Q2
1 2
Vin1 Vin2
RE
–VEE

Electronic Devices
Selected Key Terms-1
r-parameter
Common-
emitter
ac ground
Input resistance

Electronic Devices
r-parameter One of a set of BJT characteristic parameters

that include aac, bac, re', rb', and rc'.
Common-
emitter
ac ground
Input resistance

Electronic Devices

Common- A BJT configuration in which the emitter is

emitter the common terminal to an ac signal.
ac ground
Input resistance

Electronic Devices


ac ground A point in a circuit that appears as a

ground to ac signals only.
Input resistance

Electronic Devices


ac ground A point in a circuit that appears as a

ground to ac signals only.
Input resistance The resistance seen by an ac source

connected to the amplifier input.

Electronic Devices
Output
Resistance
Common
Collector
Decibel
Differential
Amplifier
CMRR

Electronic Devices
Output The ac resistance looking in at the amplifier

Resistance output.
Common
Collector
Decibel
Differential
Amplifier
CMRR

Electronic Devices

Resistance output.
Common A BJT configuration in which the collector is
Collector the common terminal to an ac signal.
Decibel
Differential
Amplifier
CMRR

Electronic Devices

Resistance output.
Decibel A logarithmic measure the ratio of one power

to another or one voltage to another
Differential
Amplifier
CMRR

Electronic Devices

Resistance output.

Differential An amplifier in which the input is a function of

Amplifier the difference between two input voltages.
CMRR

Electronic Devices

Resistance output.

Differential An amplifier in which the input is a function of

Amplifier the difference between two input voltages.
CMRR Common-mode rejection ratio: the ratio of
open-loop gain to common-mode gain.

Electronic Devices 10th CH06 NQ 2

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Electronic Devices 10th CH06 NQ 2

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Electronic Devices

10th ed., Global Edition

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AC quantities are indicated

values are assumed unless avg

otherwise stated. VCE Vce

The figure shows an example of vce

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A linear amplifier produces a replica of the input signal at

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Operation of the linear

than the dc load line because ICQ

a capacitor looks open to dc

collector resistor appears to Vce

be in parallel with the load VCEQ

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The five resistance parameters (r-parameters) can be

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The two graphs best illustrate the difference

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In the common-emitter (CE) amplifier, the input signal is

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The common-emitter amplifier exhibits high voltage and

The dc component of the circuit “sees” only the

RIN(base) = βDCRE = 84kΩ >> 6.8k Ω

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If resistance to In the case where base to ground resistance

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The ac equivalent circuit basically replaces the capacitors with

 Set the voltage source to zero 3 6

 The total current is then the sum of i1 and i2 :

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The input resistance as seen by the input voltage can

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Voltage gain can be easily determined

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Taking the attenuation from

Overall gain : A’v = (Vb/Vs)Av

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The emitter bypass

Voltage Gain without

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• RE 의 1/10 인 56 Ohm 보다 작아야 하므로

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What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

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What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

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What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

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What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

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What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

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What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

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Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.

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Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.