UNIT 1 – CELLS,

ORGANS, AND
SYSTEMS
1.14 CELL DIVISION
1.15 CELL SPECIALIZATION
1.16 PATHOGENS AND THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM
1.18 FROM THE GROUND UP
1.19 PLANT CELLS
1.14 CELL DIVISION
• CELL DIVISION IS DIFFERENT FOR
Figure – Unicellular bacterial cells divide to
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS AND increase the size of their population
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
• CELL DIVISION IN UNICELLULAR
ORGANISMS IS THE MAIN PROCESS
BY WHICH INDIVIDUALS
REPRODUCE, AND THE POPULATION
Figure – A single fertilized egg divides to grow
GETS LARGER into an embryo
• CELL DIVISION IN MULTICELLULAR
ORGANISMS IS THE PROCESS BY
WHICH A FERTILIZED EGG (A SINGLE
CELL) BECOMES AN ADULT WITH
MILLIONS OF CELLS AND THE
PROCESS BY WHICH A
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM Figure – Skin cells divide to repair damaged skin
REPLACES LOST/DAMAGED CELLS tissue
SIZE OF
CELLS
• CELLS CAN GROW, HOWEVER THERE
IS A MAXIMUM SIZE TO WHICH A
CELL IS EFFICIENT BEFORE IT NEEDS
TO DIVIDE
1. THE LARGER A CELL BECOMES,
THE LONGER IT TAKES FOR A
CELL TO TRANSMIT A SIGNAL TO
ITS NUCLEUS TO RESPOND TO
ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
2. THE LARGER A CELL BECOMES,
THE GREATER ITS VOLUME
INCREASES WITH RESPECT TO
ITS SURFACE AREA
UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS
1. WHICH SIZE OF CELL IS MOST EFFICIENT AT TRANSPORTING MESSAGES
FROM ITS SURROUNDINGS TO ITS NUCLEUS: SMALL OR LARGE? EXPLAIN
2. WHICH SIZE OF CELL WOULD BE MORE EFFICIENT AT TRANSPORTING
NUTRIENTS IN AND WASTE MATERIALS OUT – BIG OR SMALL?
3. EXPLAIN WHY HIGHLY ACTIVE CELLS, SUCH AS MUSCLE CELLS, TEND TO
BE SMALL.
4. WHICH CELL HAS THE GREATER SURFACE AREA IF THEIR VOLUMES ARE
THE SAME:
a) A CELL SHAPED LIKE A SPHERE, OR A CELL SHAPED LIKE A CUBE?
b) A CELL WITH A SMOOTH SURFACE OR ONE WITH MANY
PROJECTIONS?
1.15 CELL SPECIALIZATION IN
ANIMALS
• ANIMALS RANGE IN SIZE FROM SINGLE-
CELLED (I.E. AMOEBA) TO MULTI-
CELLULAR ORGANISMS (I.E. WHALE)
• SINGLE-CELLED ORGANISMS MUST
Figure – Multi-cellular Organism
PERFORM ALL THE FUNCTIONS IT NEEDS (i.e. Humpback Whale)
TO SURVIVE WITHIN THE CELL (I.E FIND
FOOD, BREAK IT DOWN, RELEASE
ENERGY, RESPOND TO ITS ENVIRONMENT
AND ELIMINATE WASTE)
• MULTI-CELLULAR ORGANISMS RELY
ON SPECIALIZED CELLS TO PERFORM ALL
THE FUNCTIONS IT NEEDS TO SURVIVE
Figure – Single-celled Organism (i.e.
Amoeba)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANIMAL CELLS

• SPECIALIZED CELLS TAKE ON DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES BASED ON THE

SPECIFIC JOBS THEY ARE DESIGNED TO DO
• NERVE CELLS CONTAIN FINGER-LIKE PROJECTIONS TO RAPIDLY SEND
SIGNALS IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS
• EPITHELIAL CELLS LINING YOUR LUNGS CONTAIN MANY FINGER-LIKE
PROJECTIONS CALLED CILIA ON THEIR SURFACE TO SWEEP AWAY DEBRIS
AND PATHOGENS (I.E. BACTERIA)
• RED BLOOD CELLS CONTAIN HEMOGLOBIN – A PROTEIN THAT CARRIES
OXYGEN TO ALL THE CELLS IN THE BODY
• WHITE BLOOD CELLS ATTACK PATHOGENS (I.E. BACTERIA) BY ENGULFING
THEM AND DIGESTING THEM IN A PROCESS CALLED PHAGOCYTOSIS
• FAT CELLS CONTAIN A LARGE VACUOLE THAT STORES FAT MOLECULES
• MUSCLE CELLS ARE SMALL IN SIZE, DESIGNED TO CONTRACT AND
EXPAND TO ALLOW FOR MOVEMENT
NERVE CELLS

Figure – Nerve cells transmit signals to all cells throughout the body
so that the organisms can respond to external stimuli
EPITHELIAL CELLS

Figure – Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) shows epithelial lung cells

(purple) covered in finger-like protrusions called cilia (blue) sweeping
mucus with dust and debris (yellowish-green colour). The lung cells are
infected with SARS-CoV-2 (pink) – the novel corona virus.
RED BLOOD CELLS

Figure – A photo of red blood cells (red) taken with a

Figure – Hemoglobin is a protein structure
light microscope
located with red blood cells that allow oxygen
to attach and be delivered to all cells in the
body
FAT CELLS

Figure – Fat cells form a network of adipose

tissue. Fat cells store energy in large vacuoles
and provide cushioning for vital organs from
being damaged by external forces.
MUSCLE CELLS

• DESIGNED TO CHANGE SHAPE BY EITHER SHORTENING (I.E. CONTRACTION) OR

LENGTHENING (I.E. EXPANSION) Skeletal Muscle
SKELETAL MUSCLE
• MADE OF CELLS THAT LINE UP IN ONE DIRECTION, APPEARING AS A STRIPED
PATTERN
• ATTACHES TO BONE FOR BODY MOVEMENT
• FOUND ON LIMBS (ARMS AND LEGS) AND LOWER ABDOMEN AND BACK
SMOOTH MUSCLE
• MADE OF CELLS THAT APPEAR TAPERED AT BOTH ENDS (NOT STRIPED) Smooth Muscle
• FOUND IN BLOOD VESSELS AND WALLS OF INTERNAL ORGANS (I.E. ESOPHAGUS
AND STOMACH)
• CONTRACTS SLOWER THAN SKELETAL MUSCLE, BUT CAN MAINTAIN ITS
ACTION FOR LONGER PERIODS
CARDIAC MUSCLE
• MADE OF CELLS IN WHICH THEIR NUCLEUS APPEARS TO BE IN BETWEEN CELLS
• TYPICALLY, BRANCHED AND UNEVEN
• CONTACTS AS A SINGLE UNIT
Cardiac Muscle
• ONLY FOUND IN THE HEART
UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS

1. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF CELL SPECIALIZATION FOR AN ORGANISMS?

2. WHAT IS THE ADVANTAGE OF HIGHLY FOLDED CELL MEMBRANES?
3. MAKE A CHART AND EXPLAIN THE FUNCTION OF EACH TYPE OF CELL DISCUSSED.
Type of Cell Function
Nerve Cell
Epithelial Cell
Red Blood Cells
White Blood Cells
Fat Cells
Muscle Cells
1.16 PATHOGENS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

• BEFORE THE INVENTION OF THE MICROSCOPE, PEOPLE WERE UNAWARE

THAT PATHOGENS WERE THE CAUSE OF DISEASE
• PATHOGENS ARE MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS THAT INFECT AND CAUSE
DISEASE IN ANOTHER ORGANISM (I.E. BACTERIA, VIRUSES, OR PARASITIC
WORMS)
• PATHOGENS INFECT AN ORGANISM BY INVADING AND DISRUPTING THE
NORMAL FUNCTIONS OF THE CELLS – CALLED AN INFECTION
 VIRUSE
S
• VIRUSES ARE NOT CLASSIFIED AS
LIVING THINGS SINCE THEY DO NOT
CONTAIN A NUCLEUS, CYTOPLASM,
ORGANELLES, AND A CELL MEMBRANE
• THERE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
VIRUSES THAT CAN INFECT ANIMALS,
PLANTS, AND BACTERIA
• BACTERIOPHAGES ARE VIRUSES THAT
INFECT BACTERIAL CELLS
• INFLUENZA IS A TYPE OF VIRUS THAT
INFECTS ANIMALS CELLS
• ALL VIRUSES HAVE A SIMILAR
STRUCTURE, CONTAINING A PROTEIN
COAT FOR PROTECTION, SPIKE
PROTEINS/TAIL FIBERS FOR ATTACHING
ONTO A HOST CELL, AND NUCLEIC ACID
IN THE FORM OF RNA OR DNA
STEPS OF
INFECTIO
N
 DEFENDERS

1. WHITE BLOOD CELLS

Figure – White blood cells engulf, digest, and excrete

bacteria in a process called phagocytosis.
2. ANTIBODIES
• ANTIBODIES ARE CREATED BY A SPECIAL
TYPE OF WHITE BLOOD CELL CALLED A B
LYMPHOCYTE
• PATHOGENS CONTAIN SPECIAL SURFACE
RECEPTORS ON THEIR CELL MEMBRANES OR
PROTEIN COATS CALLED ‘MARKERS’ OR
‘ANTIGENS’
• ANTIBODIES LATCH ONTO THESE ANTIGENS
AND DO ONE OF THREE THINGS:
1. NEUTRALIZE THE PATHOGEN BY BLOCKING
THEIR SURFACE RECEPTORS
2. SIGNAL SPECIAL PROTEINS CALLED
COMPLEMENT TO COME AND CREATE A HOLE
IN THE PATHOGEN, CAUSING THEM TO BURST
3. PREPARE THE PATHOGEN TO BE INGESTED VIA
PHAGOCYTOSIS
UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS
1. EXPLAIN WHAT DISEASE IS IN YOUR OWN WORDS.
2. WHAT TYPES OF INVADERS CAUSE INFECTION IN HUMANS?
3. IDENTIFY TWO WAYS IN WHICH THE BODY PROTECTS ITSELF FROM DISEASE.
4. HOW DOES YOUR BODY BENEFIT WHEN A WHITE BLOOD CELL KILLS A CELL THAT HAS
BEEN INFECTED BY A VIRUS?
5. VACCINES WORK BY INTRODUCING DEAD OR WEAKENED PATHOGENS INTO THE BODY.
THE BODY WILL DEVELOP ANTIBODIES AGAINST THE WEAKENED PATHOGEN. IF A
STRONG ENOUGH PATHOGEN OF THE SAME KIND ENTERS THE BODY LATER, THE
ANTIBODIES CAN BE USED TO DESTROY IT BEFORE IT TAKES OVER ANY CELLS. DRAW A
DIAGRAM TO SHOW HOW A VACCINE MIGHT PROTECT THE BODY FROM A PATHOGEN.
6. WHY ARE VIRUSES NOT REFERRED TO AS LIVING THINGS?
7. HOW DO VIRUSES SPREAD?
8. EXPLAIN WHY A VIRUS MIGHT EXIST FOR YEARS AND ONLY BECOME ACTIVE ONE IT
COMES INTO CONTACT WITH A LIVING CELL.
9. EXPLAIN HOW A LIVING CELL CAN BECOME A VIRUS FACTORY.
1.18 FROM THE GROUND
UP
• PLANTS REQUIRE WATER AND
NUTRIENTS FROM THE SOIL TO
SURVIVE
• PLANTS MUST HAVE SOME SORT
OF SYSTEM TO OVERCOME THE
FORCE OF GRAVITY TO DELIVER
WATER AND NUTRIENTS FROM
THE SOIL TO ALL CELLS INSIDE
• PLANTS RELY ON WATER-
ABSORBING AND WATER-
TRANSPORTING SYSTEMS TO
OVERCOME GRAVITY
WATER-ABSORPTION SYSTEM
• PLANTS ABSORB WATER AND
NUTRIENTS FROM THE SOIL
THROUGH THEIR ROOT HAIRS
• ROOT HAIRS ARE FINGER-LIKE
PROTRUSIONS THAT EXTEND
FROM THE ROOTS
• ROOT HAIRS MAXIMIZE THE
ROOT’S SURFACE AREA TO
ABSORB AS MUCH WATER AND
NUTRIENTS AS POSSIBLE
• WATER AND NUTRIENTS TRAVEL
ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE
INTO THE CELL
WATER-TRANSPORT SYSTEM
• PLANTS RELY ON WATER TO PERFORM
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND SURVIVE;
THEREFORE, IT MUST BE ABLE TO
TRANSPORT WATER TO ALL THE CELLS
• LIKE ANIMALS HAVE BLOOD VESSELS TO
TRANSPORT BLOOD, PLANTS CONTAIN
XYLEM VESSELS AND PHLOEM VESSELS
• XYLEM VESSELS ARE MADE UP OF DEAD
CELLS (OLD CELL WALLS) THAT DELIVER
WATER FROM THE ROOTS TO THE LEAVES
• PHLOEM VESSELS ARE MADE UP OF
LIVING CELLS THAT DELIVER SUGAR
FROM THE LEAVES TO THE STEMS AND
ROOTS OF THE PLANT FOR FOOD AND
STORAGE
MOVING WATER AROUND

• SOME TREES ARE AS TALL AS 100M,

SUCH AS A DOUGLAS FIR
• SCIENTISTS BELIEVE THERE ARE
THREE FORCES THAT HELP WATER
RISE SUCH GREAT DISTANCES:
1. ROOT PRESSURE
2. CAPILLARITY
3. TRANSPIRATION
1. ROOT PRESSURE

• ROOT CELLS FREQUENTLY

PULL IN MINERALS
• THE HIGH CONCENTRATION OF
MINERALS INSIDE THE ROOT
CELLS CAUSES WATER TO BE
DRAWN IN FROM THE SOIL VIA
OSMOSIS
• AS A RESULT, HIGH PRESSURE
IN THE ROOT TISSUES BUILDS
UP, CAUSING WATER TO BE
PUSHED UP THE XYLEM IN
ALSO KNOWN AS ROOT
PRESSURE
2. CAPILLARITY
• WATER MOLECULES HAVE A
UNIQUE PROPERTY THAT
ALLOW IT TO ATTACH TO
OTHER WATER MOLECULES
CALLED COHESION FORCES
• FURTHERMORE, WATER ALSO
CAN CLING TO SURFACES
SUCH AS THE XYLEM VESSEL
WALLS CALLED ADHESION
FORCES
• BOTH COHESION AND
ADHESION FORCES RESULTS
IN A WATER COLUMN
CREATING A CAPILLARY
ACTION
3. TRANSPIRATION
• TRANSPIRATION IS THE
EVAPORATION OF WATER AT
EXPOSED PARTS OF A PLANT
• THROUGH CAPILLARY ACTION,
WATER MOLECULES CREATE A
WATER COLUMN AND ARE PULLED
THROUGH THE PLANT THROUGH
EVAPORATION
• THE FORCE PRODUCED IS CALLED
TRANSPIRATION PULL
FROM THE LEAVES DOWN
UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS

1. WHY IS THE ABILITY TO MOVE WATER IMPORTANT TO THE

SURVIVAL OF PLANTS?
2. LIST AND EXPLAIN IN YOUR OWN WORDS THE THREE
FORCES THAT MAY HELP PLANTS TO MOVE WATER
3. DRAW A PICTURE OF THE MOVEMENT OF WATER
THROUGH PLANTS
4. WHAT STRUCTURES IN PLANTS HELP THEM MOVE
a) WATER
b) SUGAR
MAKING CONNECTIONS

1. SOME INSECTS GET THEIR NUTRIENTS BY

STICKING A NEEDLELIKE MOUTH PART INTO A
PLANT. WHICH VESSEL DO YOU BELIEVE THEY
ARE TAPPING?
1.19 EXAMINING THE LEAF

• THE CELLS THAT MAKE UP THE LEAVES OF A PLANT ARE

MAINLY INVOLVED IN THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS INVOLVES THE PLANT
USING SUNLIGHT TO CONVERT WATER AND CARBON
DIOXIDE INTO OXYGEN AND SUGAR
 THE
DIFFERENT
COMPONENTS
OF
THE LEAF
1. PROTECTION: THE CUTICLE

• THE CUTICLE IS A LAYER OF

WAX THAT COATS THE LEAF
• THE CUTICLE PREVENTS WATER
FROM ESCAPING THROUGH
EVAPORATION
• THE CUTICLE IS ALSO
RESPONSIBLE FROM
PREVENTING THE LEAF FROM
DRYING OUT DUE TO EXCESSIVE
SUNLIGHT OR WIND
2. PROTECTION: THE
• THE EPIDERMIS TISSUE
EPIDERMIS
IS A GROUP OF CELLS
THAT PROTECT ALL THE
CELLS IN THE CENTER OF
THE LEAF, LIKE SKIN ON
HUMANS
• THE EPIDERMAL CELLS
SECRETE SPECIAL
PROTEINS THAT MAKE
THE CUTICLE LAYER
• EPIDERMAL CELLS DO
NOT CONTAIN
Figure – A micrograph illustrating epidermal
CHLOROPLASTS, tissue (purple)
THEREFORE THEY DO
NOT PERFORM
3. PHOTOSYNTHESIS: THE PALISADE

• PALISADE CELLS
CONTAIN MANY
CHLOROPLASTS AND
ARE MAINLY
RESPONSIBLE FOR
CARRYING OUT
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• THE PALISADE CELLS
ARE LOCATED
DIRECTLY BENEATH
THE EPIDERMAL CELLS Figure – A micrograph illustrating palisade cells
(in pink)
4. TRANSPORT: THE VASCULAR BUNDLE
• THE VASCULAR BUNDLE
ARE THE VEINS OF THE
PLANT CONTAINING
XYLEM AND PHLOEM
VESSELS
• XYLEM CARRIES WATER
FROM THE ROOTS TO THE
LEAVES
• PHLOEM CARRIES SUGAR
AND STARCH MADE IN
THE LEAD TO OTHER
PLANT CELLS FOR FOOD
AND TO THE ROOTS FOR
STORAGE
5. GAS EXCHANGE: INSIDE THE LEAF
• A SPECIAL LAYER
UNDERNEATH THE PALISADE
CELLS CALLED THE SPONGY
PARENCHYMA CONTAIN
MANY AIR POCKETS
• THE PHOTOSYNTHESIZING
CELLS (PALISADE CELLS)
ABSORB CARBON DIOXIDE
THROUGH THESE EMPTY
SPACES AND RELEASE
OXYGEN INTO THESE EMPTY
SPACES
•6.SMALL OPENINGS IN THE
GAS EXCHANGE: BOTTOMAND
INSIDE OUT
OF A LEAF CALLED STOMATES
(SINGULAR STOMA) ARE
CONTROLLED BY A PAIR OF GUARD
CELLS
• THE GUARD CELLS OF THE STOMA
EITHER OPEN TO ALLOW CARBON
DIOXIDE IN AND OXYGEN OUT OR
STAY CLOSED TO PREVENT ANY
WATER FROM ESCAPING
• WHEN THE PLANT HAS TOO MUCH
WATER, THE STOMA OPEN TO
RELEASE THE EXCESS WATER
• WHEN THE PLANT HAS TOO LITTLE
WATER, THE STOMA WILL CLOSE TO
PREVENT ANY WATER FROM
UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS Function Structure
a) Allows gases to reach Cuticle
cells
1. MATCH THE FUNCTION FROM THE LEFT
b) Transports water from Guard cell
COLUMN WITH THE STRUCTURES IN A LEAF roots to leaves
ON THE RIGHT COLUMN. (USE EACH
c) Allows gases to move in Xylem Vessel
STRUCTURE AT LEAST ONCE.)
and out of leaf
2. WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO A PLANT TO HAVE d) Controls movement of Phloem vessel
AIR SPACES BETWEEN THE CELLS IN THE gases in and out of leaf
MIDDLE OF EACH LEAF?
e) Location of Air spaces
3. PREDICT HOW A LEAF FROM AN AQUATIC photosynthesis
PLANT AND A LEAF FROM A DESERT PLANT f) Transports sugar and Stomates
WOULD DIFFER. COMPARE EACH OF THE nutrients
FOLLOWING: g) Protects against Palisade
a) CUTICLE evaporation
b) NUMBER OF STOMATES
c) SIZE OF AIR SPACES INSIDE THE LEAF