Cont’d

• The communication flow in an

organization.
 Definition of Communication
 Any task, activity, or transaction that requires more than one person
can only be successfully completed through communication.
 It’s the pre-requisite of any organization, without which
organizations would be unable to function effectively and efficiently.
 Cont.
• There is a conventional wisdom which says that, “Effective
communication is the key to success in business.”
• what is communication then?

• The term communication has been defined similarly or

with a slight difference.
 Cont’d

Many scholars have tried to define

communication according to their views,
however; We shall look at few definitions
given by different scholars.
 Cont.
• Asha Kaul says that, the word communication is derived from Latin word
“Communis” which means “to share” that is sharing of idea, feelings and
emotions. So: Communication is a two way process in which there is an
exchange and progression of idea towards accepted directions or goals.
• K.K. Ramachandran at el.
Define Communication as the sharing of information, idea, concepts,
and messages between two or more person. So: Communication is a
two way process.
 Cont.
• Krishna Mohan and Meera Benerji define Communication as a word
derived from Latin term “communicare” or “communico” both which
mean `to share`. But communication is not merely transmission of
meaning from one person to another through symbols. It implies that,
the system of communication is commonly owned, accepted, and
recognized by members of a community. It enables them to acquire,
exchange, store, retrieve and process information. Communication is
thus, essentially a social affair.
 Cont.

• Communication can therefore be defined as ,the

process of sending and receiving information
between two or more people. The person sending
information is referred to as the sender, while the
person who receives the information is called the
receiver. The information conveyed may include,
facts, ideas, concepts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes,
instructions, and even emotions.
 Communication Methods

• There are two methods of communication:

Oral communication
Written communication
 Cont’d

• Both oral and written communication

can be communicated either
internally or externally.
 Internal communication

Telephone Memo
Report

Interco
Sms m Graphs/
Staff
charts
newsletter
Oral Meeting/ Internal
Conference communication Written E-mail
Face-to-face Minutes
discussion
Form/
Presentation
questionnai Fax
re
Intranet Notice
 External Communication

conversation

Telephone
Teleconference
Conference/seminar
videoconference

Meeting Oral Presentation

External communication
Leaflet/brochure Advertisement
Writt
Invitation en
Graph/chart
Forms/Questionnaire Report
Customer E-mail
Notice
Press release Fax Internet
newsletter Letter
 The communication process

• The communication process begins with

the sender, in other words the encoder
who sees the need to communicate ideas,
thoughts, feelings, anxiety, directives,
orders, advice etc.
 Cont’d

• The sender according to his idea, behavior

pattern and attention, selects a message, encodes
it and transmits it to the receiver through media
which can be orally, verbal or non verbal. As a
result, a decoder turns back feedback to encoder.
 Steps of communication process
i. The sender has an idea
ii. The sender encodes the idea
iii. The sender transmits the message
iv. The receiver gets the message
v. The receiver decodes the message
vi. The receiver sends the feedback
1. The sender has an idea

The
sender
conceives
the
message
2. The sender encodes the idea
3. The sender transmits the message

Select appropriate
channel
4. The receiver gets the message

Taking/receiving
a call
5. The receiver decodes the message

Decode the message

6. The receiver sends the feedback
The
Thecommunication
communicationcycle
cycle
The communication cycle
 Effective communication

• In our daily life, we do communicate in

whatever we do- whether it is talking to people
on the telephone or in person, taking dictation,
and transcribing business correspondence,
liaising with colleagues and staff, writing letters
,faxes, reports and e-mails.
 Cont.

• It’s important to learn from our coms,

our success & our failures, so as to
develop & enhance our Com skills.
 Cont.

• Communication can be defined as giving,

receiving, or exchanging information, opinions
or ideas by writing , speech or visual means, so
that the message communicated is completely
understood by the recipient(s).
 Cont.

NB: The key to effective communication is

ensuring that your message is understood,
stimulating the recipient to take an
appropriate action, or affecting the way the
recipient thinks in some way.
 Benefits of effective communication

• In today’s business world, most successful

orgs understand that good
communication is very essential at all
levels. Here is the mnemonic to remember
the benefits that you and your org can
achieve from effective communication.
 Cont’d

• Stronger decision-making and problem solving

• Upturn in productivity
• Convincing and compelling corporate
materials
• Clearer, more streamlined workflow
 Cont’d

• Enhanced professional image

• Sound business relationships
• Successful response ensured
 Choosing the channel of
communication
• One of the important things to consider in
sending the message is the channel
(means).
• It can influence the message and the way
it’s interpreted by the recipient.
 Cont’d

• In Clampitt’s (2005) model, this refers to the

means used to deliver messages and the
related formats. Means used to communicate
can include face to face, telephone, pager,
written, radio and video communication.
 Cont’d

• Skilled communicators will choose the

channel most appropriate to the specific
goals sought at that time.
• However, there are various factors which
should be considered before choosing a
certain channel.
 Factors to be considered

• Cost
• Confidentiality
• Safety and security
• Influence
 Cont’d

• Urgency
• Distance
• Time of the day
• Resources
 Cont’d

• Written record
• Recipient
 1. Cost

• Think of the communication cost in terms of

the expected results.
• Can a handwritten or is a printed copy
important?
• Is the postal service satisfactory, or is e-mail or
fax justified?
 2. Confidentiality

• E-mail or fax may not be appropriate

• A telephone could be overhead
• An internal memo may need to be
enclosed in an envelope.
 3. Safety and security

• Should a special Post Office service be

used, registered or recorded delivery?
• Would a courier service be justified?
 4. Influence

• To convey a certain impression, would a

congratulatory telegram or invitation be
suitable?
• Multi-coloured letterheads on high
quality paper convey a good image of a
company.
 5. Urgency

• Choose the method that will produce

the desired results in the time
available.
 6. Distance

• Is the communication within the

building, in the same town, or the
other side of the world?
 7. Time of the day

• This is particularly important when

communicating with overseas countries.
• For instance, you can not call someone at
midnight and expect an urgent response.
 8. Resources

• Consider the equipment and staff

available ( sender and recipient).
 9. Written record

• Written communications carry more

authority and are proof of a
transaction.
 10. Recipient

• Consider who is sending or receiving the

message.
• Personal contact may be appropriate on
certain occasions.
• Verbal communication may not be
appropriate where complex information or
bad news is concerned.
 Cont’d

• Choose the language appropriately,

considering the situation and the r/ship
between sender/recipient.
 Barriers to effective communication

• Many problems encountered in our business and

personal lives result from miscommunication.
• Sometimes the interference may occur to distort
the message. This interference may be referred as
“noise”
 Cont’d

• The term ‘noise’ describes anything that can

interfere with or distort the meaning of a
message. Dickson (1999) has identified a
number of such barriers or common sources
of noise, which can affect communication
accuracy and effectiveness.
 Cont’d

• Psychological
• Semantic
• Environmental
• Demographic
 Cont’d

• Disability
• Organisational
 Psychological

• These include the perceptual biases or

stereotypes that can impact on how we
interpret a particular person’s message.
People respond to stimuli in the
environment in very different ways.
 Cont’d

• We each have shortcuts that we use to

organize data. Invariably, these shortcuts
introduce some biases into communication.
• Stereotyping is an example of such a shortcut
 Cont’d

• Stereotyping is when we assume that the

other person has certain characteristics
based on the group to which they belong,
without checking out to see that they do
in fact have these characteristics.
 Semantic

• This is used to describe situations where language

or cultural differences distort or interfere with the
meaning of the message.
• In terms of language, the choice of words or
language in which a sender encodes a message will
influence the quality of communication.
 Cont’d

• Because language is a symbolic

representation of thoughts, motivations or
intentions, room for interpretation and
distortion of the meaning exists.
 Cont’d
• The use of ambiguous words
• Difficult vocabulary
• Lack of linguistic competence
• Lack of vocabulary
• Language differences
• Accents/pronunciations
 Cont’d

• All these may distort the communication

process.
• Therefore, as a communicator you need to
consider well these challenges.
 Environmental

• This refers to a range of factors such as

size of room, layout of furniture, intrusive
noise, heating and lighting etc. Each of
these can either encourage or inhibit
interaction.
 Demographic

• Factors such as gender and age can impact on

the way in which a message is interpreted. For
example, a male listener may nod his head to
indicate to the speaker ‘I agree’, whereas a
female listener may nod her head to
communicate ‘I am listening’ (but not
necessarily agreeing);
 Cont’d

• so sending the same visible feedback but

with different actual meanings (Stewart
and Logan, 1998).
 Disability

• Physical or neurological impairment as well

as psychiatric illness can call for alternative
means to the usual patterns of communication
to be adopted. Some examples include sight or
hearing loss, and conditions such as
Parkinson’s disease or severe depression
(Hargie et al, 2004).
 Organisational

• Barriers to effective communication can be

located within the organisation or agency
itself. Difficulties with established lines and
means of communication, different relative
physical location of staff, lack of team or
supervision meetings,
 Cont’d

• and under resourced supervisors are

factors that can impact negatively on
effective communication.
 The communication flow in an organization

• Most larger companies produce an organization

chart which makes lines of communication
quite clear.
• Organisation charts make it easier to see how
communication can take place vertically
(between levels), horizontally (between sections)
and diagonally(between different levels and
 Vertical communication

• Moves between individuals at different levels in

an organisation. This is probably the most form of
communication.
• Sms are sent from the CEO to all employees, or
from department head to all employees in his or
her department only.
 Cont’d

• Vertical communication may either be

downward ( the manager sends message to
those under his or her immediate
supervision or upward (employees send
messages to their immediate superior).
 Horizontal communication

• Occurs between people of the same status-

sales staff, departmental heads, directors,
supervisors.
• Messages that flow horizontally typically
involve the exchange of information or data
necessary to complete routine tasks.
 Cont’d

• The information can be communicated

during face-to-face discussions, via
telephone, or through correspondence.
 Diagonal communication

• Takes place between people who work in different

departments and at different levels within an
organisation.
• Very often diagonal communication involves
committees, teams or task forces are created to
solve problems or complete special projects.
 Cont’d

• Diagonal communication often relies

largely on cooperation, goodwill and
respect between the parties concerned.
 Business communication defined

• Business communication means purposive

interchanges of ideas, opinions, information,
orders, etc. presented personally or
impersonally symbol or signal as to attain the
goals of an organization.
• What do elements in this definition mean?
 Cont’d

Purposive: must have pre-determined

objectives which aim at achieving the goals of
the organization.
Interchanges: communication involves at
least two or more people.
 Cont’d

• Ideas, opinions, information, instructions etc:

the content of the message will vary depending
on the purpose or circumstances.
 Cont’d

Personally or impersonally: the channel may

be direct i.e face to face or via TV to millions
of people simultaneously.
 Cont’d

• Symbol or signal: any device or method that

can be coded to convey or bring about an
interchange may be employed. Symbols may
be positive or abstract; signals may be verbal
or non-verbal. What is important here is how
well the intended message is understood.
 Cont’d

Attain the goal of an organization: one of the

distinguishing characteristics of any formal
organization is a set of goals or purposes
determined by the management.
 MODULE TWO:
EFFECTIVE INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION

• Interpersonal communication occurs

mostly between two people, though it may
include more than two. It uses all
elements of the communication process.
 Cont’d

• It takes place when you communicate on

a one-to one basis, usually in an informal,
unstructured settings.
 Cont’d

• When conversing, each participant

functions as a sender-receiver. However,
the messages communicated may include
both verbal and nonverbal symbols.
 Cont.

• Interpersonal communication offers the great

opportunity for feedback because it is between
two( or a few)people.
• In interpersonal situations there is always a
two-way flow of communication.
 Characteristics

• Communication from one individual to another.

• Communication which is face-to-face.
• Both the form and content of the communication
reflect the personal characteristics of the individuals
as well as their social roles and relationships.
 Seven propositions

• Face-to-face meetings
• Roles
• Two-way
• Meaning
 Cont’d

• Intention
• Process
• Time
 Cont’d

Face-to-face meetings
• Interpersonal communication
involves face-to-face meetings
between two participants.
 Cont’d

Roles
• Interpersonal communication involves
two people in varying roles and
relationships to one another.
 Cont’d

Two-way
• Interpersonal communication is ALWAYS
a two-way.
 Cont’d

Meaning
• Interpersonal communication does not
simply involve the exchange of messages. It
essentially involves the creation and
exchange of meaning.
 Cont’d

Intention
• Interpersonal communication is partly or
wholly intentional.
 Cont’d

Process
• Interpersonal communication is an
ongoing process rather than an event or
series of events.
 Cont’d

Time
• Interpersonal communication is
cumulative over time.
 What are the components of interpersonal
skills?
• Interpersonal communication skills included
the following topics:
• nonverbal communication (NVC)
• reinforcement
• questioning
 Cont’d

• reflecting
• opening and closing
• explanation
• listening
• self-disclosure
 Nonverbal communication
• NVC is commonly used to mean nonverbal signals which
include the following:
• facial expression
• gaze
• gestures
• posture
 Cont’d

• bodily contact
• spatial behaviour
• clothes and appearance
• nonverbal vocalisations
• smell
 Reinforcement

• This refers to behaviours which encourage the

other person to carry on or repeat whatever they
happen to be doing.
• Various experiments have shown the reinforcing
influence of expressions of praise, encouragement,
and support, even
 Cont’d

down to the use of head nods, grunts and the

"uh-huh".
 Questioning

• If you ever attend a series of job interviews you

will know that some professional interviewers are
much better than others at extracting information
from you.
• Normally both open and closed questions are
asked to extract information from the interviewee.
 Cont’d

• Thus, one should be in a position to respond

appropriately in accordance to the type of
question asked.
 Reflecting

• This is a skill often used by counsellors and

other people who have to conduct very
personal interviews and who want the other
person to talk in some detail about their own
feelings and attitudes.
 Cont’d

• Questions can often direct the conversation in

ways which reflect the interviewer's
assumptions so it can be more revealing to use
reflections which feedback to the speaker some
aspect of what they have just said.
 Opening and closing

• This refers to the ways in which we establish

the beginnings and endings of a particular
interaction. For example, sales staff often
receive very detailed training on how to start
the interaction with the customer.
 Cont’d

• There are a number of ways to start an

interview, including the following three: social
opening, factual opening, and motivational
opening.
 Cont’d

Social opening
• The interviewer makes sure to give the
interviewee a positive welcome and spends
some time in social conversation -breaking the
ice - before getting down to business.
 Cont’d

Factual opening
• The interviewer starts with a clear description of
important facts, perhaps by explaining how they
see their role, or explaining how they see the goals
of the interview, or by summarising what has
happened previously.
 Cont’d

Motivational opening
• The interviewer starts with an attempt to
encourage and motivate the interviewee
perhaps by introducing some visual aid or
gadget to stimulate interest.
 Listening

• It may seem odd to regard listening as a skill

but that is because we tend to think of it as a
passive activity rather than being an activity
we have to concentrate on and work at.
 Self-disclosure

• When you communicate with other people you

tell them various things about yourself. Sidney
Jourard coined the term "self-disclosure" to
refer to the process of sharing information
about ourselves with other people.
 Cont’d

• So when you self-disclose, you reveal to the

other person some aspect of how you feel.
 Self-disclosure and relationships

• In order to initiate a relationship with

someone, you need to self-disclose.
• What do you tell the other person? How soon
do you reveal more personal feelings?
 Cont’d

• Your answer to these questions may well

determine how the relationship develops.
 Reading for understanding

• Reading which require a concentrated mind to

details and meaning, and which may involve
note-making, is referred to as the STUDY
READ technique or INTENSIVE READING.
 Cont’d

• Three important devices that writers use to indicate

the relationship between individual points are:
i. Reference
ii. Link words
iii.Choice of vocabulary
 i. Reference

• The way a writer can refer forward and

backwards through the use of pronouns such
as ‘they’, ‘those’, ‘others’, ‘its’, etc.
 ii. Link words

• The way the writer can indicate the precise

type of connection by using meanings signals
such as:
a. Addition (i.e in addition, furthermore,
moreover, etc)
b. Contrast ( i.e however, in contrast, but, such
as, etc.)
 Cont’d

a. Result ( i.e consequently, as a result, etc.)

b. Elaboration (i.e that is to say, in other words,
etc.)
 iii. Choice of vocabulary

a. Repetition – repeating the same word;

b. Synonym- using a different word with a
similar meaning;
c. Abstract word- using one abstract word to
refer to several words or phrases previously
mentioned.
 Note taking

• Speakers speak about 120-150 words per

minute whereas an average person can take
notes at the rate of only 25 words per minute.
Therefore, it is impossible for you to write
everything that the speaker speaks.
 Cont’d

• When you are reading something seriously,

you may read at the rate of 350-400 words per
minute, but when taking down the notes the
speed will be drastically low.
 Cont’d

• One common format for such notes is

shorthand, which can allow large amount of
information to be put on paper very quickly.
 Cont’d

• Manual note taking requires pen and paper,

while electronic note taking (or computer
assisted note-taking) requires a laptop, often
with special note-taking software. The growing
ubiquity of laptops in universities and colleges
has led to a rise in electronic note-taking and
note-making.
 Cont’d

• Many students draft their notes on word

processors.
 Cont’d
• In note taking, you just copy down what you read in a book
in an unselective way.
• Sometimes Note-Taking is unavoidable, for example, in
lectures when you try to record the lecturer’s points you
don’t have a good room for selecting what to write, but
when you are reading you have more choice over what
notes you take.
 Taking notes from lectures

• If you want to take notes from a lecture, you

should first write the lecture topic, the name of
the lecturer, and the date of the lecture.
 Cont’d

• You must be able to identify the important

points. To succeed in this, you must pay
attention to important points, which are
emphasized in the lecture.
• In emphasizing a point, often lecturers use
various ways such as:
 Cont’d

i. Repeating the points;

ii. Drawing attention to the important points-by
saying that they are important;
iii.Variation of voice (e.g raising the pitch,
speaking loudly, reducing the speed and so
on) at an important point, and
 Cont’d

• Using transitional markers( e.g the first, the

second, the next, etc.) also help to show when
the new points are being introduced in a
lecture.
 Expressions used in a lecture

• There are a number of expressions which

lecturers or other speakers use to signal
various things in a lecture or public talk.
• Understanding these expressions will help you
during your note taking:
 Cont’d

To judge where and when new points are

introduced,
Important points are made, examples given,
conclusions made etc.
 Cont’d

• These language expressions and things they

signal are as follows:
i. Introducing the topic:
“The topic for this lecture is about/states..”
“Today’s talk/discussion/lecture topic etc…”
“My presentation is concerned with….”
 Cont’d
Indicating structure:
“I intend to divide the talk into….”
“ This presentation is divided into…”
iii. Starting:
“ Let’s look first of all at…”
“ I shall begin /start by looking…”
 Cont’d

iv. Moving to a new section:

“ Let’s turn to our attention to…”
“ Now we can move on to the next section…”
 Cont’d

v. Clarifying a point:
“ What I mean by this is…”
“ That is to say…..”
“ In other words….”
 Tips for note taking

• When taking notes from a text, the

following are worth to be considered:
Make your notes using a separate sheet of
paper, and do not scribble or do any
markings on the textbooks.
 Cont’d

Whenever possible, your notes should be

summaries of source materials rather than
direct quotations.
 Cont’d

Leave enough spaces in between the points for

further expansion through comments, examples, etc.
and for making relevant citations.
In your notes highlight all key words so that you can
later on expand them with definitions, illustrations.
 Cont’d

• Organize your notes in such a way that the

original structure of the text is clearly
reflected.
 Cont’d

• Whenever you take notes from a reading text

remember to record:
i. The name of the author
ii. The year of publication
iii.The title of an article, book, or journal
 Cont’d

iv. The volume and issue number( in the case of

a journal)
v. The name of the publisher
 Cont’d

vi. The place of publication, and

vii. The pages your notes come from( in the case of articles
in journals or chapters in a book).

NB: All this information will be needed later for referencing

and for compiling a bibliography or a list of references
 Listening skills

• Listening is concentrating on what you hear and

is one of the primary means of receiving
information.
• It should be the process of receiving, interpreting,
evaluating, and responding to what is spoken.
 Cont’d

• It’s a voluntary process done by willing; that is to

say one has the freedom to choose what to listen.
• However, on the other hand hearing is the
biological or automatic process which involves
perception of sounds.
 Cont’d

• Listening may also mean the process of

understanding what is meant.
• Listening is half of oral communication, and
it’s a skill that needs to be practiced and taken
equally as seriously as speaking and writing.
 Cont’d

NB: Don’t ignore the two-way nature of

communication- it is important that both sides
understand each other. Listening is essential,
because how you listen conveys meaning to the
other person and it helps to make the exchange
successful.
 The listening process

• If you are to understand why oral messages

are so often unsuccessful, you must
understand the listening process.
• Here are the six stages of the listening process:
 Cont’d
1 Receiving

2 Interpreting

3 Remembering
 Cont’d
4 Evaluating

5 Responding

6 Acting
 Cont’d

Receiving
• Here, you hear the message and take note of it.
• The efficiency of this message may be affected
by various factors such as noise, poor hearing,
lack of attention.
 Cont’d

Interpreting
• This is where you infer the speaker’s meaning
basing on your own experiences and
expectations as well as your own values, ideas,
beliefs and needs.
 Cont’d

Remembering
• Now you store the message for future reference.
• Perhaps you will take notes as you are listening
or take a mental note of the key points as they
are mentioned.
 Cont’d

Evaluating
• Now it is important to consider the points mentioned
assess their importance.
• You will need to separate facts form opinions and
assess the quality of the facts provided by the
speaker.
 Cont’d

Responding
• When you have had chance to evaluate the
speaker’s message, it’s usual to react in some
way.
 Cont’d

• In a one-on-one or group situation, perhaps

you will give verbal feedback, or nods or
sounds of arrangement.
• In a larger audience, your initial reaction
to ,message may be to laugh or applaud,
perhaps to make some notes, and you may not
act on what you have heard until much later.
 Cont’d

Acting
• On some occasions, communication is an
end in itself- perhaps an update or
progress report.
 Cont’d

• It’s important to put all the promised action in

writing so as to avoid any misunderstanding,
and make sure you always deliver your
promises.
 Techniques for effective listening

• Good listening skills will give you an edge in

life and at work. However, if you are to
become an effective listener, it’s going to take
more than just desire and enthusiasm-it’s
going to take a huge conscious effort.
 Cont’d

• Suggestions to improve your listening skills:

1 Prepare to listen. Clear your mind so that
your attention is assured.
 Cont’d

2 Avoid pre-judgment. Don’t pre judge a

speaker because of appearance or occupation,
and not jump to any conclusions before what is
said.
 Cont’d

3 Be open-minded: Appreciate the speaker’s

point of view and accept that it may not
necessarily agree with your own.
 Cont’d

4 Establish eye contact. This shows that you are

listening, as does your posture and your facial
expressions.
 Cont’d

5 Don’t interrupt. Try to keep emotions out of it

and hold any counter-arguments until the
speaker has finished.
 Cont’d

6 Watch for signals. Pick up the aspects that the

speaker considers important by watching
postures and gestures, as well as listening to
intonation in the speaker’s voice. This is like
listening to the ‘music’ as well as the words.
 Cont’d

7 Judge content, not delivery. Appraise the

content not the speaker. Consider the main
points and ask if they make sense.
 Cont’d

8 Extract key points. Pick out and repeat to

yourself some key words or phrases. This will
help to fix in your mind what is being said.
 Cont’d

9 Give feedback. Learn to give positive feedback

non-verbally, perhaps by nodding or smiling, to
let the speaker know your following what is
being said. Be alert and make an appropriate
comment or ask a question if it will help your
understanding.
 Cont’d

10 Block out distractions. Fight distractions and

competing thoughts, by working hard at
listening. You may need to close doors, turn off
television or radio or move closer to the speaker.
 What’s the difference between a good
listener and a bad one?
A bad listener A good listener
• Is easily distracted • Makes the most of the
• Daydreams opportunity

• Fakes attention • Fights distractions

• Tunes out dryer subjects • Makes an effort to
concentrate
 Cont’d

A bad listener A good listener

• Tunes out if delivery is poor • Uses body language to show
attention
• Tends to argue
• Asks ‘ what’s in this for me?’
• Reacts to emotions
• Considers facts and data
• Forgives delivery errors
 Cont’d

A bad listener A good listener

• - • Judges content over
delivery
• Interrupts only to clarify
• Gives a speaker a chance
before judging
 Cont’d

A bad listener A good listener

• . • Is not obsessed with
emotional words
• Considers evidence
 Active and passive listening

• Listening and hearing are two different things.

Hearing involves perceiving the sound.
Hearing is involuntary and may simply reflect
the auditory capabilities of our brain.
 Cont’d

• Listening, on the other hand, is much more

active than just hearing. In fact, listening
usually requires more energy than speaking as
it involves receiving and interpreting the
information.
 Cont’d

• Listening activity is vital in the process of

one's interpretation of message. Reading and
translation simply won't do. However, not
every listening activity can be beneficial to
students, as our response to the message we
hear might either be passive or active.
 Cont’d

• Passive listening is not much different from

hearing. For instance, many of us have found
ourselves in situations where our minds would
drift, we would lose our motivation in
listening, and consider the information we
hear as "a background noise" or pretend that
we're listening just "to be polite."
 Cont’d

• We think that we are listening, but in fact we

are simply letting this information go past our
brain.
 Cont’d

• Active listening implies listening with a

purpose. We might listen to gain information
from the speaker, not just to "fill in the
awkward silence." When listening actively, we
obtain directions, pay attention to details,
solve problems, get to know people, share
interests, feelings, emotions, etc.
 Cont’d

• Very few students today would question the

importance of listening. Everybody downloads
podcasts and stories to improve their listening. But
whenever you perform any kind of listening activity,
especially in the foreign language, make sure that you
are listening actively, and not passively.
 Cont’d

• In active listening you engage yourself into the

message that you hear, interact with it, pay attention
to sounds, expressions, intonation, as well as take note
of what you do not understand. But you can take the
same message and listen to it passively, letting your
mind drift and think about what you need to do next.
 Characteristics of an active listener

• Stop talking when listening

• Can understand and paraphrase a number of
things such as main idea, supporting details,
causes &effects.
• Look at the speaker and maintain eye contact
 Cont’d

• Leaves emotions behind

• Get ready for information/instruction, therefore,
concentrates.
• Don’t argue mentally but is prepared critically to
accept what is said.(main idea).
• Listening to what is said.
 Cont’d

• Will not involve too much in note taking to the

extent of failing to look at the speaker’s gestures,
movement, and facial expressions.
• Evaluate while listening
• Would listen as if he/she is going to present the same
message in different situation.
 Barriers to effective listening

• If you are to become a good listener, it is

important to be familiar with and conquer a
number of physical and mental obstacles.
These include:
 Cont’d

• Pre-judgement. Most people function in life

through some basic principles and
assumptions, so some listeners jump to
conclusions or close their mind to new info on
anything that does not agree with their beliefs.
 Cont’d

• Selfishness. Some people prefer not to listen

but to take control of conversations. It doesn’t
matter what the subject is, the selfish listener
believes he/she knows more than the speaker,
and they set about to prove it by relating their
own experience and their own problems, and
belittling the speaker’s comments.
 Cont’d

• Selective listening. Selective listeners let their

minds drift around all over the place-perhaps
wondering where they will go for lunch, or
what they will do after work.
• They tune out until they hear something that
attracts their attention, and then they tune
back in again temporarily.
 Cont’d

Environmental distractions:
These factors come outside the listener that
interfere the listening process.
• Include external factors such as:
The temperature in the room
 Cont’d

 The noise level

Traffic sounds
 Cont’d

Emotional – physical distractions

These are factors inside the listener.
• Include internal factors such as:
The state of mind
Healthy
 Cont’d

Hunger
Tiredness
Promise
 Cont’d

• Other factors are:

Desire to talk
Personal bias
 Cont’d

Desire to talk
• Many people would rather talk than listening.
You find a person wants to be listened when
speaking without giving others ample time to
speak.
 Cont’d

Personal bias
There are people who prefer to hear certain
information. For instance issues that touch one’s
race, beliefs, and status may lead someone to be
not ready to listen such information.
 TONE OF VOICE IN BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION

• Different people have a certain “ voice” they

put on for their work . The fact that we can
change our voices to suit our situations means
that we can train ourselves to sound
appropriate and professional, if we put our
minds to it.
 Cont’d

• Albert Mehrabian (1967) defines a tone of

voice as an expression of a company’s values
and way of thinking & it’s not to be
considered lightly.
 Cont’d

• Just how the tone of your partner’s voice when

speaking can instigate hurt feelings, even an
argument, the wrong tone of voice in our
content can also be put off potential
customers.
 Cont’d

• You may evaluate the sound quality of your

voice if it is:
Too whiny?
Too quiet and soft?
 Cont’d

Do you speak too quickly?

Does your voice have cadence to it( higher
and lower pitches throughout)?
Is it monotonous?
 Cont’d

• This evaluation will help you in identifying

what it is you might practice in order to
improve.
NB: Your tone is the representative of your
company and of you
 More tips

• Evaluate your voice.

• Speak at a medium volume so that you can be
heard, but not shouting.
Avoid using slang words or casual greetings.
 Cont’d

• Use ‘hello’ & ‘thank you’ rather than ‘hi’ or “thanks”

Smile before you begin, especially if you are on the
telephone.
• That smile will translate into your tone of voice and
you’ll sound friendlier and might even feel friendlier.
 Cont’d

• Either, record yourself speaking or have some

one listen and track how many times you use
filler gaps in your speeches.
• Filler gaps are words such as ‘like’, ‘um’ or
‘right’ that don’t mean anything but fill gaps
while you try to find the next word.
 Cont’d

• Some of these will make you sound far less

intelligent
 Cont’d

• Don’t end every sentence with a question mark. It

makes you sound unsure of what you are talking
about & can be extremely distracting for the
listener.
• Learn from good examples. Listen to people around
you, specially in business setting where there has
been some communication training with regard to
voice.
 Cont’d

• For instance, many people who work with the

telephone on regular basis have developed
very professional quality voice skills, and
sometimes just listening and emulating what
you hear can be very helpful.
 The importance of tone of voice in
business communication
• It tells consumer who you are.
Help to advertise your best self. If you are
target audience are businessmen and women ,
you must use an authoritative and professional.
But if you are targeting teenagers then you
should be more light-hearted and quirky
 Cont’d

It makes you different.

Communicating quietly or angrily, can
completely impact how people interpret you. If
your voice and tone was not considered,
everybody’s business would seem like it was run
by the same dull people.
 Cont’d

• Tone of voice can demonstrate your warmth,

expertise, sense of humour, or any other
attribute you want to display to consumers
and sets you apart form your competition.
 Cont’d
It helps to build trust
• When customers identify a tone of voice, they are also
identifying a personality. Customers form an image of a
person or company based on the tone of voice you present.
 Cont’d

• Moreover, costumers feel like they are getting

to know the brand or company, bringing with
it a sense of trust and familiarity.
 Cont’d

• It can be used to influence and persuade

oyou can influence your potential customers to
purchase your products through your tone of
voice.
 Questioning skills

Introduction

Garbage in, garbage out, is a popular truth,

often said in relation to computer systems: If
you put the wrong information in, you'll get the
wrong information out.
 Cont’d

• The same principle applies to communications

in general: If you ask the wrong questions,
you'll probably get the wrong answer, or at
least not quite what you're hoping for.
 Cont’d

• Asking the right question is at the heart of

effective communications and information
exchange. By using the right questions in a
particular situation, you can improve a whole
range of communications skills:
 Cont’d

• for example, you can gather better

information and learn more; you can build
stronger relationships, manage people more
effectively and help others to learn too.
 The Art of Questioning

• Questioning, if used effectively, is a very

useful and powerful tool. It allows the
mentee–mentor relationship to develop,
assisting the mentee in exploring and
understanding their experiences with the
hope of formulating avenues and actions.
 Cont’d

• Questioning is a crucial skill for the

mentor. They are not questions to
which you already know the answer.
They are a style of questions that
encourages people to open up avenues
of their own thinking.
 Cont’d

• Used effectively they help the

person deepen their thinking. They
can help you come to a better
understanding of the person’s
thoughts and feelings.
 Cont’d

• Your role is to guide, support and

facilitate …not to decide for them.
 Cont’d

• The basic types of questions are

open, closed and probing.
• Open questions such as – how do
you feel about? or, ‘Can you tell
me more about? are good at
encouraging the speaker to say
more.
 Cont’d

• Closed questions such as ‘Is that

right? can be good at clarifying
and checking understanding.
• Probing questions can help explore
an issue more deeply.
 Cont’d

• It’s good to ask How, What, When,

Where type questions if they help
the person understand the issue
more clearly.
 Cont’d

• Care should be taken with ‘Why’

questions as they can put people
on the defensive and can carry a
critical implication.
 Question types

• Future placing questions- What

will it be like in six months time?

• Truth-Probers – What’s actually

stopping you?
 Cont’d

• Dumb questions – short and simple

i.e. What do you want?
 Cont’d

• Re-framing questions – moves a

negative to a positive and helps
stop ‘all or nothing’ thinking. i.e. I’m
no good at academic work.
 Cont’d

• Reframing shifts from a problem to

a solution focused approach – What
parts of academic work can you do?
What’s stopping you being good at
academic work? What would good
look like?
 Cont’d

• Asking questions is an important

skill. They can be used to gather
information, to clarify and to check
that you have understood what the
speaker has said.
 Cont’d

• The good communicator will be

able to use a range of questions in
conversation.
 Cont’d

• Open / curious questions: These

encourage the speaker to say more and
to think and reflect. They encourage
longer answers. Open and curious
questions enable clarification and can
also encourage more creative thinking
through opening up possibilities.
 Cont’d

• Open questions often begin with:

what, why, when, how, who,
where… Using open and curious
questions hands control of the
conversation to the speaker.
 Cont’d

• Closed / leading questions: These

might demand simple yes or no
answers and can be useful in
checking facts. A closed question
can be answered with either a
single word or a short phrase.
 Cont’d

• They give you facts, they are easy

and quick to answer
and they keep control of the
conversation with the
questioner.
 Cont’d

• Specific: after details

• Analytical: looking for underlying

reasons – why did this happen?
 Cont’d

• Probing questions: Probing

questions are open questions that
allow you to explore the issues in
more detail.
 Models and frameworks

It can be helpful for the student

mentor to use models to help
structure the conversation.
A popular one is the GROW model:
 Cont’d
Goal – what is your goal. Help the person make it
SMART ( specific, measurable, achievable, realistic ,
time bound)
Reality – what’s happening now? What is your starting
point?
Options – what choices do you have? What are the
benefits and downsides of each option?
Way forward - what will you do now? When?
The GROW Model (Whitmore
2001)
 Using Questioning Techniques

Questions are a powerful way of:

•Learning: Ask open and closed questions, and use probing
questioning.
•Relationship building: People generally respond positively if
you ask about what they do or enquire about their opinions. If
you do this in an affirmative way "Tell me what you like best
about working here", you will help to build and maintain an open
dialogue.
 Cont’d

•Managing and coaching: Here, rhetorical

and leading questions are useful too. They
can help get people to reflect and to commit
to courses of action that you've suggested:
"Wouldn't it be great to gain some further
qualifications?"
 Cont’d

•Avoiding misunderstandings: Use probing

questions to seek clarification, particularly
when the consequences are significant.
And to make sure you avoid jumping to
conclusions, the Ladder of Inference tool
can help too.
 Cont’d

• De-fusing a heated situation: You can calm an angry

customer or colleague by using funnel questions to
get them to go into more detail about their
grievance. This will not only distract them from
their emotions, but will often help you to identify a
small practical thing that you can do, which is often
enough to make them feel that they have "won"
something, and no longer need to be angry.
 Cont’d

• Persuading people: No one likes to be lectured,

but asking a series of open questions will help
others to embrace the reasons behind your
point of view. "What do you think about
bringing the sales force in for half a day to
have their laptops upgraded?"
 Giving and receiving feedback

• Is the return flow from the message. In human

communication, a speaker hears his words
• at the same time or approximately at the same that
other parts hear them. So; Feedback is a response
by the receiver to the source message which the
source may use to modify his further message.
 Cont’d

There are two kinds of feedback

Positive Feedback
• That the intended message is achieved. Tells
the sender that everything is going in the
desired way.
 Cont’d

Negative Feedback
• Inform the source that the intended effect
message was not achieved.
 Cont’d

• Everyone has the capacity for giving useful

feedback and some people use it to more effect
than others. The skills of giving and receiving
feedback can be developed if attention is given
to some of the attributes of worthwhile
feedback and how it can be given in ways
which enhance its contribution to learning.
 Cont’d

• Good and Bad Feedback

• Some of the basic characteristics of bad
feedback are that it is directed globally at the
person; it is unhelpful, that is, it does not
suggest what otherwise might be;
 Cont’d

• it is ill-judged, it comes from the needs of the

critic rather than the needs of the person
receiving it; and it can provide a weight of
destructive comment from which it is difficult
for a person to surface: it is dehumanising.
 Cont’d

• Useful feedback, on the other hand, affirms

the worth of the person and gives support
whilst offering reactions to the object of
attention. Thus the person providing the
feedback shows that he or she values the
person who is receiving it and that the
provider is sensitive to their needs and goals.
 Offering feedback

• There are many characteristics of worthwhile

feedback but the most important is the way in
which it is given. The tone, the style and the
content should be consistent and provide the
constant message: the following are guideline
for effective feedback
 Cont’d

• Be realistic - Constructive comments which

can be helpful so long as they respect the other
persons individual way of doing things.
• Be specific- generalisations are particularly
unhelpful. Base your comments on concrete
observable behaviour or materials.
 Cont’d
• Be sensitive to the goals of the person- The person
produced the work for a specific purpose and you should
be aware of that purpose and give your views accordingly.
• Be timely- time your comments appropriately. Respond
promptly when your feedback is requested: to be effective
feedback must be well-timed.
 Cont’d
• Be descriptive - describe your views.
• Be consciously non- judgmental - Don’t be evaluative or say
what you think the person should feel.
• Don’t compare - offer your personal view, do not act as an
authority even if you may be one elsewhere. Give your
personal reactions and feelings rather than value-laden
statements.
 Cont’d

• Be direct- treat each person’s work as their own,

not part of some supposed competition with
others. Be cautious about giving feedback in a
context in which the comments which you give one
person will be compared with those of another.
Such comparisons undermine intrinsic motivation.
 Cont’d

• Be positive- check your response. Is it an

accurate reflection of what you want to
express? Have you perceived the contribution
accurately. There is nothing more annoying
than to receive criticism from someone who
clearly hasn’t bothered to pay attention to
what you have done.
 Cont’d

• Be aware- say what you mean. Don’t wrap it

up in circumlocution, fancy words or abstract
language.
 Cont’d

Receiving Feedback
• There is no point in asking others to give you
feedback unless you are prepared to be open
to it and to consider comments which differ
from your own perceptions. As receiver:
 Cont’d

• Be explicit - make it clear what kind of feedback you

are seeking. If necessary indicate what kinds you do
• not want to receive.
• Be attentive- concentrate fully on what is being said.
Focus on what the person wants you to know, not on
what you would like to hear.
 Cont’d

• Be aware- notice your own reactions, both

intellectual and emotional. Particularly notice
any reactions of rejection or censorship on
your part.
 Cont’d

• Be silent- refrain from making a response.

Don’t even begin to frame a response in your
own mind until you have listened carefully to
what has been said and have considered the
implications.
 MODULE THREE:
PRESENTATION SKILLS
• Effective presentation is much more than just
presenting your ideas or delivering a speech. It
is about skillful communication and relating to
the audience—whether the audience is a few
people or a large gathering.
 Cont’d

• An effective presentation is one that matches

the message to the audience, matches the
content and delivery to the purpose, and is
delivered in a clear and engaging manner.
 Cont’d

• To create that kind of presentation requires

preparation. You need to learn about your
audience and any logistical factors so that you
can tailor your message accordingly. With
your audience in mind you can outline the
presentation to clarify your key messages and
establish a logical sequence.
 Oral presentation skills
• A good oral presentation is well
structured; this makes it easier for
the listener to follow.
 Cont’d

• Basically there are three parts to a typical

presentation: the beginning, the middle and
the end (or introduction, body and
conclusion).
PRESENTATION PURPOSE
 Cont’d

• Informational presentations:
• Transmit specific knowledge.
• Present information directly or through explanation.
• Feature statistics or supporting research.
• Present ideas in logical sequence.
 Cont’d

• Motivational presentations:
• Create awareness, change attitudes, or garner
support.
• Use concrete language to communicate
abstract points.
• Use vivid and interesting language.
Preparing an Oral presentation
 Cont’d

• Preparing an oral presentation involves

planning, development, and writing, as
described below.
 Cont’d
• Planning the Presentation
• Determine the occasion and the goal of the presentation.
• Learn about the audience so that you can tailor your message
accordingly. Consider group size, age range, gender ratio,
common interests, and hot issues.
 Cont’d

• Determine any specific needs of the audience,

such as sensory disabilities, language
proficiency, and cultural factors that may
affect how they receive your message.
 Cont’d

• Investigate the logistics:

o Room size
o Available equipment
o Number of other speakers
o Time constraints
 Cont’d

• Developing the Presentation

• Decide the type of speech that is
appropriate—informational, motivational,
or a combination.
• Outline the presentation:
 Cont’d

• Introduce the topic.

• Clarify your opinion.
• Identify key messages.
• Establish a logical sequence.
 Cont’d

• Be succinct. Plan to speak briefly and clearly.

• Identify any information or research required
to support key points
 Writing the Presentation

• Introduction: Establish your relationship with the audience

and let them know what to expect. For example, one
approach is to:
Introduce yourself and establish credibility.
Capture the essence of your message in a single topic
sentence. Make your personal stance clear.
 Cont’d

• Get your audience’s attention through

relevant humor, provocative statements,
startling facts, or rhetorical questions.
 Cont’d

• Discussion: This section illustrates or proves your

viewpoint.
• o Present your main points using statistics, details,
and analogies.
• o To stir emotion in the audience, let your
enthusiasm and sincerity show.
 Cont’d

• Use vivid language.

• Personalize your message through
anecdotes or examples.
 Cont’d

• Conclusion: The end of a presentation should be as

carefully orchestrated as the other sections. For example:
• Tell the audience you are about to bring your remarks to
a close.
• Briefly summarize your main points.
• Make a memorable parting statement.
 Cont’d

• It is a good idea to prepare notes with key

points in advance so you can avoid
reading text in front of the audience.
 Cont’d

• Effective communication requires

practice to get it right. Practice your
presentation repeatedly until you are
completely familiar with the content.
Rehearse the opening until you have it
memorized. (This strategy will help you to
relax.)
 Cont’d

• Use of presentation media may be

especially effective for audience
members who have access and
functional needs because it allows them
to use multiple senses to take in the
information.
 Cont’d

• It is important to use presentation media

effectively so they enhance rather than
detract from your presentation.
 VISUALS

• The visual aids such as tables, charts,

pictograms are used to support the main ideas
in the discussion. A good visual Aid (VCA)
should follow the following guidelines.
 Cont’d

Not include information which is adequately

which expressed in prose.
Be introduced before you give details
Not be crowded with too much information. It
might be necessary to provide two VCA to
avoid too much information in single VCA
 Cont’d

Contain every detail the reader needs to

interpret
The layout, organization, print type, size of
VCA must be chosen to enhance visual quality
and interpretation.
 Cont’d

• What are visuals?

• graphs charts
• maps photos
• drawings images
• models video/film
• objects
 Cont’d

• What media are used?

transparencies/slides
Power Point© slides10
video projection/projector
handouts
It is often a good
 Cont’d

• It is often a good idea to give out a

paper copy, called a handout, an
outline, a glossary of key words,
sources, any other visuals you plan
to use, so people can take them
away, not waste time in taking
notes on key concepts.
 Cont’d
• What is the vocabulary of the equipment used?
blackboard, whiteboard,
paperboard
chalk, felt tip pen or marker,
eraser
podium, lectern, overhead,
 Cont’d

overhead projector system (OHP)

Ø screen
Ø pointer
Ø microphone, mike
Ø opaque projector
 Cont’d

What should you put on a visual?

Ø key words
Ø technical words
Ø lists
Ø examples
Ø
 Cont’d

diagrams
Ø charts
 The use non-verbal communication
 Aftercompleting the steps for your presentation, you
need to choose the way of delivering it.
You will also need to focus on your physical and vocal
behavior including the control of stage fright.
Physical behaviors include:
 Cont’d

• Your posture
• Facial expressions
• Gesture movements
• Personal appearance
 Cont’d

Vocal behaviors include:

• The tone
• Pitch
• Volume of your voice
 Stage flight

• Stage fright is the fear or feeling of

nervousness that may grip the speaker as
he/she faces the audience. NVC can be defined
as the act of communicating without words.
 Cont’d

Physical behaviours
Lucas ( 1983) as cited in Shumbusho and
Mwaijande(2002) proposes that, postures,
facial expressions, gestures & eye contact
affect the way listeners respond.
 Cont’d

• NB: Becoming a good business communicator

goes hand in hand with being a good reader of
body language.
 Cont’d

a) Posture
• stand erect, relaxed with your
weight on both feet.
• Avoid leaning and slouching.
 Cont’d

b) Movement
• Move to hold attention
• Move more often from side to side rather back
and forth.
• But do not move continuously like a caged animal.
 Cont’d

• ii Move to get rid of nervousness

• If you are nervous at the beginning of your
talk, a physical movement may help to
decrease the stage fright.
 Cont’d

iii Move to increase emphasis

oIn speaking, a movement to the audience
accompanied by a gesture can imply you are
stressing a point.
 Cont’d

• To point
The index finger indicate calls attention,
indicating either locations or directions.
 Cont’d

• C) Facial expression & appearance

• Smiling/ laughing suggests that your topic is of interest
to you.
• A frowning facial expression may convey non-verbal
expression that you are worried or angry.
• Strive to show enthusiasm & vitality.
 Cont’d

• On appearance, you should dress

appropriately for the occasion.
• Avoid loud colour clothes.
 Cont’d

D) Gestures
• These are movement of hands, arms, head, &
shoulders.
• Reasons for the use of hands, & arm gestures:
 Cont’d

• To emphasize
Eg the clenched fist emphasize a point either by
hitting the palm of the hand or shaking it
upright before the audience.
 Cont’d

oTo reject
• Moving the palm of the hand fro left to right
would indicate rejection.
 Cont’d

• 2 Vocal behaviours
oThe tone of your voice conveys NV messages
to your audience. It includes pitch, volume,&
rate.
 Cont’d

a. Pitch
oRefers to the highness or lowness of your
voice.
oYou have to vary your pitch so as to avoid
boredom & monotonous of your speech.
 Cont’d
b) Rate
oThe speed at which an individual speaks, & it varies fro
person to person.
oIt’s suggested that, the range for public speakers lies btn 80
& 160 per minute.
 Cont’d

c) Volume
oRefers to the loudness or softness of your
voice.
oYou should adapt your volume level to the size
of the audience& room.
 How to control stage fright
oSymptoms of stage fright- wobbly knees, rapid heartbeat, trembling
hands etc.

oThe following are ways to control stage fright.

1.Rehearse your talk several times.
2.If there’ll be no podium, then request it if available. A podium helps
to hold your notes as well as supporting your trembling hands.
 Cont’d

1. Check before hand any equipment you will

need. E.g projector, screen, extension cord &
even the plug whether it is functioning.
2. Know your subject well
oWalk in the room confidently pretending that
you are the only person knowing the subject
 Cont’d

o but be careful not to show your audience that

you have a know-all attitude.
5 Breathe deeply & slowly before speaking, this
helps to calm the pounding heart.
6 Approach the podium with assurance &
enthusiasm.
7 Answer questions as briefly as possible
 Cont’d

oAsk for repetition or rephrasing when you

don’t understand a question.
8 avoid trying to answer the you have not
understood.
oIf you don’t understand the answer admit, you
are not expected to know everything about the
subject.
 Module four: Interviewing skills
• An interview is a two-way exchange, a conversation, in
which both participants have some goals.
• The Interviewer wants to determine:
• • Can the candidate do the job?
• • Will the candidate fit in?
• • Is this the best candidate for the position?
 Cont’d
• The Interviewee wants to determine:
• • Do I want this job?
• • Can I do this job?
• • Does this job offer me the opportunities I want for
advancement or
• experience?
 Types of Interviews

oScreening Interviews
o Phone Interviews
o One-on-One Interviews
o Panel Interviews
 Cont’d

oSerial Interviews
o Lunch Interviews
o Group Interviews
o Stress Interviews
 Cont’d

• Screening interviews
• Screening interviews are usually done by
phone, tend to be very short, and the questions
will focus on basic qualifications.
 Cont’d

• The purpose is to “weed out” the applicants

who are obviously not a fit. Usually, employers
conduct this type of interview so as to narrow
down the number of applicants in a
manageable number.
 Cont’d

• Phone interviews
• Phone interviews are like screening interviews
but they are for specific reasons, like
geographical obstacles - the applicant lives in
another city or state. Phone interview will be
longer and more detailed than screening
interviews.
 Tips for phone interviews

oBe well prepared.

o Never conduct a phone interview in your car
or in a public area – you need to focus all your
attention on the interview.
oConduct the interview in a quiet private area.
 Cont’d

oUse a land line to avoid the possibility of a cell

phone call being dropped or poor reception.
 Cont’d

oAsk family members and friends not to

disturb you during the interview.
o No eating, surfing the web, I/M or text
messaging during the phone interview – avoid
distractions and focus on the interview.
 Cont’d

• NB: This type of interviews are not scheduled,

therefore, if you are not comfortable, or busy
just tell them to call you later. Don’t worry,
interviewers know they are calling you
without an appointment and are very flexible
– they will work with you.
 Cont’d

• One-on-One Interviews
• This is the most common interview method and involves
you and the interviewer alone in a private office. Once you
are face-to-face with the interviewer your dress,
appearance, non-verbal communication skills and other
visual factors, as well as your verbal communication skills
will come into play.
 Cont’d

• Building rapport with the interviewer is

usually easiest in this setting
 Cont’d

• Panel Interviews
• Sometimes the employer will have a “selection
committee” or for some other reason there will
be multiple people involved in conducting
interviews. They may want to conduct a
“panel interview” in which you will be
interviewed by several people at the same
 Cont’d

• Panel interviews are very efficient from the

employer’s perspective because it allows them,
in effect, to do many interviews all at once.
 Cont’d
• Remember that in a panel interview you must connect with
and engage every member of the panel, not just the person
asking the question. Make sure you get a business card
from every panel member and send each a thank you note
afterwards.
• Always bring extra resumes and offer one to each member
of the panel at the beginning of the interview
 Cont’d

• Serial Interviews
• In a serial interview you will meet with several
people throughout the day, usually back-to-
back. One person will interview you, then pass
you to the next person, and so on throughout
the day.
 Cont’d

• Serial interviews are physically and mentally

tiring because they can often take the entire
day. Remember that each time you are passed
onward your chances of being hired improve!
 Cont’d

• Serial interviews are typically used for senior-

level positions, but there are exceptions.
 Cont’d
• Lunch Interviews
• Sometimes the employer will take you to an interview lunch or
even dinner. Interview lunches are very unstructured, and they
will probably be evaluating your social skills and manners. If
you haven’t yet done so, make a point of attending the
University Career Center Professional Etiquette dinner to
familiarize yourself with the basics of dining etiquette.
 Cont’d

• When ordering off the menu, stick with

something in the mid-range of prices that’s
easy to eat. Never under any circumstances
order an alcoholic drink during a lunch or
dinner interview.
 Cont’d

Group Interviews
• You may be asked to do a “group” interview,
which is the opposite of a panel interview. Instead
of several interviewers and one candidate, one
interviewer will sometimes interview several
candidates at the same time.
 Cont’d

• The interviewer will ask questions of no one in

particular in hopes that a “leader” will
emerge. Group interviews are not very
effective for most situations and are rarely
used.
 Cont’d

Stress Interviews
• Stress interviewing is a generally, ineffective
and antiquated interview method, and most –
but unfortunately not all –employers have
discontinued this practice. The theory is to see
how you react to stress.
 Cont’d

• The interviewer may make the room physically

uncomfortable by turning up the heat, make the
candidate sit in an uncomfortable chair or
sometimes even stand, ask off-the-wall
questions that have nothing to do with the job
and possibly refuse to answer your questions.
 Cont’d

• Today’s job candidates are too sophisticated to

tolerate these methods and this technique is
very ineffective.
 Cont’d

• NB: In all interviewing situations the key to

success is good preparation. The more effort
you put into it, the better your odds of
succeeding
 Preparation for job interviews

 Documents
 Professional Attire
 Prepare Route
 Prepare answers to possible questions
 Documents

Copy of resume for each interviewer +1

Pen & paper
Interview Agenda - your questions – remember it’s a
two -way street to see if you fit into their organization
AND if you feel comfortable there)
Copy of job posting
 Cont’d

 References
 Portfolio (optional depending on career)
 Professional Attire

• A day or two before the interview:

 Try on your intended outfit (fit)
 Check for stains, rips, missing button, creases,
etc.
 Coordinate accessories (tie, belt, socks, shoes,
jewelry, etc. )
 Cont’d

 Set aside in a “safe” spot

 Dress one step above
 Prepare Your Route

 Confirm address, including suite number, and

interviewer’s name(s)
 Print a map of the route / write directions
 Trial run (before day of interview)
 Cont’d

 Check for construction signs

 Locate available parking lot options
 Set aside change/credit card (if needed)
 Prepare Your Answers

 Use recent examples where you excelled

 Identify your skills throughout your response
 Use industry terms (acronyms or industry slang)
 Avoid casual language
 Be objective, not subjective…just the facts
 Cont’d

 Include amounts, dollars, time frames,

• percentages, numbers, etc.
 Length: 1-3 minutes
 Practice, practice, practice!
 Ten Common Questions to Expect

 Tell me about yourself.

 What is your greatest achievement?
 Tell me about a time you save time or money.
 What is your greatest strength?
 Cont’d

 Can you tell me about your computer skills?

 Tell me about a time where you had to handle
a challenging co-worker or customer.
 Cont’d

 Can you describe a time when you went above and

• beyond the call of duty?
 What do you believe is your professional weakness?
 Where do you see yourself in five years?
 Why do you want to work for this company?
 Use the STAR technique

 Describe the Situation

 Discuss the Task that needed to be
accomplished
 What Actions did you take to perform your task
 What were the Results of your actions
 Preparation Tips

 Be prepared to discuss negative experiences

(choosing those that turned out well or you made the
best of the situation and what you learned from it)
 There are no right or wrong answers - just give
enough details to allow the interviewer to accurately
assess your past accomplishments
 Cont’d

 Keep a record of your achievements, use them

to come up with great STAR examples for the
next time you go for an interview.
 Five Stages of an Interview

• 1. Opening - rapport building

• 2. Questions about your experience and skills
• 3. Exploring professional style (fit)
• 4. Interviewee questions
• 5. Closing - final message
 Tips for Your Arrival

Be “on” before entering the building

 Arrive 15 minutes before appointment
Pleasantly greet receptionist and
identify yourself
 Cont’d

 While waiting, review your answers

 Avoid fidgeting, chewing gum, talking on cell
phone or texting.
 First Impressions

 Studies show that an interviewer forms

judgments within four minutes of meeting you.
 Much of the impact you create in an interview
is based on your visual and nonverbal
presentation.
 Your First Impression

 Greet the interviewer with a comfortably firm

handshake, eager smile and direct eye contact
 Allow interviewer to indicate where to sit
 Have documents in order, and offer copy of
• resume to each interviewer
 Cont’d

 Assume a receptive posture

 Breathe and try to relax…remember: you are
prepared!
 What You Say
and How You Say It
 Preparing your answers is a great start!
 Being aware of how you are presenting your
answers is also important
 Verbal and non-verbal (body language)
communication is important too.
 Non-verbal Communication

• Non-verbal communication is composed of

appearance, posture and body language.
• Appearance:
 Personal hygiene and clothing
• Posture:
 Attentive listening position
 Cont’d

 Avoid slouching or sitting on edge

 Make comfortable (slight) adjustments
 Avoid crossing your legs
 Allow for a personal space of about 36 inches.
 Body Language

 Your words will explain your background, but at the

same time, your body language will give out a lot
more information
 Becoming more aware of your own body language
can increase your chances of getting the job
 Reading the interviewer’s body language can be a
useful tool to gauge your presentation
 Cont’d

• Body language includes:

 Hands
 Handshake
 Eye contact
 Facial signals and head movements
 Your Hands

 Hand movements can liven up an interview, but

should be used in moderation, and below eye level.
 Avoid crossing your arms.
 Avoid unconscious hand movements (biting nails,
picking at nails, adjusting tie, wringing hands,
rubbing the back of your neck, hands in pockets,
clicking a pen, etc.)
 The Handshake

• Comfortably firm; 2 - 3 shakes

 Use only 1 hand and put it all the way into
the interviewer’s hand, with palm up
 Be aware of possible perspiration
 If you don’t feel comfortable shaking hands
for cultural/religious reasons, you can
‘gesture’ a greeting.
 Your Eyes

 Eye contact is essential and an excellent way of

conveying your interest in the job.
 By looking directly at the interviewer you are
giving them a sign of trust
 Allow for eye movement to avoid staring.
 Cont’d

 Avoid looking away, down, or over your

glasses when answering questions.
 Panel interview: focus on the person who
posed the questions, and ‘sweep’ the others.
 Your Facial Signals
 Present a warm and natural smile
 Nod your head slowly in agreeance
 Avoid head bobbing
 Avoid biting / licking your lips
 Be aware if you are rubbing your nose
 Be aware of subconscious facial expressions
 Interviewer’s Body Language

 Watch the amount of hand gestures the

interviewer uses to gauge your usage
 This can serve as warning sign of displeasure.
• (shaking their head, sighing, crossing their
arms, etc.)
 Understanding the Interviewer

• An interviewer must make hiring decisions. To

do this THREE basic issues must be covered in
the questions they ask:
• 1. Can you actually do the job? Is your
experience, training, education, aptitude and
interest sufficient so
• Would you be productive for me?
 Cont’d

• 2. Who are you? What are you like? What

characteristics and traits do you possess?
• 3. Will you fit in with the others in my
company/organization? Will you be part of a
problem or part of a solution?
 Illegal Questions

 Race / Colour / Ancestry / Place of origin

 Age
 Political beliefs
 Religion
 Marital status (children / pregnancy).
 Cont’d

 Disability
 Sexual orientation
 Unrelated convictions
 Addictions
• (Source: Employment Standards Act
http:www.elaws.gov.on.ca/DBLaws/Statutes/English
/00e41_e.htm)
 Handling Illegal Questions

 If you are asked an illegal question it is

important not only to know your rights, but
also to be able to respond to the question
directly and with confidence.
 Cont’d

 If this is an employer you want to work for,

indicate a willingness to demonstrate your
suitability for the job without compromising
your rights.
 Cont’d
 Respond with a counter question:
 “Could you tell me how my (age, marital status, place of
birth,
• etc.) might have any bearing on the job I am applying for?”
 “That’s a very interesting question. I’d be happy to answer it
if you could tell me the reason for asking it?”
 Closing the Interview

 Provide a copy of your References

 Confirm the follow-up timeframe and phone
number
 Restate your interest in the position and why
you feel you are the ideal candidate
 Cont’d

 Thank the interviewer(s) for their time

 Shake the interviewer’s hand
 Remember to SMILE!
 Practice Your Interview Skills
Pick five questions from the list of possible interview
questions
Choose a partner and determine who will be the interviewer
and who will be the interviewee first.
As the interviewee, decide what you would like feedback on.
Be specific (body language, using the STAR correctly, nervous
gestures, etc)

 Cont’d

After the practice interview. The

interviewer will provide feedback ONLY
on what the interviewee requested
Switch places
 Post-Interview
 Reflect on interview – note unexpected
• questions, or answers that need polishing.
 Send a Thank You email / card (within 24 hours)
 Follow up (clarify during interview)
 Prepare for a second interview
 Continue your job search
 Cont’d

• Stay alarmed!
• The right opportunity is waiting for
you!
 Management of effective meetings
o Introduction
oIn our contemporary world, meetings are very common in different
affairs like: business, government, religion, civics, etc. it may either
be face to face communication or through other media like
telephone, Skype, video conferences etc.
oMost important management decisions are taken in meetings;
whereby it might aim at giving information or solving a prevailing
problem.
 Cont’d

• In most cases, you find the chief executives

and senior officials spending much time in
meetings because of the essence of meetings in
decision making.
 Cont’d
• What is a business meeting?
Muphy (1972) as cited in Shumbusho and Mwaijande(2002)
define business meeting as gathering where purposive
discourse occurs among two or more people who exchange
information on a common topic or problem, for better
understanding or for the solving a problem. That is to say,
any effective meeting should have a clear objective and the
vice versa is true.
 Categories of meetings
oKenrick et al (1987) propose five categories of
meetings:
i. Annual general meeting ( AGM) which is open to
all members or shareholders.
ii. Ordinary meeting ( OM) – open to all members of
an organization. It can be held monthly, quarterly
or twice in a year.
 Cont’d

iii. Standing committee Meeting

SCM set up by the parent body on the
permanent basis & meet a regular intervals.
E.g Executive committee of the workers
Council, the Appointment of Staff &
Development Committee.
 Cont’d

iv. Occasional Advisory Committee Meeting (OAC)

oThe OAC meets several times in order to deal with specific issue and then disband
when the task is completed E. g Committee of inquiry.
V. Ad hoc Meeting
-This is the meeting called for specific reason as & when necessary . Ad hoc meetings
don’t form part of any committee structure E.g Workers representatives & chief
executive.
-NB: Basically, meetings are convened to fulfill one or more purpose described below:
 Cont’d

i. To take decisions or form policies – meetings of

Board of Directors, the Cabinet.
ii. To inform or instruct- E.g Briefing of Trade Union
iii.To consult or exchange information or ideas. E. g
meeting between managers & outside experts
( consultants).
 Cont’d

iv. To persuade or influence action & policy.

E.g Lobbying of MPs by pressure groups such as
women rights activits.
v. To solve specific problems . E.g meetings of probe
teams & committee of inquiry.
 Cont’d

Preparation
oArrange the agenda in a logical sequence
oMake sure that all members have full information.
Putting it on record
oRecord decisions & accountability
 Cont’d

Agenda
oAn agenda is a list of items to be discussed at a
meeting. It fulfill two functions:
i. To act as structural basis for discussion
ii. To inform the members of the to[pics needs
to be included on the agenda
 Cont’d

1. content of agenda
oDecide what topics to be included on the agenda

2. Logicality
oPut the items in logical sequence. This will be decided by:
 Cont’d
a) The urgency of the items
b) The length each item will take
• 3. Give guidance
o Make sure that each item is described in enough detail. This will help
each member to make necessary preparation.
4. Circulate
o Circulate in good time before the meeting. Remember to attach any
reports or written briefs relevant to topics of agenda.
 Minutes
o Minutes are the official records of proceedings of a
meetings. They constitute a permanent record of the
decisions & actions of a reminder of the subjects previous
dealt with & the conclusion reached.
o There are two aspects to skill of producing minutes:
i. Taking notes
ii. Writing up the minutes
 1. Taking notes

a) Before starting to take notes of a meeting

remember to record the following:
Time
Place
Date
 Cont’d

• Circulate a paper to members who attended to

list their names. Record all apologies( if
applicable)- members who did not attend the
fro various reasons. After these preliminaries,
then start taking notes while listening carefully.
 Cont’d

b) take brief relevant notes under each substantive

agenda item. Record the main points & actions to be
taken by whom of relevant.
C) check that your notes are complete & correct after
the meeting. If some information is missing or vague
check with the relevant member.
 2. Writing the minutes

a) Draft the minutes as soon as possible after the

meeting. If you keep the for a long time, you ,may
forget “small” information you don’t record believing
that you will remember when writing the minutes.
b) Keep your notes until the minutes have been
confirmed & signed in the next meeting. This will help
you to clarify questions before members.
 Cont’d

c) Be selective- be accurate, brief & clear with

your writing.
 Cont’d

•d) Don’t attribute individual contributions to any

member. The tone of the minutes should always be
impersonal. Use passive verbs to achieve this.
•e) Number the minutes logically, & clearly for
reference purposes.
 Cont’d

•f) The date, time, and place at which the meeting

will be conducted ( taking place) must be
mentioned.
•g) In the case of general meeting of the company as
well as its board meeting, it’s usual to give the
member of the meeting.
 Cont’d
h) The minutes should contain the names of all those present & the
capacity in which they are present.

i) If special resolution is to be passed by a given majority, this fact should

be entered in the minutes. The number of those in favour & those against
the resolution should be recorded.
j) It is advisable for the secretary to show the rough draft of the minutes to
the chairman to get his approval.
 Formats for minutes

• There are two most used formats:

i. Resolution minutes
ii. Narrative minutes
 Cont’d

i. Resolution Minutes
o only decisions are recorded in this type of format.
E.g It was DECIDED that ……….. Or simply DECIDED
that………
It was therefore resolved THAT…….or simply
RESOLVED……
 Cont’d
ii. Narrative Minutes
oYou record decisions, votes, & summarize the decisions, &
sometimes identify contributors by name. Minutes of
narration are that part of record which describe the decision
the circumstances in which the decision was taken.
oE.g RESOLVED that a sub-committee be formed, chaired by
Mr. Kunguru to investigate alternative premises for the club.
 Chairing and running meetings
• One of the most important roles of the Chairperson is
steering a Management Committee through its business
effectively and efficiently. A good Chair will be mindful of
the following basic points!
 Cont’d
Before the Meeting
• Plan the agenda with the chief officer and officers. Include items brought
to you by other members. Decide the order and timing of the agenda,
and who will introduce each one.
• Identify which agenda items are for information, discussion or a
decision.
• Be well briefed about each item, and actions taken since the last meeting.
 Cont’d
• Ensure all necessary background papers (including the last
meeting's minutes) are sent out with the agenda beforehand.
• Check with staff that all relevant practical arrangements
have been made, e.g. room layout, visual aids, etc.
• Arrive in good time before the meeting is due to start.
 During the Meeting
Communicate

Start the meeting. Welcome any new members. Make any necessary
introductions.
Receive apologies for absence.
Check for Conflicts of Interest on the items on the agenda.
Ensure that additions or amendments to minutes are recorded.
Set the scene. State the objectives of the meeting and each item.
Try to be brief when making a point.
 At the End of the Meeting
 Summarise decisions taken and action points to be followed up e.g.
who's responsible, by when.
 Agree a date for the next meeting - it is usually best to set dates for the
year's meetings well in advance.
 Agree what special items will be put on the agenda of the next meeting
and what work needs to be done, by whom etc.
 Ensure that the minutes are written up, checked by the Chair and sent
out in good time.