BASIC CONCEPT OF VIBRATING SYSTEM

LESSON NO. 1:
 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF VIBRATION

 The vibration was first known during

the discovery of the musical
instruments such as whistles, drums,
guitar etc... At first, it was only known
as something related to sound with no
mathematical relation, but, with the
with the help of many scientist and
engineers they have discovered that
vibration is not only related to sound.
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF
VIBRATION
 When Galileo (1564 - 1642) studied the
oscillation of strings and simple
pendulum, he discovered a
mathematical relationship between the
pendulum and its frequency and the
term resonance. After Galileo, it was
then followed by the likes of Sir Isaac
Newtown (1642-1727), Daniel
Bernoulli (1700-1782), L. Euler (1707-
1783), and so many more scientist and
engineers up to the present day of
vibration engineering.
 BASIC CONCEPT OF VIBRATING SYSTEM

 Any motion that repeats itself after an

interval of time is called vibration or
oscillation.
 The swinging of a pendulum and the
motion of a plucked string are typical
examples of vibration.
 The theory of vibration deals with the
study of oscillatory motions of bodies
and the forces associated with them.
ELEMENTARY PARTS OF VIBRATING SYSTEMS

 A vibratory system, in general,

includes a means for storing
potential energy (spring or
elasticity), a means for storing
kinetic energy (mass or inertia),
and a means by which energy is
gradually lost (damper).
 NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM

 The minimum number of

independent coordinates required
to determine completely the
positions of all parts of a system
at any instant of time defines the
number of degrees of freedom of
the system.
 NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM

 Single Degree of Freedom

Systems
 are the simplest systems as they require
only one independent coordinate to
describe their configuration
 NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM

 Two Degree of Freedom Systems 

 is one that requires two coordinates to
completely describe its equation of
motion. These coordinates are called
generalized coordinates when they are
independent of each other. 
 EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS

 Systems of equations that have the same solution are called equivalent systems.
Two systems of linear equations are equivalent if and only if they have the same
set of solutions. In other words, two systems are equivalent if and only if every
solution of one of them is also a solution of the other.
 EXTENSION/CONTRACTION OF ELASTIC RODS

 Elastic rods possess an infinite number

of degrees of freedom. Nevertheless, if
the mass of the rod is small compared
with other masses to which it is
attached, and if we are interested only
in the motion of a single point, say the
unsupported end, the elastic rod may be
modeled as an equivalent elastic spring.
 EXTENSION/CONTRACTION OF
ELASTIC RODS

𝑑𝑢
𝜀(𝑥)=
𝑑𝑥
 Where:
= Axial coordinate
= Axial displacement of the cross section
ε = Axial strains
EXTENSION/CONTRACTION OF ELASTIC RODS

Where:
 The constitutive relation for an elastic rod in uniaxial tension/compression is
σ = Axial Stress

 the resultant membrane force,

𝒅𝒖
N(x), acting
𝑵 (𝒙)=𝝈 over the cross section at x is given b
( 𝒙 ) 𝑨=𝑬𝑨
𝒅𝒙

𝟐 Where:
 Consideration of the equilibrium of𝒅 𝒖
𝑬𝑨 a differential
𝟐
=𝒏 ( 𝒙volume
) element= of the rodaxial
distributed yields
load its
governing equation as 𝒅𝒙
 EXTENSION/CONTRACTION OF ELASTIC RODS

 For the present problem n(x) = 0, and the boundary conditions for the rod of Figure 1.6 are stated
mathematically as
𝒖(𝟎)=𝟎 , 𝑬𝑨
𝒅𝒖
𝒅𝒙 |
𝒙= 𝑳
= 𝑭𝟎

 Integrating Eq. (1.4), with n(x) = 0, imposing the boundary conditions (1.5), and evaluating the resulting
expression at x = L gives the axial deflection of the loaded
𝑭end, ∆L , as
𝟎 𝑳
𝜟 𝑳=
𝑬𝑨

 Rearranging Eq. (1.6) then gives the relation Where: 𝑬𝑨

𝑭 𝟎=𝒌 𝜟 𝑳 𝒌=
𝑳
 BENDING OF ELASTIC BEAMS
 Continuous systems such as elastic beams have an infinite number of
degrees of freedom. Yet, under appropriate circumstances (loading type,
kinematical constraints, mass ratios, etc.) a certain type of motion may be
dominant.
THE CANTILEVER BEAM
 THE CANTILEVER BEAM

 Relation between the applied load and the load point deflection of the form
Where:
𝑷 𝟎 =𝒌 𝜟 𝑳 K = equivalent stiffness
= deflection of the point

 To find k, we must first solve q(x),

Where:
𝒅𝟒 𝒘 q(x) = distributed transverse
𝑬𝑰 𝟒
=𝒒 (𝒙) load of intensity
𝒅𝒙
 THE CANTILEVER BEAM
 Where q(x) = 0 for the case under consideration. The boundary conditions for a beam that is clamped
at the origin and loaded by a point load at its free end are

 Integrating Eq. (1.10) with q(x) = 0, imposing the boundary conditions of Eq. (1.11) and evaluating the
resulting solution at x = L gives the load point deflection

 Solving Eq. (1.12) for P0 gives the relation Where:

𝟑 𝑬𝑰
𝑷 𝟎 =𝒌 𝜟 𝑳 𝒌= 𝟑
𝑳
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES

 Consider a structure consisting of four identical elastic columns

supporting an effectively rigid roof of mass m, as shown in Figure 1.8a.
Let the columns, each of length L and bending stiffness EI, be embedded
in a rigid foundation as indicated. Further, let the mass of the roof be
much larger than the mass of the columns. We shall consider two types of
connections of the columns with the roof, pinned and clamped/embedded.
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES
Pinned Connections
 If we are interested in side-sway motion of the structure as may occur
during earthquakes, and if the mass of the columns is negligible
compared with the mass of the roof, then the columns may be treated as
cantilever beams as discussed earlier. For this purpose, the structure may
be modeled as four equivalent springs, given by
Where:
𝟒𝟖 𝑬𝑰 𝟏𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 =𝟒 𝒌= 𝟑
𝒌= 𝟑
𝑳 𝑳
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES
 Note : If the columns are embedded (framed) into the roof structure, as
shown in Figure 1.9a), the deflections differ from those for the pinned
case. One way to determine the equivalent stiffness of a beam that is
clamped-fixed at one end and clamped-free at the other is to solve Eq.
(1.10) with q(x) = 0 subject to the boundary conditions

| | |
3
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑 𝑤
𝑤(0)= =0 , =0 , 𝐸𝐼 =− 𝑃 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿
3
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥= 𝐿
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES
 Clamped Connections
 Since, by definition, the curvature and hence the bending moment vanishes at an
inflection point such a point is equivalent to a pin joint. Thus, each of the columns for
the structure under consideration may be viewed as two cantilever beams of length
L/2 that are connected by a pin at the center of the span. The total deflection of the
roof will then be twice that of the inflection point, as indicated. Therefore, letting and
in Eq. (1.13) gives, for a single clamped-fixed/clamped-free column, that

12 𝐸𝐼
𝑘= 3
𝐿
 SIDE-SWAY OF STRUCTURES

 Note : As for the pinned roof structure considered earlier, the four equivalent springs
for the present structure act in parallel (see Section 1.3) and are thus equivalent to a
single effective spring of stiffness

𝟒𝟖 𝑬𝑰
𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 =𝟒 𝒌= 𝟑
𝑳
 THE SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
 We next construct an equivalent single degree of freedom system for a simply
supported beam subjected to a transverse point load applied at the midpoint of the
span.
𝑑4 𝑤 3 𝐸𝐼
𝐸𝐼 =𝑞 (𝑥 ) 𝑘= 3
𝑑𝑥
4
𝐿

 Note: However, we shall use the equivalent stiffness of the cantilever beam, Eq.
(1.14), as a shortcut to establish the equivalent stiffness of the present structure.
 THE SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
 Consideration of the differential beam element on the interval − ≤≤ dx x dx 2 2
(Figure 1.11b) shows that the problem is equivalent to that of half of the structure on
0 ≤ ≤ x L subjected to a transverse point load of magnitude P0 acting at the edge x = 0
(Figure 1.11c). Next, let ∆0 correspond to the deflection of the cantilever beam under
the point load P0. It may be seen that ∆0 also corresponds to the center-span
deflection of the beam of Figure 1.11a. It then follows from Eq. (1.12) that
𝑷 𝟎 𝑳𝟑 𝑸𝟎 𝑳𝟑
𝜟 𝟎= =
𝟑 𝑬𝑰 𝟔 𝑬𝑰

 Hence that Where:

𝟔 𝑬𝑰 𝟒𝟖 𝑬𝑰
𝑸 𝟎=𝒌 𝜟𝟎 𝒌=
𝑳
𝟑
= ~𝟑
𝑳
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS
 In many applications a beam may be attached to another structure, or to
compliant supports. The effect of the second structure, or the compliance
of the supports, may often be represented as a linear elastic spring, in the
manner discussed throughout this section.
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS
 Simply Supported Beam Attached to a Fixed Spring
 Since we are interested in the vertical motion of the center-span of the beam we may
model the beam as an equivalent linear spring. It follows that the effective vent by Eq.
(1.22). The Figure 1.12 Compound system of elastic beam and spring: (a) fixed
spring, (b) loaded spring. the spring is free to translate and a point load is applied to
that edge (Figure 1.12b). Simply Supported Beam Attached to a Fixed Spring
stiffness, , of the equivalent spring for the beam is gi stiffness of the compound
system consisting of the two springs may then be obtained by superposition, as shown
in Figure 1.13.
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS

 Note : For this case, the springs are seen

to act in parallel and thus to act as a
single equivalent spring whose
stiffness, , is the sum of the stiff nesses
of the two parallel springs (see Section
1.3). We therefore have that

𝟔 𝑬𝑰
𝒌𝒆𝒒 =𝒌 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 +𝒌 𝒔 = 𝟑
+ 𝒌𝒔
𝑳
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS
 Simply Supported Beam Attached to a Loaded Spring
 Let us again consider a sim attached to a linear spring of stiffness load is applied to
the free edge of the spring (Figure 1.1 n, if we are only interested in the motion of the
point of the b the point load (the center an of the beam), we may model the beam as
an equivalent linear spring as we 4, it may be seen that the two springs act in series
and hence that the effect of the two springs is equivalent to that of a single equivalent
spring.
 As shown in Section impound system of rated Beam Attached to a Loaded Spring ply
supported elastic beam . In this case, however, a point 2b).
 COMPOUND SYSTEMS

 Note : Once again exam that lies

directly over spring did for the previous
case. Using superposition, as shown in
Figure 1.1 1.3, the stiffness of the
equivalent spring representing the c the
two springs in series is given by

𝟔 𝑬𝑰
𝒌𝒆𝒒 =𝒌 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 +𝒌 𝒔 = 𝟑
+ 𝒌𝒔
𝑳
 SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
 Consider a rigid plate attached to a number of elastic springs with one end connected
to a rigid wall as shown in Figure 1.27a. Each spring exerts a restoring force of the
form Fj = kj Δ (j = 1, 2, ..., N) acting on the plate, as shown in the free-body diagram
in Figure 1.28a. The total restoring force is then the sum of the individual restoring
forces.
𝑵 𝑵
𝑭 = ∑ ❑ 𝑭 𝒋 = ∑ ❑𝒌 𝒋 𝜟=𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝚫
𝒋=𝟏 𝒋=𝟏

 Where:
𝑵
𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 = ∑ ❑𝒌 𝒋
𝒋 =𝟏
 SPRINGS IN SERIES
 Consider a system of N springs connected end to end (i.e., in series). Let one end of
spring number 1 be attached to a rigid wall as shown in Figure 1.27b, and an external
force P be applied to the free end of that spring. In addition, let an external force P be
applied to the free end of spring number N. Further, let kj (j = 1, 2, …, N) correspond
to the stiffness of spring number j, and let ∆j represent the “stretch” (the relative
displacement between the two ends) in that spring. The displacement Δ* also
represents the total stretch in the system, or the stretch of an equivalent spring with
effective stiffness keff.
Where:
keff. = effective Stiffness
𝑷 =𝒌 𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝜟 ∗
Δ* = displacement
 SPRINGS IN SERIES
 Isolate each spring in the system and indicate the forces that act on them as shown in
Figure 1.29. It then follows from Newton’s Third Law applied at each joint, and the
implicit assumption that the springs are massless, that
𝒌𝟏 𝜟 𝟏=𝒌 𝟐 𝜟 𝟐=…=𝒌 𝑵 𝜟 𝑵 =𝑷

 Dividing through by the stiffness of each individual spring then gives the relations

𝑷
𝜟 𝒋= ( 𝒋=𝟏 , 𝟐 , …, 𝑵)
𝒌𝒋
 SPRINGS IN SERIES
 Note : The deflection of the load is equal to the total stretch in the system - that is, the
sum of the individual stretches plus their weights and angles.
𝑵
𝜟 = 𝜟𝟏 +𝜟𝟐+…+ 𝜟𝑵 = ∑ ❑ 𝜟 𝒋
∗

𝒋=𝟏

 Substitution of each of Eq. (1.47) into Eq. (1.48) gives the relation

𝑵
∗ 𝑷 𝑷 𝑷 𝟏 𝑷
𝜟 = + +…+ = 𝑷 ∑ ❑
∗
𝜟 =
𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝑵 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌𝒋 𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇
 SPRINGS IN SERIES

 Where:

 Note : Equation (1.51) gives the relation between the effective stiffness of the single
equivalent spring and the stiffness of the springs that comprise the system.
𝑵
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +…+ = ∑ ❑
𝒌𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝒌 𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌 𝑵 𝒋=𝟏 𝒌 𝒋
 DAMPING

 Vibration damping is a term that’s used in industrial, electronic and ergonomic

applications when there is a need to reduce the amount of energy that’s produced by
the system. Normally engineers try to address and reduce this energy at its source so
the disturbing force is not at or near a natural frequency. This will ensure
that resonance does not occur. Sometimes this is not possible for many reasons so
problems will usually be controlled with a vibration damper. Usually when a good
vibration damper is added, the energy that is left over is removed and converted to a
small amount of heat which is referred to as the “swallowed energy”.
 TYPES OF DAMPING:
Viscous Damping
 is the most commonly used damping
mechanism in vibration analysis. When
mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid
medium such as air, gas, water, or oil, the
resistance offered by the fluid to the moving
body causes energy to be dissipated. In this
case, the amount of dissipated energy
depends on many factors, such as the size
and shape of the vibrating body, the viscosity
of the fluid, the frequency of vibration, and Viscous Damper
the velocity of the vibrating body.
 TYPES OF DAMPING:
 Coulomb or Dry-Friction
Damping
 Here the damping force is constant in
magnitude but opposite in direction to
that of the motion of the vibrating body.
It is caused by friction between rubbing
surfaces that either are dry or have
insufficient lubrication.
 TYPES OF DAMPING:
 Material or Solid or Hysteretic
Damping
 When a body having material damping
is subjected to vibration, the stress-
strain diagram shows a hysteresis loop
as indicated in Fig. 1.40(a). The area of
this loop denotes the energy lost per
unit volume of the body per cycle due
to damping.3
 CONSTRUCTION OF VISCOUS DAMPERS

 Viscous dampers can be constructed in several ways. For instance, when a plate
moves relative to another parallel plate with a viscous fluid in between the plates, a
viscous damper can be obtained. The following examples illustrate the various
methods of constructing viscous dampers used in different applications.
DAMPING CONSTANT OF PARALLEL PLATES SEPARATED
BY VISCOUS FLUID (EXAMPLE 1.1)

 Consider two parallel plates separated by a distance h, with a fluid of viscosity

between the plates. Derive an expression for the damping constant when one plate
moves with a velocity v relative to the other as shown in Fig. 1.41.
 Solution: Let one plate be fixed and let the other plate be moved with a velocity v
in its own plane. The fluid layers in contact with the moving plate move with a
velocity v, while those in contact with the fixed plate do not move. The velocities
of intermediate fluid layers are assumed to vary linearly between 0 and v, as
shown in Fig. 1.41.
DAMPING CONSTANT OF PARALLEL PLATES SEPARATED
BY VISCOUS FLUID

 Note : According to Newton’s law of viscous flow, the shear stress () developed in the
fluid layer at a distance y from the fixed plate is given by
Where:
𝒅𝒖 = shear stress
𝝉=𝝁
𝒅𝒚
 where / = / is the velocity gradient. The shear or resisting force () developed at the
bottom surface of the moving plate is
Where:
𝝁 𝑨𝒗 = shear stress
𝑭 =𝝉 𝑨=
𝒉
DAMPING CONSTANT OF PARALLEL PLATES SEPARATED
BY VISCOUS FLUID

 Where A is the surface area of the moving plate. By expressing F as:

𝑭 =𝒄𝒗
 The damping constant c can be found as:
𝝁𝑨
𝒄=
𝒉
 DAMPING CONSTANT OF A JOURNAL
BEARING

 A journal bearing is used to provide lateral support to a rotating shaft as

shown in Fig. 1.43. If the radius of the shaft is R, angular velocity of the
shaft is radial clearance between the shaft and the bearing is d, viscosity
of the fluid (lubricant) is and the length of the bearing is l, derive an
expression for the rotational damping constant of the journal bearing.
 DAMPING CONSTANT OF A JOURNAL
BEARING
 The shearing stress in the lubricant is given by the product of the radial velocity
gradient and the viscosity of the lubricant:

𝒅𝒗 𝝁 𝑹 𝝎
𝝉=𝝁 =
𝒅𝒓 𝒅

 The force required to shear the fluid film is equal to stress times the area.
 Note : The torque on the shaft () is equal to the force times the lever arm, so that
Where:
= torque on the shaft 𝑻 =(𝝉 𝑨) 𝑹
 DAMPING CONSTANT OF A JOURNAL
BEARING
 Where A = 2pR is the surface area of the shaft exposed to the lubricant. Thus Eq.
(E.3) can be rewritten as
𝑻= (
𝝁 𝑹𝝎
𝒅 )
(𝟐 𝝅 𝑹𝒍) 𝑹=
𝟐 𝝅𝝁 𝑹𝟑 𝒍𝝎
𝒅

 From the definition of the rotational damping constant of the bearing :

𝑻
𝒄 𝒕=
𝝎
 We obtain the desired expression for the rotational damping constant as

𝟐 𝝅𝝁 𝑹 𝟑 𝒍
𝒄 𝒍= Note: Eq. (E.4) is called Petroff’s law and was published originally in 1883.
𝒅
REFERENCES
 Kelly, G., 2012. Mechanical Vibrations: Theory and Applications, SI. USA: Cengage
Learning.

 Bottega, W., 2006. Engineering Vibrations. USA: Taylor & Francis Group.

 Singh, V., n.d. Mechanical Vibrations (Mechanical Engineering: A Modern

Approach). Chandigarh, India: Dhanpat Rai & Co. (P) LTD.

 NA, N., n.d. Fundamentals of Vibrations. [online] Unife.it. Available at:

<http://www.unife.it/ing/lm.meccanica/insegnamenti/meccanica-delle-vibrazioni/
materiale-didattico/copy_of_a-a-2016-17-dispense-e-programma/03-rao_cap1-
fundamentals-of-vibration.pdf> [Accessed 5 November 2021].
END OF PRESENTATION