BUILDING MATERIALS AND

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
FOUNDATIONS
 Any structure in general is considered to have two parts:
 The sub-structure
 The super-structure

 The sub-structure transmits the load of super-structure to the underlying soil and is termed
as foundation.
 Footing is that part of the foundation which ultimately delivers the load to the soil and is,
thus in direct contact with it.
 The foundation term includes both, the portion below the ground level and the artificial
arrangement, such as concrete block, piles, grillage, rafts, etc. upon which the structure
stands.
 Foundation is the most important part of any structure.
 Since it remains, embedded under ground, any sign failure of foundation is not noticeable till
it has already affected the structure.
 If any part of the structure except foundation is found weak, it can be strengthened by
adopting suitable measures.
 But if foundation of a structure has yielded and ruptured, it is very difficult to make it good.
OBJECTS OF FOUNDATION
 To distribute the load of the structure, on large area, so that the intensity of load does not
exceed the safe bearing capacity of the underlying soil.
 To distribute the load on underlying soil evenly and thus to prevent unequal settlement of the
foundation.
 To provide a levelled and hard surface, for the super-structure to be built over it.
 To increase the stability of the structure as a whole, against sliding, overturning or other
disturbing forces like wind, rain, etc.
 To prevent lateral movement of the supporting material so that safety of the structure is not
endangered.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
FOUNDATION:
 For the satisfactory performance of the foundation, following three basic requirements
should be fulfilled:
 Location
 Stability
 Settlement

 The foundation of the structure should be located in such a way that it is capable to resist any
unexpected effect which may adversely effect the performance of the structure.
 This is not an easy job and requires careful engineering judgement.
 The foundation should be safe and stable against all the possible forces to which structure is
likely to be subjected to.
 Settlement of the structure as a whole is permissible to some extent as it does not impair the
stability and usefulness of the structure.
 It is not possible to specify the permissible settlement of the foundation as it depends upon
so many factors.
 Differential settlement of the foundation is most detrimental for the structure and should not
be allowed to exceed the permissible limits.
 The maximum differential settlement in case of ordinary spread foundation should not exceed
50mm in case of foundation on sandy soil and 75mm in case of foundation on clayey soil.
 The total amount of settlement should generally be limited between 40mm and 100mm.
 The term differential settlement indicatives relative settlement of the adjacent portions of the
structure.
 Unless otherwise specified, for most of the ordinary structures, differential settlement may be
permissible such that the angular distortion of the frame of the building does not exceed
1/300 normally and 1/1000 where it is particularly desired to avoid any kind of damage.
 The safe allowable pressure for structure on sand and clay is governed only by settlement
consideration.
 In case of sandy and clayey soils differential settlement should not exceed 1/300.
WALL FOOTING:
 In this type of foundation, courses of bricks below the super-structure wall, are laid by giving
50 mm outward offsets on either side of the wall.
 The depth of each course is normally 100 mm.
 However, in some cases thickness of the masonry may be two courses of 100 mm each, in
each step of the footing.
 In case of stone walls the offset or step in footings is kept 75 mm instead of 50 mm as in the
case of brick wall footing.
 In the construction of this type of footing, first of all surface of the foundation is watered and
compacted with the help of hand rammers.
 After this, a layer of lime concrete whose thickness is seldom less than 150 mm is spread on
the compact surface and consolidated with the help of hand rammers.
 Thickness of concrete bed should never be less than its projection beyond the bottommost
course of the footing.
 In case load coming on the foundation is large or the structure is very important, lean cement
concrete may be used in place of lime concrete.
 The concrete bed performs following functions:
 It provides plain surface upon which footing masonry can be directly started.
 It rectifies the inequalities of excavation.
 It bridges over the soft patches in the soil below.
 It distributes transmitted load on large area.

 Concrete bed layer is kept 100 mm to 150 mm projecting beyond the bottom most course of
the footing.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF
FOUNDATION:
 All the structural elements of any structure are designed to withstand the stresses caused by
various types of loads under specified conditions of their use.
 Hence before we take up the design of foundations it is worthwhile to know the various types
of loads to which a structure may be subjected to, so that correct assessment of the load on
any member could be made.
 Loads on the structures are ultimately transferred to the soil lying below the foundation.
 Hence in the design of foundation, where measures are taken to design a foundation which
can withstand all the stresses and strains, it is also ensured that the soil below the foundation
is not overstressed.
 All the stresses and strains in any structural element are dependent on the force acting on the
structure.
 Load of the structure which consists of so many materials in the structure can be estimated if
loads or densities of individual material and their volumetric contents are know.
 These loads are known as dead loads.
VARIOUS TYPES OF LOADS:
 The loads on any structure may be classified into the following categories:
 Dead load
 Live load
 Wind load
 Seismic load
 Snow load

 Seismic loads and snow loads are not common at all the places and hence they can be used
only at the places of their actual occurrence.
 Mostly structures are designed considering dead loads, live loads and wind loads.
 However, if some locality is particularly subjected to severe seismic or snow loads they can be
suitably adopted.
DEAD LOADS:
 Dead loads consist of self-weight of the superstructure, weight of the footing, foundation, and
other permanent loads acting on the structure.
 These loads can be determined by finding the weights of the cubical contents of different
materials used in the structure.
 Materials:
 Masonry
 Mortars
 Concrete
 Partitions
 Flooring
 Roofing
LIVE-LOAD:
 The live-loads on roofs and floors are considered as uniformly distributed loads, on the plan
area of the floor or roof and also includes the normal effects of impact.
 But these loads do not include the effects of vibrations, heavy machinery.
 Calculation of Live-load in Multi-storeyed Buildings:
 While calculating total loads on columns, walls, and piers for the top most storey, the live-load is
considered full as per schedule of loading.
 But for lower storeys a reduction in super-imposed load may be allowed as in Table:

S.No. Description of storey Reduction in live-load.

1 First storey below the top-most storey 10%
2 Second storey below the top-most storey 20%
3 Third storey below the top-most storey 30%
4 Fourth storey below the top-most storey 40%
5 Fifth storey and each storey below the top-most 50%
storey
 I.S. Provision of Loads for Partition Walls.
 In places where it is possible to exactly locate the position of the partition walls, the actual
load of the partition walls should be calculated separately, and added into the dead load
for the design of the floors and supporting structures.
 Incase position of the partition wall is not decided, the floors and supporting structures
should be designed to carry, in addition to other loads, a uniformly distributed load/m2 of
not less than 331/2% of the weight per meter run of the finished partition over the entire
floor area subjected to a minimum uniformly distributed load of 100 kg/m2 (1000 N/m2) in
the case of floors used for office purposes.
SNOW LOAD:
 If roof is subjected to snow load, it should be designed for the actual load due to snow or for
the appropriate live load given in Table whichever is more severe.
 Actual snow load will depend upon the shape of the roof and its capacity to retain the snow
and each case should be treated on its own merits.
 If no information is available, the loading due to snow may be assumed to be 2.5 kg/m2 (25
N/m2) per cm depth of the snow.
 In the case of roofs with slopes greater than 50 degree, snow load may be discarded.
HORIZONTAL LOADS ON PARAPETS
AND BALUSTRADES:
 Where it is desired to design parapets and balustrades against horizontal pressures, the load
expressed in Table as horizontal loads acting at hand rail or coping level should be provided for.
 The values given are for guidance only and where values of actual are available they should be used.

Description Horizontal Load

In kg/m In N/M
1. Stairways, landing and balconies
(private and domestic)
Internal 35 350
External 75 750
2. All other stairways, parapets and hand, rails to roofs. 75 750

3. Parapets and balustrades in places of assembly likely to be over-crowded 225 2250

WIND PRESSURE:
 Strong winds cause unstable conditions, especially, for tall structures and as such wind effect
should be adequately considered in the design of such structures.
 Very strong winds are generally associated with cyclonic storms. In our Indian conditions the
influence of severe storm after striking the coast does not generally exceed 60 to 70 km/hr.
 Though sometimes, it may extend upon 120 km/ hr as was in the case of cyclonic storm which
recently hit the Andhra coast.
 The stability of a building against high wind pressure depends not only upon the geographical
location and proximity of other obstructions to air flow but also upon the characteristics of
the structure itself.
 The effect of wind on the structure as a whole is determined by combined action of external
and internal pressure acting upon it.