Pressure and Fluid Flow Measurements

Lab 2 Topics
1. Manometers
2. Pressure Transducers and Gages
3. Flow metrology
 Pitot Tubes – Static vs dynamic pressure
 Obstruction meters
 Coriolis flow meter
 Rotameter
 Anemometers
 Manometers

𝑔
Force balance: 𝑃 1 𝑎 𝐴− 𝑃 2 𝑎 𝐴= 𝐴 h 𝜌
𝑔𝑐

P1a, P2a – applied absolute pressures

r – density of the fluid Well-type
manometer
h – net column height, or “head”
A – cross-sectional area where pressure is applied
g - gravitational body force (32.2 ft/s2)
gc – dimensional constant (because we like to write
unit conversion factors as if they’re variables)
gc = 1 kg m/(N s2) in SI
gc = 32.17 lbm ft/(lbf s2) in English
If P2a is atmospheric pressure:
𝑔
𝑃 1 𝑎 − 𝑃 𝑎𝑡𝑚 =𝑃 1 𝑔=h 𝜌
𝑔𝑐
gage pressure 𝑔
𝑃
More generally, manometers can ONLY measure pressure differences: 𝑑 =h 𝜌
𝑔𝑐 2
Manometer, (gif file), Available from: < https://www.toppr.com>
U-tube Manometer Manometer Design
Sensitivity: change in liquid level difference
reading per unit change in pressure. h 1
U-tube or vertical manometer:
h
¿ ¿
∆ 𝑃h 𝜌 𝑔𝜌 𝑚 𝑔
𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
Manometer inclined at angle, q:

𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
¿ ¿
𝑔 𝑔
∆ 𝑃h 𝜌 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜌
𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
Inclined Manometer

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 Bourdon Pressure Gage and Pressure Transducers
Bourdon Tube:
 tube expands
 rotates pointer
 angle calibrated to pressure

 High Pressure Transducers:

 Pressure deflects a plate
 Strain gages measure deflection
 Wheatstone bridge gives voltage proportional to strain
 Voltage calibrated to pressure

Bourdon Tube, (gif file), Available from: < https://instrumentationtools.com>

Pressure transducer, (gif file), Available from: < https://realpars.com>

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 Pitot Tube Background: Static and Dynamic Pressure

Dynamic Pressure: the different between total pressure and static pressure
1 2
𝑃 𝑑 =𝑃 𝑡 − 𝑃 𝑠= 𝜌 𝑉
2

Velocity can be determined by a static-stagnation pressure difference

𝑉=𝐾 √ ¿¿¿
K-factor - usually close to 1, specified by manufacturer. We will assume 1 if
we don't know the value. Pitot Tube, (gif file), Available from: < https://instrumentationtools.com> 5
 Pitot Tubes

Airplanes still use this basic instrument today for airspeed measurements.

6
 Obstruction Meters

(a) Venturi tube

(minimal pressure loss) due to
gradual enlargement section

(b) Flow nozzle

(c) Orifice meter

(cheapest and most compact, but
30-40% of differential pressure is
not recovered)
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 Obstruction Meter Analysis

( ( ))
2 2
𝑃 1 − 𝑃 2 𝑉 22 −𝑉 21 𝑉 2 𝐴2
For incompressible flow with no losses: ¿ ¿ 1−
𝜌 𝑔 𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝐴1

where state 1 is upstream of the obstruction and 2 is at the throat of the obstruction.
𝐴2
The corresponding mass 𝑚 ¿
˙ 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝜌 𝐴2¿ 𝑉 √2 𝑔 𝜌 ( 𝑃1− 𝑃2)

√
2 𝑐
flow for no losses is called
( )
2
𝐴2
the ideal mass flow: 1−
𝐴1
˙ 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙=𝐸 𝐴2 √ 2 𝑔𝑐 𝜌 ( 𝑃 1 − 𝑃 2 )
𝑚
1 1 𝑑
Defining the denominator area term: 𝐸= = where 𝛽=

√
𝐷
√ 1− 𝛽 4
( )
2
𝐴2
1−
𝐴1
𝑚
˙ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
A meter’s discharge coefficient (C) is defined as 𝐶=
𝑚˙ 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
Sometimes a flow coefficient (K) is used, 𝐶
which is mathematically different but used 𝐾 =𝐶𝐸¿
similarly to C: √1 − 𝛽4
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 Meter Analysis (cont’d)

So for a given meter 𝑚 ¿𝐶𝐸 𝐴2 √ 2𝑔𝑐 𝜌 ( 𝑃1 −𝑃¿2 )𝐾 𝐴2 √2𝑔 𝑐 𝜌 ( 𝑃 1 −𝑃 2 )

˙ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙

√
with a known C or K:
2𝑔 𝑐 ( 𝑃 1 − 𝑃 2 )
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
¿ 𝐾 𝐴2
𝜌

Discharge coefficients for Venturi Meters

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 Orifice Meters
 3 possible pressure tap locations
 Flange taps;
 D, D/2 taps;
 corner taps

Discharge coefficient of an orifice

meter with corner tappings

where and applies for 0.1<b<0.75, and ReD > 5000 for b <0.56 and ReD >
16000b2 for b > 0.56 AND d>12.5 mm and 71.12mm < D< 1000mm. Uncertainty
0.5%.
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 Unrecoverable Pressure Drop for Obstruction Meters

Venturis obtain the best pressure

recovery. More compact devices
have greater losses.

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 Example
Water at 15oC and 650 kPa flows through a 15x10cm (D=15 cm pipe and d=10 cm throat-
diameter) welded Venturi tube with a discharge coefficient described by the graph below.
A differential pressure of 25 kPa is measured. Calculate the flowrate a) in kg/min b)
calculate permanent pressure loss for this 15o (angle) venturi.

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 Coriolis Flow Meter
Measurement of (with high frequency response)
 Mass flowrate
 Density
 Volumetric flowrate

Sign of changes in each leg, so the Coriolis force also

changes direction. Result is a net torque on the tubes,
which can be measured and calibrated to mass flow rate.

Coriolis Meter Basics:

 Vibration imposed to create angular
velocity
 If no flow motion, no Coriolis effect (no )
 Coriolis effect can be measured
dynamically by a - phase shift (time shift)
in the oscillation between the two legs
and then related to mass flowrate

Coriolis Flowmeter, (gif file), Available from: < https://gfycat.com> 13

 Other Flow Measurement Techniques
Rotameters Anemometers
• Floats in a tube • Film/wire changing resistance with
• Volumetric flowrate proportional to float temperature
level • Convective cooling from fluid flow across the
• Cheap (but not very precise). e.g., Dwyer wire/film
• Stronger flow causes stronger cooling
• Current and voltage controlled to maintain
constant T
• Voltage calibrated to velocity. e.g., Dantec

Hotwire anemometer
Old-fashioned
Hot-wire anemometer, (gif file), Available from: < https://sudonull.com>
Floatmeter, (gif file), Available from: < https://1.bp.blogspot.com> Anemometer
Anemometer, (gif file), Available from: < https://scarlet-tech.com> 14