SMALL SIGNAL AC ANALYSIS

and
FEEDBACK

C Kawerawera 0999220755 / 0888608859

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 1

SMALL SIGNAL AC RESPONSE
There are three models commonly used in the small signal ac
analysis of transistor networks.
1. re model
2. hybrid equivalent model
3. hybrid – pi model
 
Small signal is a class of signals that have such small
amplitudes that, when used in active devices, such as
amplifiers, the characteristics of these devices may be
considered linear in the region throughout which the operating
point moves, thus permitting the use of superposition theorem
in isolating the dc and ac analysis.
 
•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 2

BJT TRANSISTOR MODELLING
 The key to transistor small signal analysis is the use of equivalent
circuits or models.
 
An equivalent circuit or a model is the combination of circuit
elements, properly chosen, that best approximates the actual
behaviour of a semiconductor device under specific operating
conditions.
 
In obtaining the ac equivalent circuit the following procedures must
be followed:
1. All dc levels are to be set to zero and are to be replaced by
short circuit equivalent.
2. All coupling and bypass capacitors are replaced by short
circuit equivalent
3. All elements bypassed by the short circuit equivalents
introduced by steps 1 and 2 above are to be removed.
4. then redraw the network in a more convenient and logical form.
•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 3

 Graphical Analysis and ac Equivalent Circuit

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 4

 Hybrid Equivalent Model

The hybrid parameters: hie, hre, hfe, hoe are developed

and used to model the transistor. These parameters can
be found in a specification sheet for a transistor as
already shown.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 5

THE IMPORTANT PARAMETERS:
Zi, Zo, Av, Ai

The output impedance is determined at

the output terminals looking back into the
system with the applied signal set to zero.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 6

 Determination of parameters – read Electronic devices
and circuit theory pages 319 - 330

Vi  h11Ii  h12 Vo
Vi
h11 
Ii Vo  0V

Vi
h12 
Vo Vo  0V

IO  h 21Ii  h 22 Vo
Solving Vo  0V ,
Ii
h 21 
Io Vo  0V

Io
h 22 
Vo Io  0A

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211

H22 is a conductance! 7
General h-Parameters for any Transistor Configuration

h11 = hie = input resistance

h12 = hre = reverse transfer voltage ratio (Vi/Vo)
h21 = hfe = forward transfer current ratio (Io/Ii)
h22 = hoe = output conductance

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 8

 Definitions of hybrid parameters
1. is the ratio of input voltage to input current , the input resistance,
with units of ohms. It is determined with output terminals set to zero.
The short circuit input impedance parameter
2. is the ratio of the output current to input current, the forward
current gain and it is unit less. It is determined with the output
terminals set to zero. The short circuit forward transfer current ratio
parameter.
3. is the ratio of the input voltage to output voltage, determined with the
input current set to zero, unit less. The open circuit reverse transfer
voltage ratio parameter,
4. is the ratio of output current to output voltage, determined with input
current set to zero, with the units of siemens. The open circuit output
admittance parameter

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 9

Hybrid Equivalent Model
Hybrid model parameter are defined at an
operating point that may or may not reflect the
actual operating point of the amplifier

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 10

Complete Hybrid Equivalent model

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 11

Approximate common-emitter hybrid
equivalent circuit.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 12

 Sketch the ac equivalent circuit

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 13

 Fixed-Bias Configuration

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 14

Determine

( 𝒂 ) 𝒁 𝒊= 𝑹 𝑩‖𝒉𝒊𝒆 =𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝒌 Ω‖𝟏 .𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝒌 Ω=𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟏 𝒌 Ω

𝟏 𝟏
( 𝒃 ) 𝒓 𝑶= = =𝟓𝟎 𝒌 Ω 𝒁 𝑶 =𝟓𝟎 𝒌 Ω ‖𝟐 .𝟕 𝒌 Ω=𝟐 . 𝟓𝟔 𝒌 Ω
𝒉𝒐𝒆 𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑨 /𝑽

𝒉 𝒇𝒆 𝒁 𝑶 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟐 . 𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
𝟑
( 𝒄 ) 𝑨 𝑽 =− =− =−𝟐𝟔𝟏 . 𝟒𝟓
𝒉𝒊𝒆 𝟏 .𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎
𝟑

𝑨𝑽𝒅𝑩 =𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈| 𝑨 𝑽|=𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈|𝟐𝟔𝟏 . 𝟒𝟓|=𝟒𝟖 .𝟑𝟓 𝒅𝑩

• ( 𝒅 ) 𝑨𝒊 ≅ 𝒉𝒊𝒆 =𝟏𝟐𝟎

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 15

• Emitter stabilized Bias configuration

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 16

Voltage-Divider Configuration

𝒉𝒆

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 17

𝒁 𝑺= 𝑹 𝑺 + 𝒁 𝒊 𝒁 𝑶 =𝒓 𝑶 ‖ 𝑹𝑪 ‖ 𝑹 𝑳

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 18

 Unbypassed Emitter-Bias Configuration

𝑽 𝒊=𝑰 𝒃 𝒉𝒊𝒆 + 𝑰 𝒆 𝑹 𝑬 =𝑰 𝒃 𝒉𝒊𝒆+ 𝒉𝒇𝒆 𝑰 𝒃 𝑹 𝒆 =𝑰 𝒃 ( 𝒉𝒊𝒆+ 𝒉𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬 ) 𝑽𝒊

𝒁 𝒃= =𝒉𝒊𝒆+ 𝒉𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬
𝑰𝒃

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 19

Group exercise 1
Refer to the circuit.
Given that hie = 7.5kΩ, and hoe = 40 µS, determine:

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 20

 𝑹 𝑩 =𝟗𝟎 𝒌 ‖𝟏𝟎 𝒌

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 21

Group exercise 1 cont.

Remove the 50 µF capacitor in across the emitter resistor in the circuit and
sketch the ac equivalent circuit and determine:

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 22

Group exercise 2
• Refer to the circuit given. If the capacitor is
removed and , determine : Input impedance, , Output
impedance and the voltage gain

• Solution:

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 23

 THE END

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 24

 AC ANALYSIS JFET

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 25

JFET TRANSISTOR MODELLING
 The key to transistor small signal analysis is the use of equivalent
circuits or models.
 
An equivalent circuit or a model is the combination of circuit
elements, properly chosen, that best approximates the actual
behaviour of a semiconductor device under specific operating
conditions.
 
In obtaining the ac equivalent circuit the following procedures must
be followed:
1. All dc levels are to be set to zero and are to be replaced by
short circuit equivalent.
2. All coupling and bypass capacitors are replaced by short
circuit equivalent
3. All elements bypassed by the short circuit equivalents
introduced by steps 1 and 2 above are to be removed.
4. then redraw the network in a more convenient and logical form.
•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 26

 Figure FET small-signal equivalent circuit that accounts for the dependence of iD on vDS.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 27

•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 28

 FIXED-BIAS CONFIGURATION

𝑉 𝑜=− 𝑔𝑚 𝑉 𝑔𝑠 𝑍 0

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 29

 For drawing an a c equivalent circuit of Amp.
•Assume all Capacitors C1, C2, Cs as short
circuit elements for ac signal
•Short circuit the d c supply
•Replace the FET by its small signal model

It is noted that the ac equivalent circuit of Fixed bias and self bias are same. Therefore
Input and output impedances/resistances and formula for voltage gain are same for the
two circuits.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 30

 Analysis of CS Amplifier with Potential Divider Bias

Av  gm(rd || RD)

This is a CS amplifier configuration therefore

Zi  R1 || R2
the input is on the gate and the output is on
the drain.
Zo  rd || RD
Av  gm(rd || RD)
Zo  RD
rd  10RD
Av  gmRD, r  10 R
d D

09/19/2022 30
 Unbypassed Rs

09/19/2022 31
Class drill
• Refer to the figure and given that gm = 2 mS and rd = 50 kΩ, and the amplifier has a load
resistor RL = 2 kΩ

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 33

 THE END

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 34

 THE END
next
FEEDBACK

09/19/2022
 FEEDBACK

09/19/2022
 Simple block diagram of feedback amplifier

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 37

 The General Feedback Equation

• Closed loop and open loop gain A

• Closed loop gain
xo A
Af  
x s 1  A
• Feedback factor β
• Loop gain Aβ
• Amount of feedback (1+Aβ)

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 38

Feedback Concepts:

The input signal, Vs is applied to a mixer network, where it is combined

with a feedback signal, Vf. The difference of these signals, Vi, is then
the input voltage to the open loop amplifier. A portion of the amplifier
output, Vo is connected to the feedback network (β), which provides a
reduced portion of the output as feedback signal to the input mixer
network.

Positive Feedback: the feedback signal is of the same polarity

to the input signal.

Negative Feedback: the feedback signal is of opposite polarity

to the input signal

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 39

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

In negative feedback the gain ALWAYS reduces by a

factor of

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 40

ADVANTAGES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

1. GAIN STABILITY
The negative feedback increases the Gain Stability.
ie; The gain will be stable over external or internal variations.
2. NOISE REDUCTION
It is impossible to construct an Amplifier without NOISE. By using
Negative Feedback the Noise is reduced.
3. REDUCTION IN NONLINEAR DISTORTION
By the increase in Number of Amplifier stages, Nonlinear Distortion
also increases Gradually. Negative feedback reduces distortion
4. BANDWIDTH CAN BE INCREASED
Negative Feedback decreases the Voltage Gain, the reduction in
voltage gain results in increased Frequency Band Width.
5. INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
The amplifier with Negative feedback modifies the Input impedance.
Thus we can avoid loading of signal source. The output impedance is
also modified.
•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 41

•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 42

 BREAK

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 43

Voltage-series:
Output signal is voltage signal, feedback signal is voltage
signal.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 44

•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 45

Practical Feedback circuit:
Voltage-Series Feedback

A practical voltage series feedback circuit is the unbypassed emitter circuit, taking output from the emitter. (Sketch the circuit)

The emitter resistor is the feedback circuit and the voltage across it is the feedback voltage that is in series with the input signal.

(Check the input and output impedances and voltage gain of this circuit and compare them to the same circuit with emitter bypassed
circuit and compare them. You will be examined on this difference in an exam.

There are other example circuits in the slide notes given.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 46

 Voltage-shunt feedback

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 47

Practical example. ( Not examinable because Norton’s theorem not covered in
prerequisite courses)

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 48

 Current- series feedback

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 49

Practical Feedback circuit:
Current-Series Feedback

A practical voltage series feedback circuit is the unbypassed emitter circuit, taking output from the collector. (Sketch the circuit)

The emitter resistor is the feedback circuit and the output current is the current sampled in the feedback circuit, the emitter
resistor, voltage across it is the feedback voltage that is in series with the input signal.

(Check the input and output impedances and voltage gain of this circuit and compare them to the same circuit with emitter bypassed
circuit and compare them. You will be examined on this difference in an exam.

There are other example circuits in the slide notes given.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 50

 Current-shunt feedback

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 51

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 52
 THE END

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
next
POSITIVE FEEDBACK

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 53

 POSITIVE FEEDBACK

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 54

Positive feedback around an amplifier
results in a strong tendency for the
amplifier to become unstable and
oscillate at a certain frequency.

An oscillator is an electronic circuit

that produces an output signal
without any external input.
•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 55

•

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 56

 Idealized phase-shift oscillator

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 57

 FET phase shift oscillator

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 58

 BJT phase shift oscillator

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 59

 ALTERNATIVE CIRCUIT I

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 60

 ALTERNATIVE CIRCUIT II
with Darlington pair

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 61

 Advantages and disadvantages of the Darlington pair

A. Advantages

1. Very high current gain in comparison to single transistor.

2. Very high input impedance.
3. Uses few components and hence can be used for easy circuit designs.
4. Can amplify signal to larger extent.

B. Disadvantages

1. The base-emitter voltage increases to 1.4 V

2. Switching speed is slow
3. Narrow Bandwidth
4. Saturation voltage is high which can lead to high levels of power
dissipation in certain applications
•

09/19/2022 ANALOGUE DESIGN 62

 TUNED OUTPUT OSCILLATOR

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 63

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT: a mechanical stress applied across the faces of the crystal, a difference of potential develops
across opposite faces of the crystal. Similarly, a voltage applied across one set of faces of the crystal causes
mechanical distortion in the crystal shape.

When alternating voltage is applied to a crystal, mechanical vibrations are set up-these vibrations having a natural
resonant frequency dependent on the crystal.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 64

The crystal as represented by the equivalent circuit
can have 2 resonant frequencies. One resonant
condition occurs when the reactances of the series
RLC leg are equal (and opposite).

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 65

Series-Resonant Circuits
At the series-resonant frequency of the crystal, its
impedance is smallest and the amount of (positive) FB is
largest. A typical transistor circuit is shown in the
following figures below.

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 66

 THE END

09/19/2022 ELE - ANE - 211 67