Chapter 2

Atoms/elements and Molecules/compounds

• An element is a substance that is made entirely from one type of atom
• An atom is the smallest particle of matter that is made of protons,
neutrons and electrons.
• Sodium is an element that is made of only one type of atom
• A compound is a substance made from two or more different elements
that have been chemically joined.
• Some examples of compounds are water (H2O), salt (NaCl), sugar (C12H22O11)
and chalk (CaCO3).
• A mixture is a substance made by physically combining two or more
different materials without any chemical reaction
Atoms are made of
Name of sub atomic Mass Charge
• Protons particle
Protons 1 +1
• Neutrons Neutrons 1 0
• Electrons Electrons 0 -1

Atomic number= number of protons

Atomic mass= number of protons + neutrons

Atom is electrically neutral. Atoms have no charge

Number of protons= Number of electrons
Isotopes
• Same atomic number different atomic mass
• Same number of protons different number of neutrons
• Atom with more neutrons-heavy isotope
• Heavy isotope –radioactive decay into next element
• Half life period
Isotopes of Carbon

Isotopes of Hydrogen
Radio active decay and Half life period
Half-Life period
Make up of atoms (Bohr model)
• Nucleus
• Extremely tiny
• Holds protons and
neutrons
• Electrons
• Move around the nucleus
in regular orbits
Current atomic model
• An atom is mostly empty. 
• Small nucleus made of protons and neutrons. 
• Nucleus gives the mass of an atom. 
• Around the nucleus is a cloud-like region with electrons
• They move too fast
• Impossible to predict their precise location
• Orbitals are places where the probability of finding them is higher
Electronic configuration

Each energy shells can have 2n2 electrons where n= number of the
energy shell
Electronic configuration
• Energy shell Subshells # of
orbitals
# of
electrons
1 s 1 2
2 s and p 4 8
3 s, p and d 9 18
4 s, p, d and f 16 32

Each orbital can have only 2 electrons according to Pauli’s exclusion principle (spin quantum number)
s= 1 orbital =2 electrons
p= 3 orbitals=6 electrons
d= 5 orbitals=10 electrons
F= 7 orbitals=14 electrons
Subshell energy level
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d

s p d
Atomic stability and octet rule
• Atoms like stability
• Atoms want to reach an e- configuration of the nearest noble gas
• OCTET RULE
• e- in the subshells s and p of the outer most shell are called valence electrons
and they have to fill this to 8 electrons
• If they have less than 8 they will lose , gain or share electrons to reach the 8
electrons.
1. Ionic bonding
2. Covalent bonding
3. Metallic bonding
3. Hydrogen bonding
3. Van der Waal’s interactions
Chemical reactions
• Reactants
• Products
• Irreversible
• Reversible
• Chemical equilibrium
• Balancing an equation