Research Methodology

– PRIYANKA GUPTA
Purpose of Research
 The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies)
 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies)
 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies)
 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
Research Method vs Research Methodology

 Research methods are the methods used by researchers to collect data to conduct research on a particular
research topic.
Research method may be understood as all the techniques/methods that are used for conduction of
research.

 A Research methodology is systematic approach to solve the research problem and to reach a conclusion.
Research methodology not only talks about the research method but also the logic behind the methods
used in the context of research.
Types of Research
Types of Research
Basic Research & Applied Research
Basic Research
 Basic research is defined as the work of scientists and others who pursue their investigations without
conscious goals, other than the desire to unravel the secrets of nature.

 Aim: Concerned with generalization & formulation of a theory.

“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”

 It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest.

 Basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus,
adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

 Attempts to explain why, how things happen

Applied Research
 Applied Research directing towards finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization.

 Aim: To find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness and develop innovative techniques rather then just collecting
the information.
--Or to obtain certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem

 Applied research carries the findings of basic research to a point where they can be exploited to meet a specific need,
while the development stage of research and development includes the steps necessary to bring a new or modified
product or process into production.

 Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize. Most of the experimental research, case studies
and inter-disciplinary research are essentially applied research.

 Examples:
• To improve an organization’s hiring process.
• To improve workplace efficiency.
• To identify the side effects of using COVAXIN.
• Improve agricultural crop production
Exploratory Research
 Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not been studied or thoroughly
investigated in the past to have a better understanding of the problem which usually doesn't lead to a
conclusive result.

 This is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined.

 Aim: To provide insights into and an understanding of the problem faced by the researcher and to identify
key issues & key variables of the concerned problem.

 Exploratory research helps to determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of
subjects.

 The results of exploratory research are not always useful for decision making by themselves, but they can
provide significant insights into a given situation.
Exploratory Research (contd.)

 Not typically generalizable to the population at large.

 This research is quite informal, relying on secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or
data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or
competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, protective methods,
case studies or pilot studies.

 The role of this research is to provide direction to subsequent & more structured research.
Exploratory Research (contd.)
 Advantages:
• Flexibility and adaptability to change
• Exploratory research is effective in laying the groundwork that will lead to future studies.
• Exploratory studies can potentially save time and other resources by determining at the earlier stages
the types of research that are worth pursuing

 Disadvantages:
• It generate qualitative information and interpretation of such type of information is subject to bias
• These types of studies usually make use of a modest number of samples that may not adequately
represent the target population. Accordingly, findings of exploratory research cannot be generalized
to a wider population.
• Findings of such type of studies are not usually useful in decision making in a practical level.
 Examples of Exploratory Research (contd.)

 Exploratory Research Example on Murder Investigation

• A fresh or inconclusive murder case will be investigated using exploratory research because it has not
been investigated clearly in the past. To gain a better understanding of how exploratory research is used
to conduct a murder investigation,
• QUESTIONS: how he was killed, Murder weapon, how it was used, the time he was murdered, etc and
why?
Examples of Exploratory Research (contd.)
 Exploratory Research Example on Product Research
 Organizations conduct two major research when working on a new product or service. The first one is
conducted before developing the product while the second one is conducted after product development. 
 The exploratory research conducted after product development. For tech products, it is called the beta testing
stage of product development. 

 If a new feature is added to an existing app, for example, product researchers will
want to investigate whether the feature will be well received among the users. If
the feature added to the app is something that is already in existence, then the
research is not exploratory. 
 For example, if telegram adds a status feature to its app, the beta research stage
of the app is not exploratory. This is because this feature is something that is
already in existence, and they can easily get enough information from WhatsApp.
 However, if it is a new feature like the Snapchat filters when they just came out,
the research is explanatory. In this case, exploratory research is carried out using
a focus group of beta testers. 
Conclusive Research

 The findings and propositions developed as a consequence of exploratory research might be tested and
authenticated by conclusive research.

 This kind of research study is especially carried out to test and validate formulated hypotheses.

 Conclusive research design provides a way to verify and quantify the insights gained from exploratory
research.

 The variables of these studies are more structured & clearly defined and quantified.

 Conclusive research can be sub-divided into two major categories:

 Descriptive research, and
 Causal research
Descriptive Research
 Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation, or phenomenon that is
being studied.

 This methodology focuses more on the ‘‘who, what, when and where’’ of the research subject than the
“why” of the research subject.

 Aim: To describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied.

 The term descriptive research refers to research questions, design of the study, and data analysis conducted
on that topic.

 Purpose:
• To determine the characteristics of a certain group.
• To estimate the proportion of people in a given population who have behaved in a particular manner.
• To make specific predictions.
 Characteristics of Descriptive Research
 Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

• Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect

quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool
that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
• Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses
observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in
the hands of the researcher.
• Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections
belonging to the same group are studied.
• The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed from descriptive
research using different research techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research
methods used for the subsequent research.
Applications of Descriptive Research
 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how different
groups respond to a specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking
general questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age,
income, gender, geographical location, etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what
aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or
marketing fixes or even create a new product line to cater to high growth potential groups.

 Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the research
object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use
of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation, researchers observe each variable
and conduct an in-depth analysis. Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be
prevalent in a population.

 Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different periods to ascertain any
similarities or differences. This also allows any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies
on prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.
Applications of Descriptive Research
 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions
about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents.
It could also be to understand from a respondent, their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For
example, understanding from students the hours per week they spend on browsing the internet. All this
information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.

 Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s
statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age groups
from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well
to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the
clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
Advantages of Descriptive Research
 Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like observational
method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all primary data collection
methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even
developing a hypothesis of your research object.

 Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a
research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.

 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the respondent’s
natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.

 Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data
collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.
 Descriptive Research

 Some other problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

• Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.

• A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.

• A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than textbooks.

• To understand if its wellness programs enhance the overall health of the employees.
Examples of Descriptive Research‘‘who, what, when and where’’
 Let’s assume if a UK based brand is trying to establish itself in New York and wants to understand the
demographics of the buyers who generally purchase from brands similar to it. Here, the information gathered
from the survey will uncover details on the buying patterns of different age cohorts in New York. It will not
study why such patterns exist, because the brand is trying to establish itself in New York. All that they want to
understand is the buying behavior of the population, and not why such associations exist.

 Annual census carried out by the Government of India. (what is the annual census carried out by GOI?)

 What are the characteristics of the customers who buy normal petrol and those who buy higher-octane
petrol.

 A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what flavors of rubs
are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research
study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while collecting
in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets. This can also
help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type
of research helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
Causal Research
 It aims at establishing cause & effect relationship between variables.

 Causal research explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically, the effect of one variable
on another.

 It is also known as explanatory research. A variation in an independent variable is observed, which is

assumed to be causing changes in the dependent variable. The changes in the independent variable are
measured due to the variation taking place in the dependent variable.

 It clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

 This type of research attempts to explain.

 It is quantitative in nature and requires statistical testing of the information collected.

Advantages of Causal Research
 Causal research helps identify the causes behind processes taking place in the system. Having this
knowledge helps the researcher to take necessary actions to fix the problems or to optimize the
outcomes.

 Causal research helps identify the impacts of changing the processes and existing methods.

 In causal research, the subjects are selected systematically. Because of this, causal research is helpful for
higher levels of internal validity.

 Causal research provides the benefits of replication if there is a need for it.
Disadvantages of Causal Research
 The causal research is difficult to administer because sometimes it is not possible to control the effects of all
extraneous variables.

 Causal research is one of the most expensive research to conduct.

 The findings of causal research are mostly inaccurate because there will always be a few previous causes or
hidden causes that will be affecting the outcome of your research.

 The results of your research can be contaminated as there will always be a few people outside your market
that might affect the results of your study.

 Another disadvantage of using causal research is that it takes a long time to conduct this research.

 Sometimes, it is easy for a researcher to identify that two variables are connected, but to determine which
variable is the cause and which variable is the effect is challenging for a researcher.
Examples of Causal Research

 To test the market for a new product by collecting data about its sales potential.

 To check the performance or effectiveness of a new advertising campaign to decide whether to continue it or not.

 To measure the improvement in the performance of employees after providing them training on a new skill.

 To examine the effects of re-branding initiatives based on the level of loyalty of customers

 How the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement.

 Example

Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels

that increasing the variety of juices will enable
increase in customers, however he is not sure and
needs more information regarding that.

The owner intends to carry out an

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH to find out if
expanding their juices selection will enable him to
get more customers
 Example
Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner is
launching a new range of juices.

The owner would like to understand what flavours of

juices are favoured by different people. Therefore
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH will be conducted by him
using some survey methods or any other data
collection technique.
 Example
Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner is
launching a new range of juices.

If the owner would like to understand that why a

particular flavour of juice is preferred by the
customers then he must undergo CAUSAL RESEARCH,
to understand the cause of the situation.
 Question: Identify the type of research

Dominique Simons and Sandy Wurtele (2010) sought to discover whether

receiving corporal punishment from parents led children to turn to violence in
solving their interpersonal conflicts with other children. In their study of 102
families with children between the ages of 3 and 7, the researchers found that
experiencing frequent spanking did, in fact, result in children being more likely to
accept aggressive problem-solving techniques.
 Question: Identify the type of research

– A health information manager would like more information about a new

supervisory technique so he organizes a focus group of supervisors in the
facility to generate ideas and clarify concepts.
Question: Identify the type of research

– A researcher wants to study if eating too much sugar causes childhood

diabetes
Question: Identify the type of research

– A researcher in the community is studying lung cancer cases in your

community verse the community 10 miles from your facility the
researcher survey residents in each community about their life style
choices he found that citizens of your community smoke more than
the other community
Other Types of Research
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
 Quantitative

 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

 Refers to systematical empirical investigation of any phenomenon via statistical, mathematical or

computational techniques.

 Objective: To develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to

phenomenon.
Quantitative Research
 Advantages:

• Allows researcher to measure and analyze data.

• The researcher is more objective about the findings of the research.

 Disadvantages:

• The context of the study or experiment is sometimes ignored.

• This research does not study things in a natural setting or discuss the meaning things
have for different people.

• A large sample of population must be studied for accurate results

Quantitative vs. Qualitative
 Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind that are difficult and impossible to quantify.

 For instance, investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
their beliefs.

 Aim: Discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.

 Techniques:
• word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques.
• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative Research
 Advantages:
• It enables more complex aspects of a persons experience to be studied.

• Fewer restrictions or assumptions are placed on the data to be collected

• The participants are able to provide data in their own words and in their own way

 Disadvantages:

• It is more difficult to determine the validity and reliability of linguistic data

• More subjectivity involved in analyzing the data

• Time consuming
Different Types of Research
 Different types of research can be classified on the basis of either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other
similar factor.

 Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research.
In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is
carried on over several time-periods.

 Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research, depending upon the environment in which it is
to be carried out.

 Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study
methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the
causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering
devices.
Different Types of Research
 The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.

 Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or
ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.

 Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion
oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is
prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision
maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination.

 Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.
Conceptual vs. Empirical:
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

 We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts
firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of
desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or
disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the
persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus
characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought
that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
Conceptual vs. Empirical:
 Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory.
 It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at
facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of
desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis
or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his
hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to
study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to
be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.