Drive and Motor Basics

Induction Motor Advantages

• Low cost (compared with DC)

• Wide availability
• Low maintenance - no brushes or commutator
• Rugged design - can be used in harsh environments
• Low inertia rotor designs
• High electrical efficiency
• Wide speed ranges
• No separately-powered field windings
• Good open-loop performance
AC MOTOR SIZE
Frame size is directly related to base RPM,
for a given Horsepower
Example: 15 HP motors of different base speeds

Base RPM 3600 (2-pole) 1800 (4-pole) 1200 (6-pole)

Frame Size 215 254 284

Torque 22.5 lb-ft 45 lb-ft 67.5 lb-ft

Amps 18.5 18.7 19.3

AC MOTOR FORMULA

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED VOLTS / HERTZ

120 x Frequency
SYNC RPM = # of Poles Motor Line Volts
V/Hz =
Motor Frequency
Example: 4-pole motor
SYNC RPM = 120 x 60 / 4poles = 1800 RPM
Example: 460 V, 60 Hz motor
V/Hz = 460/60 = 7.66 V/Hz

MOTOR SLIP
VOLTS FREQUENCY V/Hz
SYNC RPM - FULL LOAD RPM
%SLIP = X 100 460 60 7.66
SYNC RPM

Example: 1750 RPM motor 345 45 7.66

% Slip = (1800 - 1750) / 1800 x 100 = 3% Slip
230 30 7.66

115 15 7.66
7.66 1 7.66
Elements of an Induction Motor: The Stator

Stator Core
Lamination stack
of notched steel
plates
Elements of an Induction Motor: The Stator (4-pole)

Rotating
magnetic field

The stator induces magnetic lines of

flux across the air gap, into the rotor
Elements of an Induction Motor: The Rotor

No direct electrical connections are made to the rotor. All forces are
magnetically induced by the stator, via the air gap.

Rotor Bar Current

Cast aluminum
rotor bars
Carry induced current
(skewed bars shown)

Cast aluminum
Laminations of
end rings
high-silicon
Electrically joins rotor
bars at both motor ends content steel
Low-eddy current loss
magnetic medium
Typical AC Induction Motor Speed / Torque Curve

“Across-the-line” operation @ 60 Hz, NEMA ‘B’ motor

Breakdown point: Maximum
225 torque motor can produce
before locking rotor

Starting Torque

175
%T Pull-Up Torque Full load operating point (100%
current & torque)

150 1750 RPM (nameplate)

100
LOAD

Synchronous “no-load” speed

1800 RPM

Speed (50 rpm)

SLIP
AC Motor Speed / Torque Curve family on Inverter Power

225 Motor base speed:

1750 RPM

Peak Inverter Torque

175
%T (150 -200%)

150

100 100% load torque

operating line

Slip (50 rpm) Slip (50 rpm)

Speed
At any applied Frequency, an induction motor will slip a fixed RPM at rated load.
Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit

Air
Gap
Stator Rotor
Stator Leakage Rotor
Resistance Reactance Reactance

R1 XLR XR

V XM RLOAD = R2 / Slip*
Magnetizing *(R2 is rotor bar resistance)
Reactance

Although there is no physical connection between rotor and stator, the

induced field causes the motor model to behave as if there is.
Motor Current Vectors

Total Current is the Vector sum of

u rr en t Magnetizing and Torque-producing
l C
Magnetizing
Tota current, which are at a right angle
Current
to each other.
Torque-Producing Current

Stator Rotor
Air
Gap Torque
Stator Leakage Rotor
Resistance Reactance Reactance Current

R1 XLR
XR
Total Current
Magnetizing XM RLOAD
Current
Motor Current Vectors

al t LIGHT • High % of total current is “magnetizing” current

t
Magnetizing To ren LOAD • Magnetizing current is reactive (low p.f.)
r
Cu
Current
• Measured (total) motor current is not a good
Torque- indicator of load level.
Producing
Current
• Most of total current is
MEDIUM
rr e nt torque-producing
l Cu LOAD
Magnetizing
Tota • Motors run at high
Current & power factor
Torque-Producing Current HEAVY • Total motor current is
LOAD proportional to load level.

Magnetizing Curr ent

T o t al
Current

Torque-Producing Current
Motor Operation above Base Speed

Constant Voltage
460

“Field Weakened Range”

Torque  V/Hz
Frequency increases
V
above base speed, but
voltage levels off.
The result is increased
speed with weakened
60 120 torque, or constant HP
Hz operation.
Above 2:1 , motor
Constant Torque Constant Horsepower torque drops sharply
100
& operation is not
%T recommended.
& HP
ER
OW
P
50
RSE
HO Reduced Torque

60 120
Hz
Typical AC Induction Motor Current & Torque Curves

“Across-the-line” operation @ 60 Hz, NEMA ‘B’ motor

650 Starting (inrush) current

400 Breakdown current:

maximum level when motor
locks rotor (stalls)

225

%T 175
%I
150
Linear range: 40-150% load
100 (operating range in which current is
proportional to torque)

Speed
AC DRIVE BASICS

MOTOR
OUTPUT

LINE INPUT

All AC Drives convert “fixed” voltage and frequency into “variable” voltage
and frequency, to run 3-phase induction motors.
Types of AC Drives
In today’s marketplace, there are
3 basic AC Drive categories:
• Open loop “Volts / Hz” Drives V/Hz

SENSOR-
• Open loop “Sensorless Vector” LESS
VECTOR
Drives

• Closed loop “Flux Vector” Drives FLUX

VECTOR
All are Pulse-Width-Modulated (PWM)
Some manufacturers offer 2-in-1 & 3-in-
1 Drives, combining these attributes.
“Volts / Hz” Drives

V 460 Motor Nameplate V/Hz

o
l 230 eB
oo
st

t To
rqu

s
0 30 60 Hz
900 1800 RPM*
(Base) *( 4-pole motor)
• Motor voltage is varied linearly with frequency
• No compensation for motor & load dynamics
• Poor shock load response characteristics
AC Motor Torque & HP vs. Speed

Torque
100
%
T & HP HP
50

0 30 60 Hz
900 1800 RPM

• Motor Torque is constant to base speed

• HP varies proportionally to speed
 Pulse-Width-Modulated Inverter

AC to DC DC to AC
DC Filter
Rectifier Inverter
AC
Output
AC DC
Bus IGBTs M
Input
Caps

All PWM inverters (V/Hz, Vector & Sensorless Vector) share similar power circuit
topologies.
AC is converted to DC, filtered, and inverted to variable frequency, variable
voltage AC.
PWM Power Circuit:AC to DC Converter Section

AC to DC
DC Filter
Rectifier

AC DC +
Input Bus
Caps
-
Input Reactor
(option)
DC Reactor
The AC input is rectified and filtered into fixed-voltage DC
• Certain manufacturer’s units contain an integral DC reactor (choke)
as part of the DC filter.
• Adding an external AC input reactor will yield similar benefits.
• Both reduce harmonics, smooth and lower peak current.
PWM Power Circuit:DC to AC Inverter Section

DC to AC Vu-v
DC Filter
Inverter
AC
Output
+
U
IGBTs M
V
- W

Imotor

IGBT Firing
Signals

An IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a high-speed power semiconductor switch.

IGBTs are pulse-width modulated with a specific firing pattern, chopping the DC voltage into 3-
phase AC voltage of the proper frequency and voltage.
The resulting motor current is near-sinusoidal, due to motor inductance.
Basic V/HZ Control Circuit: Input, Feedback and Control
Signals

Motor current &

DC Bus current &
voltage feedback
voltage feedback f
IGBT Firing
Signals
Operator
Interface
PWM
microprocessor
Speed reference
controller
Flux Vector Control Elements: Input,Feedback, Control Signals

Encoder Feedback

Motor current &

DC Bus voltage
voltage feedback
feedback IGBT Gating
Man- Signals
machine
Interface PWM
microprocessor
Speed and / or controller with
Torque reference
Vector algorithm
 Variable Torque Applications: Centrifugal Pumps & Fans

100%
Flow, Torque & Horsepower

80% T = K x (RPM)2
HP = K x (RPM)3
e
m
olu • Load varies with the square of
V
or the speed
o w
50% Fl • HP varies with the cube of the
speed

e • Ideally suited for AC Drives

r qu
To • Energy savings benefits: only
er 50% power required at 80% flow
w
epo • AC Drives replace inefficient
r s
Ho dampers, guide vanes and valves

80% 100%
Speed
 4-Quadrant Operation of AC Motors on Inverter Power

Clockwise
TORQUE

REVERSE FORWARD
REGENERATING MOTORING
- RPM + RPM

REVERSE FORWARD
MOTORING REGENERATING

Counter-
Clockwise
TORQUE
 Conditions for Regenerating on an AC Motor

AC Motors regenerate when pulled faster than their

sync speed at the applied frequency.

At 60 Hz, if a motor is pulled faster than 1800 RPM*,

the motor will behave as an induction generator.

Regeneration conditions:
• Overhauling loads
• Fast deceleration of high inertial loads
• Stopping on a timed-ramp
• Cyclic loads or eccentric shaft loading
* 1750 RPM base

PULL
speed at 60 Hz
ROTATION

WEIGHT
 AC Drive Regeneration

Energy Flow: ONE - WAY TWO - WAY

AC DC +
Bus IGBTs M
Input
Caps
_

• Current flows back into the DC bus, via the IGBT switching & back diodes.
• AC Drive front-end rectifier is unidirectional; energy cannot flow back into the AC
line.
• Some returned energy is dissipated in losses in the capacitors, switches, and motor
windings (10-15%).
• Excessive regeneration can cause problems, such as DC Bus Overvoltage.
 Dynamic Braking on AC Drives

V DC Feedback

DBR
AC DC +
Input Bus
_ M
Caps

SIGNAL
DB is NOT ACTIVE when:
DB is ACTIVE when:
DYNAMIC • Decelerating a frictional load
• Motor has an overhauling load
BRAKING • Stopping in coast-to-rest mode
• Fast decel of high-inertial load
CONTROL • Drive is disabled or if power
• Stopping in ramp-to-rest mode
is removed

DYNAMIC BRAKING is typically an option for AC Drives

A seventh IGBT, integrally mounted, is modulated when DC Bus voltage is excessive.
Resistor Grids (external on ratings 5 HP & above) dissipate the excess energy.
DB is duty-cycle limited to a set number of stopping operations
 Dynamic Braking on AC Drives:
Application Considerations

DB is not failsafe: if the drive faults or power is removed, DB will not

function.

DB only operates when the drive is running: in coast-rest or stand-by,

DB is inactive.

DB should not be used in EMERGENCY STOPPING: the drive will

continue on a timed ramp, producing torque the entire time.

DB is suitable for intermittent operation only: other regenerative

solutions exist for long-term overhauling loads
AC Drives on a Common DC Bus: Typical Connection Diagram

THERMAL- MAG
BREAKER

INPUT LINE
REACTOR

AC AC AC
DRIVE DRIVE DRIVE

SEMICONDUCTOR
FUSES

INTERLOCKED
DC CONTACTOR
 DC DRIVE BASICS

A1
Armature
A2

F1
Field
F2

LINE INPUT MOTOR OUTPUT

DC Drives convert AC line voltage into variable DC voltage with an SCR

phase-controlled bridge rectifier, to power the DC motor ARMATURE. A
separate field supply provides the motor with DC FIELD excitation.
Power Switches
The SCR: (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
a.k.a. - “Thyristor”

ANODE CATHODE

-
TRIGGER
GATE +

• Extremely robust solid-state switch / 40+ year proven track record

• Key element in DC Drive power circuit
• Simple pulse gating turns on current flow
• Device has self-turn-off when reverse biased
• Stud-mount, hockey-puck and encapsulated 2-, 4- and 6-pack types
available in certain sizes and ratings.
Application Issues: AC Line Notching
on DC Drives

AC
Input

Commutation notches are caused by the

transfer of current from one SCR to another.
The notches can cause misfiring on drives
V ph-ph common to the same power line.

Solution: Installation of a small (25-50 uH range), 3-phase reactor on each

DC controller will prevent cross-talk and other related problems.
Elements of a DC Drive:Non-regenerative type

A1

F1
AC
Input
Tachometer
F2 Feedback
(closed-loop)

Field
Control
A2
SCR Firing Signals Motor voltage
feedback
Signals

Line current
feedback
Microprocessor
0.75
KW
HEALTH
AC MOTOR DRIVE
200 V

LO
v 1.3
controller
Speed or Torque
S CA REF
E L
EQ PROG

Reference M L
R

F
JOG
W
RE
DV
RUN STOP

RESET
RESET

Operator
Interface
Elements of a DC Drive:Regenerative type
A1
AC R
F R F R F
Input
F1

Tachometer
Feedback
R R F R F2
F F (closed-loop)

Field A2
Control
SCR Firing Signals Signals Motor voltage
FWD/MOT REGEN/REV feedback

Line current
feedback

AC MOTOR DRIVE
Microprocessor
controller
0.75 200 V v 1.3
KW

Speed or Torque HEALTH

S
E
EQ
LO
CA REF
L
PROG

Reference M L
R

F
JOG
W
RE
DV
RUN STOP

RESET
RESET

Operator
Interface