COURSE: MANUFACTURING PROCESSS

CODE: AMEB05
III Semester
Regulation: IARE R18
Institute of Aeronautical Engineering
(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad- 500043

Prepared by
Dr. CH. SANDEEP
Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering
 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Forehand and Backhand Welding
Forehand Welding:

In push welding (or forehand welding) your rod , the welding

rod comes before your torch. You will be holding your torch at
an angle of about 30 degrees from a right angle or vertical as
you weld.

The flame will be pointing toward where you are welding and
your flame is pointing right between your welding rod and the
weld puddle (Weld Pool).

Weld Pool: It is the molten metal produced while the weld is being made.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding

Forehand Welding:

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Forehand Welding:

The welding rod keeps the metal molten because the heat is
reflected back therefore the metal is uniformly spread to the
edges which you are welding as a result of the motion of welding
torch tip and welding rod.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Backhand Welding:

Backhand welding is also referred to as pull welding. It’s also the

drag angle.

Simply making the angle of drag is where your welding rod is

pointing in the opposite direction are welding but the torch is at
about a 30 degree angle give or toward the direction you are
welding.

When you are backhand or pull welding the torch comes before
the rod.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Backhand Welding:

You will find that this method of welding does not require as
much sliding, or transverse motion, compared to the push
welding technique.
Backhand welding also produces less puddle and you will
therefore use less rod in comparison to forehand welding.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Comparison Between Forehand & Backhand Welding

Forehand Welding Backhand Welding

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Flame adjustment for Oxy-acetylene welding

S No Metal Flame
1 Mild steel Neutral
2 High carbon steel Reducing
3 Grey cast iron Neutral, Slightly oxidizing
4 Alloy steel Neutral
5 Aluminium Slightly carburizing
6 Brass Slightly oxidizing
7 Copper, Bronze Neutral, Slightly oxidizing
8 Nickel alloys Slightly carburizing
9 Lead Neutral

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Base Metal Preparation

1. Dirt, oil, and oxides can cause incomplete fusion, slag

inclusions, and porosity in the weld. Contaminants must be
removed along the joint and sides of the base metal.
2. The root opening for a given thickness of metal should permit
the gap to be bridged without difficulty, yet it should be large
enough to permit full penetration. Specifications for root
openings should be followed exactly.
3. The thickness of the base metal at the joint determines the
type of edge preparation for welding. Thin sheet metal is easily
melted completely by the flame. Thus, edges with square faces
can be butted-together and welded.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Base Metal Preparation

4. This type of joint is limited to material under 3/16 in. (4.8 mm)
in thickness. For thicknesses of 3/16 to 1/4 in. (4.8 to 6.4 mm), a
slight root opening or groove is necessary for complete
penetration, but filler metal must be added to compensate for
the opening.

Single Groove Weld Preparation

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Base Metal Preparation

Double Groove Weld Preparation

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Base Metal Preparation

5. Joint edges 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) and thicker should be beveled.
Beveled edges at the joint provide a groove for better penetration
and fusion at the sides.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Multiple Layer Welding

1. Multiple layer welding is used when maximum ductility of a steel

weld in the as-welded or stress-relieved condition is desired, or when
several layers are required in welding thick metal.
2. Multiple layer welding is done by depositing filler metal in successive
passes along the joint until it is filled. Since the area covered with
each pass is small, the weld puddle is reduced in size.
3. This procedure enables the welder to obtain complete joint
penetration without excessive penetration and overheating while the
first few passes are being deposited.
4. The smaller puddle is more easily controlled. The welder can avoid
oxides, slag inclusions, and incomplete fusion with the base metal.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Multiple Layer Welding

Sequence in Multiple Layer Welding

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Weld Quality

1. The appearance of a weld does not necessarily indicate its

quality. 
2. Visual Examination of the underside of a weld will determine
whether there is complete penetration or whether there are
excessive globules of metal.
3. Inadequate joint penetration may be due to insufficient beveling
of the edges, too wide a root face, too great a welding speed, or
poor torch and welding rod manipulation.
4. Over-sized and undersized welds can be observed readily. Weld
gauges are available to determine whether a weld has excessive
or insufficient reinforcement. Undercut or overlap at the sides of
the welds can usually be detected by visual inspection.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Weld Quality

5. Although other discontinuities, such as incomplete fusion,

porosity, and cracking may or may not be apparent, excessive grain
growth or the presence of hard spots cannot be determined visually.
6. Incomplete fusion may be caused by insufficient heating of the
base metal, too rapid travel, or gas or dirt inclusions.
7. Porosity is a result of entrapped gases, usually carbon monoxide,
which may be avoided by more careful flame manipulation and
adequate fluxing where needed.
8. Hard spots and cracking are a result of metallurgical
characteristics of the weldment.

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Weld Quality

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding
Weld Quality

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 Oxy-fuel gas welding

Working Pressures For Welding Operations

The required OFW working pressure increases as the tip orifice increases.
The relation between the tip number and the diameter of the orifice may
vary with different manufacturers. However, the smaller number always
indicates the smaller diameter.

Oxy-fuel Welding Rods

The welding rod, which is melted into the welded joint, plays an
important part in the quality of the finished weld. Good welding rods are
designed to permit free flowing metal which will unite readily with the
base metal to produce sound, clean welds of the correct composition.
Welding rods are made for various types of carbon steel, aluminum,
bronze, stainless steel, and other metals for hard surfacing.

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 Gas Cutting

1. For Cutting metallic plates, general purpose shears are used.

2. These are useful for only straight-line cuts and also for cuts up to
a thickness of 40mm.

3. For thicker plates and when the cut is to be made along a

specified contour, shear cannot be used.

4. To this end, Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting (OFC) is useful.

5. With oxy-fuel gas cutting, plates up to a thickness as high as

2meters can be cut with special precautions or methods.

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 Gas Cutting
6. It is possible to rapidly oxidize (burn) iron and steel when it is
heated to a temperature between 800°C to1000°C.

7. When high pressure oxygen jet with a pressure of the order of

300kPa is directed against a heated steel plate, the oxygen jet
burns the metal and blows it away causing the cut (kerf).

8. The oxy-acetylene gas cutting outfit is similar to that of oxy-

acetylene welding except for the torch tip.

9. Here the torch tip has a provision for preheating the plate as well
as providing the oxygen jet.

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 Gas Cutting
10. Thus the tip has a central hole for the oxygen jet with
surrounding holes for preheating flames.

11. The cutting tip should be properly chosen for the intended
application.

12. The size is normally dependent on the thickness of the plate

which determines the amount of preheating as well as the
oxygen jet flow required for cutting.

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Gas Cutting: Oxy-fuel cutting

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Gas Cutting: Selection of special purpose
oxy-fuel cutting tips

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 Gas Cutting

1. If iron or steel is heated to its kindling temperature (not less than

1600ºF (871ºC)), and is then brought into contact with oxygen, it
burns or oxidizes very rapidly.
2. The reaction of oxygen with the iron or steel forms iron oxide
(Fe3O4) and gives off considerable heat.
3. This heat is sufficient to melt the oxide and some of the base
metal; consequently, more of the metal is exposed to the oxygen
stream.
4. This reaction of oxygen and iron is used in the oxyacetylene
cutting process.
5. A stream of oxygen is firmly fixed onto the metal surface after it
has been heated to the kindling temperature.

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 Gas Cutting
6. The hot metal reacts with oxygen, generating more heat and
melting.
7. The molten metal and oxide are swept away by the rapidly
moving
stream of oxygen.
8. The oxidation reaction continues and furnishes heat for melting
another layer of metal. The cut progresses in this manner.
9. Theoretically, the heat created by the burning iron would be
sufficient to heat adjacent iron red hot, so that once started the
cut could be continued indefinitely with oxygen only, as is done
with the oxygen lance.
10. In practice, however, excessive heat absorption at the surface
caused by dirt, scale, or other substances, make it necessary to
keep the preheating flames of the torch burning throughout the
operation.
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Gas Cutting

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 Oxy-fuel gas cutting
Tip sizes for cutting carbon steel

S No Plate thickness, mm Oxygen orifice diameter, mm

1 Up to 3 0.65
2 3 to 6 0.90
3 6 to 250 1.25
4 25 to 5 1.60
5 50 to 100 2.25
6 100 to 200 3.00
7 200 to 300 4.25
8 300 to 400 5.00
9 400 to 500 6.00

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 Arc Welding

Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric

arc to create heat to melt and join metals. A power supply
creates an electric arc between a consumable or non-
consumable electrode and the base material using either
direct (DC) or alternating (AC) currents.

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 Arc Welding
How Does it Work
Arc welding is a fusion welding process used to join metals.
An electric arc from an AC or DC power supply creates an
intense heat of around 6500°F (3593°C) which melts the
metal at the join between two work pieces.

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 Arc Welding
How Does it Work
The arc can be either manually or mechanically guided along
the line of the join, while the electrode either simply carries
the current or conducts the current and melts into the weld
pool at the same time to supply filler metal to the join.

Because the metals react chemically to oxygen and nitrogen

in the air when heated to high temperatures by the arc, a
protective shielding gas or slag is used to minimize the
contact of the molten metal with the air. Once cooled, the
molten metals solidify to form a metallurgical bond.

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 Arc Welding
What are the Different Types of Arc Welding

This process can be categorized into two different types;

consumable and non-consumable electrode methods.

Consumable Electrode Methods

Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG) and Metal Active Gas Welding (MAG)

Also known as Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), uses a shielding

gas to protect the base metals from contamination.

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 Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

1.Also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA or

MMAW), flux shielded arc welding or stick welding is a process
where the arc is struck between the metal rod (electrode flux
coated) and the work piece, both the rod and work piece
surface melt to form a weld pool.
2.Simultaneous melting of the flux coating on the rod will form
gas, and slag, which protects the weld pool from the
surrounding atmosphere. 
3.This is a versatile process ideal for joining ferrous and non-
ferrous materials with a range of material thicknesses in all
positions.

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 Arc Welding

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

1.Created as an alternative to Shield Metal Arc

Welding, FCAW uses a continuously fed consumable flux cored
electrode and a constant voltage power supply, which provides
a constant arc length.

2.This process either uses a shielding gas or just the gas created
by the flux to provide protection from contamination.

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 Arc Welding

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

1.A frequently-used process with a continuously-fed

consumable electrode and a blanket of fusible flux which
becomes conductive when molten, providing a current path
between the part and the electrode.

2.The flux also helps prevent spatter and sparks while

suppressing fumes and ultraviolet radiation.

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 Arc Welding

Electro-Slag Welding (ESW)

1.A vertical process used to weld thick plates (above 25mm) in a

single pass. ESW relies on an electric arc to start before a flux
addition extinguishes the arc.
2.The flux melts as the wire consumable is fed into the molten
pool, which creates a molten slag on top of the pool.
3.Heat for melting the wire and plate edges is generated
through the molten slag's resistance to the passage of the
electric current.
4.Two water-cooled copper shoes follow the process
progression and prevent any molten slag from running off.

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 Arc Welding

Arc Stud Welding (SW)

Similar to flash welding, SW joins a nut or fastener, usually with

a flange with nubs that melt to create the join, to another metal
piece.

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 Arc Welding

Non-consumable Electrode Methods

Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)

Also known as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), uses a non-

consumable tungsten electrode to create the arc and an inert
shielding gas to protect the weld and molten pool against
atmospheric contamination.

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 Arc Welding

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

1.Similar to TIG, PAW uses an electric arc between a non-

consumable electrode and an anode, which are placed within
the body of the torch.

2.The electric arc is used to ionize the gas in the torch and
create the plasma, which is then pushed through a fine bore
hole in the anode to reach the base plate.

3.In this way, the plasma is separated from the shielding gas.

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 Arc Welding

Rod Types

1. The arc process uses a variety of rods which have different

strengths, weaknesses and uses which can impact weld quality.
The rod is connected to the welding machine and a current is
passed through to join work pieces together.

2. In some cases, such as with SMAW, the rods melt to become

part of the weld these are consumable electrodes. In other
instances, such as with TIG, the rods to do not melt these are
non-consumable electrodes. 

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 Arc Welding
Rod Types

3. Rods are generally coated, although the exact type of coating

varies. While uncoated rods are available, these are far less
common, create more spatter, and can make it difficult to control
the arc.

4. Coated rods are better to reduce or eliminate contaminating

oxides or sulphurs. The three types of coating include cellulose,
minerals.or a combination of the two.

5. Whether coated or uncoated, the correct rod needs to be

selected to create clean, strong welds with the right bead quality.

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 Arc Welding
Power supplies

1. To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding

processes, a number of different power supplies can be used.

2. The most common classification is constant current power

supplies and constant voltage power supplies.

3. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the

arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input.

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 Arc Welding
Power supplies

4. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual
welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded
metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant
current even as the voltage varies.

5. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to

hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length
and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. 

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 Arc Welding
Corrosion issues

1. Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminium, and

titanium alloys, are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.

2. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the

water decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated
hydrogen enters the lattice of the material, causing its
brittleness.

3. Stick electrodes for such materials, with special low-hydrogen

coating, are delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging.

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 Arc Welding
Corrosion issues

4. New electrodes can be used straight from the can, but when
moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be dried by
baking (usually at 450 to 550 °C or 840 to 1,020 °F) in a drying oven.

5. Flux used has to be kept dry as well.

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 Arc Welding

Safety issues

Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the

proper precautions; however, with the use of new technology and
proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with
welding can be greatly reduced.

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 Arc Welding

Heat, fire, and explosion hazard

1.Because many common welding procedures involve an open

electric arc or flame, the risk of burns from heat and sparks is
significant.
2.To prevent them, welders wear protective clothing in the form
of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to
avoid exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks.
3.The use of compressed gases and flames in many welding
processes also pose an explosion and fire risk; some common
precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and
keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.

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 Arc Welding

Eye damage

1.Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a

condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes
inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. 
2.Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates much
darker than those in sunglasses or oxy fuel glasses are worn to
prevent this exposure.
3.In recent years, new helmet models have been produced
featuring a face plate which automatically self-darkens
electronically.

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 Arc Welding

Inhaled Matter

1.Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases

and particulate matter.
2.Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal  arc
welding  produce smoke containing particles of various types
of oxides.
3.The size of the particles in question tends to influence
the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a
greater danger.
4.Additionally, many processes produce various gases (most
commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that can
prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate.

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 Arc Welding

The Advantages

There are many advantages compared to other welding processes.

As the cost of equipment is relatively low, this is an affordable
technique which also requires less equipment due to the lack of
gas. 

It is a portable method of joining, which can also be used on

uncleaned metals. While many arc processes use shielding gas, this
is not always necessary, which means work can be undertaken
regardless of weather conditions, while spatter is not an issue.

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 Arc Welding

The Disadvantages

1.Although there are a great many advantages, there are some

drawbacks with this process.

2.This type of welding produces more waste than other methods,

meaning that project costs can be higher for some jobs.

3.This process also requires a high level of skill and training for arc
welders, while it can also be difficult to join thin materials using arc
processes.

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