Design of Cylindrical and Spherical Shells

• In most of the practical cases the wall thickness of the process equipment is
not so small that the assumption of uniform stress distribution is justified.

• The chemical process equipment is generally fabricated with sheet metals

necessitating the end-joints, which reduces the allowable strength of the
material(S) with a factor called joint efficiency factor. If E denotes joint
efficiency factor and t is the minimum wall thickness required for the shell,
then,

P=
1
ASME Design of Thin walled vessel under Internal pressure
• The shell thickness is the major design parameter
and is usually controlled by internal pressure and
sometimes by external pressure which can
produce buckling.
• Applied loads are also important in controlling
thickness and so are the discontinuity and thermal
stresses.
• The basic thicknesses of cylindrical shells are
based on simplified stress analysis and allowable
stress for the material of
construction.
• There are some variations of the basic equations in
various design codes.
• Some of the equations are based on thick-wall
Lame equations.
• When the material of the cylinder is
brittle, such as cast iron or cast steel,
Lame’s equation is used to determine
the wall thickness.
• It is based on the maximum principal
stress theory of failure, where maximum
principal stress is equated to permissible
stress for the material.
=
• This equation is the basis for all design
equations specified in the code for
internal pressure
2
I. Cylindrical shells
A. Thin cylindrical shells B. Thick cylindrical shells

3
Con’t…
A. Thin cylindrical shells B. Thick cylindrical shells

• In the case of circumference stress

(longitudinal welding)
t= (for P<0.385SE or t<1/2R) Z1/2 -1)
• In the case of longitudinal stress where
(circumference welding) Z
t= (for P<1.25SE)
Where: E = joint efficiency factor
E = joint efficiency factor,Percent P = internal pressure
P = internal pressure,psi R = internal radius
R = internal radius,in S = allowable stress in the material
S =Maximum allowable stress in the material,psi
t = Minimum thickness of the cylinder,in t = thickness of the cylinder

4
II. Spherical shells
B. Thick spherical shells
A. Thin spherical shells

• when t < 0.356R or P < 0.665SE:

t
t=
where where
E = joint efficiency factor Y
P = internal pressure
R = internal radius E = joint efficiency factor
P = internal pressure
S = allowable stress in the material R = internal radius
t = thickness of the shell S = allowable stress in the material
t = thickness of the shell
5
 ASME Design of Heads and Closures under Internal
pressure
The ends of a cylindrical process vessel are to be closed before putting into
operation. This is done by means of heads and closures, which are of different
shape. The principal types are
1. Hemispherical heads
2. Ellipsoidal heads
3. Torispherical heads
4. Conical heads
5. Flat plates and formed flat heads
The selection for particular type depends on the factors like:
 process temperature and pressure,
nature of the material to be handled and product obtained,
 position of the vessel (horizontal or vertical), nature of the support and
above all the economy.
6
1. Design of hemispherical heads

• It is commonly used in large diameter or high pressure

applications
• Usually this head can’t be formed from a single flat
sheet/plate, instead it is made from welded pieces.
• These heads are the strongest of all formed heads.
• Hemispherical heads have
 minimum plate thickness,
 minimum weight and
 consequently lowest material cost.
• the amount of forming required to produce the hemispherical
shape is more, resulting in increased forming cost .

• Most of the time height =D/2

• In same design condition, head thickness< shell thickness

7
Cont…

Thin hemispherical heads Thick hemispherical heads

t=
• when t < 0.356L or P < 0.665SE t

where
E = joint efficiency factor
where
P = internal pressure Y
L = internal radius
S = allowable stress in the material
t = thickness of the head

8
2. Design of Ellipsoidal heads

• An acceptable approximation of a 2:1

(major to minor axis ratio) ellipsoidal
head is one with a knuckle radius of
0.17D and a spherical(crown) radius
of 0.9D.
• The thickness of the semi-ellipsoidal
head is more(almost twice) than the
corresponding hemispherical head,
and to that extent, the material cost is
more.
• Due to the shallow dished shape,the
forming cost is reduced.

9
cont.….
A.When radius-to-depth ratio is 2:1
t=
where
D = diameter of the shell to which
the head is attached,
E = joint efficiency factor
P = pressure on the concave side of
the head
t = thickness of the head
B.When radius-to-depth ratio is other than 2:1
t=
where
K = (1/6)[2 + (D/2h)2],is stress intensity factor
D = diameter of the shell to which the head is
attached,
E = joint efficiency factor
P = pressure on the concave side of the head
t = thickness of the head
10
 3. Design of Tori-spherical heads
• Tori-spherical heads require less forming than semi-
ellipsoidal heads.
• The shape is close to that of an ellipse but is easier and
cheaper to fabricate.
• Their main drawback is the local stresses at the
two discontinuities.
• The inside knuckle radius of a tori-spherical head shall not be
less than 6% of the inside crown radius but in no case less
than 3 times thickness of the head.
• Inside crown radius≤ outside radius of head.
• In same design condition:
head thickness under internal pressure will be
approximately equal.to 1.77 times shell thickness
• Tori-spherical heads are more economical than other types
of domed heads

11
Cont.…

A. when L = D and r = 0.06D B. when 1.0 < L/r < 16.67

t=
where
E = joint efficiency factor
t=
where
L =The crown radius (the radius of the dish, which
constitutes the major portion of the head) M = (1/4)[3 + (L/r)1/2],is shear
intensity factor
r=The knuckle radius(the corner radius joining the
spherical crown with the cylindrical shell

P = pressure on the concave side of the head

S = allowable stress for the material
t = thickness of the head
12
4. Design of Conical Sections

• Conical sections (reducers) are used to make a gradual reduction in

diameter from one cylindrical section to another of smaller diameter.
• These types heads are widely used as bottom head to allow the
accumulation and draining of material.
• Apex angle is usually taken as 30o
• Conical ends are used to facilitate the smooth flow and removal of
solids from process equipment; such as, hoppers, spray-dryers and
crystallizers.

13
Cont..

.
t=
where < 30o
=one half of the apex angle of the cone at
the center line
t = required thickness
P = internal pressure
D = the inside diameter of cone measured
perpendicular to longitudinal axis
S = allowable tensile stress
E = joint efficiency factor

14
 5. Design of flat plates and covers
• Flat plates are used as covers for
manholes, as blind flanges, and for the
ends of small diameter and low pressure
vessels
• Though the fabrication cost is low, flat
ends are not a structurally efficient form,
and very thick plates would be required for
high pressures or large diameters.
A.Circular flat plates and covers
t=d*
B.Non-circular flat plates and covers
t=d*
where
Z = 3.4 – (2.4d/D)
d = effective diameter of the flat plate
C = coefficient between 0.10 and 0.33
P = design pressure
S = allowable stress at design temperature
E = butt-welded joint efficiency of the joint within
the flat plate
t = minimum required thickness of the flat plate
Z =a factor for noncircular heads depending on the
ratio of long span to short span a/b
15
Design Of Nozzles: Area Compensation Method
• Openings are provided in the pressure vessel; these could be
• an inlet and outlet pipe connections
• manhole or hand hole
• connections for pressure gauges, temperature gauges and safety valves.
• The openings are circular, elliptical or round.
• When the opening is cut in the pressure vessel, an area isremoved from the shell.

• An area removed must be compensated-it is reinforced by equal amount of area near

to the opening
• The area ‘removed’ should be equal to the area ‘added’.
• The area is added by providing a reinforcing pad in the form of annular circular plate
around the opening.

• Cross sectional area(rectangular strip)is considered but not the volume of the material
removed. 16
Cont…
• The area of the material removed is
compensated by providing additional
area material:
1. In the portion of the shell as excess
thickness.
2. In the portion of the nozzle outside the
vessel as excess thickness
3. In the portion of the nozzle inside the
vessel as excess thickness
4. In the reinforcement pad or
compensation ring

17
Cont.….

18
Cont.….
1. The limiting dimension X parallel to the wall of the shell is given by
Whichever is
maximum
2. The inner dimeter of the nozzle in corroded condition is

3. the area of metal removed in corroded condition is:

4. The Limiting dimensions h1 and h2 parallel to the nozzle isWhichever

given by is
) minimum
) 19
Cont.….

5. The required thickness of the cylindrical shell (tr)is given by

6. The thickness required for the nozzle will to able to withstand the pressure(trn)

7. The total area A1 of excess thickness in the vessel shell for reinforcement is

8. The total area A2 of excess thickness in the nozzle wall is given by:

9.The area A3 of the inside extension of the nozzle is

20
Cont.….

10. The total area available for reinforcement is(A1+ A2+ A3)
I. when , adequately reinforced
II. When the condition in no 10 is not satisfied, area(A4) is required for
compensation and is given by

Where
dpo=Outer diameter of the reinforcing pad,mm
dpi=Inner diameter of the reinforcing pad,mm
tp=thickness of the reinforcing pad,mm 21
 Example

• A pressure vessel consists of a cylindrical shell with an inner diameter of

1500 mm, and thickness of 20 mm. It is provided with a nozzle with an
inner diameter of 250 mm and thickness of 15 mm. The yield strength
of the material for the shell and nozzle is 200 N/mm2 and the design
pressure is 2.5 MPa.
• The extension of the nozzle inside the vessel is 15 mm. The corrosion
allowance is 2 mm, while the weld joint efficiency is 0.85.
Neglecting the area of welds, determine whether or not a reinforcing
pad is required for the opening. If so, determine the dimensions of pad
made from a plate of 15 mm thickness.

22
Solution
• Allowable stress(S) is:

• =16.766 mm
• ==2.794 mm
• =254 mm
• =254*16.766=4258.564 mm2

254 mm
=[125+20+15-3*2]=154 mm
The maximum i.e. X=254 mm is chosen

23
Cont…

)=2.5*(20-2)=45 mm
)=2.5*(15-2)=32.5mm •=
The minimum i.e. =32.5 mm is chosen and
4258.564-1306.826=2951.738 mm2
• =250+2*15=280mm2

• =476.78mm
-254][20-16.766-2]=313.436mm 2

• =
2*32.5*[15-2.794-2]=663.39 mm2
• =2*15*[15-2*2]=330mm2
• )mm2
=1306.826mm2 24