MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

ANR 412-FARM STRUCTURES AND
MECHANIZATION

AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS AND

MACHINERY

Lecture No. 2 By J.T. Mwale MSC.BEng

 Outline of Lecture
2.1. Tractors
2.2 Tillage
2.3 Planting
2.4 Weeding and Chemical Application
2.5 Irrigation
2.6 Harvesting
2.7 Livestock Feeding and Product Harvesting

2
2.1 Tractors
A tractor is a special vehicle designed mainly to haul or pull
farm implements over the land surface.
3
 2.1.1 Types of Tractors
 Various types of tractors can be distinguished on the basis of
purpose in use and the design features. New design trends include:
Versatility;
Automatic electronic controls:
Improved engines; and
Adaptability.

Multipurpose tractors
 This type of tractors can be applied to almost any kind of work
including ploughing, cultivations, sowing, harvesting, transport and
stationary pto-work.

 The size of multipurpose tractors ranges from 15 to 75 kW in terms

of maximum drawbar power; and mostly applicable to relatively
small farms.
4
Multi-purpose Tractor
 Four-wheel-drive tractors
 This type of tractors is designed to have appreciable
advantages for difficult conditions.

 They have wheels that have a traction-type tread and carry an

appreciable proportion of the total tractor weight when
working.

‘Systems’ tractors
 This type of tractors has provision for mounting and power-
driving equipment at both front and rear ends as well as a load
platform for equipment.

 They have over-drive gears, four wheel braking and a chassis

with springs and shock absorbers for high road speeds.

6
Four Wheel-Drive Tractor
 Track laying tractors
 Track layers are designed to secure good adhesion and
transmit high drawbar pulls in difficult conditions where
wheels fail to negotiate or can damage the soil structure.

 The tracks consist of a series of links and ground plates

coupled together by pin joints.

Simple tractors
 This type of tractors has low power generated by a single or
double-cylinder engine of 15-30hp.

 They include power tillers and are suited to less developed

countries.

8
Simple Tractor

Track-Laying Tractor
 2.1.2 Constructional Features

Power Transmission
 Engine power of a tractor is transmitted through a system of
belts, gears including the differential lock, couplings,
bearings, clutches, cams and the brakes.

 Propulsion and rotary power is transmitted to the pull-type

implements by means of:
traction
the power-take-off drive (pto) and
the hydraulic system.

10
 Click icon to add picture

John_Deere_3350_tractor_cut_transmission
 Belts
Power transmission occurs by the difference in belt tension
in the sheave groove on the pulley due to friction.

Gears
Gears facilitate change of speed of the vehicle due to the
relative speed of rotation of the differently sized spur gear
wheels.

A special gear called a differential gear is employed on

tractors to facilitate turning without skidding.
A differential lock is used to overcome the difficulty posed by the
difference in power delivered to the wheels with the differential
gear under boggy conditions.
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Click icon to add picture

Differential lock
 Couplings and Bearings
 Coupling provides a driving connection between two
shafts which are not in the same straight line.

A universal joint is used for this purpose to connect the

driving and driven shafts running at any angle within
limits to each other.

 Bearings are parts of a machine that support the rotating

parts such as the shafts.
Radial bearings prevent a shaft from moving sideways
Thrust bearings are used to withstand pressure in the
direction of the axis of the shaft.
14
 Clutches
 A clutch is a mechanism that is used to engage or
disengage a machine and its source of power. Tractor
clutches are hydraulically operated.

Cams
 Cams are used for converting rotary motion into
reciprocating or oscillating motion, and are used to operate
valves on engines.

Brakes
 A brake is a mechanism for absorbing the energy of motion
of a body by converting it into heat and with a means for
dissipating the heat. The brakes are used to bring vehicles
to rest, and to steer track layers.
15
 Traction
Traction transmits power through the drawbar, which is a metal bar
rigidly attached to the transmission housing with a swinging member
that is easily detached and adjusted in height to facilitate hitching of
all kinds of implements.

The tractive force is generated by the rear wheels for which the tires
are specified in terms of size, ply rating and the R-designation.
Size: includes the section width and rim diameter in inches;
Ply: is the arrangement of cords either diagonally or radially; and
R-designation: describes the presence of rubber lugs on the outer
tread e.g. R20.8-32,8

Traction aids include lugging and ballasting.

16
 The Power-Take-Off-Drive (pto)
 Provides a means for transmitting rotary power to machines
coupled to a tractor; it’s usually located at the rear.
Standardized shaft details: 35-45mm diameter; 64-176hp
power rating respectively.

17
 The Hydraulic System
The hydraulic system raises and lowers heavy implements with

minimum physical effort. It basically has the following
conponents:

A reservoir of hydraulic oil;

Pump that converts mechanical power into fluid power;

Control valves regulating pressurized and directional flow of oil;

Actuators that convert fluid power back to mechanical power;

Filter that removes contaminants; and lines providing conduit

flow and connecting various components.

18
 Hitching Systems
A hitch connects the implement to the tractor and carries
it for transport.

The three-point hitch is the standard for most tractors

with the following terminology:
Link points: points of attachment of the hitch links to
the tractor.
Hitch points: points of attachment of the hitch links to
the implement.

Three types of hitching include: towed, semi-mounted

and fully mounted.

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Three-point linkage of a Case tractor
 Basic Implement Control Systems
These are applied through the three-point linkage consisting of
one upper link in compression, and two lower links in tension.

Automatic Draught Control

Maintains the implement at the selected depth irrespective of
ground undulations. This is achieved with a control lever, load
spring attached to the top link of the implement, and a hydraulic
control valve.

Automatic Position Control

Maintains the implement’s position relative to the tractor
irrespective of draught conditions as is required for mowers,
sprayers, etc. Any given position of the control lever
corresponds to the implement’s position relative to the tractor.
21
 Pressure Control
This enables a controlled lifting force provided by the lift
cylinder.

The main function is to provide a controlled degree of weight

transfer on to the rear wheels when towing long trailed
implements

Electronic Three-Point Hitch Control

This is achieved with draught control sensors in form of sealed
pins which couple the lower links to the tractor chassis and have
leads that can be plugged into an electronic control box.

Other Control Systems

Include response sensitivity, lower-link sensing and transmission
torque sensing.
22
 2.1.3 Tractor Engines
2.1.2.1 Engine Type
 The most commonly used engine is the multi-cylinder, four-
stroke diesel cycle engine:
Pure air is drawn into the cylinder on the induction stroke;

The air is compressed at a high compression ratio to raise the

temperature;

Towards the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into

the combustion chamber in form of a spray and is ignited by
the hot air as such producing the power stroke; and

As the piston moves upwards on the exhaust stroke, the

23 exhaust gases are expelled from the cylinder.
  The ideal air-standard cycle is modeled as a reversible
adiabatic compression followed by a constant pressure
combustion process.

 This is then followed by an adiabatic expansion resulting in a

power stroke and an isovolumetric exhaust.

 A new air charge is taken in at the end of the exhaust, as

indicated by the processes a-e-a on the diagram.

24
 The Four-Stroke Cycle
The Idealized Diesel Cycle

25
 2.1.2.2 Engine Parts
Engine block: houses all the components of an engine.

Cylinder head: provides airtight enclosure of the fuel-air mixture in the cylinder.

Cylinder: provides for combustion of fuel in the presence of air.

Valve assembly: provides for air inlet and outlet to the cylinder.

Piston assembly: converts the heat from fuel combustion into linear motion.

Crankshaft: converts linear motion of the piston into rotary motion.

Fly wheel: preserves the momentum of the crankshaft.

Pressure plate: provides for transmission of power to the gearbox.

Sump: collects used oil from the engine.

26
 2.1.2.3 Engine Accessories:
These are devices that facilitate the engine’s functionality. They include:

Fuel tank: contains the fuel.

Injector pump: supplies fuel to the cylinders through the injection nozzles.

Fuel filter: cleanses the fuel of all contaminants.

Air cleaner: removes all abrasive particles from the air.

Oil filter: removes grit and other foreign materials from the lubricating oil.

Turbo-charger: increases airflow into the cylinders so as to increase engine power;

it is driven by exhaust gases.

Radiator: cools the engine using water in conjunction with a cooling fan.

Engine governor: controls engine speed.

27
 2.2 TILLAGE
 Tillage may be defined as the mechanical manipulation of
the soil for nurturing crops.

2.2.1 Objectives of Tillage:

a) To develop a desirable soil structure;
b) To establish specific surface configurations for
planting, irrigation, drainage or harvesting
operations;
c) To control weeds; and
d) To incorporate plant residues into the soil.

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 2.2.2 Methods of Tillage

1. Conventional Tillage 2. Conservation Tillage

This involves primary and They are designed to conserve
secondary tillage operations. soil, water and/or energy.

Primary tillage is intended to Minimum tillage: minimized

reduce soil strength, cover primary or secondary tillage
plant materials and re-arrange operation.
soil aggregates.
Strip tillage: only a strip or
band of soil is tilled and the
Secondary tillage follows crop is planted in the strip.
primary tillage and is intended
Zero tillage: no primary or
to create refined soil
secondary tillage.
conditions
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 2.2.2.1 Primary Tillage Implements

Implement Tools Functional Processes

Mouldboard Plough Cut and shatter the soil and invert the
Plough bottom furrow slice
Rolling Cut through plant residues
coulter
Landsides Absorb lateral forces

Disk Plough Disk blade Cut hard , dry soils and through sticky soils
Scrapers Scour stick soil build-up on the blades
Chisel Plough Shanks Shatter, mix and aerate the soil with little
inversion at 15-46cm depth.
 Sub-Soiler Standards Break through and shatter compacted
soil layers at 45-75cm depth

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 Mouldboard Plough Disc Plough

31
 2.2.2.2 Secondary Tillage Implements
Implement Tools Functional Processes

Disk harrow Disk Break large clods of soil

blades
Spike, tine and spring- Spikes
tooth harrows
Tines Break soil crusts and
remove weeds
Round-
Wires
Roller harrows Rollers Break soil clods

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 Disc Harrow

33
 2.2.2.3 Conservation Tillage Tools

Ripper: a heavy standard designed to cut through deep

layers of the soil and plant residue without inverting the
soil.

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 2.2.4 Performance of Tillage Implements

Performance of tillage implements is determined by the following factors:

Factor Description
Draft Component of tractor pull in the line of travel.
Power The power needed to provide the pulling force
Requirement on the implement.
Quality of The degree of soil inversion or breakup by
work the tool
Specific draft values: 1.4 – 2 N/cm2 ; Sandy soils; 2- 5 N/cm2 Silt loams; and 4 – 8 N/cm2
Clay loams and heavy clay soils.

Exercise 2-1:
The total draft of a four-bottom 41cm mouldboard plough when
ploughing 18cm deep at 6km/h was 15kN. Calculate the specific draft
and the power requirements in hp.
35
 2.2.5 Hitching of Tillage Implements

Hitching of tillage implements is governed by the resultant

force of all forces acting on the implement including the:
 Implement Weight,
 Soil Reaction Forces, and
 Forces exerted by the prime mover.

Proper hitching serves to minimize the soil reaction forces

acting on the implement tools so as to obtain a stable operation.

When the soil engaging tool is not symmetric about the line of
travel, rotational effects are produced by the soil forces resulting
in unstable operation.
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 2.3 PLANTING
Planting is the second operation after tillage, and it
places the seeds of a crop at the correct depth and
appropriate spacing between the seeds.

A crop is a group of similar plants grown on the same

land area.

2.2.1 Methods and Equipment

Four different planting methods can be distinguished
for which mechanisms and machines have been
developed.
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 2.2.1.1 Broadcasting
Refers to random scattering of seeds on the soil surface.
A centrifugal broadcast seeder is used for this method of
planting.

The seed is metered from the hopper through a

variable orifice; and is agitated to prevent bridging of
the seed over the metering disk thereby ensuring
continuous feeding.

The metered seed then drops onto a spinning disk

which accelerates it and throws it horizontally. The
seeding rate is controlled by the size of the gate
opening, speed of travel and width of coverage.
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 2.2.1.2 Drilling
 Refers to the random placement of seeds in furrows which
are then covered.

 A drill seeder is used for this method of planting.

For each row, the seeds are metered from a hopper by a
ground-driven fluted wheel which controls the seeding
rate;
The seeds then enter a tube and fall by gravity to a
furrow opened by a disc;
A small drag chain behind each furrow opener is pulled
to cover the seeds.

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 A Drill Seeder

40
 2.2.1.3 Precision Planting
Refers to accurate placement of seeds in rows at equal intervals
spaced widely enough to allow cultivation. A precision planter is
used for this method of planting whereby:

A furrow is opened at a controlled depth;

The seeds are then metered into the furrow at uniform

intervals;

Finally, a pair of inclined wheels accomplish both the

covering of seeds and firming of the soil against the seeds.
41
 A Precision planter

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 2.2.1.4 Transplanting

Involves planting seedlings into the field grown separately in

special beds. A transplanting machine has the following
features:

A seat for positioning the worker to receive and place the

seedlings; hopper for carrying the seedlings; and a provision
for opening the furrows.

It also has a means for accepting seedlings from a worker

and placing them in the furrow; and a means for closing the
furrow and firming the soil around the seedlings.
43
 2.2.2 Functional Processes of Planting Equipment

2.2.2.1 Seed Metering

Metering ensures that the desired final plant population will
be achieved; as such the metering rate refers to the number
of seeds released from the hopper per unit of time.

Two metering mechanisms can be distinguished thus:

(i) metering by volume and
(ii) metering individual seeds.

44
 Metering by volume
This is done with the variable orifice set to provide a
seeding rate according to the following expression:

Where, seeding rate is in kg/ha; is the bulk density of

the seed in kg/L or no. of seeds per litre; w is width of
coverage of the planter in m; and v is the travel speed of
planter in m/s; and

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 2.2.2 Functional Processes of Planting Equipment

Q is volumetric flow rate in L/s given by the equation

below where, g is acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s2;
An is net effective area of the orifice (m2) and De is
hydraulic diameter (m).

Exercise 2-2
Calculate the seeding rate of wheat using a seed hopper on
a centrifugal spreader travelling at 16km/h and has a
rectangular orifice with area of opening = 0.00218m2 and
De = 0.0103m. The bulk density of wheat is 0.68kg/L.
46
 Metering individual seeds
This occurs in precision planters, and the theoretical seeding rate
is given by:

Where, Rst is theoretical seeding rate in no. of seeds/ha; w is row

width (m) and Xs is the seed spacing along the row (m) and is
given below for which n is rotational speed of metering device
(rev./min); is no. of seeds delivered per revolution of the
device; and v is travel speed of the planter (m/s).

47
 Exercise 2-3
Maize is to be planted with a precision planter that meters 12 seeds
per revolution of a metering disc; the row width is 75cm and the
planter speed is 7km/h. A plant population of 50,000 plants per
hectare is desired. Calculate the required rotational speed of the
metering device.

2.2.2.2 Seed Transport

Seeds must be transported to the soil surface or into a furrow after
metering.

Most transport systems rely on gravity for vertical movement of seeds;

horizontal movement of seeds is done with spinning discs in broadcast
seeders.

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 2.2.2.3 Furrow Opening and Covering
Hoes, runners, single and double discs can be used to open
furrows for planting at the proper spacing and depth.

The choice of optimum depth is a compromise with regards to

the fact that warmer soil near the soil surface promotes seed
germination and that seedlings may not have sufficient
strength to emerge if the seed is planted too deep in the soil.

2.2.2.4 Transplanting
 Transplanters plant individual seedlings, and their capacity
depends on the feed rate given by:

49
 Where, Rst is the required feed rate (no. of seedlings/min); v is
travel speed of the transplanter (m/s); Xs is the seedling
spacing along the row (m) and is the no. of rows planted
simultaneously by the transplanter.

Exercise 2-4
A one-row transplanter is to transplant cabbage seedlings at a
spacing of 0.15m within the row and with a 0.75m row
spacing. Determine the maximum allowable travel speed of
the transplanter if the feeding mechanism can deliver upto 100
50 seedlings/min.
 2.2.3 Performance Evaluation of Planting Equipment

Broadcast Seeders
Accuracy of seed placement and uniformity of distribution are the
main evaluation parameters for calibrating planters.

The relationship between orifice setting and flow rate is established

for each type of seed by measuring the volume of seed discharged
through the orifice in a given time repeatedly for different openings.

Variability is used to assess uniformity of distribution by

determining the coefficient of variation in the amounts of seed
discharged into a row of trays arrayed across the width of the swath.
20 – 30% variation should be obtained for a good design.

51
 Exercise 2-5
A row of 10 square trays each 15cm by 15cm in size are
arrayed across the 20m swath of a centrifugal seeder which
is seeding wheat. After passage of the seeder, the following
amounts of seed (in mg) are found in the trays:

20.0, 32.8, 32.0, 30.5, 29.3, 29.1, 30.3, 31.5, 32.7, and 22.5.

Calculate the mean, standard deviation, coefficient of

variation and the coverage seeding rate across the swath in
kg/ha.

52
 2.4 Weeding and Chemical Application

A weed is a wild plant growing where it is not desired. Weeds

are undesirable because they compete with crops for nutrients,
water and air; and they harbour pests and diseases.

Methods of Weed Control

Mechanical Cultivation
This involves tillage between the plants and is accomplished with
a row crop cultivator.

Chemical Application
This involves the use of herbicides.

53
 2.4.1 Mechanical Cultivation

54
 2.4 .2 Chemical Application
Application of agricultural chemicals is done to
provide nutrients for plant growth and to control
weeds, insects and plant diseases.

Classification of Agricultural Chemicals:

Fertilizers
Pesticides ( herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, etc)
Growth Regulatory Chemicals

The chemicals can either be in granular or liquid form.

55
 2.4.2.1 Application of Dry Chemicals
 Dry granular solids are chemicals with the active ingredient
impregnated on inert carriers such as clay, sand and corn cobs.

 Advantages of dry chemicals include relatively cheap

application equipment; minimum chemical drift; higher safety
in use and no need to haul water for mixing as occurs with
liquid chemicals.

 Their disadvantages include higher costs than that of liquid

chemicals; poor metering characteristics; limited to soil
conditions as they require moisture to become activated; and
more bulky to transport and store.

56
  Methods and Equipment
 Granular chemicals such as fertilizer may be applied in two
ways:
a) Broadcast application (spreading over the entire field)
b) Banded application ( in narrow rows)

 The equipment for applying granular material includes drop-

type applicator, centrifugal and pneumatic spreaders or
aircraft.

Drop-type applicator: utilizes one or several hoppers in

which the material is metered and dropped through a tube
and is spread in a wide band by a diffuser.

57
 Centrifugal spreaders: the material is metered on to one or
two spinning discs and is thrown wide by the centrifugal
force.

Pneumatic applicators: have a centrally located hopper from

which granules are metered, delivered by air through tubes
across the machine width, and are then spread by being
impinged onto deflector plates.

Aircraft: used in areas too large or rough for ground rigs.

58
 A Fertilizer Applicator
59
 Functional Processes

Distribut
Meter Convey Place
e

Metering: with devices such as star-wheel, spinning disc, auger tube, etc.

Conveying: with devices such as discharge tubes.

Distributing: with devices that may include rotary spreaders, gravity diffusers,
agitators, etc.

Placement: with devices such as a tillage tool, furrow opener, etc

60
 Performance Evaluation

The performance of dry chemical application is measured by uniformity

of coverage and calibration accuracy, which are affected by field
conditions and type of material.

Calibration
 refers to the amount of chemical applied per unit area
(kg/ha):
AR= m/A
Where AR is application rate (kg/ha), m is mass of material (kg) and A is
treated area (ha).
For banded Application: A = d*w/10000 ; d is travel distance (m), and w
is swath width (m). For broadcast Application: A = wD*AT /10000wR; wD
is band width (m), AT is total area (ha) and wR is row width (m).

61
 Exercise 2-6
A side dressing fertilizer unit is to place two bands per
row on a crop with a 1-m row spacing. It is desired to
apply a fertilizer having an apparent specific gravity of
0.85 at a rate of 560kg/ha. If the distributor is calibrated
by driving the machine forward a distance of 30m, what
mass of material should be collected from each delivery
tube when the distributor is properly adjusted?

62
 2.4.2.2 Application of Liquid Chemicals

Liquid chemicals include fertilizers, pesticides and other growth

regulating hormones in form of water emulsions, solutions,
suspensions or wettable powders.

They may further be classified in two ways:

 Contact Type: effective on contact with the target;
 Systematic Type: absorbed by the plant and translocate within it.

They are less expensive and have better metering characteristics

than granular chemicals. However, the application equipment is
relatively expensive and are susceptible to chemical drift during
application.

63
  Methods and Equipment

 Liquid chemicals may be broadcast, banded or directed.

Broadcast application (spraying uniformly on the crop or
field);
Banded application ( applying in narrow bands or strips); and
Directed application (several nozzles used for more complete
coverage of the plants)

 The equipment used is in the following categories based on

system pressure:
 Non-pressure liquid applicators: utilize gravity to discharge the
liquid close to the ground through fixed orifices and small tubes.

64
  Low-pressure sprayers: include the tractor-mounted boom-type
sprayer applying 50-200L/ha across the boom width of 4-12m
with a pressure unit range of 150-350kPa and 575-1000L tank
capacity.

 High-pressure sprayers: operate at higher pressure up to

7000kPa for high coverage and penetration through thick
canopies of plants, and generally do not have a boom with
multiple nozzles.

 Air-carrier sprayers: the liquid is atomized by pressure nozzles

or rotary atomizers in a high velocity airstream that carries the
liquid to the target.

65
 2.0 Farm Operations and Equipment...

A boom sprayer

66
 Functional Processes

Pumping Agitation Atomization

Pumping: creates flow of the liquid using power from the tractor’s
pto.

Agitation: mechanically or hydraulically shakes the spray

materials which are suspensions of insoluble powder or emulsions.

Atomization: increases the surface area of the liquid by breaking it

into many small droplets for effective coverage of plant and soil
surface.

67
 Performance Evaluation

Sprayer performance is determined by the uniformity of

coverage and spray patterns, droplet size and its distribution,
target deposition and drift.

Sprayer calibration refers to adjusting the chemical application


rate in L/ha, which depends on forward speed, effective sprayer
width and the nozzle flow rate. For broadcast application:

Qn= AR*S*dn /600

Where Qn is nozzle flow rate (L/min), AR is application

rate(L/ha); S is sprayer speed (km/h) and dn is nozzle spacing
(m).

68
 The system pressure, p for the desired nozzle flow rate is
given by the equation below in which Qr is rated nozzle flow
rate (L/min) and Pr is the rated nozzle pressure (kPa).

Exercise 2-7
A field sprayer is equipped with nozzles having a rated
delivery of 0.42L/min of water at 275kPa. The nozzle spacing
on the boom is 51cm. Each kilogram of active ingredient is
mixed with 80L of water and the desired application rate is
0.95kg of chemical per hectare. What is the correct forward
speed for a nozzle pressure of 200kPa?
69
 2.5 Irrigation
The growth of plants requires the input of water by natural
and/or artificial means, the former being rainfall and the
latter being referred to as irrigation.

Irrigation serves to provide a suitable moisture environment;

cool crops during hot weather conditions; protect crops from
frost during the cold weather conditions; fertigate crops; etc.

An irrigation system performs the following functions such

as will divert water from its natural source; convey it to the
field of crops; distribute it within the field; and apply it to
the crops.

70
 2.5.1 Functional Processes of an Irrigation System
 The functional processes of an irrigation system can be
represented by a process diagram, thus:

Divert Convey Distribute Deposit

2.5.1.1 Diversion
 The water is diverted from its source by gravity or pumping
depending on the topography of the area. Pumping is the core
of many irrigation systems, and several types of pumps exist
including centrifugal, plunger and piston pumps.

71
 Centrifugal pumps
Typically consists of an impeller operating like a fan and is
driven at high speed inside a disc-shaped casing. Water
enters at the centre of the casing and the motion of the
impeller pushes it up the delivery pipe.

Plunger pumps
Suitable for deep wells; and consist of a rod that is operated
by a crank or lever above the ground and works inside a
vertical cylinder with transfer ports and a delivery valve
connected to the rising main pipe.

72
 Piston pumps
Suitable for use in shallow wells; and they consist of a
close-fitting piston that reciprocates in a small cylinder
with both inlet and outlet valves.

 Factors to consider in pump selection include discharge

capacity for a given irrigation scheme; the total head
requirements; efficiency of pump; ease of installation;
availability of power; and operational costs.

Centrifugal pumps are most commonly used for irrigation

pumping because they adaptable within limits to variations in
head and flow rates.
73
  Principally, irrigation pumps lift water from one elevation to a
higher level, in the process overcoming friction losses and
providing pressure for the application sub-system of the
irrigation system.
 The performance of a pump is described by its capacity, head,
efficiency, required net positive suction head, and specific
speed.

Pump capacity, Q is the volume of water delivered by the

pump per unit time. Q is often expressed in litres/min or
cumecs.

The head, H is the net work done on a unit weight of water

by the pump. It is given by:

74
 Where, P is water pressure [kPa]; γ is specific weight of fluid
[kN/m3]; v is flow velocity [m/s]; g is gravitational acceleration
[9.81m/s2]; Z is elevation head[m]. Subscripts d and s are the
discharge and suction sides of the pump respectively.

 Water power, WP is the power imparted to the water by the pump. It

is given by:

Where, WP is water power [kW]; Q is pump capacity [l/min]; H is the

head [m]; and K is unit constant, 6116].

75
  Pump efficiency, Ep is defined as the ratio of the useful power
delivered by the pump (water horsepower) to the power supplied to
the pump shaft (brake horsepower) given thus:

Where, Ep is pump efficiency [%]; WP is water power [kW]; and

BP is brake power [kW].

 The required net positive suction head (NPSHr) is a measure of the

head necessary to transfer water into the impeller vanes efficiently
and without cavitation.

76
 Cavitation refers to the formation and subsequent collapse
of vapour-filled cavities of fluid within the eye of the
impellers.

Specific speed is an index number correlating pump flow,

head, and speed so as to classify pump impellers with
respect to their geometric similarity.

The index is used in the determination of the maximum

permissible suction lift, or minimum suction head, which
is necessary to avoid cavitation.

77
 The affinity laws state for a given pump are such that the
capacity will vary directly with a change in speed; the head
will vary as the square of speed; and the required
horsepower will vary as the cube of the speed.

Mathematically,
For flow: Q ∞ N i.e.

For head: H ∞ N2 i.e.

For BHP: BHP ∞ N3 i.e.

78
 A pump operates at various combinations of head and
discharge given by its H-Q characteristic curve.

A particular combination at which a pump operates is called

the pump’s operating point.

The H-Q requirements of an irrigation system are

described by a system curve given by:

79
 Where, Hs is system head [m]; SL is suction-side lift [m]; DL is
discharge-side lift [m]; DD is water source drawdown [m]; H l is
headloss due to pipe friction [m]; Ml is minor losses through
fittings [m]; Ho is operating head [m]; and VH is velocity head
[m].

 The velocity head, VH is computed using the expression involving

system discharge and the discharge pipe:

Where, Q is system discharge [l/min]; D is diameter of discharge

pipe[cm]; and K is unit constant=435.7.
80
 Exercise 2-8
A sprinkler irrigation system has 100 sprinklers with a 610m
PVC supply line of diameter, 200mm. The source of water for
irrigation is a large reservoir from which the water is lifted
through a vertical distance of 60m to the field. Given that the
individual sprinkler discharge is (Q is in l/min
and p is operating pressure in kPa); and minor losses are 10%
of the pipe friction losses, determine the system head for the
irrigation system.

 In view of the foregoing pump characteristics, pump selection for

a particular irrigation system involves specifying the performance
requirements and pump type in a given economic setting.
81
  Performance requirements are based on the discharge
computed with the equation for the system design capacity;
and the head determined from the system curve.

 The pump type is chosen such as to provide the NPSHr. Thus,

the available net positive suction head (NPSHa) must equal or
be greater than the NPSHr .

 NPSHa is given by the following equation:

82
 Where, BP is barometric pressure [m]; VPw is vapour
pressure of wtaer; (Hl)s is head loss due to pipe friction in the
suction line [m]; (Ml)s are minor losses in suction line [m];
VHs is velocity head in suction line [m]; DD is drawdown
[m]; h is elevation above sea level; K1= 10.33; and K2=
1.69x 10-8.

83
 2.5.1.2 Conveyance and Distribution
 The conveyance sub-system of an irrigation system consists of the main
pipelines and sub-mains in pressurized flow regimes, and canals in
open channel flow regimes.

Mainlines convey water from the source and distribute it to the

submains that provide water to the laterals which supply the
application devices.

 The material for the pipelines will depend on the working conditions
such as chemical composition of the soil, stoniness and type of irrigation
system.

 Asbestos-cement (AC) pipes are commonly used for burried pipelines.

84
 Aluminum pipes are used for portable and durable laterals.

Steel pipes are strong but are subject to corrosion.

Polyvinyl chloride plastics (PVC) are resistant to corrosion,

have smooth walls, but must be protected from surge
pressures.

 The main considerations in pipeline selection are the discharge

requirement, head loss and economic aspects.

Pipelines must supply water at the desired pressure, be strong

enough to withstand expected operating and surge pressures,
and have a high life expectancy.
85
  The discharge requirement for conveyance and distribution of
water via pipelines is based on the Design daily irrigation
requirement (DDIR), defined as the rate at which an irrigation
system must supply water to achieve the desired level of irrigation.

 The DDIR for an irrigation system varies with the crops, climate
and soils of the farming area.

 DDIR values are largest for crops with relatively shallow rooting
systems, high sensitivity to water stress, or high water usage; for
climates with high daily ET rates and low precipitation; and soils
with low water holding capacities.

86
  The DDIR for a crop can be computed based on the allowable
moisture depletion and the evapotranspiration during the
irrigation season as given by the US Soil Conservation Service,
thus:

Where, DDIR is in mm/day; ETm is the average peak monthly

evapotranspiration [mm] and AD is the allowable depletion
[mm]

87
  Uniform application of water by an irrigation system will
depend on the desired pressure provided. However, pressure
tends to vary due to friction losses and changes in elevation.

 The pressure variation along a pipeline can be estimated using

the equation below:

Where, Pd and Pu are pressures at down-and upstream positions

(kPa); h1 is energy loss between the upstream and downstream
positions (m); ∆Z is elevation difference (m) and K is 9.81.

88
 The energy loss, h1 can be estimated with the equation
below.

Where, F is the constant depending on the number of outlets

between the downstream and upstream locations on the
pipeline; H1 is the friction loss; and M1 are the minor losses.

Friction losses can be computed with either the Darcy-

Weisbach, Hazen Williams or Scobey equation given thus:

89
 Where, K is the friction factor depending on pipe material; L
is pipe length (m); Q is flow rate (l/min); D is diameter of
pipe (mm); c, m and n are constants given in the table below.
The term F in the energy loss equation is obtained from
tables in literature. F = 1 when there are no outlets between
the up-and downstream locations along a pipe.
Method K c m n
Darcy-Weisbach 277778 2.0 1.0

Hazen-Williams 591722 1.85 1.17

Scobey 610042 1.90 1.10

Constants C and Ks are obtained from tables in literature;

90 while f is obtained from the moody diagram.
91
 2.5.1.3 Application
 The application sub-system of an irrigation system applies
water to the crops in the field.

 It consists of sprinklers in the overhead irrigation method;

emitters in the sub-surface irrigation method; and siphon
tubes in the surface irrigation method using furrows.

 The choice of equipment depends on the maximum area to be

covered in any one time, and the desired application rate under
the prevailing site conditions.

92
 1) Overhead Irrigation
 An overhead irrigation system involves the use of pressure
energy to form and distribute rain-like droplets over the land
surface through special devices called sprinklers.

 In a sprinkle system, water is conveyed from a pump or other

source of water under pressure through a network of pipes to
the sprinklers.

 Types of sprinkler irrigation systems may be classified as

portable, semi-portable, semi-permanent or permanent;
another classification is solid-set, continuous move or set-
move.
93
 Examples of types of sprinkler systems
Continuous move
systems Solid-set system

Set-move systems

94
  The design of sprinkler systems considers several aspects
including the following:

 Sprinkler discharge, which is the volume of water delivered

per unit time.

 Distance of throw, which is measured as wetted diameter

based on operating pressure and nozzle geometry.

 Distribution pattern, which is determined by the variation in

the volume and rate of water application beneath a sprinkler
with the distance from the sprinkler.
95
  Application rate, which is used to match sprinklers to the soil, crop
and terrain on which they operate.

 Droplet size, which is important when considering distortion of

distribution patterns due to wind.

 Sprinkler system design is aimed at providing the design daily

irrigation requirement with acceptable uniformity and without runoff.

 The design process involves determining the sprinkler discharge

capacity, allowable application rate, operating pressure and the
desired nozzle geometry of the sprinkler.

96
  Sprinkler system design capacity is estimated using the equation
below:

Where, Qs is sprinkler capacity [l/min]; Da is depth to be applied

[mm]; L is spacing between laterals [m]; S spacing between
sprinklers on lateral [m]; H is time interval between the
beginnings of successive irrigations of a given set [hr]; T m is
downtime for moving set-move components and maintenance
[hr]; Ea is application efficiency [%]; and K is unit
constant=1.67.
97
  The interval H and depth Da can be determined using the
equations:

Where, Pf is percent of total field irrigated when the system is

operating; D is desired depth of irrigation[mm]; and DDIR is
design daily irrigation requirement [mm/day].

 The application rate should be less than the infiltration capacity of

the soil; and the operating pressure must be within the
recommended range by the manufacturer.
98
 Ten 300-m-long laterals with sprinklers in a 15-m square
spacing pattern are operated simultaneously to irrigate a 25-ha
field. The system is system is designed to deliver 7mm/day
and a desired depth of 15mm. Determine the maximum time
between successive irrigations and the sprinkler capacity and
depth applied for a set length of 8 hours assuming 0.5 hours
per set is required to move each lateral.

Finally, specifications for alternative layouts of the sprinkler

system must be developed based on the topography, field shape,
water source location, and the correct pipe-size analysis.

99
 2) Sub-Surface Irrigation
Sub-surface irrigation involves frequent, slow application of
water either directly onto the land surface or into the root zone
of the crop using special devices such as emitters.

The benefits associated with this type of irrigation include

improved crop quality with higher yields achieved, and
reduced water and energy use.

This is because evaporation and deep percolation losses are

limited and weed growth is reduced as only a portion of the
root zone is irrigated.

100
 Main problems associated with these systems include
clogging of system components by particulate materials.

Sub-surface irrigation systems include drip, bubbler and spray

systems that typically involve pumping water through valves,
filters, and pipelines to the emission devices.

The major design aspect of sub-surface irrigation system is

selection of the emission device in terms of type and discharge
capacity.

101
 A drip irrigation system

102
 The type of emission device depends on such factors as the crop
to be irrigated, filtration requirements, cost and grower
preference.

The capacity of any given emission device may be computed

using the equation below:

Where, C is emission device capacity[l/hr]; Da is depth of water

applied [m]; Ai is area irrigated by emission device [m2];

103
 H is hours of irrigation; Tm is off time [hr]; Ea is application
efficiency [%]; and K is unit constant=100.

 The interval H and depth Da can be determined using the

equations:

Where, Pf is 100*[number of emission devices per irrigation/total

number of emission devices]; D is desired depth of
irrigation[mm]; and DDIR is design daily irrigation requirement
[mm/day].
104
 The area irrigated by an emission device is computed using
the equation:

Where, Ai is area irrigated [m2]; L is spacing between

adjacent plant rows [m]; S is spacing between emission
points [m]; P is percent of crop area being irrigated [%]; and
Ne is number of emission devices at each emission point.

The term Ne is estimated by dividing the total area to be wet

by the area wet per emission device. For single laterals with
equally spaced emission points, the following equation is
used:
105
 Where, Ne is number of emission devices per emission
point; Dw is maximum diameter of wetted circle formed by
single point source emission device [cm]; P is percent of
area irrigated [%]; K is unit constant =100.

Exercise 9
Determine the capacity of emission devices for an apple
orchard in which the trees are spaced in a 5 x 5m grid. RAW
is 20cm and DDIR is 8mm/day. The irrigator desires to use
a single emission device per tree and to irrigate 50% of the
cropped area daily. The orchard is to be divided into 12
zones each of which is irrigated once per day for 2 hours.

106
 3) Surface Irrigation
Surface irrigation is accomplished by causing water to flow over the
land surface from a supply source. The process occurs in four
phases with respect to the wetting front of water.

 The advance phase starts when water first enters the field plot and
continues up to the time when it has advanced to the end of plot.

 The storage phase occurs when inflow continues after water has
reached the downstream end.

 After termination of the inflow, the ponding water or the water-

front recedes from the field by draining into the next field by
infiltration. This is the recession phase.
107
  Hydraulic analysis of surface flow during all the phases of
irrigation from advance to recession is important for successful
design and operation of a surface irrigation system.
108
  The primary methods of surface irrigation are the basin, border
and furrow irrigation systems.

In basin irrigation, the field is divided into units surrounded

by small levees and dikes. Water is then conducted to the
basins using gated outlets, siphon tubes and hydrants.

Border irrigation makes use of parallel earth ridges, called

borders, to guide a sheet of flowing water across a field.

Furrow irrigation is accomplished by running water in small

channels that are constructed with or across the slope of a
field.
109
  Surface irrigation system design involves developing
specifications for economically and technically feasible layouts
of application, delivery and drainage facilities.

 The design stream size for these irrigation methods can be

determined as follows using empirical approaches:

The minimum stream size to ensure adequate spread of

water for a graded border is given by the SCS as:

110
 Where, qmin is discharge per unit width, m3/s/m; L is border
length, m; S0 is border slope, m/m; and n is roughness
coefficient (0.15–0.25).

 When the soil erodibility causes restrictions on q, the maximum

allowable inflow rate qmax to the border can be obtained thus:

Where, qmax is in m3/s/m; S0 is field slope in m/m; C is empirical

coefficient equal to 2.5×10–4 for sod and 1.7×10–4 for nonsod
crops.

111
 When the dike height causes the restrictions on q, the
maximum allowable inflow rate can be obtained using
Manning’s equation:

Where, ymax is maximum allowable depth of flow assumed to

equal 0.15 m; n is roughness coefficient (∼0.4–0.25); and S0
is field slope (m/m) [0.1–0.5%].

112
 In basin irrigation, the stream size will depend on field trials;
it should be large enough to maximize application efficiency
and uniformity, but small enough to not cause excessive
erosion.

In furrow irrigation systems, the maximum stream size that

will not cause erosion will depend on the furrow slope. It can
be estimated by equation:

Where, qmax is maximum non-erosive flow rate in individual

furrow (l/s); and S is slope of furrow (%).
113
 2.6 Harvesting
Harvesting is the final crop production operation that
removes the parts of the plants that have economic value for
the farmer.

Timeliness of the harvesting operation is critical to crop

yield, and as such mechanization plays a significant role.

Harvesting operations may be categorized into hay and

forage harvesting; grain harvesting; fruit, nut and vegetable
harvesting; and conveying of the harvested agricultural
materials.

114
 2.6.1 Hay and Forage 2.6.1.1 Functional Processes
Harvesting Silage Cut Hay Cut
 Forage crops include
Condition
grasses, legumes and other Condition

crops that people cannot Windrow Swath

consume directly, but are
given to domesticated Wilt Wilt

animals. Chop Rake

Transport Dry
 Forages are generally
machine harvested and Store Bale

processed into hay or silage.

Transport

Store

115
 2.6.1.2 Methods and Equipment
 There are two common methods for harvesting forage:

Harvesting as silage, where the standing or wilted crop is

cut, cured, windrowed and chopped into short lengths by a
forage harvester for transport and storage.

Harvesting as hay, where the forage is placed in a swath,

raked, dried and baled for transport and storage. The
tractor-mounted drum mower can be used to cut the grass-
type forage.

116
 2.6.1.3 Performance Evaluation
 Three main evaluation parameters are generally considered:

 Capacity: area covered per unit time or amount of material

processed per unit time.

 Quality of the product: usually in terms of length of cut.

 Power requirements: include rotary power transmitted

through the pto shaft and drawbar.

117
 2.6.2 Grain Harvesting
 Grain crops include barley, beans, maize, rice, sorghum, wheat,
etc.

 Grain harvesting may be divided into cutting, threshing,

separation and cleaning functions.

 These functions may be performed by different machines or

they may be combined in a single machine.

118
 2.6.2.1 Functional processes in a grain combine

119
 2.6.2.2 Methods and Equipment
In a combine harvester, the functional processes are performed by the
following mechanisms:
 Grain header, which gathers, cuts, pick up and feed the crop.

 Threshing cylinder, which detaches the grains through impact and

rubbing action.

 Separator, which separates the grain from the straw using straw
walkers.

 Cleaning shoe, which finally separates the grain from other crop
material using aerodynamic and mechanical means.

120
 2.6.2.3 Performance Evaluation
 The performance characteristics of the combine mainly include
capacity and grain losses.
 Capacity: this is in terms of the amount of material processed
per unit time eg ton/h.

 Grain losses: these include header, threshing, separation and

cleaning losses that are often expressed in kg/ha or as a
percentage of the total grain entering the combine.

 Power requirements: the cylinder accounts for a large portion

of the total power requirement.

121
 Exercise 10
The following data were collected in a field test while
harvesting barley with a 4m self-propelled combine: length
of test=20m; time taken=20s; total material over
walkers=9.4kg; free seed over walkers=76g; unthreshed
seed over walkers=60g; total material over shoe=4.4kg;
free seed over shoe=289g; unthreshed seed over shoe=81g;
total seed collected at grain tank=17.6kg. The average
gathering loss was 10.2g/m2. Determine the gross yield in
kg/ha, and further estimate the total processing losses as a
percentage of total grain feed rate.

122
 2.6.3 Fruit, Nut and
Vegetable Harvesting 2.6.2.1 Functional Processes

Mechanical harvesting of fruit,

nut and vegetable crops poses Removal
natural and economic
constraints.
Control
Harvesting systems must Selection
accommodate a considerable
variation in product size and
maturity; as such mimic the Transportation
hand harvesting system.

123
 2.6.2.2 Methods and Equipment
The harvesting methods depend on crop type that may be root,
surface, bush or tree crop. The functional processes are
performed by various mechanisms designed:

 To remove or detach the object from the host plant by a

cutting, pulling, twisting, shaking or rolling action; to reduce
the possibilities of product damage with padded catching
surfaces;

 To select the ripe, correctly sized product while rejecting the

other undesirable products; and to handle and transport the
products in bulk.
124
 2.6.2.3 Performance Evaluation
 The performance factors in fruit, nut and vegetable
harvesting include:
Damage: product bruising, cutting, scuffing, etc are
undesirable as they reduce the value of the products.

Efficiency: usually defined as economic recovery of a

product as a percentage of the total available harvest.

Reliability: due to the high-value nature of the products,

the harvesting systems be designed for high mean times
between failure.

125
 2.7 Livestock Feeding and Product
Harvesting
Domestication of animals for meat and draught animal
power in developing countries is a very important
agricultural sub-sector.

The increasing pattern of meat consumption entails

higher productivity of livestock production; hence the
need for mechanization of the operations.

Livestock production operations include mainly stock-

feeding and product harvesting.
126
 2.7.1 Stock Feeding
 Important developments are taking place in mechanised
feeding of poultry, pigs and cattle. Mechanical devices
available may include:

Poultry feeders whereby feed hoppers are pushed along rails

to fill the fixed troughs attached to battery cages.

Feed dispensers for milking parlours; automatic calf feeders,

and out-of-parlour concentrate feeders.

Feed dispensers designed for feeding pigs on the floor or for

trough feeding.
127
 Automatic Feed Dispensers for Livestock

128
 2.7.2 Animal Product Harvesting
A range of equipment is also available for
harvesting animal products such as milk
harvesting.
Milk,
Eggs and
other products

129
 Animal Product Harvesting Machinery: Milking Machine

130
 END OF LECTURE

131