Chapter 4 Skin and Body Membranes

Chapter 4
Skin and Body

Membranes
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Body Membranes
▪ Functions of body membranes

▪ Cover body surfaces
▪Line body cavities
▪Form protective sheets around organs
▪Classified according to tissue types

Body Membranes
▪Epithelial membranes
▪Cutaneous membranes
▪Mucous membranes
▪Serous membranes
▪Connective tissue membranes
▪Synovial membranes

Epithelial Membranes
▪Epithelial membranes are simple organs

▪Also called covering and lining membranes
▪These membranes contain:
▪Epithelial tissue layer
▪Connective tissue layer

▪Cutaneous membrane = skin

▪Dry membrane
▪Outermost protective boundary
▪Construction
▪ Epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
▪ Dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue

Figure 4.1a Classes of epithelial membranes.
Cutaneous
membrane
(skin)
(a) Cutaneous membrane (the skin)

covers the body surface.

▪Mucous membranes (mucosae)

▪Moist membranes
▪Line all body cavities that open to the exterior body
surface
▪Adapted for absorption or secretion
▪Construction
▪ Epithelium type depends on site
▪ Loose connective tissue (lamina propria)

Figure 4.1b Classes of epithelial membranes.
Mucosa
(b) Mucous membranes line body cavities

open to the exterior.
▪Serous membranes (serosae)

▪Line open body cavities that are closed to the exterior
of the body
▪Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with a
visceral and parietal layer
▪Construction
▪ Simple squamous epithelium
▪ Areolar connective tissue

Figure 4.1c Classes of epithelial membranes.
Parietal layer
Serous fluid
Visceral layer
(c) Serous membranes line body cavities closed to exterior.

Figure 4.1d Classes of epithelial membranes.
Outer balloon wall

(comparable to parietal serosa)
Air (comparable to serous cavity)
Inner balloon wall
(comparable to visceral serosa)
(d) A fist thrust into a limp balloon demonstrates
the relationship between the parietal and
visceral serous membrane layers.

▪Specific serous membranes

▪Peritoneum
▪ Abdominal cavity
▪Pleura
▪ Around the lungs
▪Pericardium
▪ Around the heart

Connective Tissue Membranes
▪Synovial membranes
▪Loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial
tissue)
▪Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
▪ Line bursae
▪ Line tendon sheaths
▪Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs moving
against each other during muscle activity

Figure 4.2 A typical synovial joint
Ligament
Joint cavity
(contains
synovial fluid)
Articular (hyaline)
cartilage

Integumentary System
▪Integumentary system consists of the:

▪Skin (cutaneous membrane)
▪Skin appendages
▪ Sweat glands
▪ Oil glands
▪ Hair
▪ Nails

Functions of the Integumentary System
▪Insulates and cushion deeper body organs

▪Protects the entire body from:
▪Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
▪Chemical damage (acids and bases)
▪Thermal damage (heat or cold)
▪Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight)
▪Microbes (bacteria)
▪Desiccation (drying out)

Functions of the Integumentary System
▪Aids in loss or retention of body heat as

controlled by the nervous system
▪Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
▪Synthesizes vitamin D

Table 4.1 Functions of the Integumentary System (1 of 2)

Table 4.1 Functions of the Integumentary System (2 of 2)

Structure of the Skin
▪Two kinds of tissue compose the skin

▪Epidermis
▪Dermis
▪Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
▪Anchors the skin to underlying organs
▪Not technically part of the integumentary system
▪Composed mostly of adipose tissue
▪Serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper
tissues

Figure 4.3 Skin structure.
Hair shaft
Dermal papillae
Epidermis
Papillary Pore
layer Appendages of skin
• Eccrine sweat gland
Dermis • Arrector pili muscle

Reticular • Sebaceous (oil) gland
layer • Hair follicle
• Hair root (inside follicle)
Hypodermis
(subcutaneous
tissue)
Nervous structures Cutaneous vascular plexus
• Sensory nerve fiber
• Lamellar corpuscle Adipose tissue
• Hair follicle receptor
(root hair plexus)

▪Epidermis—outer layer
▪Capable of being hard and tough
▪Stratified squamous epithelium
▪Keratinocytes (the most common cell) produce a
fibrous protein called keratin
▪Avascular
▪Composed of five layers (strata)

▪Summary of layers of the epidermis from deepest

to most superficial
▪Stratum basale
▪Stratum spinosum
▪Stratum granulosum
▪Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only)
▪Stratum corneum

▪Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)

▪Deepest layer of epidermis
▪Lies next to dermis
▪Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the two
together
▪Cells undergoing mitosis
▪Daughter cells are pushed upward to become the
more superficial layers
▪Stratum spinosum
▪Cells become increasingly flatter and more keratinized

▪Stratum granulosum
▪Stratum lucidum
▪Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata
▪Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of
hands and soles of feet
▪Stratum corneum
▪Outermost layer of epidermis
▪Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin (protective
protein prevents water loss from skin)

Figure 4.4 The main structural features of the epidermis.
Stratum corneum. Cells are dead, flat

membranous sacs filled with keratin.
Glycolipids in extracellular space make
skin water resistant.
Stratum granulosum. Cells are flattened,

organelles are deteriorating; cytoplasm full
Keratinocytes of granules.
Desmosomes
Stratum spinosum. Cells contain thick
Epidermal bundles of intermediate filaments made
of pre-keratin.
dendritic cell
Stratum basale. Stem cells are actively

Melanin granules dividing; some newly formed cells
become part of the more superficial
layers.
Melanocyte
Sensory Dermis
Merkel nerve
cell ending
▪Melanin
▪Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes
▪Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale of the
epidermis
▪Color is yellow to brown to black
▪Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound granules
called melanosomes
▪Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics
and exposure to sunlight

▪Epidermal dendritic cells

▪Alert and activate immune cells to a threat (bacterial or
viral invasion)
▪Merkel cells
▪Associated with sensory nerve endings
▪Serve as touch receptors called Merkel discs

▪Dermis
▪Connective tissue
▪Underlies the epidermis

▪Two layers of the dermis

▪Papillary layer (upper dermal region) contain
projections called dermal papillae
▪ Indent the epidermis above
▪ Many projections contain capillary loops, and others
house pain and touch receptors
▪ On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase friction
and gripping ability
▪ Fingerprints are identifying films of sweat

▪Two layers of the dermis (continued)

▪Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
▪ Blood vessels
▪ Sweat and oil glands
▪ Deep pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles)

Figure 4.5 Light micrograph of the two layers of the dermis (100X).
Epidermis
Papillary
layer
Dermis
Reticular
layer

▪Other dermal features

▪Cutaneous sensory receptors
▪Phagocytes
▪Collagen and elastic fibers
▪Blood vessels

Skin Color
▪Three pigments contribute to skin color

1. Melanin
▪ Yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments
2. Carotene
▪ Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
3. Hemoglobin
▪ Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries
▪ Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring

Skin Color
▪Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment,

inflammation, hypertension, fever, or allergy
▪Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress (such
as fear), anemia, low blood pressure, impaired
blood flow to an area
▪Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver disorder
▪Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas

Appendages of the Skin
▪Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands

▪Sebaceous glands
▪Sweat glands
▪Hair
▪Hair follicles
▪Nails

Figure 4.3 Skin structure.
Hair shaft
Dermal papillae
Epidermis
Papillary Pore
layer Appendages of skin
• Eccrine sweat gland
Dermis • Arrector pili muscle

Reticular • Sebaceous (oil) gland
layer • Hair follicle
• Hair root (inside follicle)
Hypodermis
(subcutaneous
tissue)
Nervous structures Cutaneous vascular plexus
• Sensory nerve fiber
• Lamellar corpuscle Adipose tissue
• Hair follicle receptor
(root hair plexus)

▪Sebaceous (oil) glands

▪Located all over the skin except for palms and soles
▪Produce sebum (oil)
▪ Makes skin soft and moist
▪ Prevents hair from becoming brittle
▪ Kills bacteria
▪Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; others
open directly onto skin surface
▪Glands are activated at puberty

Figure 4.6a Cutaneous glands.
Sweat
pore
Sebaceous Eccrine
gland gland
Sebaceous
gland duct
Dermal connective
tissue
Hair in
hair follicle
Secretory cells
(a) Photomicrograph of a sectioned

sebaceous gland (100×)
▪Sweat (sudoriferous) glands

▪Produce sweat
▪Widely distributed in skin
▪Two types of sudoriferous glands
1. Eccrine glands
2. Apocrine glands

▪Eccrine glands
▪Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin’s surface
▪Produce acidic sweat
▪ Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic waste
▪Function in body temperature regulation

Figure 4.6b Cutaneous glands.
Sweat
pore
Eccrine
Sebaceous
gland
gland
Dermal connective
tissue
Eccrine
gland duct
Secretory cells
(b) Photomicrograph of a
sectioned eccrine
gland (205×)
▪Apocrine glands
▪Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit and
genitals
▪Begin to function at puberty
▪Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and
proteins (milky or yellowish color)
▪Play a minimal role in body temperature regulation

▪Hair
▪Produced by hair follicle
▪Root is enclosed in the follicle
▪Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or skin
▪Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
▪Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
▪Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in stratum
basale

Figure 4.7a Structure of a hair root and follicle.
Hair
shaft
Arrector
pili muscle
Sebaceous
gland
Hair follicle
Hair root
Hair bulb
in follicle
(a) Hair in hair follicle

▪Hair anatomy
▪Central medulla
▪Cortex surrounds medulla
▪Cuticle on outside of cortex
▪ Most heavily keratinized region of the hair

Figure 4.7b Structure of a hair root and follicle.
Cuticle
Cortex
Medulla
(b) Hair

Figure 4.7c Structure of a hair root and follicle.
(c) Scanning electron micrograph

of hair shaft emerging from
follicle (435×)

▪Associated hair structures

▪Hair follicle
▪ Composed of an epithelial root sheath and fibrous
sheath
▪ Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb
(deepest part of the follicle)
▪ Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull
hairs upright when we are cold or frightened

Figure 4.7d Structure of a hair root and follicle.
Hair root
Fibrous
sheath (dermal
connective Cuticle
tissue)
Hair Cortex
follicle
Epithelial
Medulla
root sheath
Hair matrix (growth

zone) in hair bulb
Melanocyte
Hair papilla
containing
blood vessels
Subcutaneous
adipose tissue
(d) Cross section of hair bulb

▪Nails
▪Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the
epidermis
▪Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed, which is
responsible for growth
▪Lack of pigment makes nails colorless

▪Parts of a nail
▪Free edge
▪Body is the visible attached portion
▪Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of the
nail; the cuticle is the proximal edge
▪Root of nail is embedded in skin
▪Growth of the nail occurs from nail matrix

Figure 4.8 Structure of a nail.
Lunule Lateral
nail fold
(a)
Free edge Body Cuticle Root of nail

of nail of nail
Proximal Nail
nail fold matrix
(b) Nail bed Bone of fingertip

Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
▪Infections and allergies

▪Athlete’s foot
▪ Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis)
▪ Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
▪Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
▪ Caused by inflammation of hair follicles
▪ Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by bacteria
▪Cold sores (fever blisters)
▪ Caused by human herpesvirus 1
▪ Blisters itch and sting

▪Infections and allergies (continued)

▪Contact dermatitis
▪ Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke allergic
responses
▪ Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
▪Impetigo
▪ Caused by bacterial infection
▪ Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around mouth/nose
▪Psoriasis
▪ Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or
stress
▪ Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales
that itch, burn, crack, or sometimes bleed
Figure 4.9 Cutaneous lesions.
(a) Cold sores (b) Impetigo (c) Psoriasis

▪Burns
▪Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat,
electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals
▪Associated dangers
▪ Protein denaturation and cell death
▪ Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
▪ Circulatory shock
▪Result in loss of body fluids and infection from the
invasion of bacteria

▪Malignant melanoma
▪Most deadly of skin cancers, but accounts for only 5
percent of skin cancers
▪Arises from melanocytes
▪Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
▪Detection uses ABCDE rule for recognizing melanoma

▪Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of

nines
▪Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation
▪Each area represents about 9 percent of total body
surface area
▪ The area surrounding the genitals (the perineum)
represents 1 percent of body surface area

Figure 4.10a Burns.
Totals
41/ 2 %
Anterior and posterior
head and neck, 9%

upper limbs, 18%

41/ 2 % 41/ 2% trunk, 36%
Anterior
trunk, 18%
Perineum, 1%
9% 9%

lower limbs, 36%
100%

(a) Rule of nines
▪First-degree burn (superficial burn)

▪Only epidermis is damaged
▪Skin is red and swollen
▪Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn)
▪Epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged
▪Skin is red, painful, and blistered
▪Regrowth of the epithelium can occur

▪Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn)

▪Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is
painless
▪Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is not possible
▪Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black
▪Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
▪Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons)
▪Appears dry and leathery
▪Requires surgery and grafting
▪May require amputation

Figure 4.10b Burns.
(b) Examples of burns

▪Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any one is met):

▪Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns
▪Over 10 percent of the body has third- or fourth-degree
burns
▪Third- or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet, or
genitals
▪Burns affect the airways
▪Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have
occurred

▪Skin cancer
▪Most common form of cancer in humans
▪Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet
(UV) radiation in sunlight and tanning beds
▪Cancer can be classified two ways
1. B enign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread
2. Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other
body areas

▪Most common types of skin cancer

▪Basal cell carcinoma
▪Squamous cell carcinoma
▪Malignant melanoma

▪Basal cell carcinoma

▪Least malignant and most common type of skin cancer
▪Arises from cells in stratum basale that are altered so
that they can no longer make keratin
▪Lesions appear as shiny, dome-shaped nodules that
develop a central ulcer

Figure 4.11a Photographs of skin cancers.
(a) Basal cell carcinoma

▪Squamous cell carcinoma

▪Believed to be induced by UV exposure
▪Arises from cells of stratum spinosum
▪Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papules that
gradually form shallow ulcers
▪Early removal allows a good chance of cure
▪Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed

Figure 4.11b Photographs of skin cancers.
(b) Squamous cell carcinoma

▪Malignant melanoma (continued)

▪A = Asymmetry
▪ Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
▪B = Border irregularity
▪ Borders of mole are not smooth
▪C = Color
▪ Different colors in pigmented area
▪D = Diameter
▪ Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
▪E = Evolution
▪ One or more of the ABCD characteristics is evolving

Figure 4.11c Photographs of skin cancers.
(c) Melanoma

Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body
Membranes
▪Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the
fifth or sixth month of fetal development but
disappears by birth
▪Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at
birth
▪Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and
disappear by the third week
▪Acne may appear during adolescence

Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body
Membranes
▪In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
▪With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
▪Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to
excessive sunlight
▪Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both
are genetically determined; other factors that may
contribute include drugs and emotional stress

Chapter 4 Skin and Body Membranes

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Chapter 4 Skin and Body Membranes

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Chapter 4

Skin and Body

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪ Functions of body membranes

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Epithelial membranes are simple organs

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Cutaneous membrane = skin

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

(a) Cutaneous membrane (the skin)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Mucous membranes (mucosae)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

(b) Mucous membranes line body cavities

▪Serous membranes (serosae)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

(c) Serous membranes line body cavities closed to exterior.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Outer balloon wall

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Specific serous membranes

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Integumentary system consists of the:

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Insulates and cushion deeper body organs

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Aids in loss or retention of body heat as

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Two kinds of tissue compose the skin

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Dermis • Arrector pili muscle

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Summary of layers of the epidermis from deepest

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Stratum corneum. Cells are dead, flat

Stratum granulosum. Cells are flattened,

Stratum basale. Stem cells are actively

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Epidermal dendritic cells

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Two layers of the dermis

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Two layers of the dermis (continued)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Other dermal features

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Three pigments contribute to skin color

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment,

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

▪Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.