CSE 3711 Computer Networks

-Computer Networks and the Internet-

Prof. Dr. A.K.M. Muzahidul Islam
Computer Science & Engineering (CSE)
United International University (UIU)

Summer 2023
 Resources
• Main Textbook
• Computer Networking – A Top-Down
Approach by James F. Kurose and Keith W.
Ross (EIGHTH EDITION)
• Other Books
• Data Communications and Networking. Behrouz
A. Forouzan
• Data and Computer Communications. William
Stallings (TENTH EDITION)
• Computer Networks Andrew S. Tanenbaum
Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach
8th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Pearson, 2020
 Course Outline: Summary
1. Chapter 1: Computer Networks and the Internet
2. Chapter 2: Application Layer
3. Chapter 3: Transport Layer
4. Chapter 4: Network Layer
5. Chapter 5: Data Link Layer
 Outline

What’s the Network and Internet?

What’s a protocol?

Network edge; hosts, access net, physical media

Network core: Packet/Circuit switching, Internet

structure

Performance: loss, delay, throughput

OSI Layer and TCP/IP Layer

Introduction to IP Addressing

Spring 2006
 Chapter 1: introduction
Chapter goal: Overview/roadmap:
• Get “feel,” “big • What is the Internet? What is a protocol?
• Network edge: hosts, access network,
picture,” introduction physical media
to terminology • Network core: packet/circuit switching,
– more depth, detail later in internet structure
course • Performance: loss, delay, throughput
• Protocol layers, service models
• Security
• History

Introduction: 1-6
The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
The Internet is a computer network that interconnects billions of
computing devices throughout the world.
 These devices are called hosts or end systems i.e. hosts = end systems
 host are connected together by a network of communication links and packet
switches.
mobile network

Communication links national or global ISP

 Made up of different physical

media
 fiber, copper, radio, satellite
 Different links can transmit data
at different rates, with the local or
transmission rate of a link ISP Interne
regional

measured in bits/second. home network t content

 transmission rate: bandwidth provider
network datacenter
network

Networks
 collection of devices, enterprise
network
routers, links: managed by
an organization Introduction: 1-7
• When one end system has • A packet switch takes a packet
data to send to another end
system,
– The sending end system
segments S sends the data
– Adds header bytes to each
segment.
– The resulting information i.e.
packets are then sent through
the network to the
destination end system D,
– In D, packets are reassembled
Packet switches: forward
into the original data.
packets (chunks of data)
 routers, switches
arriving on one of its incoming
communication links and
forwards that packet on one of
its outgoing communication
links.
– E.g., Routers and Link-layer
switches.
– Both types of switches forward
packets toward their ultimate
destinations.
– Link-layer switches : Typically
used in access networks
– Routers : Typically used in the
network core.
 Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
 takes application message
 breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L L bits each
bits
 transmits packet into access
network at transmission rate R 2 1
• link transmission rate, R: link transmission rate
aka link capacity, aka host
link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
Introduction 1-9
 “Fun” Internet-connected devices
Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use

bikes

Pacemaker & Monitor

Amazon Echo Web-enabled toaster +

IP picture frame
weather forecaster
Internet
refrigerator
Slingbox: remote cars
control cable TV
Security Camera AR devices
sensorized, scooters
bed
mattress

Gaming devices
Others?
Internet phones Fitbit
Introduction: 1-10
 The Internet: a “nuts and bolts” view
 End systems access the Internet through Internet
Service Providers (ISPs),
 Residential ISPs - Local cable or telephone companies;
 Corporate ISPs - University ISPs; mobile network
4G
 ISPs that provide WiFi access in airports, hotels, etc; national or global ISP
 Cellular data ISPs - Mobile access to our
smartphones.
Streaming
IP
Skype video

 End systems, packet switches, and other pieces of local or

the Internet run protocols that control the sending regional
ISP
and receiving of information within the Internet. home network content
provider
 The Internet’s principal protocols - TCP/IP Protocol HTTP network datacenter
Suit. Ethernet
network

 Protocols Control sending, receiving of messages TCP

• e.g., HTTP (Web), streaming video, Skype, TCP, IP, WiFi, 4G, enterprise
Ethernet network

WiFi
 Internet standards are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Introduction: 1-11

 The IETF standards documents are called requests for comments (RFCs).
• RFC: Request for Comments
• IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force
 The Internet: a “services” view
• Infrastructure that provides services to
applications: mobile network

– Web, streaming video, multimedia national or global ISP

teleconferencing, email, games, e-

commerce, social media, inter- Streaming
Skype video
connected appliances, …
local or
regional
 The applications are said to be distributed ISP
home network
applications, since they involve multiple end content
provider
systems that exchange data with each other. HTTP network datacenter
network

 Internet applications run on end systems—

they do not run in the packet switches in the enterprise
network core. network

 Packet switches facilitate the exchange of Introduction: 1-12

data among end systems, they are not
concerned with the application that is the
source or sink of data.
 What’s a protocol?
Human protocols: Network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  computers (devices) rather than humans
 “I have a question”  all communication activity in Internet
governed by protocols
 introductions

Rules for:
Protocols define the format, order of
… specific messages sent messages sent and received
… specific actions taken among network entities, and
when message received, actions taken on message
or other events
transmission, receipt
Introduction: 1-13
 What’s a protocol?
A human protocol and a computer network protocol.
A network protocol is similar to a human protocol, except that the entities exchanging messages and taking
actions are hardware or software components of some device

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? GET
http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross
2:00
<file>
time

Asking the time of day. Making a request to a Web server i.e. make a
request to a Web server. Introduction: 1-14
 Chapter 1: roadmap
• What is the Internet?
• What is a protocol?
• Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
• Network core: packet/circuit switching,
internet structure
• Performance: loss, delay, throughput
• Security
• Protocol layers, service models
• History
Introduction: 1-15
 A closer look at Internet structure

mobile network
national or global ISP
Network edge:
• Hosts or end systems that
sit at the edge of the local or

Internet regional
ISP
home network content
• hosts: clients and servers provider
network datacenter
network

– servers often in data

centers enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-16
 A closer look at Internet structure

mobile network
national or global ISP
Network edge:
• hosts: clients and servers
• servers often in data centers local or
regional
ISP
Access networks, physical media: home network content
provider
• the network that physically connects network datacenter
network

an end system to the first router –

Access Network enterprise
• wired, wireless communication links network

Introduction: 1-17
 A closer look at Internet structure
mobile network
Network edge: national or global ISP

• hosts: clients and servers

• servers often in data centers
local or

Access networks, physical media:

regional
ISP
home network
•wired, wireless communication links
content
provider
network datacenter
network

Network core:
 the mesh of packet switches and links that enterprise
interconnects the Internet’s end systems network

 interconnected routers Introduction: 1-18

 network of networks
 Access networks and physical media
Access Network: The network that physically mobile network

connects an end system to the first router national or global ISP

(i.e. edge router) on a path from the end

system to any other distant end system.

local or
Q: How to connect end systems to edge regional
ISP
router?
home network content
• residential access nets provider
• institutional access networks (school, company) network datacenter
network
• mobile access networks (WiFi, 4G/5G)

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-19
 Access networks: cable-based access
• The two most prevalent types of broadband residential access are digital
subscriber line (DSL) and cable.
• A residence typically obtains DSL Internet access from the same local
telephone company (telco) that provides its wired local phone access.

cable headend

cable splitter
modem

frequency division multiplexing

C
(FDM): different channels
V V V V V V
O
N
transmitted in different
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
D
A
D
A
T
R
frequency bands
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels
 Access networks: digital subscriber line (DSL)
• Each customer’s DSL modem uses the existing telephone line
exchange data with a digital subscriber line access multiplexer
(DSLAM) located in the telco’s local central office (CO).
• The home’s DSL modem takes digital data and translates it to high-
frequency tones for transmission over telephone wires to the CO;
• The analog signals from many such houses are translated back into
digital format at the DSLAM.
 use existing telephone line to central
central office telephone
office DSLAM
network • data over DSL phone line goes to
Internet
DSL splitter • voice over DSL phone line goes to
modem DSLAM
telephone net
 24-52 Mbps dedicated downstream
voice, data transmitted ISP
at different frequencies over DSL access transmission rate
dedicated line to central office multiplexer
 3.5-16 Mbps dedicated upstream
transmission rate

Introduction: 1-21
 central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

voice, data transmitted ISP

at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

• On the customer side, a splitter separates the data and

telephone signals arriving to the home and forwards the
data signal to the DSL modem.
• On the telco side, in the CO, the DSLAM separates the data
and phone signals and sends the data into the Internet.
• Hundreds or even thousands of households connect to a
single DSLAM.
FDMA
TDMA

CDMA
 Access networks: cable-based access
cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system
data, TV transmitted at different
frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 DSL makes use of the telco’s existing local telephone infrastructure.

 Cable Internet access makes use of the cable television company’s
existing cable television infrastructure.
 A residence obtains cable Internet access from the same company that
provides its cable television.
 Fiber Optics connect the cable head end to neighborhood-level junctions,
from which traditional coaxial cable is then used to reach individual
houses and apartments. Introduction: 1-24
 Each neighborhood junction typically supports 500 to 5,000 homes.
Because both fiber and coaxial cable are employed in this system, it is
often referred to as hybrid fiber coax (HFC).
 Access networks: cable-based access

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

• Because both fiber and coaxial cable are employed in this system, it is often referred
to as hybrid fiber coax (HFC).
• asymmetric: up to 40 Mbps – 1.2 Gbps downstream transmission rate, 30-100 Mbps
upstream transmission rate Introduction: 1-25
 fiber to the home (FTTH)
• Technology that provides even
higher speeds is fiber to the
home (FTTH) [Fiber Broadband
2020].
• The FTTH concept is simple—
provide an optical fiber path from
the CO directly to the home.
FTTH can potentially provide
Internet access rates in the
gigabits per second range.
• Each home has an optical network
terminator (ONT), connected by
dedicated optical fiber to a
neighborhood splitter.
• The splitter combines a number of
homes (typically less than 100) onto a
single, shared optical fiber, connects
to an optical line terminator (OLT) in
the telco’s CO.
• The OLT, providing conversion
between optical and electrical signals,
connects to the Internet via a telco
router.
• At home, users connect a home
router (typically a wireless router) to
the ONT and access the Internet via
this home router.
Access networks: home networks
Wireless and wired
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

WiFi wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54, 450
Mbps) wired Ethernet (1 Gbps)
Introduction: 1-27
 Wireless access networks
Shared wireless access network connects end system to router
 via base station aka “access point”

Wireless local area networks Wide-area cellular access networks

(WLANs)
 typically within or around
building (~100 ft)
 802.11b/g/n (WiFi): 11, 54, 450
Mbps transmission rate
 provided by mobile, cellular network
operator (10’s km)
 10’s Mbps
 4G cellular networks (5G coming)

to Internet
to Internet
Introduction: 1-28
Access networks: enterprise networks

Enterprise link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router
Ethernet institutional mail,
switch web servers

 companies, universities, etc.

 mix of wired, wireless link technologies, connecting a mix of switches
and routers (we’ll cover differences shortly)
 Ethernet: wired access at 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps
 WiFi: wireless access points at 11, 54, 450 Mbps
Introduction: 1-29
 Access networks: data center networks
mobile network
 high-bandwidth links (10s to 100s national or global ISP
Gbps) connect hundreds to thousands
of servers together, and to Internet

local or
regional
ISP
home network content
provider
network datacenter
network

Courtesy: Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing enterprise

Center (mghpcc.org) network

Introduction: 1-30
 Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
 takes application message
 breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L bits L bits each
 transmits packet into access
network at transmission rate R 2 1

• link transmission rate, aka link host

capacity, aka link bandwidth R: link transmission rate

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
Introduction: 1-31
 Links: physical media
 bit: propagates between Twisted pair (TP)
transmitter/receiver pairs  two insulated copper wires
 physical link: what lies • Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps Ethernet
between transmitter & • Category 6: 10Gbps Ethernet
receiver
 guided media:
• signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
• signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio
Introduction: 1-32
 Links: physical media
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper conductors  glass fiber carrying light pulses, each
pulse a bit
 bidirectional
 high-speed operation:
 broadband: • high-speed point-to-point
• multiple frequency channels on cable transmission (10’s-100’s Gbps)
• 100’s Mbps per channel  low error rate:
• repeaters spaced far apart
• immune to electromagnetic noise

Introduction: 1-33
 Links: physical media
Wireless radio
 signal carried in various
“bands” in electromagnetic
spectrum
 no physical “wire”
 broadcast, “half-duplex” (sender
to receiver)
 propagation environment
effects:
• reflection
• obstruction by objects
• Interference/noise
Radio link types:
 Wireless LAN (WiFi)
• 10-100’s Mbps; 10’s of meters
 wide-area (e.g., 4G cellular)
• 10’s Mbps over ~10 Km
 Bluetooth: cable replacement
• short distances, limited rates
 terrestrial microwave
• point-to-point; 45 Mbps channels
 satellite
• up to 45 Mbps per channel
• 270 msec end-end delay
Introduction: 1-34
 Chapter 1: roadmap
• What is the Internet?
• What is a protocol?
• Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
• Network core: packet/circuit switching,
internet structure
• Performance: loss, delay, throughput
• Security
• Protocol layers, service models
• History
Introduction: 1-36
 The network core
mobile network
• mesh of interconnected national or global ISP

routers
• packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer local or
regional
ISP

messages into packets home network content

provider
– network forwards packets from network datacenter
network

one router to the next, across links

on path from source to destination enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-37
 Two key network-core functions
routing algorithm Routing:
Forwarding: local forwarding table
 global action:
•
header output link determine source-
aka “switching” value
0100 3
0101 2 destination paths
• local action: move 0111 2
taken by packets
arriving packets 1001 1

from router’s  routing algorithms

input link to 1
appropriate router 3 2
output link 011
1

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction: 1-38
routing

Introduction: 1-39
 forwarding
forwarding

Introduction: 1-40
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

• packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to One-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R  L = 10 Kbits
bps  R = 100 Mbps
• store and forward: entire packet must arrive at  one-hop transmission delay
= 0.1 msec
router before it can be transmitted on next link

Introduction: 1-41
 Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Queueing occurs when work arrives faster than it can be serviced:

Introduction: 1-42
 Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link

exceeds transmission rate (bps) of link for some
period of time:
• packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on
output link
Introduction: 1-43
• packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer)
in router fills up
Alternative to packet switching: circuit switching

end-end resources allocated to,

reserved for “call” between
source and destination
• in diagram, each link has four circuits.
–call gets 2nd circuit in top link and
1st circuit in right link.
• dedicated resources: no sharing
–circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
• circuit segment idle if not used by call (no
Introduction: 1-44
sharing)
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: h ttp://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive

 commonly used in traditional telephone networks

 Example

• Consider the circuit-switched network shown in the figure below, with circuit switches
A, B, C, and D. Suppose there are 16 circuits between A and B, 20 circuits between B
and C, 15 circuits between C and D, and 18 circuits between D and A.
1) What is the maximum number of connections that can be ongoing in the network at
any one time? Ans. Sum of all i.e. 69
2) Suppose that these maximum number of connections are all ongoing. What happens
when another call connection request arrives to the network, will it be accepted?
Answer Yes or No. Ans. If connections are full, the request will be blocked
• Source: https://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/circuit_switching.php
 Circuit switching: FDM and TDM
Frequency Division 4 users
Multiplexing (FDM)

frequency
• optical, electromagnetic frequencies
divided into (narrow) frequency bands
 each call allocated its own band, can
time
transmit at max rate of that narrow
band
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

frequency
 time divided into slots
 each call allocated periodic slot(s), can
transmit at maximum rate of (wider) time
frequency band (only) during its time
slot(s) Introduction: 1-46
Packet switching versus circuit switching

example:
 1 Gb/s link

…..
N
 each user: users 1 Gbps link
• 100 Mb/s when “active”
• active 10% of time
Q: how many users can use this network under circuit-switching and packet switching?

 circuit-switching: 10 users
 packet switching: with 35 users, Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active at same time
is less than .0004 *
A: HW problem (for those with
course in probability only)

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: h ttp://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive
Introduction: 1-47
Why is packet switching more efficient?
• Example - Suppose users share a 1
Mbps link. Also suppose that each
user alternates between periods of
activity, when a user generates data
at a constant rate of 100 kbps, and
periods of inactivity, when a user
generates no data. Suppose further
that a user is active only 10 percent
of the time (and is idly drinking coffee
during the remaining 90 percent of
the time). With circuit switching, 100
kbps must be reserved for each user
at all times. For example, with circuit-
switched TDM, if a one-second frame
is divided into 10 time slots of 100 ms
each, then each user would be
allocated one time slot per frame.
• Thus, the circuit-switched link can
support only 10 (= 1 Mbps/100 kbps)
simultaneous users.
• With packet switching, the probability
that a specific user is active is 0.1 (that is,
10 percent). If there are 35 users, the
probability that there are 11 or more
simultaneously active users is
approximately 0.0004 (Homework).
• When there are 10 or fewer
simultaneously active users (which
happens with probability 0.9996), the
aggregate arrival rate of data is less than
or equal to 1 Mbps, the output rate of
the link. Thus, when there are 10 or
fewer active users, users’ packets flow
through the link without delay.
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner”?
 great for “bursty” data – sometimes has data to send, but at other times not
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss due to buffer overflow
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior with packet-switching?
• “It’s complicated.” We’ll study various techniques that try to make packet
switching as “circuit-like” as possible.

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching) versus

on-demand allocation (packet switching)?
Introduction: 1-49
 Internet structure: a “network of networks”

mobile network
• hosts connect to Internet via national or global ISP

access Internet Service Providers

(ISPs)
• access ISPs in turn must be
local or
interconnected regional
ISP
• so that any two hosts (anywhere!) home network content
can send packets to each other provider
network datacenter

• resulting network of networks is network

very complex enterprise

network
• evolution driven by economics,
national policies
Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure
Internet structure: a “network of networks”

Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?

… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-51
 Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP to

…

…
each other directly doesn’t

…
scale: O(N2) connections.
access access
…

net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
… access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

End systems (PCs, smartphones, Web servers, mail servers, and so on) connectIntroduction:
into the 1-52
Internet via an access ISP.
The access ISP can provide either wired or wireless connectivity, using an array of access
technologies including DSL, cable, FTTH, Wi-Fi, and cellular.
Access ISP : Telco or a cable company; university (providing Internet access to students,
staff, and faculty), or a company (providing access for its employees)
Internet structure: a “network of networks”

Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?

Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-53
Internet structure: a “network of networks”

But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-54
Internet structure: a “network of networks”

But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors …. who will
want to be connected
Internet exchange point IXP - A third-
… accessnet
access
net … party
access

access
net
access
net
company can
net
IXP access create an
access net
net
ISP A Internet
Exchange
…

…
Point (IXP),
access IXP ISP B access

which is a
net net

access
net
ISP C meeting point
access
net where
access
net
peering link multiple ISPs
access
… access access
… net
can peer
net access net
net together.
Introduction: 1-55
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPs

… access
net
access
net …
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-56
 Internet structure: a “network of networks”

… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai) may

run their own network, to bring services, content close to end users
… … access
net
access
net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
… … net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-57
 Internet structure: a “network of networks”

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

At “center”: small # of well-connected large networks

 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national & international coverage
 content provider networks (e.g., Google, Facebook): private network that connects its
data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs
Introduction: 1-58
 Chapter 1: roadmap
• What is the Internet?
• What is a protocol?
• Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
• Network core: packet/circuit switching,
internet structure
• Performance: loss, delay, throughput
• Security
• Protocol layers, service models
• History
Introduction: 1-59
 How do packet delay and loss occur?
• packets queue in router buffers, waiting for turn for
transmission
 queue length grows when arrival rate to link (temporarily)
exceeds output link capacity
 packet loss occurs when memory to hold queued
packets fills up
packet being transmitted (transmission delay)

B
packets in buffers (queueing delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction: 1-60
 Packet delay: four sources

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Total nodal delay dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors
 determine output link
 typically < microsecs
 time waiting at output link for
transmission
 depends on congestion level of
router
Introduction: 1-61
 Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:
 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link transmission rate (bps)  s: propagation speed (~2x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R  dprop = d/s
dtrans and dprop
very different The propagation speed depends on the
Introduction: 1-62
physical medium of the link e.g., fiber optics,
twisted-pair copper wire, etc.
It is in the range of 2x108 m/sec to 3x108 m/sec
 Caravan analogy

100 km 100 km

ten-car caravan toll booth toll booth toll booth

(aka 10-bit (aka link)
packet)
 car ~ bit;  time to “push” entire caravan
 caravan ~ packet; through toll booth onto
 toll service ~ link transmission highway = 12*10 = 120 sec
 toll booth takes 12 sec to service car  time for last car to propagate
(bit transmission time) from 1st to 2nd toll both:
 “propagate” at 100 km/hr 100km/(100km/hr) = 1 hr
 Q: How long until caravan is lined up  A: 62 minutes
before 2nd toll booth?
Introduction: 1-63
 Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km

ten-car caravan toll booth toll booth

(aka 10-bit (aka router)
packet)

 suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr

 and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car
 Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at first booth?
A: Yes!
 Time to “push” entire caravan through toll booth onto highway = 1*10 =
10 min as 1 min/car
 after 7 min since d/s = 100/1000 = 0.1h = 6min, Introduction: 1-64
 first car arrives at second booth;
 03 cars still left at first booth
 Packet queueing delay (revisited)
 a: average packet arrival rate

average queueing delay

 L: packet length (bits)
 R: link bandwidth (bit transmission rate)
L .a Average arrival rate of bits in Queue “traffic
:
R Transmission rate, bit/sec intensity”
traffic intensity = La/R 1

 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0

 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large

 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving is
more than can be serviced - average
delay infinite!
La/R -> 1
Introduction: 1-65
 “Real” Internet delays and routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
 traceroute program: provides delay measurement from source
to router along end-end Internet path towards destination.
For all i:
• sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards
destination (with time-to-live field value of i)
• router i will return packets to sender
• sender measures time interval between transmission and reply

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction: 1-66
 Real Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms 3 delay measurements
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms to border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic link
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms looks like delays
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms decrease! Why?
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at www.traceroute.org

Introduction: 1-67
 Packet loss

 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity

 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end
system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost

* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation (on publisher’s website) of queuing and loss
Introduction: 1-68
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits are being sent from
sender to receiver
• instantaneous: rate at given point in time
• average: rate over longer period of time

link capacity
pipe that can carry linkthat
pipe capacity
can carry
serverserver,
sendswith
bits Rsfluid at rate
bits/sec Rfluid at rate
c bits/sec
(fluid)
fileinto
of Fpipe
bits (Rs bits/sec) (Rc bits/sec)
to send to client
Introduction: 1-69
 Throughput
Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?
If Rs < Rc, then the bits pumped by the server will “flow” right through
the router and arrive at the client at a rate of Rs bps, giving a
throughput of Rs bps.

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

In this case, bits will only leave the router at rate
Rc, giving an end-to-end throughput of Rc.

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
Thus, for this simple two-link network, the throughput is min{Rc, Rs},
that is, it is the transmission rate of the bottleneck link.
Introduction: 1-70
 Throughput: network scenario
 per-connection end-end
Rs throughput:
Rs Rs min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: Rc or Rs is
R often bottleneck
Rc Rc
Rc
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more
examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction: 1-71
 Chapter 1: roadmap
• What is the Internet?
• What is a protocol?
• Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
• Network core: packet/circuit switching,
internet structure
• Performance: loss, delay, throughput
• Security
• Protocol layers, service models
• History
Introduction: 1-72
 Network security
 Internet not originally designed with (much) security in
mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached to a
transparent network” 
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!
 We now need to think about:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
Introduction: 1-73
 Network security
 Internet not originally designed with (much) security in
mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users attached to a
transparent network” 
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!
 We now need to think about:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to attacks

Introduction: 1-74
 Bad guys: packet interception
packet “sniffing”:
 broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e.g.,
including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A
payload B

Wireshark software used for our end-of-chapter labs is a (free) packet-sniffer

Introduction: 1-75
 Bad guys: fake identity
IP spoofing: injection of packet with false source address

A C

src:B dest:A
payload
B

Introduction: 1-76
 Bad guys: denial of service
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources (server,
bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic by
overwhelming resource with bogus traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts
around the network
(see botnet)
target
3. send packets to target
from compromised
hosts
Introduction: 1-77
 Lines of defense:
 authentication: proving you are who you say you are
• cellular networks provides hardware identity via SIM card; no such
hardware assist in traditional Internet
 confidentiality: via encryption
 integrity checks: digital signatures prevent/detect tampering
 access restrictions: password-protected VPNs
 firewalls: specialized “middleboxes” in access and core
networks:
 off-by-default: filter incoming packets to restrict senders, receivers,
applications
 detecting/reacting to DOS attacks
… lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8) Introduction: 1-78
 Chapter 1: roadmap
• What is the Internet?
• What is a protocol?
• Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
• Network core: packet/circuit switching,
internet structure
• Performance: loss, delay, throughput
• Security
• Protocol layers, service models
• History
Introduction: 1-79
 Protocol “layers” and reference models
Networks are complex, Question: is there any
with many “pieces”: hope of organizing
 hosts structure of network?
 routers  and/or our discussion
 links of various media of networks?
 applications
 protocols
 hardware, software

Introduction: 1-80
 Example: organization of air travel
end-to-end transfer of person plus baggage
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)
baggage (check) baggage (claim)
gates (load) gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway landing
airplane routing airplane routing
airplane routing

How would you define/discuss the system of airline travel?

 a series of steps, involving many services
Introduction: 1-81
 Example: organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticketing service ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage service baggage (claim)
gates (load) gate service gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway service runway landing
airplane routing routing service
airplane routing airplane routing

layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below
Introduction: 1-82
 Why layering?
Approach to designing/discussing complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of system’s pieces
• layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance,
updating of system
• change in layer's service implementation:
transparent to rest of system
• e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t
affect rest of system

Introduction: 1-83
 Layered Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network applications
• HTTP, IMAP, SMTP, DNS
application
application
 transport: process-process data transfer
• TCP, UDP transport
transport
 network: routing of datagrams from source to
destination network
• IP, routing protocols
link
 link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements physical
• Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction: 1-84
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
Application exchanges messages to implement some
application application service using services of transport layer application
Ht M
transport Transport-layer protocol transfers M (e.g., reliably) from transport
one process to another, using services of network layer

network  transport-layer protocol encapsulates network

application-layer message, M, with
transport layer-layer header Ht to create a link
link
transport-layer segment
• Ht used by transport layer protocol to
physical implement its service physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-85
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M

application application
Ht M
transport Transport-layer protocol transfers M (e.g., reliably) from transport
one process to another, using services of network layer
Hn Ht M
network Network-layer protocol transfers transport-layer segment
network
[Ht | M] from one host to another, using link layer services
link  network-layer protocol encapsulates link
transport-layer segment [Ht | M] with
physical network layer-layer header Hn to create a physical
network-layer datagram
source • Hn used by network layer protocol to destination
implement its service
Introduction: 1-86
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M

application application
Ht M
transport transport
Hn Ht M
network Network-layer protocol transfers transport-layer segment
network
[Ht | M] from one host to another, using link layer services
Hl Hn Ht M
link link
Link-layer protocol transfers datagram [Hn| [Ht |M] from
host to neighboring host, using network-layer services
physical  link-layer protocol encapsulates network physical
datagram [Hn| [Ht |M], with link-layer
source header Hl to create a link-layer frame destination

Introduction: 1-87
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M

application M
application
message
Ht M
transport Ht M
transport
segment
Hn Ht M Hn Ht M
network network
datagram
Hl Hn Ht M Hl Hn Ht M
link link
frame

physical physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-88
 message M
source
applicatio
Encapsulation: an
segment
datagram Hn Ht
Htt M
M
n
transport
end-end view
frame Hl Hn Ht M network
link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
applicatio
Ht M n physical
Hn Ht M transport
Hl Hn Ht M network router
link
physical Introduction: 1-89
 Chapter 1: roadmap
• What is the Internet?
• What is a protocol?
• Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
• Network core: packet/circuit switching,
internet structure
• Performance: loss, delay, throughput
• Security
• Protocol layers, service models
• History
Introduction: 1-90
 Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock - queueing  1972:
theory shows effectiveness of • ARPAnet public demo
packet-switching • NCP (Network Control Protocol)
 1964: Baran - packet-switching first host-host protocol
in military nets • first e-mail program
 1967: ARPAnet conceived by • ARPAnet has 15 nodes
Advanced Research Projects
Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational
 Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary networks
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -  minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for interconnecting internal changes required to
networks interconnect networks
 best-effort service model
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC  stateless routing
 late70’s: proprietary  decentralized control
architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA define today’s Internet architecture
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
Introduction: 1-92
 Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
 1983: deployment of TCP/IP  new national networks: CSnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail protocol BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel
defined  100,000 hosts connected to
 1983: DNS defined for name- confederation of networks
to-IP-address translation
 1985: ftp protocol defined
 1988: TCP congestion control

Introduction: 1-93
 Internet history
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new applications
 early 1990s: ARPAnet late 1990s – 2000s:
decommissioned  more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet  network security to forefront
(decommissioned, 1995)
 est. 50 million host, 100 million+
 early 1990s: Web users
• hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960’s]
• HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
 backbone links running at Gbps
• 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
• late 1990s: commercialization of the
Web
Introduction: 1-94
 Internet history
2005-present: scale, SDN, mobility, cloud
 aggressive deployment of broadband home access (10-100’s Mbps)
 2008: software-defined networking (SDN)
 increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access: 4G/5G, WiFi
 service providers (Google, FB, Microsoft) create their own networks
• bypass commercial Internet to connect “close” to end user, providing
“instantaneous” access to social media, search, video content, …
 enterprises run their services in “cloud” (e.g., Amazon Web Services,
Microsoft Azure)
 rise of smartphones: more mobile than fixed devices on Internet (2017)
 ~18B devices attached to Internet (2017)
Introduction: 1-95
 Chapter 1: summary
We’ve covered a “ton” of material!
 Internet overview
 what’s a protocol? You now have:
 network edge, access network, core  context, overview,
• packet-switching versus circuit- vocabulary, “feel”
switching of networking
• Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput  more depth,
 layering, service models
detail, and fun to
follow!
 security
 history
Introduction: 1-96
Additional Chapter 1 slides

Introduction: 1-97
 ISO/OSI reference model
Two layers not found in Internet
application
protocol stack!
presentation
 presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., encryption, session
compression, machine-specific conventions transport
 session: synchronization, checkpointing, network
recovery of data exchange link
 Internet stack “missing” these layers! physical
• these services, if needed, must be
The seven layer OSI/ISO
implemented in application reference model
• needed?
Introduction: 1-98
 Wireshark
application
(www browser,
packet
email client)
analyzer
application

OS
packet Transport (TCP/UDP)
capture copy of all Network (IP)
Ethernet Link (Ethernet)
(pcap) frames
sent/received Physical

Introduction: 1-99
Thank You