BASIC CONCEPTS OF GENETICS

GENETIC CODE & RNA TRIPLETS

BIO511
 GENETIC CODE
 Genetic code is a set of instructions
for transferring genetic data stored
in the form of DNA/RNA into
proteins.
 The genetic code is DNA or RNA
sequence from which living cells
make amino acids.
 This sequence ultimately dictates
the components of proteins, the
end products of most genes.
 Genetic code consists of 64 triplets
of nucleotides. These triplets are
called CODONS.
CODONS

GENETIC CODE = TRIPLET CODE = CODON

• There are 20 different amino acids which can be used in the
synthesis of proteins in the cells.

• There must be at least one specific codon for each amino acid.

• Thus, there has to be at least 20 different codons in the genetic

code.

• There are only four bases (AUGC). A minimum of 3 bases per

codon is necessary to have (a minimum of) 20 codes.

• Because at each position of a three-letter codon any of the four

different nucleotides (A, U, G, C) may be used, there are 64
different possible three-letter codons (4 x 4 x 4 = 64) in the
genetic code.
How are the instructions for assembling amino acids
into proteins encoded into DNA?
PROCESS OF GENE EXPRESSION
 RNA is the intermediate between genes
and the proteins for which they code
 Transcription is the synthesis of RNA
under the direction of DNA
 Transcription produces messenger RNA
(mRNA)
 Translation is the synthesis of a
polypeptide, which occurs under the
direction of mRNA
 Ribosomes are the sites of translation
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPTION&&
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATIONIN
IN
BACTERIAL
BACTERIALCELL
CELL
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPTION&&
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATIONIN
IN
BACTERIAL
BACTERIALCELL
CELL
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPTION&&
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATIONIN
IN
EUKARYOTIC
EUKARYOTICCELL
CELL
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPTION&&
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATIONIN
IN
EUKARYOTIC
EUKARYOTICCELL
CELL
TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPTION&&
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATIONIN
IN
EUKARYOTIC
EUKARYOTICCELL
CELL
1. Before transcription can begin, the portion of the DNA double helix to be
transcribed must be "UNZIPPED" by separating the two strands at their hydrogen
bonds. This is done by an enzyme named HELICASE. Where helicase has separated
the two DNA "backbones" there are now rows of nitrogenous bases just waiting to be
"read" and "rewritten" into another language: mRNA
2. Only one of the DNA strands in the double helix is read and used as template to
manufacture mRNA. Name of strand of DNA that is transcribed to create mRNA is
antisense strand. The enzyme that attaches & creates a complementary strand of
mRNA is called RNA POLYMERASE.
3. The final product of TRANSCRIPTION is a messenger RNA (mRNA).
It resembles half of a DNA molecule and carries the "message" containing instructions
for protein synthesis from the DNA "gene" in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm.
1. Translation is the process of PROTEIN SYNTHESIS by ribosomes, using mRNA as a
template. The genetic message in mRNA is 'read' by organelles called ribosomes in order
to make a particular protein. tRNA is also required for this process. tRNAs are specific for
one particular amino acid and each tRNA carries required amino acids to the ribosome in
order to synthesise the polypeptide chain.
2. The ribosome 'reads' the mRNA language in the 5' to 3' direction. Each codon specifies
one amino acid from which proteins are made. So, the mRNA language indicates the
sequence of amino acids for the synthesis of a protein.
3. As each codon is 'read', the amino acids are carried to the site of formation of the
polypeptide chain by the particular tRNA. Each tRNA has an anticodon that are opposite to
the particular codon . Once a amino acid is bound to the forming polypeptide chain, the next
codon is read by the ribosome.
 TRANSCRIPTION
• During transcription, the gene determines
the sequence of bases along the length of
an mRNA molecule.
• For each gene, only one of the two DNA
strands is transcribed. This strand is
called the TEMPLATE STRAND because
it provides the pattern, or template, for the
sequence of nucleotides in an RNA
transcript.
• The base-pairing rules for DNA
synthesis also guide transcription, but
uracil (U) takes the place of thymine (T)
in RNA.
•Like a new strand of DNA, the RNA
molecule is synthesized in antiparallel
direction to the template strand of DNA.
Eg base triplet 3’-ACC-5’ along DNA
serve as a template for 5’-UGG-3’ in
mRNA molecule.
 TRANSLATION

• During translation, the sequence of

CODONS along an mRNA molecule is
DECODED, or TRANSLATED, into a
sequence of amino acids making up a
polypeptide chain.

•The mRNA base triplets are called

CODONS, and are customarily written &
read by the translation machinery in the 5’
 3’ direction.
•Each CODON specifies which one of the
20 amino acid will be incorporated at the
corresponding position along a
polypeptide.
•Example: UGG is the codon for the amino
acid tryptophan (abbreviated Trp), UUU
 Phenylalanine, GGC  Glysine, UCA
 Serine.
 11

22

33

44
DNA coding strand read on the sense (5' to 3') strand of DNA. This strand is often called
11 the sense strand (containing codons). Except that the nucleotide thymidine (T) is found
in place of uridine (U), they read the same as RNA codons.
This strand is called the DNA template strand or antisense strand (containing
anticodons).
22
mRNA is actually synthesized using the antisense strand of DNA (3' to 5') as the
template. Since mRNA is made from the template strand, it has the same information as
the DNA coding strand.
33
The sequence of reading the mRNA and adding an amino acid to the PEPTIDE CHAIN
continues until the 'stop' sequence (codon) is recognized.
44
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CODE

GENETIC
GENETIC
CODE
CODE
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CODE
• The following are features to note in the genetic code:
1) The Genetic Code is written in linear form. The
ribonucleotide sequence is derived from the
complementary nucleotide bases in DNA.
2) Each “word” within the mRNA consists of 3
ribonucleotide letters  THE TRIPLET CODE. With only
THREE exceptions, each CODON specifies ONE amino
acid.
3) The code is NONOVERLAPPING. After translation
commences, any single ribonucleotide within the mRNA
is part of only one triplet.
4) The code is COMMALESS. No internal punctuation is
used in the code. Once translation of mRNA begins, the
codons are read one after the other with no breaks
between them (until a STOP signal is reached).
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CODE
5) The code is UNAMBIGUOUS (specific) – each triplet specifies only a single
amino acid.
 In general, no codon specifies more than one amino acid. The exceptions so
far are AUG, UGA and UAG.

AUG

UGA

UAG
 THE RNA CODON

Figure 1.0 The RNA

CODON.
Of the 64 codons, 61
specify one of the 20
amino acids. The other 3
codons are chain-
terminating codons and do
not specify any amino acid.
AUG, one of the 61 codons
that specify an amino acid,
is used in the initiation of
protein synthesis.

Using this table, you should be able to translate mRNAs

 THE DNA CODON

The genetic code can be

expressed as either RNA
codons or DNA codons.

Because DNA sequencing has

become so rapid and because
most genes are now being
discovered at the level of DNA
before they are discovered as
mRNA or as a protein product,
it is extremely useful to have
a table of codons expressed
as DNA.

Using this table, you should be able to translate DNA

SEQUENCE to construct the mRNA SEQUENCE
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CODE
6) The code is DEGENERATE Most amino acids are specified by more
than one codon. This is the case for 18 of the 20 amino acids. In fact,
only Met and Trp are specified by a single codon:

No. of codons amino acids

1 Met, Trp
2 Asn, Asp, Cys, Gln, Glu, His, Lys, Phe, Tyr
3 Ile
4 Ala, Gly, Pro, Thr, Val
 Degeneracy is6found onlyArg,
in the
Leu,third
Ser nucleotide of the codon.

7) The code contains one “START” and three “STOP” signals, triplets
that initiate and terminate translation, respectively.
 1 start codon: AUG (However, note that GUG and UUG are
occasionally found as start codons).
 3 stop codons: UAA, UAG, and UGA.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CODE
The
Thecode
codeisis
DEGENERATE
DEGENERATE
Most
Mostamino
aminoacids
acids
are
arespecified
specifiedbyby
more than one
more than one
codon.
codon.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CODE
8) The Genetic Code is Universal.
The genetic code is remarkably
the same in all organisms - The
same codons are assigned to the
same amino acids and to the same
START and STOP signals in the vast
majority of genes in animals,
plants, and microorganisms.

However, some exceptions have

been found. Most of these involve
assigning one or two of the three
STOP codons to an amino acid
instead.

 The most common exception is

the use of UGA as a codon for
Tryptophan in mitochondria.
Table 13.5 show some of the known exceptions
to universality in both the genetic code used in
the nucleus and in the genetic code used in
mitochondria
Any Questions??
 REFLECTION…
REFLECTION…
WHAT ARE THE 8 CHARACTERISTICS OF
GENETIC CODES?

HOW GENE ENCODES PROTEIN?

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES OF GENE

EXPRESSION IN PROKARYOTE & EUKARYOTE?
• Let’s watch videos
– Transcription and translation