Generator Protection

By

A.P.Tennakoon
Chief Engineer-Protection
Asset Management Hydro Electrical Division
Ceylon Electricity Board
Structure of the presentation

• Introduction
• Generator Protection Functions
• Transformer Protection Functions
• Case Studies
Protection-Why is it needed?
• Faults and other abnormal conditions on power
system cause
• Damage to the faulty equipments
• Potential damage to unfaulted
equipment
• Danger to personnel
• Voltage reduction/Loss of supply
• Loss of synchronism between
generation sources
• Need to
• Detect faults and abnormal conditions
• Isolate faulty equipment
• Take remedial action

So As to
• Limit damage caused by fault energy
• Limit effect on rest of the system
Important considerations when applying
protection
• Types of fault and abnormal conditions to be protected against
• Quantities available for measurement- voltages and currents
• Types of protection available- protection functions
• Speed- min 25ms in numerical protection, circuit breaker operating time(100ms)
• Fault position discrimination- Breaker positions
• Dependability/reliability - selection of the correct function
• Security –tripping matrix
• stability – to maintain stability of the system, auto re-closer ,load shedding, Sync-check
• Overlap of protections- protection zones
• Phase discrimination selectivity- over current, earth fault, distance, differential, voltage
• CTs and VTs- Ratios, burden, accuracy
• Auxiliary supply- 110Vdc, 220Vc
• Back-up protection- Over current, Over voltage
• Cost
• Duplication of protection- for reliability
Single line diagram-Victoria
Electromagnetic type
Electronic/Analog type
Static/Digital Type
Numerical Type
Generator Protection

•Over current
•Differential
•Loss of excitation
•Over/Under Voltage
•Over/Under frequency
•Stator and Rotor Earth Fault
•Negative sequence
•Pole slip
•Under Impedance
•Reverse power
•Over Load
•Inter turn
•Shaft current/voltage
 Stator
Differential (87)
Over voltage (59)
Over excitation(24)
Allocation of Protection Functions

Over load (49)

Over current (51)
Earth fault(64G)
Inter turn
Under.
Impedance(21)
Rotor
NPS (46)
Turbine
Rotor Earth fault(64R)
Reverse power(32)
Over- under Loss of excitation(40)
frequency(81)
Pole slipping(78)
Shaft Current/Voltage
Over- under
frequency(81)
Generator differential (87G)
Causes
• phase faults
• Earth Faults
Features
• Inter turn faults excluded
• E/F on high imp. grounding not
detected
Effects
87G Protection• high currents
G zone
• potential damage to machine
winding
• expensive outage and repair
due to damage
 Generator differential (87G)

Features
Id / IN
• non-linear current-
dependant tripping
Difference current

Trip for
I1 / IN < b or
characteristic
Trip I2 / IN < b
• high stability during
(I1 - I2)

v
through-fault and CT-
saturation v-setting
• adaptive characteristic
No Trip
g b-setting fixed to 1.5 IN
b for very high through
Ih / IN
Restraint current
fault current

(I1+I2)/2 or (I1 x I2 cos α)

Stator Ground Fault 64S

One of the most frequent internal generator

failures
Causes
• due to
- mechanical damages
- Insulation deterioration
Effects
• Iron burnt
• it may develop into a phase-to-phase fault
• if a second earth fault occurs the current
is no longer limited by the earthing
resistor
High impedance grounding

• used on unit connected generators

• fault current limited to 5-20A
• normally used in Europe and Asia
• high costs and size of resistors
• protection with U0 (95%) also by defected
resistor
• protection 100% injection or 3.harm.
principle
• I0 measurement possible
Stator Ground Fault 64S Voltage U>

Features
UN
• applicable by unit connected
generators
• protection zone: generator and
LV-transformer winding
• insensitive to 3.harmonic
95
% • PT ratio is selected to give
approx. relay rated voltage for a
ground fault at terminal
• by broken resistor protection
still working
U0>
95%
 Effect of Generator and Transformer winding
capacitance on resistor grounding

• RE should be small
enough to avoid
neutral
displacement
during external
faults
Grounding transformer

• high res. grounding with secondary resistors

• fault current limited to 5-20A
• high cost of grounding transformer
• protection with U0 (95%)
• protection 100% inject. or 3.harm. principle
• I0 measurement possible
Stator Ground Fault 64S Current I>

Features
UN • Over current relay provides less
sensitive protection than the over
voltage relay
• by setting, normal unbalance
current must be taken in to
95 account
%
• current relay may be located
either in the primary or in the
secondary circuit
• CT ratio is selected to give
approx. relay rated current for a
I 0>
ground fault at the terminal
• by broken resistor protection not
working
Third-harmonic
Third-harmonic
Features
• level of 3.harmonic
depends on generator
+V3rd Full Load
design
Normal
No Load operation • level of 3.harmonic
depends on the operating
conditions
-V3rd
• there is a point depending
on load where 3.harm. is 0
Full Load Fault at
Neutral
• by ground fault at neutral,
Neutral No Load
3.harm. at neutral
Terminal
becomes 0
Neutral Fault at
Terminal
Terminal
• by ground fault at
terminal, 3.harm. at
terminal becomes 0
Stator Ground Fault 64S 3.harmonic U<

Features
UN • Under voltage relay with
filter tuned to 3. harmonic
detect the faults near the
neutral
0- • provides protection for 30%
30
%
of winding from neutral to
terminal
• must be blocked during
start-up, shut down and
U<
3.Harm. stand still
• must be combined with a
fundamental frequency
over voltage relay
 100% Stator Ground Fault 64S with 3rd
harmonic detection

Third Harmonic Element
Fundamental Frequency Element
0%
Earth fault position in % of winding
Evaluation
• 95% E/F protects 95% of the
winding from terminals
• 3.harm. principle can not
detect failures over the
whole winding dependent of
the 3. harm. voltage gap
100% • injection principle covers the
total winding for E/F
• combination of a 95% and a
100% approach is needed
• by modern generators
3.harm. is more and more
reduced
100% stator and rotor earth fault
using injection

Detecting ground faults at:

• Standstill

• Running up or down

• Normal operation

• Used for star point earthing

with:
- resistor
- grounding transformer
- earthing transformers on
generator terminals
 100% stator earth fault using injection

resistor

grounding transformer

earthing transformers on
generator terminals
Stator ground fault 64S injection principle

Features
• injection and evaluation of
a coded signal
• detect the faults over the
whole winding including
the neutral point
Relay • protection is also working
during start up, shut down
and stand still
injection
unit • sensitivity is independent
of system voltage, load
current and frequency
 Stator Ground Fault 64S

Features
• I0 < 20A recommended 5A
V
Injection signal • Supply by station battery
• Setting and measurement
t
values in kΩ
Injection Test • Self-calibrating mode
• Injection of a coded signal
320ms 640ms
with a quiescent period to
evaluate and eliminate
interferences
• injection frequency 12.5Hz
(15 Hz for 60Hz generators)
• Protection of entire winding
Rotor earth fault (64R)
using injection principle

+
Rotor

C1 C2

C = C1 + C2

REr Ur

Uir RPr

Injection voltage
100% Stator and rotor ground fault 64S REX010

Features
• Continuous
supervision of
insulation resistance
and calculation of earth
fault resistance
• Continuous
supervision of the
injection voltage and
the primary earthing
system
Earth Fault protection for ungrounded systems

Open delta connection Sensitive earth fault

Rotor earth fault (64R)
measuring bridge principle
Wheatstone
bridge principle

C2 must be adjusted
on site according to
rotor
grounding capacity
Loss of field (40)
MW Effects on generators
G normal • synch. generator becomes
MVARS
inductive
MW • high reactive current in
G abnormal generator overloads the
MVARS
stator
• Increased local magnetic flux
leakage which causes
Causes temperature rise in stator end
plates stator end iron
• open field circuit laminations and stator
• field short circuit winding ends.

• accidental tripping of the

Effects on power system
field breaker
• loss of reactive support
• A.V.R failure • can trigger system voltage
• loss of field at the main collapse
exciter
• Voltage rise of the power
system
The end-turn leakage flux, as shown in the figure, enters and leaves in a
direction perpendicular (axial) to the stator laminations. This causes eddy
currents in the laminations, resulting in localized heating in the end region.
The high field currents corresponding to the overexcited condition keep the
retaining ring saturated, so that end leakage flux is small. However, in the
under excited region the field current is low and the retaining ring is not
saturated; this permits an increase in armature end leakage flux .

Also, in the under excited condition, the flux produced by armature currents
adds to the flux produced by the field current; therefore, the end turn flux
enhances the axial flux in the end region and the resulting heating effect
may severely limit the generator output, particularly in the case of a round
rotor machine.
Cylindrical rotor machine
Salient pole machine
Loss of field (40)
Pole slip Protection(78)

Causes
- to long power system fault
- tie line between two systems
opened
Effects of an excited slipping Generator
• Collapses of the network-voltage
• Over voltage across excitation winding
• Over heating of rotor surface
• Possible non-selective operation of
different protections,
e.g. under voltage, over current, distance, . . .
• Risk for a black out
• Mechanical and thermal stresses of
the power unit
 Pole Slip Protection(78)

Detection of a Power swing

• Rate of Change X'B XL X'A

of U*cos   
EB U EA

As the power swings from δ1 to

δ2 the voltage reduces from U1 U1
to U2 and since EA ,EB and the EB EA
line parameters X’B, XL X’A are U*cos 
U2
constants the line current
increases and hence the I
impedance seen at the 
measuring point is reduced 

 Pole Slip Protection(78)
jX
ZA
Trajectory in R / X Diagram
EB > EA
EB U EA

I
EB/EA = 1
nB > n A 

 nB < n A Z
EA > EB

(EB-EA) / I = ZB+ZA -ZB nA=EA speed

nB=EB speed
U/I=Z
 Pole Slip Protection(78)
ZC
X'B
 
Operation on a Slip ZB Relay ZA
Continuous measurement
jX
of U*cos ZA
• Measurement of 
• Possibility of warning
• Slip identified by change Zone2
ZC
of sign of U*cos trip
Zone1
Out-of-step
within ZB-ZA 

• Tripping order at preset Z

number of slips and 0

Phi

at preset trip R

• Zone1 - Zone2
-ZB
discrimination by ZC
Reverse Power (32)
Causes Features
• loss of prime-mover • setting <2%-
• low water flow (hydro) hence use of
measurement
• load variations / problems
(frequency) CT's
• Shut down without tripping • Phi-
CB compensation for
Effects CT angle error
• steam units: overheating
of turbine and turbines
blades P
• hydro units(for Francis
and Kaplan Q
Turbines) :cavitations of
the blades
• gas turbines: Over
temperature and fuel Trip
explosion
Negative phase sequence (46)
Causes
• unbalanced loads
• unbalanced system faults
• open circuits
• one pole of CB or isolator
not closed
Features
• two function available
• definite time characteristic
• characteristic adjustable to
I22 t
Effects
• produces negative phase
sequence component of
current which induces a
double frequency current
in the surface of the rotor
and damper windings
• these rotor currents
causes high and
dangerous temperature in
a very short time
Negative phase sequence (46)

Features
I2 / I B • for large generators
k1
t 2
 I2  2
• for variable levels of NPS
   K2
 Ib  • higher level of NPS
permissible for short
periods
• k2 = continuous
k2
permissible NPS I2
component
t-min t-max t • k1= permis. energy I22 t
• adjustable cooling rate of
thermal image (tReset)
Negative phase sequence (46)

• The energy input is to the rotor and rotor temperature rise

over an interval of time is proportional to I22 t
• The limit below damage level for rotor components is based
on equation: K= I22 t
– K=constant depending on generator design and size
– t= time in seconds
– I2= RMS value of NPS-current
• K is provided by generator manufacturer in accordance
with
ANSI C50.13
Typical allowable negative phase sequence
currents

• Type of generator permissible I2 K

(in percent of stator rating) perm. I22 t
• salient pole 40
– with damper winding 10
– no damper winding 5
• cylindrical rotor
– indirectly cooled 10 30
– dir.cooled to 960MVA 8 20
– 961-1200MVA 6 10
– 1201-1500MVA 5 see spec.
curve
Over current (51)
Causes Features
• Short- circuits • 1- and 3-phase
• Over current of system due to • Back up protection
faults and overload for both generator
ans system faults
Effects • Definitive time and
• Insulation damage inverse time
• Current rise with under voltage characteristic
• Requires CTs in
neutral end to cover
winding faults
Short circuit characteristics

Stator current

Rotor current

Damper winding
current
Short circuit characteristics

I (t )  E / X  E / X e
''
d
''
d
 t / Td''
 E / X  E / X e
'
d
'
d
 t / Td'
 E / Xd

I dc (t )  2 E / X d'' cos  e  t / Ta
Current Transformer Saturation during Over current
• The CTs should not saturate before the operation
of the protective relay during a short circuit. The
inverse time Over current protection operating
time exceeds the sub-transient stages and the
total short circuit wave form should be
considered for setting calculations.
• The DC component magnitude depends on the
X/R ratio of the fault impedance.
• The DC component magnitude depends on the
point of short circuit in the voltage wave form.
No DC component if the short circuit occurs at
the peak of the voltage waveform
• The CT saturation depends on the CT VA rating,
secondary load impedance, secondary loop
resistance and also the CT secondary winding
resistance during short circuit (at 75ºC) and the
CT over current factor.
Current Transformer Saturation during Over
current
* For HV machnes

*For LV machines
Voltage restraint /controlled over current
(51V)

Cause
• phase faults near generator terminals
Effects
• Static excitation system connected to
generator terminals provokes rapidly
decaying fault current
• steady-state fault current is very low,
because of large synchr. reactance of
generators Xd
• fault currents decay under overcurrent
settings
Minimum impedance (21)
Features
• Backup protection for two and
three phase-faults
• Protection zone shorter than
main protection
• To be selective, prot. zone
reduced to 70% of transformer
impedance
• The factor of 0.7 avoids any
risk of false tripping for a fault
on the HV-system
• Sometimes used as backup for
system faults with 70% load
X impedance
•Zsetting= 0.7*XT

R
 Stator overload (49S) / Rotor overload (49R)

Cause
• Overloads in terms of current or
disproportionate MVar versus MW,
are possible.
• Primary overload protection is
normally provided by temperature
sensors
Features
• Thermal replicas
according ANSI C50.13
• Including extended setting
range
• Stator current for stator
and AC excitation current
for rotor
Stator /Rotor overload 49S/49R

Features
• delay inversely proportional to
overload capability
I
k1 • k1= 41.4s acc. ANSI C50.13
t 2
 I
  1 short-time thermal capability
 Ib 
• cooling rate of thermal image
(tReset)
• Istart = permissible continuous
overload current
Istart
• k1= (m-n)/n
– thermal time constant
t-min tg t-max t
– m = max. perm. temp rise
– n = rated temp. rise
Inter-turn protection

U>

Causes
G • Rather seldom, only for machines
with more windings of the same
phase in the same slot
Effects
• High internal current which will
not be detected by differential
function
Inter-turn protection

Example for unit with splited phase

R S T winding

• Over current measurement in

differential circuit of the two star
points

I>
Inter-turn protection

Example for unit with split phase

R S T winding

• Over current measurement in

the summated circuit of the two
star points

I>
Over voltage(59)

Causes
• AVR failure
• Overvoltage of system Under voltage(27)
Effects Causes
• Insulation damage • AVR failure
• Over excitation by over voltage • Under voltage of system
may
cause over heating Effects
• No danger to generator
• May cause stalling of motors
• Current rise
• Out of step of synchronous
motors
Over frequency (81)
Causes
• Excess of power production to
power system load
• Turbine governor fault
Effects
• damage to turbine blades due
to vibration
• reduced power capacity to the
auxiliaries
• Cause damages to frequency
dependant loads
Under frequency (81)
Causes
• Deficit of power production to
power system load
• Turbine governor fault
Effects
• reduced power capacity to
the auxiliaries
• temperature rise
• Over fluxing of the generator
and block transformer during
under frequency
• Cause damages to frequency
dependant loads
 Shaft current / Voltage

0.5 to 2V in wound rotor

machines. Shaft ground is
provided by a brush via a slip
ring in the prime mover side
10 to 30V in salient pole
machines. Shaft ground is
through the water in the turbine

Causes
• Lack of symmetry in the
magnetic flux

Effects
• damage to bearing surfaces.
Severe damage encountered if
shaft current is > 1 A
Transformer Protection

•Over current
•Differential
•Restricted earth fault
•Over excitation
•Over/Under Voltage
•Under frequency
Transformer Differential protection (87T)

• Id= ¦I1+I2 ¦
• by external faults can cause tripping
due to
- ratio errors
- saturation
- losses in the transformer
- tap changer position
87T Protection occur diff.current, therefore
zone a stabilized tripping characteristic
is needed
• Inrush provokes differential current
Hence 2nd harmonic restrain
Transformer differential (87T)
Causes
• phase faults in the
protection zone
Effects
• high currents
• potential damage to
transformer winding
• expensive outage and
repair due to damage
• Stability of the system in
danger, if the fault last to
long
Features
• low impedance principle
• for two and three-winding
transformers
• non-linear current-dependant
tripping characteristic
• high stability during through-
fault and CT-saturation
• compensation for vector group
• compensation for current
amplitude (CT-ratio)
• inrush restraint
• Voltage restraint
Transformer differential (87T)

• Correction of the ratio

with reference value or
800/5
30MVA a-factor in the
300MVA 18/ 6 KV protection function
220/18kV
87GT 100/5

300MVA
G 18 KV

10'000/5
Transformer differential (87T)

Features
• Two or for three winding
Id/ IN transformer
• Instantaneous independent of
Trip for
inrush
Trip I1 / IN < b or
I2 / IN < b • Inrush restrain
v – eval. ratio 2nd.harm to
fundamental
– detection of largest phase
g-high
No Trip current
g
– detection of energised
b Ih/ IN transformer using load
current
• adaptive characteristic (b-line)
Transformer Inrush Current
• Transformer saturates at peak flux and current depends on R during this region
• Decay of the inrush depends on the L/R ratio of the circuit

d d
V   Li 1.50
Ea (kV)

dt dt 1.00

Current
0.50
  Li 0.00

   V .dt
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
G
V  iR  L(di / dt ) 0.50
Ia (kA)
Voltage

Flux-Linkage
-4.00
()
Flux (Wb)
1.00
0.50
0.00
Flux

-0.50
Imag -1.00
-1.50
-2.00

0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400

Inrush current in transformers in parallel
Transformer Differential(87T)
Vector group adoption
Transformer Differential(87T)
CT arrangement for transformer differential for
YD transformers
Short circuit currents
Transformer Differential(87T)

I1 I2
Protected unit
I Operation for
IN Differential current
I1  
<b
IN I  I1 I2
or
I2 Restraint- (or bias-) current
<b
Trip IN IH  I1  I2  cos  for cos 0

IH  0 for cos <0

g Restraint
IH   I1;I2
1 b 2 3 IN
Transformer Differential(87T)

Fault inside protected zone

I1 I2 I
4

2
cos  < 0
1
IH = 0
g
1 2 3 4 5 IH
Transformer Differential(87T)

Fault outside protected zone

Low short circuit current

Load I < (1.5...3) * Irated

I1 I2 I
4

cos  = 1 3 Relay trip

IH  I1  I2  cos  2
v=50%
1
IH = I1 = I2 = Relay restrain
ILoad < (1.5...3)*Irated g IH
1 2 3 4 5
Transformer Differential(87T)

Fault outside protected zone

High short circuit current
I > (1.5....3) * Irated
Isc

I1 I2 I
v=
cos  = 1 4 infinite
3

IH  I1  I2  cos  2
1 v=50%
IH = I1 = I2
g IH
1 2 3 4 5
b
Restricted earth fault function(87N)

Features
•High impedance principle
•Very sensitive for internal
RS
Ui faults
VDR
•Very stable for outside
I> faults
Over excitation (24)
r.m.s value of e.m.f.
Features
E = 4.44 N f Φ
Causes • Protection specially for
• Higher voltage at rated block transformer
frequency or
• Rated voltage at under
• V/Hz = B measurement
frequency • Minimum voltage blocking
• Control malfunction during
start up or shut down
Effects
• Higher flux-eddy current
losses
• Insulation thermal damage
 Transformer Tank Leakage Protection

Features
• For ground faults between
transformer winding and
tank
• Can be applied only if the
transformer tank is
isolated from ground
Practical Cases
1. Wimalasurendra Transformer CT wiring
Incorrect wiring
Correct wiring
2. Polpitiya Generator Differential tripping for
line faults
3. Victoria 3rd Harmonic voltage at Generator
neutral Load/MW at unity pf Secondary 3rd
harmonic
current/A
Voltage across
Res/V

0 8.2 2.01

20 8.5 2.1

30 9.5 2.34

40 10.2 2.56

45 10.7 2.68

50 11.3 2.85

60 11.7 2.97

70 12.2 3.1

14

12

secondary 3rd harmonic

10
Secondary
8
Current/A
6 Voltage/V
4

0
0 20 40 60 80
Load at unity pf/MW
4. New laxapana Generator differential due to
CT neutral disconnection

Protective Relay-Generator Differential

Disconnection

Neutral side CTs Line side CTs

5. Inginiyagala generator –ve sequence due to
line side earth fault
Inginiyagala -ve sequence

100 time=1.0,plug
=1.5

10 Generator
Allowable
Limits
time/s

time=0.1,plug
1
=1.5
1 10 100
0.1

0.01
-ve seq current/ pu
6. Victoria Transformer Differential due to Over
Voltage-During system failure on 13-04-2008
Thank you