Chapter 16

16.
2 Concentrations of Solutions >
Chapter 16
Solutions
16.1 Properties of Solutions
16.2 Concentrations of Solutions
16.3 Colligative Properties

of Solutions
16.4 Calculations Involving
Colligative Properties
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16.2 Concentrations of Solutions > CHEMISTRY & YOU
How can you describe the concentration

of a solution?
The federal government
and state governments
set standards limiting
the amount of
contaminants allowed in
drinking water.

16.2 Concentrations of Solutions > Molarity
Molarity
How do you calculate the molarity of
a solution?

The concentration of a solution is a

measure of the amount of solute that is
dissolved in a given quantity of solvent.
• A solution that contains a relatively small

amount of solute is a dilute solution.
• A concentrated solution contains a large
amount of solute.

In chemistry, the most important unit of

concentration is molarity.
• Molarity (M) is the number of moles of
solute dissolved in one liter of solution.
• Molarity is also known as molar
concentration.

The figure below illustrates the procedure

for making a 0.5M, or 0.5-molar, solution.
Add 0.5 mol of solute Swirl the flask Fill the flask with
to a 1-L volumetric carefully to water exactly to
flask half filled with dissolve the the 1-L mark.
distilled water. solute.
To calculate the molarity of a solution,

divide the number of moles of solute
by the volume of the solution in liters.
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
liters of solution

16.2 Concentrations of Solutions > Sample Problem 16.2
Calculating Molarity
Intravenous (IV) saline solutions are often
administered to patients in the hospital.
One saline solution contains 0.90 g NaCl in
exactly 100 mL of solution. What is the
molarity of the solution?

1 Analyze List the knowns and the unknown.

Convert the concentration from g/100 mL
to mol/L. The sequence is:
g/100 mL → mol/100 mL → mol/L
KNOWNS
solution concentration = 0.90 g NaCl/100 mL
molar mass NaCl = 58.5 g/mol
UNKNOWN
solution concentration = ?M
2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Use the molar mass to convert The relationship
g NaCl/100 mL to mol NaCl/100 mL. 1 L = 1000 mL
Then convert the volume units so gives you the
conversion factor
that your answer is expressed in 1000 mL/1 L.
mol/L.
Solution 0.90 g NaCl 1 mol NaCl 1000 mL

concentration = 100 mL  58.5 g NaCl  1 L
= 0.15 mol/L
= 0.15M
3 Evaluate Does the result make sense?

• The answer should be less than 1M because
a concentration of 0.90 g/100 mL is the same
as 9.0 g/1000 mL (9.0 g/1 L), and 9.0 g is less
than 1 mol NaCl.
• The answer is correctly expressed to two
significant figures.

Calculating the Moles of Solute

in a Solution
Household laundry bleach is a dilute
aqueous solution of sodium
hypochlorite (NaClO). How many
moles of solute are present in 1.5 L
of 0.70M NaClO?


The conversion is: volume of solution → moles
of solute. Molarity has the units mol/L, so you
can use it as a conversion factor between
moles of solute and volume of solution.
KNOWNS
volume of solution = 1.5 L
solution concentration = 0.70M NaClO
UNKNOWN
moles solute = ? mol

Multiply the given Make sure that your volume units
volume by the cancel when you do these
problems. If they don’t, then you’re
molarity expressed probably missing a conversion
factor in your calculations.
in mol/L.
0.70 mol NaCl

1.5 L  = 1.1 mol NaClO
1L


• The answer should be greater than 1 mol but
less than 1.5 mol, because the solution
concentration is less than 0.75 mol/L and the
volume is less than 2 L.

16.2 Concentrations of Solutions >
How much water is required to make

a 1.00M aqueous solution of NaCl, if
58.4 g of NaCl are dissolved?
A. 1.00 liter of water
B. enough water to make 1.00 liter of
solution
C. 1.00 kg of water
D. 100 mL of water
How much water is required to make

a 1.00M aqueous solution of NaCl, if
58.4 g of NaCl are dissolved?
A. 1.00 liter of water
B. enough water to make 1.00 liter of
solution
C. 1.00 kg of water
D. 100 mL of water
16.2 Concentrations of Solutions > Making Dilutions
Making Dilutions
What effect does dilution have on
the amount of solute?

Both of these solutions contain the same

amount of solute.
• You can tell by the color of solution (a) that it is
more concentrated than solution (b).
• Solution (a) has
the greater
molarity.
• The more dilute
solution (b) was
made from
solution (a) by
adding more solvent.

Diluting a solution reduces the number

of moles of solute per unit volume, but
the total number of moles of solute in
solution does not change.
Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution = after dilution

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution = after dilution
The definition of molarity can be rearranged
to solve for moles of solute.
moles of solute
Molarity (M) = liters of solution (V)
Moles of solute = molarity (M)  liters of solution (V)

The total number of moles of solute remains

unchanged upon dilution.
Moles of solute = M1  V1 = M2  V2
• M1 and V1 are the molarity and the volume of the initial

solution.
• M2 and V2 are the molarity and volume of the diluted
solution.

The student is preparing 100 mL of 0.40M MgSO4
from a stock solution of 2.0M MgSO4.
She measures 20 mL She transfers the She carefully adds

of the stock solution 20 mL to a 100-mL water to the mark
with a 20-mL pipet. volumetric flask. to make 100 mL of
solution.
Preparing a Dilute Solution

How many milliliters of
aqueous 2.00M MgSO4
solution must be diluted with
water to prepare 100.0 mL of
aqueous 0.400M MgSO4?


Use the equation M1  V1 = M2  V2 to solve for
the unknown initial volume of solution (V1) that
is diluted with water.
KNOWNS
M1 = 2.00M MgSO4
M2 = 0.400M MgSO4
V2 = 100.0 mL of 0.400M MgSO4
UNKNOWN
V1 = ? mL of 2.00M MgSO4

Solve for V1 and substitute the known
values into the equation.
M2  V2 0.400M  100.0 mL
V1 = = = 20.0 mL
M1 2.00M
Thus, 20.0 mL of the initial solution must be

diluted by adding enough water to increase the
volume to 100.0 mL.

• The initial concentration is five times larger
than the dilute concentration.
• Because the number of moles of solute does
not change, the initial volume of solution
should be one-fifth the final volume of the
diluted solution.

100.0 mL of a 0.300M CuSO4·5H2O

solution is diluted to 500.0 mL.
What is the concentration of the
diluted solution?

100.0 mL of a 0.300M CuSO4·5H2O

solution is diluted to 500.0 mL.
What is the concentration of the
diluted solution?
M1  V1 = M2  V2
M1  V1 0.300M  100.0 mL
M2 = =
V2 500.0 mL
M2 = 0.0600M
16.2 Concentrations of Solutions > Percent Solutions
Percent Solutions
How do percent by volume and
percent by mass differ?

Percent by volume of a solution is

the ratio of the volume of solute to
the volume of solution.


• Isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol) is sold
as a 91-percent solution by volume.


• You could prepare such a solution by
diluting 91 mL of pure isopropyl
alcohol with enough water to make
100 mL of solution.

• The concentration is written as 91
percent by volume, 91 percent
(volume/volume), or 91% (v/v).

volume of solute
Percent by volume (%(v/v)) =  100%
volume of solution

Calculating Percent by Volume
What is the percent by volume of ethanol

(C2H6O, or ethyl alcohol) in the final
solution when 85 mL of ethanol is diluted
to a volume of 250 mL with water?


Use the known values for the volume of solute
and volume of solution to calculate percent by
volume.
KNOWNS
volume of solute = 85 mL ethanol
volume of solution = 250 mL
UNKNOWN
Percent by volume = ?% ethanol (v/v)

State the equation for percent by

volume.
volume of solute
volume of solution

Substitute the known values into the

equation and solve.
85 mL ethanol
250 mL
= 34% ethanol (v/v)


• The volume of the solute is about one-third
the volume of the solution, so the answer is
reasonable.

Another way to express the concentration

of a solution is as a percent by mass, or
percent (mass/mass).
Percent by mass of a solution is the ratio
of the mass of the solute to the mass of
the solution.
mass of solute
Percent by mass (%(m/m)) =  100%
mass of solution

mass of solute
Percent by mass (%(m/m)) =  100%
mass of solution
• Percent by mass is sometimes a convenient

measure of concentration when the solute is a
solid.
• You have probably seen information on food
labels expressed as a percent composition.

What are three ways to calculate the

concentration of a solution?

What are three ways to calculate the

concentration of a solution?
The concentration
of a solution can be
calculated in moles
solute per liter of
solvent, or molarity
(M), percent by
volume (%(v/v)), or
percent by mass (%
(m/m)).
Using Percent by Mass as a

Conversion Factor
How many grams of
glucose (C6H12O6) are
needed to make 2000 g of
a 2.8% glucose (m/m)
solution?


The conversion is mass of solution → mass of
solute. In a 2.8% C6H12O6 (m/m) solution, each
100 g of solution contains 2.8 g of glucose. Used
as a conversion factor, the concentration allows
you to convert g of solution to g of C 6H12O6.
KNOWNS
mass of solution = 2000 g
percent by mass = 2.8% C6H12O6(m/m)
UNKNOWN
mass of solute = ? g C6H12O6
Write percent by mass as a conversion

factor with g C6H12O6 in the numerator.
You can solve this

2.8 g C6H12O6 problem by using
100 g solution either dimensional
analysis or algebra.

Multiply the mass of the solution by the

conversion factor.
2.8 g C6H12O6
2000 g solution  = 56 g C 6H12O6
100 g solution


• The prepared mass of the solution is 20  100 g.
• Since a 100-g sample of 2.8% (m/m) solution
contains 2.8 g of solute, you need 20  2.8 g = 56 g
of solute.
• To make the solution, mix 56 g of C6H12O6 with
1944 g of solvent.
• 56 g of solute + 1944 g solvent = 2000 g of solution

What is the mass of water in a 2000 g

glucose (C6H12O6) solution that is
labeled 5.0% (m/m)?

What is the mass of water in a 2000 g

glucose (C6H12O6) solution that is
labeled 5.0% (m/m)?
mass of glucose
% (m/m) =  100%
mass of solution
(% (m/m))  mass of solution
mass of glucose = 100%
mass of glucose = 2000 g  0.050 = 100 g C6H12O6
mass of water = 2000 g – 100 g = 1900 g H2O
16.2 Concentrations of Solutions > Key Concepts
To calculate the molarity of a solution,

divide the moles of solute by the volume
of the solution in liters.
Diluting a solution reduces the number of

moles of solute per unit volume, but the
total number of moles of solute in solution
does not change.
Percent by volume is the ratio of the
volume of solute to the volume of solution.
Percent by mass is the ratio of the mass of
the solute to the mass of the solution.
16.2 Concentrations of Solutions > Key Equations
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
liters of solution
M1  V1 = M2  V2
volume of solute
Percent by volume =  100%
volume of solution
mass of solute
Percent by mass =  100%
mass of solution

16.2 Concentrations of Solutions > Glossary Terms
• concentration: a measurement of the amount

of solute that is dissolved in a given quantity of
solvent; usually expressed as mol/L
• dilute solution: a solution that contains a
small amount of solute
• concentrated solution: a solution containing
a large amount of solute
• molarity (M): the concentration of solute in a
solution expressed as the number of moles of
solute dissolved in 1 liter of solution
END OF 16.2

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16.

2 Concentrations of Solutions >

16.1 Properties of Solutions

16.2 Concentrations of Solutions

16.3 Colligative Properties

1 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

How can you describe the concentration

2 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

3 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

The concentration of a solution is a

• A solution that contains a relatively small

4 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

In chemistry, the most important unit of

5 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

The figure below illustrates the procedure

To calculate the molarity of a solution,

7 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

8 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

1 Analyze List the knowns and the unknown.

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Solution 0.90 g NaCl 1 mol NaCl 1000 mL

3 Evaluate Does the result make sense?

11 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Calculating the Moles of Solute

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1 Analyze List the knowns and the unknown.

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

0.70 mol NaCl

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3 Evaluate Does the result make sense?

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How much water is required to make

How much water is required to make

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Both of these solutions contain the same

19 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Diluting a solution reduces the number

Moles of solute Moles of solute

20 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Moles of solute Moles of solute

Moles of solute = molarity (M)  liters of solution (V)

21 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

The total number of moles of solute remains

• M1 and V1 are the molarity and the volume of the initial

22 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

She measures 20 mL She transfers the She carefully adds

Preparing a Dilute Solution

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1 Analyze List the knowns and the unknown.

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Thus, 20.0 mL of the initial solution must be

3 Evaluate Does the result make sense?

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100.0 mL of a 0.300M CuSO4·5H2O

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100.0 mL of a 0.300M CuSO4·5H2O

30 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Percent by volume of a solution is

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Percent by volume of a solution is

32 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Percent by volume of a solution is

Percent by volume of a solution is