BBM322- Biomedical instrumentation II

Chapter 2: Basic Sensors and Principles

Prepared by:
Pr. Noman AL Naggar- Professor in biomedical engineering
Department of Biomedical Engineering UST-Sana’a
noman_qaed@yahoo.com
Modified by:
Dr. Nasr Kaid AL Awdi- PhD in Biomedical Engineering,
Tlemcen University, Algeria.
Department of Biomedical Engineering UST-Aden
Nasralawdi@gmail.com
 Chapter 2: Basic Sensors and Principles
Outline
First type -Displacement Measurements:
1. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
2. Resistive Sensors
3. Strain gauge
4. Capacitive Sensors
5. Piezoelectric Transducers (PZT)

References
 Displacement Measurements
 Measurements of size and position utilize displacement sensors
 Examples
 Size of lung by measurement the flow of respiration air
 movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart
 Primary Transducer Types
 Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
 Inductive Sensors
 Capacitive Sensors
 Piezoelectric Sensors
 Secondary Transducers
 Wheatstone Bridge
 Amplifiers
 Displacement Measurements
1. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) or Inductive Sensors
 Inductance Transducers:
inductance L can be varied easily by physical movement of
a permeable core within an Diaphragm

inductor 3 basic forms:

 Single Coil AC Excitation
L2
L1
 Reactive Wheatstone Bridge

Core
External
L3 Load
 Linear Voltage Differential
Axis of Motion
Transformer LVDT
 Displacement Measurements
1. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) or Inductive Sensors
The primary coil P is excited by an AC current.
The induced potentials at the 2 secondary coils are
canceled due to the opposite polarities.
When the core moves toward one coil, the
induced potential in the coil increases and the
voltage in the other coil decreases

An LVDT is used as a sensitive displacement sensor: for example, in a respiratory assist

device or a basic research project to study displacement produced by a lung movement.
Taken from http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~pyo22/mem351-2004/lecture04/pp062-073lvdt.pdf
 Displacement Measurements
2. Resistive Sensors - Potentiometers
• Potentiometers produce output potential (voltage) change in response to
input (e.g., displacement) changes
• typically formed with resistive elements e.g. carbon/metal film
• produce linear output in response to displacement
• Example potentiometric displacement sensors
• Translational: small (~mm) linear displacements
• vo increases as xi increases
• Single-Turn: small (10-50º) rotational displacements
• vo increases as vi increases

Taken from www.fyslab.hut.fi/kurssit/Tfy-3.441/ luennot/Luento3.pdf

Displacement Measurements
2- Resistive Sensors
In general the Resistance of a metallic bar is given in length
and area

 where
 R = Resistance units = ohms (Ω)
 ρ = resistivity constant unique to type of material used in bar
units = ohm meter (Ωm)
 L = length in meters (m)
 A = Cross sectional area in meters2 (m2 )
Displacement Measurements
2- Resistive Sensors
 Example: find the resistance of a copper bar that has a cross
sectional area of 0.5 mm2 and a length = 250 mm note the
resistivity of copper is 1.7× 10-8Ωm,
write the output value meaning ( for what it indicates)

  1m  
 250mm  
 L   1000mm    0.0085
R      1.7 *10 8 m 2 
A
   0.5mm2  1m  
 1000 mm 
   
 Displacement Measurements
2- Resistive Sensors - Wheatstone Bridge
 Wheatstone bridge is a configuration variable
and fixed elements used to monitor small
variations in the elements (and optionally
compensate for temperature effects).
 Consider first: resistive voltage divider
 V out varies as RT changes
 readout method for one element sensor
 variable/sensor element bridge configuration VCC
• R3 is sensor element
• R4 set to match nominal value of R3
• If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0
• Vout varies as R3 changes 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡=𝑉𝑐𝑐
[ 𝑅3
−
𝑅4
𝑅 2+ 𝑅 3 𝑅 1+ 𝑅 4 ]
Displacement Measurements
2- Resistive Sensors - Wheatstone Bridge

A
R1 R3 Es
R1
R3
+
Es_ EC + Eo - ED + Eo -
EC ED

R4 R2 R4
R2
B

 Basic Wheatstone Bridge uses one resistor in each of four arms where battery Es
excites the bridge connected across 2 opposite resistor junctions (A and B).
The bridge output Eo appears across C and D junction.
Displacement Measurements
2- Resistive Sensors - Wheatstone Bridge

Finding output voltage to a Wheatstone Bridge

 Ex: A wheatstone bridge is excited by a 12V dc source and has
the following resistances R1 = 1.2KΩ, R2 = 3 KΩ, R3 = 2.2 KΩ
and R4 = 5 KΩ; find Eo

Eo  EC  E D  R2   R4 
Eo  Es      
  R1  R 2    R 3  R 4  
 R2 
EC  Es   3 * 10 3    5 * 10 3  
 R1  R 2  Eo  12V 
 3 3



  2.2 * 10 3   5 * 10 3 



 1.2 * 10   3 * 10     
 R4 
E D  Es   3 5 
 R 3  R4 
Eo  12V     0.24V
 4 . 2 7 . 2 
 Displacement Measurements
2- Resistive Sensors - Wheatstone Bridge
Balanced bridge-Null Condition of Wheatstone Bridge
 Null Condition is met when Vout = 0 can happen in 2 ways:
 Battery = 0 (not desirable)
 R1/R2 = R3/R4, • which is also R1/R4 = R2/R3  mid-node voltages must be equal
 Key with null condition is if you change one of the resistances to be a transducer that
changes based on input stimulus, then Vout will also change according to input stimulus
 Single element sensor
• R3 = Ro (1+x), x = factional change in resistance of sensor
• if R1=R4  Vout- = VCC/2
• if R2=Ro  Vout+ = VCC (Ro(1+x) / Ro(2+x))
 Vout+ increases as x increases
• Vout+ = VCC/2 when x=0, Vout+ =VCC when x=
 Vout = VCC ((1+x)/(2+x) – 1/2)
 Displacement Measurements
2- Resistive Sensors - Wheatstone Bridge
Two element (half bridge)
 R1 & R3 increases/decrease together
 if R2=R4=Ro and R1=R3=Ro(1+x)
 Vout- = VCC/(2+x), Vout+ = VCC((1+x) / (2+x))
Vout = VCC (x/(2+x)).
 increasing positive values of x cause Vout to become more positive
Two element (half bridge); alternative
 R1=R4, R3 increases when R2 decreases
(and visa versa)
 if R1=R4=Ro, R3=Ro(1+x) and R2=Ro(1-x)
 Vout- = VCC/2
 Vout+ = VCC ((1+x)/2) Vout = VCC ((1+x)/2 – 1/2)
 increasing positive values of x cause Vout to become more positive
 Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge
• Measures a small change in the length of an object as a result of an applied
force.
• Resistive element that changes resistance proportional to an applied mechanical
strain.
• Can be used to measure extremely small displacements, on the order of
nanometers

where:
ρ:resistivity, is a constant
σ:conductivity
A: cross-sectional area
• The fractional change in length of an object is called strain

Taken from www.fyslab.hut.fi/kurssit/Tfy-3.441/ luennot/Luento3.pdf

Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge

 Compression = decrease in length by ∆L and an

increase in cross sectional area.

L = length
Rest Condition

L - DL = length Compression
Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge

 Tension = increase in length by ∆L and a decrease

in cross section area.
L = length

Rest Condition

L + DL = length

Tension
Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge Gage Factor

 Remember: for a strained thin wire

 DR/R = DL/L – DA/A + Dr/r
 A = p (D/2)2, for circular wire D L

 Poisson’s ratio, m: relates change in diameter D to change in

length L
 DD/D = - m DL/L
 Gage Factor, GF, used to compare strain-gate materials

 GF =
 Gage Factor

Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge
 Gauge Factor (GF) = a method of comparing one transducer to a
similar transducer
 R 
GF   R
 where  L 
 L
• GF = Gauge Factor unitless
• ΔR = change in resistance ohms (Ω)
• R = unstrained resistance ohms (Ω)
• ΔL = change in length meters (m)
• L = unstrained length meters (m)
Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge Gage Factor…cont….
 Where ε strain which is unitless
 GF gives relative sensitivity of a strain gauge  R 
GF   R
where the greater the change in resistance per unit   
 
length the greater the sensitivity of element and
  L L
the greater the gauge factor.
Strain Gage: Materials

TCR = temperature coefficient of resistivity (ºC-1)

 Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge
 Note: Example of Gauge Factor
• G for semiconductor materials ~ 50-70 x that of metals.
• due to stronger piezoresistive effect
 • semiconductors have much higher TCR
• requires temperature compensation in strain gage

Example of Gauge Factor

 Have a 20mm length of wire used as a string gauge and has a resistance of
150Ω.
 When a force is applied in tension the resistance changes by 2Ω and the
length changes by 0.07mm.
 Find the gauge factor:  R   2 
GF   R 150   3.71
 L   0.07 mm 
 L  20mm 
 Displacement transducers:
3. Strain gauge
The types of Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers:
a).Unbounded Strain Gauges: Most of the pressure transducers for the direct measurement of
blood pressure are of the unbonded wire strain gauge type.
• The arrangement consists of strain wires of two frames which may move with respect to
each other.
• End points are anchored but material between end points is unbonded

Unbonded strain gage

• diaphragm pressure
• strain @ B & C
• strain @ A & D

Taken from www.fyslab.hut.fi/kurssit/Tfy-3.441/ luennot/Luento3.pdf

 Displacement transducers:
3. Strain gauge
b) Bonded Strain Gauges: material is cemented to strained surface.
In practice, it is made by taking:
(a) resistive wire -length of very thin wire (for example, 0.025mm dia)
(b) foil type, which is formed into a grid pattern
(c) helical wire - bonded to a backing material.
 Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge
Example: unbounded strain gage with full bridge (Wheatstone Bridge)
 Full bridge configuration
• all bridge elements are variable (sensors)
 increasing & decreasing elements arranged to maximize sensitivity
• Example: unbounded strain gage
• B and C operate together
• A and D operate together
• Ry and Rx used to balance the bridge
• ʋo output
• Ri voltmeter internal resistance
 Temperature Compensation
• When all R’s from same material
• TCR of all elements cancel
• change in temperature 
no change in output voltage
Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge
Comparison of Bonded vs. Unbonded Strain Gauges

1. Unbonded strain gauge can be built where its linear over a wide
range of applied force but they are delicate
2. Bonded strain gauge are linear over a smaller range but are
more rugged
 Bonded strain gauges are typically used because designers prefer
ruggedness.
 Displacement Measurements
3. Strain gauge
Typical Configurations
A
R1 = SG1 R3 = SG3

+ Vo
ES C D
-

R4 = SG4
R2 = SG2 B

Electrical Circuit
Mechanical Configuration
 4 strain gauges (SG) in Wheatstone Bridge
Displacement Measurements
3- Strain gauge Strain Gauge Example

 Using the configuration in the previous slide where 4 strain gauges

are placed in a Wheatstone bridge where the bridge is balanced
when no force is applied,
 Assume a force is applied so that R1 and R4 are in tension and R2
and R3 are in compression.
Derive the equation to depict the change in voltage across the bridge
and find the output voltage when each resistor is 200Ω, the change of
resistance is 10Ω and the source voltage is 10V
Displacement Measurements
3- Strain gauge
Strain Gauge Example
Circuit
Derivation:
A
R1 = R +h  R 2   R 4 
R3= R-h Eo  Es   
 R1  R 2   R 3  R 4 
Es
+ + Eo - 
Eo  Es 
R  h     R  h  
- C D
R  h   R  h    R  h   R  h  
   
 R  h  R  h    2h  h
Eo  Es     Es     Es
R2 = R - h R4 = R +h  2 R 2 R   2 R  R
B
 10 
Eo  10V    0.5V
 200 
 Displacement Measurements
4- Capacitive Sensors:
Change in distance between two parallel plates (an insulating material sandwiched
in the middle) results in a change in capacitance
𝐴 where
C=ɛ 𝑟 ɛ 0
𝑑 A: area
d: distance between two conductors
ε : the dielectric constant or permittivity
ε0 is the permittivity of vacuum = 8.85×10-12 F/m
εr is dielectric constant of the insulating material
e.g. An electrolytic capacitor is made of Aluminum evaporated on either side of a
very thin plastic film (or electrolyte).

𝐴 𝐴
C ( x )= ɛ =ɛ 𝑟 ɛ 0
𝑥 𝑥
 Displacement Measurements
4- Capacitive Sensors Capacitance Transducers

1. Quartz Pressure Sensors: capacitively based where sensor is made of fused

quartz
2. Capacitive Transducers: Capacitance C varies with stimulus
Three examples:
 Solid Metal disc parallel to flexible metal diaphragm separated by air or vacuum
(similar to capacitor microphone) when force is applied they will move closer or
further away.
 Stationary metal plate and rotating moveable plate: as you rotate capacitance
will increase or decrease
 Differential Capacitance: 1 Moveable metal plate placed between 2 stationary
places where you have 2 capacitors: C1 between P1 and P3 and C2 between P2
and P3 where when a force is applied to diaphragm P3 moves closer to one
plate or vice versa
 Displacement Measurements
4- Capacitive Sensors

Generally, displacement sensors rely on changes in x

• Sensitivity S, to x is: S= ε A/x^2
• higher sensitivity for devices with smaller separation
• motivation of micro sensors
Many methods for capacitance readout
• switched capacitor amplifier
• example: dc-excited circuit
 when capacitor stationary
 no current through C  V1 = E
 when x  C  Vo = V1 - E
 Displacement Measurements
5- Piezoelectric Transducers (PZT):
•The piezo-electric effect is a property of natural crystalline substances to develop
electric potential along a crystallographic axis in response to the movement of
charge as a result of mechanical deformation
•Thus, piezoelectricity is pressure electricity.
•On application of pressure, the charge Q developed along a particular axis is given
by:

where: C= Total capacitance across crystal element, Farads

Q = kF coulomb,k is the piezoelectric constant expressed in Coulombs/Newton,
(C/N) and F is the applied force.
•The Piezoelectric Effect ) principle)
• Piezoelectric materials generate electric potential when mechanically strained or
visa versa
Used to measure physiological displacements and record heart sounds
 Displacement Measurements
5- Piezoelectric Transducers (PZT):
•Modes of operation
• thickness (longitudinal) compression
• transversal compression
• thickness-shear action
• face- shear action
•Equivalent circuit model
deflection x  charge q
K = constant

•Piezoelectric Sensors:
•Simplified circuit model
• combined C’s and R’s
• replace charge generator with current.
Displacement Measurements
5- Piezoelectric Transducers (PZT):
Piezoresistivity
 Piezoresistivity = change in resistance for a given
change in size and shape symbolized as h
 L  L 
R  h   
 Resistance in tension =  A  A 

 Resistance increases in tension

L = length; ΔL = change in L; ρ = resistivity
A = Area; ΔA = change in A
Displacement Measurements
5- Piezoelectric Transducers (PZT):
Example of Piezoresistivity

 Thin wire has a length of 30mm and a cross sectional area of

0.01mm2 and a resistance of 1.5Ω.
 A force is applied to the wire that increases the length by
10mm and decreases cross sectional area by 0.0027 mm2
 Find the change in resistance h.
 Note: ρ = resistivity = 5 x 10-7 Ωm
Displacement Measurements
5- Piezoelectric Transducers (PZT): Example of Piezoresistivity
 L  L 
R  h   
 A  A 
 1 m 
 (30  10)mm * 
 1000mm 
R  h  5 *10 7 m 2 
 (0.01  0.0027)mm2 *  1m  
 1000 mm 
   
1.5  h  2.74
h  1.24
Displacement Measurements
5- Piezoelectric Transducers (PZT):
Example of Piezoresistivity
Notes:
 Change in Resistance will be approximately linear for
small changes in L as long as ΔL<<L.

 If a force is applied where the modulus of elasticity is

exceeded then the wire can become permanently
damaged and then it is no longer a transducer.
References
1. Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design, edited by John G. Webster
2. Chemical sensors and biosensors, by Brian R. Eggins
3. Sensors in Biomedical Applications: Fundamentals, Technology &
Applications, by Gábor Harsányi – Ch7: Biosensors
4. http://www.diabetesmonitor.com/meters.htm#fcnim
5. Biomolecular sensors, edited by Electra Gizeli & Christopher R. Lowe
6. Biomedical Sensors, Dr. James A. Smith
7. Chapter 6 in, Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology By Joseph
Carr and John Brown