One-Dimensional, Steady-State

Conduction without
Thermal Energy Generation

Chapter Three
Sections 3.1 through 3.4
Methodology

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.
• Solve for the temperature distribution.
• Apply Fourier’s law to determine the heat flux.

Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction with No Thermal Energy

Generation.

• Common Geometries:
– The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area
perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of x).
– The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.
– The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.
Plane Wall
The Plane Wall
• Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature:

• Heat Equation:
d  dT 
k 0 (3.1)
dx  dx 

• Implications:
Heat flux  qx  is independent of x.
Heat rate  qx  is independent of x.
• Boundary Conditions: T  0   Ts ,1, T  L   Ts ,2

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

x
T  x   Ts ,1  Ts ,2  Ts ,1  (3.3)
L
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:

dT k
qx   k  Ts ,1  Ts ,2  (3.5)
dx L
dT kA
qx   kA
dx

L
Ts ,1  Ts ,2  (3.4)
 T 
• Thermal Resistances  Rt   and Thermal Circuits:
 q 
L
Conduction in a plane wall: Rt ,cond  (3.6)
kA
1
Convection: Rt ,conv  (3.9)
hA
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:

1 L 1
Rtot    (3.12)
h1 A kA h 2 A
T,1  T,2
qx  (3.11)
Rtot
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Thermal Resistance for Unit Surface Area:

L 1
Rt,cond  Rt,conv 
k h
Units: Rt  K/W Rt  m 2  K/W
• Radiation Resistance:
1 1
Rt ,rad  Rt,rad 
hr A hr

hr   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur
2
 (1.9)

• Contact Resistance:

TA  TB Rt,c
Rt,c  Rt ,c 
qx Ac

Values depend on: Materials A and B, surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and
contact pressure (Tables 3.1 and 3.2)
Plane Wall (cont.) • Composite Wall with Negligible
Contact Resistance:

T,1  T,4
qx  (3.14)
 Rt

For the temperature distribution

shown, kA > kB < kC.

1  1 LA LB LC 1  Rtot
 Rt  Rtot       
A  h1 k A k B kC h4  A
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) :
A modified form of Newton’s law of cooling to encompass multiple resistances
to heat transfer.
qx  UAToverall (3.17)

1
Rtot  (3.19)
UA
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Series – Parallel Composite Wall:

• Note departure from one-dimensional conditions for k F  kG .

• Circuits based on assumption of isothermal surfaces normal to x direction or

adiabatic surfaces parallel to x direction provide approximations for qx .
Porous Media

• Porous Media
• Saturated media
consist of a solid
phase and a single
fluid phase.

• Unsaturated media
consist of solid, liquid,
and gas phases.

• The effective thermal conductivity of a saturated medium depends on the solid (s)
material, its porosity , its morphology, as well as the interstitial fluid (f) (Fig.a).
keff A
qx  T1  T2  (3.21)
L
• The value of keff may be bracketed by describing the medium with a series
resistance analysis (Fig. b) and a parallel resistance analysis (Fig.c).
• The value of keff may be estimated by  k f  2k s  2 (k s  k f ) 
keff    ks
 k f  2k s   (k s  k f ) 
(3.25)

  0.25
Tube Wall
The Tube Wall

• Heat Equation:
1 d  dT 
 kr 0 (3.28)
r dr  dr 
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of qr with
r in the wall?
Is the foregoing conclusion consistent with the energy conservation requirement?
How does qr vary with r ?
• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :
Ts ,1  Ts ,2  r 
T r   ln    Ts ,2 (3.31)
ln  r1 / r2   r2 
Tube Wall (cont.)

• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:

dT k
qr   k 
dr r ln  r2 / r1 
Ts,1  Ts,2  [W/m2]

2 k
qr  2 rqr 
ln  r2 / r1 
Ts ,1  Ts ,2  [W/m]

2 Lk
qr  2 rLqr 
ln  r2 / r1 
Ts,1  Ts,2  [W] (3.32)

• Conduction Resistance:
ln  r2 / r1 
Rt ,cond  [K/W] (3.33)
2 Lk
ln  r2 / r1 
Rt,cond  [m  K/W]
2 k

Why doesn’t a surface area appear in the expressions for the thermal
resistance?
Tube Wall (cont.)
• Composite Wall with
Negligible Contact
Resistance

T,1  T,4
qr 
Rtot

 UA T,1  T,4  (3.35)

Note that
For the temperature distribution
1
UA  Rtot shown, kA > kB > kC.

is a constant independent of radius,

but U itself is tied to specification of an interface.
1
U i   Ai Rtot  (3.37)
Spherical Shell
Spherical Shell

• Heat Equation
1 d  2 dT 
2 dr 
r 0
r  dr 

What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of
qr with r ? Is this result consistent with conservation of energy?

How does qr vary with r ?

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

T  r   Ts ,1  Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
 
1  r1/ r

1  r1 / r 2 
Spherical Shell (cont.)

• Heat flux, Heat Rate and Thermal Resistance:

dT k
qr   k  2
dr r 1/ r1   1/ r2 
Ts ,1  Ts ,2 

4 k
qr  4 r 2qr  T  T 
1/ r1   1/ r2  s ,1 s ,2
(3.40)

Rt ,cond 
1 / r1   1 / r2  (3.41)
4 k

• Composite Shell:
Toverall
qr   UAToverall
Rtot

UA  Rtot 1  Constant

1
U i   Ai Rtot   Depends on Ai
Problem: Thermal Barrier Coating

Problem 3.30: Assessment of thermal barrier coating (TBC) for protection

of turbine blades. Determine maximum blade temperature
with and without TBC.

Schematic:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a composite plane wall,

(2) Constant properties, (3) Negligible radiation.
Problem: Thermal Barrier Coating (cont..)

ANALYSIS: For a unit area, the total thermal resistance with the TBC is

 ,w = ho-1 +  L k  + Rt,c
Rtot  +  L k  + hi-1
Zr In

 
 ,w = 10-3  3.85  10-4  10-4  2  10-4  2  10-3 m 2  K W = 3.69×10-3 m 2  K W
Rtot

With a heat flux of

T ,o - T ,i 1300 K
 =
qw =  3.52  105 W m 2
 ,w
Rtot 3.69  103 m 2  K W

the inner and outer surface temperatures of the Inconel are

 3.52 105 W m 2 
Ts,i (w) = T ,i +  qw hi   400 K  
   1104 K
 500 W m 2  K / W 
 

Ts,o (w) = T ,i + 1 hi  +  L k In  qw    

  400 K  2  10 3  2  10 4 m 2  K W 3.52  105 W m 2  1174 K <
Problem: Thermal Barrier Coating (cont..)

Without the TBC,

3
,wo = ho +  L k In + hi  3.20  10
-1 -1 2

Rtot m K W


  T ,o  T ,i
qwo  
Rtot,wo  4.06105 W/m2

The inner and outer surface temperatures of the Inconel are then

Ts,i (wo)  T ,i   qwo

 hi   1212 K

Ts ,o (wo)  T ,i  1 hi    L 
k In q wo
  1293 K <

Use of the TBC facilitates operation of the Inconel below Tmax = 1250 K.

COMMENTS: Since the durability of the TBC decreases with increasing

temperature, which increases with increasing thickness, limits to its thickness are
associated with reliability considerations.
Problem: Radioactive Waste Decay

Problem 3.72: Suitability of a composite spherical shell for storing

radioactive wastes in oceanic waters.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Steady-state conditions,

(3) Constant properties at 300K, (4) Negligible contact resistance.

PROPERTIES: Table A-1, Lead: k = 35.3 W/m∙K, MP = 601 K; St.St.: k = 15.1 W/m∙K.

ANALYSIS: From the thermal circuit, it follows that

T -T 4 
q = 1   q   r13 
Rtot 3 
Problem: Radioactive Waste Decay (cont..)

The thermal resistances are:

 1 1 
RPb  1/  4  35.3 W/m  K      0.00150 K/W
 0.25m 0.30m 
 1 1 
RSt.St.  1/  4  15.1 W/m  K      0.000567 K/W
 0.30m 0.31m 

 
Rconv  1/ 4  0.312 m 2  500 W/m 2  K   0.00166 K/W
 

Rtot  0.00372 K/W

The heat rate is then

3
q = 5  105 W/m3  4 / 3 0.25m   32, 725 W

and the inner surface temperature is

T1  T  Rtot q  283 K  0.00372 K/W 32,725 W 

 405 K  MP  601 K <

Hence, from the thermal standpoint, the proposal is adequate.

COMMENTS: In fabrication, attention should be given to maintaining a good

thermal contact. A protective outer coating should be applied to prevent long
term corrosion of the stainless steel.
One-Dimensional, Steady-State
Conduction with
Thermal Energy Generation

Chapter Three
Section 3.5, Appendix C
Implications

Implications of Energy Generation

• Involves a local (volumetric) source of thermal energy due to conversion
from another form of energy in a conducting medium.

• The source may be uniformly distributed, as in the conversion from

electrical to thermal energy (Ohmic heating):

E g I 2 Re
q   (3.43)
 

or it may be non-uniformly distributed, as in the absorption of radiation

passing through a semi-transparent medium.
For a plane wall,

q  e  x
• Generation affects the temperature distribution in the medium and causes
the heat rate to vary with location, thereby precluding inclusion of
the medium in a thermal circuit.
The Plane Wall

The Plane Wall

• Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction
in a plane wall of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions:

• Heat Equation:

d  dT   d 2T q
k q0 2  0 (3.44)
dx  dx  dx k

Is the heat fluxq independent of x?

• General Solution:

T  x     q / 2k  x 2  C1 x  C2 (3.45)

What is the form of the temperature distribution for

q  0? q > 0? q < 0?

How does the temperature distribution change with increasing ? q

Plane wall (cont.)
Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:

• What is the temperature gradient

at the centerline or the insulated
surface?

• Why does the magnitude of the temperature

gradient increase with increasing x?

• Temperature Distribution:

q L2  x2 
T x  1  2   Ts
2k 
(3.47)
L 

• How do we determine ?
Ts
Overall energy balance on the wall →

 Eout  E g  0

 hAs Ts  T   q As L  0

q L
Ts  T  (3.51)
h
• How do we determine the heat rate at x = L?
Radial Systems

Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall Spherical Wall (Shell)

Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod) Solid Sphere

• Heat Equations:

Cylindrical Spherical

1 d  dT   1 d  2 dT 
 kr q0  kr   q  0
r dr  dr  r 2 dr  dr 
Radial systems (cont.)
• Solution for Uniform Generation in a Solid Sphere of Constant k
with Convection Cooling:

Temperature Distribution Surface Temperature

dT q r 3
kr 2
  C1 Overall energy balance:
dr 3 q r
 Eout  Eg  0  Ts  T  o
q r 2 C1 3h
T    C2
6k r Or from a surface energy balance:
dT
|r  0  0  C1  0
dr
  q  r   q q ro
E in  E out  0 cond o conv  Ts
 T

q ro 2 3h
T  ro   Ts  C2  Ts 
6k
q ro 2  r2 
T r    1    Ts
6k  ro 2 

• A summary of temperature distributions is provided in Appendix C

for plane, cylindrical and spherical walls, as well as for solid
cylinders and spheres. Note how boundary conditions are specified
and how they are used to obtain surface temperatures.
Problem: Nuclear Fuel Rod
Problem 3.100 Thermal conditions in a gas-cooled nuclear reactor
with a tubular thorium fuel rod and a concentric
graphite sheath: (a) Assessment of thermal integrity
for a generation rate of . (b) Evaluation of
temperature distributions in the8 thorium3 and graphite
q range
for generation rates in the 10 W/m .

108  q  5x108

Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Constant

properties, (4) Negligible contact resistance, (5) Negligible radiation.

Properties: Table A.1, Thorium: Tmp  2000K; Table A.2, Graphite: Tmp  2300K.
Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)

Analysis: (a) The outer surface temperature of the fuel, T2 , may be determined from the rate equation

T2  T
q 

Rtot
1n  r3 / r2  1
 
where Rtot   0.0185 m  K/W
2 k g 2 r3h

The heat rate may be determined by applying an energy balance to a control surface about the fuel
element,  Eout  Eg
or, per unit length,
• •
E out  E g
Since the interior surface of the element is essentially adiabatic, it follows that

q  q   r22  r12   17,907 W/m

•

Hence,
  T  17,907 W/m  0.0185 mK/W   600K  931K
T2  qRtot

With zero heat flux at the inner surface of the fuel element, Eq. C.14 yields

q r22  r12  q r12  r2

• •

T1  T2  1  1n    931K  25K  18K  938K <
4kt  r22  2kt  r1 
 
Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)

Since T1 and T2 are well below the melting points of thorium and graphite, the prescribed
operating condition is acceptable.

(b) The solution for the temperature distribution in a cylindrical wall with generation is
q r22  r 2 
Tt  r   T2  1  
4kt  r22 
 2 

q r  r 2
1n  r / r 
 2
 1  2   T2  T1  1n r2 / r
1 (C.2)
 4kt  r    2 1
  2  
Boundary conditions at r1 and r2 are used to determine T1 and T 2 .

 q r 2  r 2  
k 1  2   T2  T1 
2 1
(C.14)
1
qr  4kt  r2  
r  r1 : q1  0  
2 r11n  r2 / r1 

 qr
 22  r12  
k 1  r 2   T2  T1 
(C.17)

q r2  4 k t  2  
r  r2 : U 2 T2  T     
2 r21n  r2 / r1 

1 1
U 2   A2 Rtot
    2 r2 Rtot
  (3.37)
Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)

The following results are obtained for temperature distributions in the graphite.

2500

2100
Temperature, T(K)
Tmp  2000K
1700

1300

900

500
0.008 0.009 0.01 0.011
Radial location in fuel, r(m)
qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8

Operation at q  5  10 W/m is clearly unacceptable since the melting point of

8 3

thorium would be exceeded. To prevent softening of the material, which would occur
below the melting point, the reactor should not be operated much above q  3  10 W/m .
8 3

The small radial temperature gradients are attributable to the large value of kt .
Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)

Using the value of T2 from the foregoing solution and computing T3 from the surface condition,
2 k g T2  T3 
q 
1n  r3 / r2 
the temperature distribution in the graphite is

T2  T3 r
Tg  r   1n    T3 (3.31)
1n  r2 / r3   r3 

2500
Tmp  2300K
2100
Temperature, T(K)

1700

1300

900

500
0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014
Radial location in graphite, r(m)

qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8
Problem: Nuclear fuel rod (cont.)

Operation at q  5  108 W/m 3 is problematic for the graphite. Larger temperature gradients
are due to the small value of k g .

Comments: (i) What effect would a contact resistance at the thorium/graphite interface have on
temperatures in the fuel element and on the maximum allowable value of q ? (ii) Referring
to the schematic, where might radiation effects be significant? What would be the influence of such
effect on temperatures in the fuel element and the maximum allowable value ofq ?
Extended Surfaces

Chapter Three
Section 3.6
Nature and Rationale

Nature and Rationale of Extended Surfaces

• An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection system
or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be
one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection (and/or
radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of conduction.

– If heat is transferred from the surface to the fluid by convection, what

surface condition is dictated by the conservation of energy requirement?

– Why is heat transfer by conduction in the x-direction not, in fact, one-

dimensional?
Nature and Rationale (cont.)

– What is the actual functional dependence of the temperature distribution in

the solid?

– If the temperature distribution is assumed to be one-dimensional, that is,

T=T(x) , how should the value of T be interpreted for any x location?

– How doesq
cond,xvary with x ?
– When may the assumption of one-dimensional conduction be viewed as an
excellent approximation?
The thin-fin approximation.

• Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly used as
fins to enhance heat transfer by increasing the surface area available for
convection (and/or radiation).
They are particularly beneficial when is small,
h
as for a gas and natural convection.

• Some typical fin configurations:

Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections; (c) annular
fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.
Fin Equation

The Fin Equation

• Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended
surface of constant conductivity and uniform cross-sectional area ,
with negligible generation   k and radiation , the fin equation  Ac 
is of the form:
q  0
 
q  0
rad 

d 2T hP
2
 T  T   0 (3.67)
dx kAc

 hP / kAc 
m 2or,with and the reduced temperature ,  T  T

d 2
2
 m2  0 (3.69)
dx

How is the fin equation derived?

Fin Equation (cont.)

• Solutions (Table 3.4):

Base (x = 0) condition

  0   Tb  T  b
Tip ( x = L) conditions

A. Convection:  kd / dx |x  L  h  L 
B. Adiabatic: d / dx |x  L  0
C. Fixed temperature:   L    L
D. Infinite fin (mL  2.65):   L   0
• Fin Heat Rate:
d
q f   kAc |x 0   h  x  dAs
dx Af
Performance Parameters
Fin Performance Parameters
• Fin Efficiency:

qf qf
f   where 0   f  1 (3.91)
qf , max hA f b
How is the efficiency affected by the thermal conductivity of the fin?

 for
Expressions
f
are provided in Table 3.5 for common geometries.

Consider a triangular fin:

1/ 2
A f  2 w  L2  t / 2  
2
 
Ap  t / 2  L
1 I1  2mL 
f 
mL I 0  2mL 

• Fin Effectiveness:
qf
f 
hAc ,bb (3.86)
 f  with  h,  k and  Ac / P
• Fin Resistance:

b 1
Rt , f   (3.97)
qf hA f  f
Arrays
Fin Arrays
• Representative arrays of
(a) rectangular and
(b) annular fins.

– Total surface area:

At  NA f  Ab (3.104)

Number of fins Area of exposed base (prime surface)

– Total heat rate:

b
qt  N f hA f b  hAbb  o hAtb  (3.105)
Rt , o
– Overall surface efficiency and resistance:
NA f
o  1 
A
1  f  (3.107)
b t 1
Rt , o  
qt o hAt (3.108)
Arrays (Cont.)
• Equivalent Thermal Circuit:

• Effect of Surface Contact Resistance:

b
qt  o c hAtb 
Rt , o c 
NA f   f  (3.110a)
o  c   1  1  
At  C1 
C1  1   f hA f  Rt, c / Ac ,b  (3.110b)

1
Rt , o c  
o c hAt (3.109)
Problem: Turbine Blade Cooling

Problem 3.126: Assessment of cooling scheme for gas turbine blade.

Determination of whether blade temperatures are less
than the maximum allowable value (1050°C) for
prescribed operating conditions and evaluation of blade
cooling rate.

Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction in blade, (2) Constant k, (3)

Adiabatic blade tip, (4) Negligible radiation.

Analysis: Conditions in the blade are determined by Case B of Table 3.4.

(a) With the maximum temperature existing at x = L, Eq. 3.80 yields
T  L  - T 1

Tb - T coshmL

 
1/2
 250 W/m 2  K  0.11m/20W/m  K  6  10 4 m 2
1/ 2
m   hP/kAc  = 47.87 m-1

mL = 47.87 m-1  0.05 m = 2.39

Problem: Turbine Blade Cooling (cont.)

From Table B.1 (or by calculation), coshmL  5.51. Hence,

T  L   1200o C  (300  1200)o C/5.51  1037 oC

and, subject to the assumption of an adiabatic tip, the operating conditions are acceptable.

   900 C   517W ,
1/ 2
4
(b) With M   hPkAc  1/ 2
b 2
 250W/m  K  0.11m  20W/m  K  6  10 m
2 o

Eq. 3.81 and Table B.1 yield

q f  M tanh mL  517W  0.983  508W

Hence,

qb  q f  508W <

Comments: Radiation losses from the blade surface contribute to reducing the blade
temperatures, but what is the effect of assuming an adiabatic tip condition? Calculate
the tip temperature allowing for convection from the gas.
Problem: Chip Heat Sink

Problem 3.144: Determination of maximum allowable power for a 20 mm 20 q

mm electronic chip
whose temperature is not to exceed c
 when the chip is attached to an air-cooled heat sink with N = 11 fins of
prescribed dimensions. T  85 C, 
c

Schematic:

T c = 85 o C

W = 20 m m R ”t,c= 2x10 -6 m 2 -K /W
k = 180 W /m -K
L b= 3 m m
t Tc R t,b Too
L f = 15 m m
qc
R t,c R t,o
Too = 20 o C S  = 1.8 m m
Air
h = 100 W /m 2 -K

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer, (3) Isothermal chip, (4)
Negligible heat transfer from top surface of chip, (5) Negligible temperature rise for air flow,
(6) Uniform convection coefficient associated with air flow through channels and over outer
surface of heat sink, (7) Negligible radiation, (8) Adiabatic fin tips.
Problem: Chip Heat Sink (cont.)

Analysis: (a) From the thermal circuit,

T -T Tc - T
qc = c  =
Rtot Rt,c + Rt,b + Rt,o
2 6 2 2
Rt,c  Rt, c / W  2  10 m  K/W /  0.02m   0.005 K/W

 
Rt,b  Lb / k W
2 2
 0.003m / 180 W/m  K  0.02m   0.042 K/W

From Eqs. (3.108), (3.107), and (3.104)

NA f
Rt,o 
1
o h At
, o  1 
At

1  f ,  At  NA f  Ab
-4 2
Af = 2WLf = 2  0.02m  0.015m = 6  10 m
2 2 -3 -4 2
Ab = W – N(tW) = (0.02m) – 11(0.182  10 m  0.02m) = 3.6  10 m
-3 2
At = 6.96  10 m
1/2 2 -3 1/2
With mLf = (2h/kt) Lf = (200 W/m K/180 W/mK  0.182  10 m) (0.015m) =
1.17, tanh mLf = 0.824 and Eq. (3.94) yields
tanh mL f 0.824
f    0.704
mL f 1.17
o = 0.719,
Rt,o = 2.00 K/W, and

qc 
85  20  °C  31.8 W <
0.005  0.042  2.00  K/W
Problem: Chip Heat Sink (cont.)

Comments: The heat sink significantly increases the allowable heat dissipation. If it
were not used and heat was simply transferred by convection from the surface of the chip with
h  100 W/m 2  K, Rtot  2.05 K/W from Part (a) would be replaced by
Rconv  1 / hW 2  25 K/W, yielding qc  2.60 W.
 Special Topics:

The Bioheat Equation

Thermoelectric Power Generation
Micro- and Nanoscale Conduction

Chapter Three
Sections 3.7 through 3.9
Bioheat Equation

Nature and Rationale of the Bioheat Equation

• Heat transfer within the human body is affected by two volumetric thermal
energy generation phenomena: metabolic heat generation and exchange between
tissue and flowing blood (or perfusion). Therefore, the one-dimensional steady-state
heat equation describing the local temperature T in, for example, living tissue may
be written in terms of the bioheat equation

metabolic volumetric generation perfusion

d 2T qm  qP (3.111)
 0
dx 2 k

where perfusion within a small volume of tissue is described in terms of

the blood temperature in small arteries entering the volume, Ta

q P  b cb Ta  T  (3.112)

blood density and specific heat

Blood flow rate (m3/s) per unit tissue volume (m3)
– An assumption made in writing Eq. (3.112) is that the flowing blood exits
at the local tissue temperature T.
Bioheat equation (cont.)

Defining an excess temperature as

q m
  T  Ta 
b cb

and the parameter

m 2  b cb / k

Equation (3.111) becomes

d 2
 
m 2
 0 (3.114)
dx 2

which is identical in form to the equation for fins of uniform cross section

d 2
 m 2
 0 (3.69)
dx 2
Hence the results of Section 3.6.2 and Table 3.4 may be applied to solve
the bioheat equation.
Problem: Metabolic heating

Problem 3.166: Assessment of metabolic heating required to maintain

comfortable exposed skin temperature under chilly conditions.

Schematic:
Muscle Skin/Fat Tsur  288 K
qm , q p qm  q p  0 Ts  33C,   0.95
  0.0005 s -1 ksf  0.3 W/m  K
T  288 K
km  0.5 W/m  K
h  2 W/m 2  K
Ta  Tc  37C Ti

Lm = 30 mm Lsf = 3 mm Air

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer, (3) Metabolic heat
generation rate, perfusion rate, arterial temperature, blood properties, and thermal conductivities
are all uniform, (4) No generation in skin/fat layer, (5) Solar irradiation of skin is negligible.

Analysis: For a skin surface temperature of Ts = 33°C, the heat loss from the skin to the environment is

q = hA (Ts - T ) +  A(Ts4 - Tsur

4
)


= 2 W/m 2  K × 1.8 m 2 (33 - 15)°C + 0.95 × 5.67 × 10-8 W/m 2  K 4 × 1.8 m 2 3064 - 2884 K 4 
= 248 W
Problem: Metabolic heating (cont.)

Since there is no generation in the skin/fat layer, the interface temperature between the
skin/fat layer and the muscle layer is found from a conduction analysis for the skin/fat

qLsf 248 W × 0.003 m

Ti = Ts + = 33°C + 2
= 34.4°C
ksf A 0.3 W/m  K × 1.8 m

Heat transfer in the muscle is governed by Eq. 3.114. From Example 3.12, the rate at which heat leaves
the muscle and enters the skin/fat layer is determined by utilizing a solution of the fin equation as

dT i cosh mL
 m  c
q x  L   km A   km Am
m dx x  Lm  m
sinh mL

This heat rate must equal the rate at which heat is transferred across the skin/fat layer, q = 248 W.
Inserting the definitions of i  Ti  Ta  q m / (b cb ) and  c  Tc  Ta  q m / (b cb ) we can solve
for the required metabolic heat rate:

q
 m + (Ti - Ta )coshmLm + (Tc - Ta )
sinhmL
km Am
q m = b cb
coshmL m+1
Problem: Metabolic heating (cont.)

where

1/2
m = b cb / km = 0.0005 s -1 × 1000 kg/m 3 × 3600 J/kg  K 0.5 W/m  K  = 60 m -1
 

and with

 m ) = sinh(60 m -1 × 0.03 m) = 2.94

sinh(mL

 m ) = cosh(60 m -1 × 0.03 m) = 3.11

cosh(mL

q m = 0.0005 s -1 × 1000 kg/m 3 × 3600 J/kg  K

 248 W 
 0.5 W/m  K × 1.8 m 2 × 60 m -1 × 2.94 + (34.4 - 37)°C × 3.11 
×    2341 W/m3 <
 3.11 + 1 
 

COMMENTS: Shivering can increase the metabolic heat rate by six times the resting rate. The value found
here is about 3 times the resting rate given in Example 3.12.
Thermoelectric Power Generation

Nature and Rationale of Thermoelectric Power

Generation
For many materials, when a temperature gradient is established, a corresponding
voltage gradient is induced. For a constant property material

( E1  E2 )  S T1  T2  (3.115)

voltage difference temperature difference

Seebeck coefficient [V/K]

The Seebeck coefficient is small in metals, but can be relatively large in

semiconductors. The Seebeck coefficient can be made positive or negative
by doping a semiconducting material. When p- and n-type semiconductors
are arranged in an electric circuit including an external electrical resistance, Re,load,
the voltage differences can drive an electric current I.
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

Thermoelectric effects also generate or absorb heat at interfaces between dissimilar materials. Peltier
heating, qP, is positive at the hot side of the material (T1) and is negative at the cool side (T2) and is
described by (with T expressed in kelvins)


qP  I ( S p  Sn )T  I S p  n T  (3.116)

differential Seebeck coefficient

Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

Heat transfer to the circuit is q1, but because thermoelectric power is generated by the circuit, P = I 2R
e,load, heat transfer from the circuit must be q2 < q1.

At the hot side of the circuit, an energy balance yields

q1  q ( x   L)  qP ,1  q ( x   L)  IS p  nT1 (3.119)

Heat conducted into the semiconducting material

Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

q

Also, Ohmic (I 2Re) heating occurs in the semiconducting material and is

I 2 e, s
q  ( 3.117)

Ac2, s

Cross-sectional area of Electrical resistivity of

one semiconductor pellet [m2] the semiconducting material [  m]
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

Assuming constant properties and using Equation C.7, the heat conducted into the semiconducting material at the
hot side is

Thermal conductivity of
the semiconductor material
 ks I 2  e,s L 
q( x   L)  2 Ac ,s  T1  T2   2  ( 3.118b)
 2 L A c ,s  
Assuming the thin metal conductors pose negligible thermal resistance and no contact resistance effects,
combining Equations 3.118b and 3.119 yields

Ac , s ks I 2 e , s L
q1  T1  T2   IS p  nT1  2 ( 3.121)
L Ac , s
A similar analysis can be performed for the cool side of the circuit (T2) yielding

Ac , s ks I 2 e, s L
q2  T1  T2   IS p  nT2  2 ( 3.122)
L Ac , s
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

From an energy balance on the entire circuit, the electric power produced by the circuit, P, is

P  q1  q2 ( 3.123)

Combining Equations 3.121 through 3.123 yields

I 2 e, s L
P  IS p  n (T1  T2 )  4  IS p  n (T1  T2 )  2 I 2 Re,s ( 3.124)

Ac , s
where the electric power produced by the circuit is consumed in the load

P  I 2 Re,load
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

Equations 3.121, 3.122 and 3.124 may be generalized for a thermoelectric module consisting of N pairs of
semiconducting pellets.

(T1  T2 )
q1   IS p  n,eff T1  I 2 Re,eff ( 3.125)
Rt ,cond,mod

Conduction resistance Effective Seebeck Electrical resistance

of module = L/NAc,sks coefficient = NSp-n of module

(T1  T2 )
q2   IS p  n,eff T2  I 2 Re,eff ( 3.126)

Rt ,cond,mod

PN  q1  q2  IS p  n,eff (T1  T2 )  2 I 2 Re,eff ( 3.127)

Electric power generated by the module

Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling

Problem 3.171: Cylindrical uranium heat source used for power generation
in space. Cooling of thermoelectric modules by radiation to deep
space (4K). M = 80 modules wired in series. Determine electric
power for = 1, 10, 100 kW. Also determine the surface
temperature of the modules.
E g

Schematic:
Tsur = 4 K
Module characteristics :
W = 54 mm
Rt,cond,mod = 1.736 K/W
2L = 5 mm
Sp-n,eff = 0.1435 V/K
Heat source, Re,eff = 4 
E g = 1, 10, 100 kW
Insulation Dimensions: W×W
Thermoelectric
module, 
Re, load = 250 

Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Large surroundings
(4) Module thermal resistance is dominated by the semiconducting pellets.
Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling (cont.)

Analysis: A thermal circuit may be drawn that incorporates Equations 3.125, 3.126, 3.127 and the radiation rate
equation. The circuit for one module is:

q1 ISp-n,effT1- I2Re,eff

T1

Thermoelectric Rt,cond,mod ISp-n,eff(T1 – T2) - 2I2Re,eff

module =
I2Re,load
T2

q2 ISp-n,effT2+ I2Re,eff

Rrad

Tsur

where q1  Eg / M  Eg / 80
(1)
Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling (cont.)

From Equations 3.125 and 3.126,

1 (T1  T2 )
q1  (T1  T2 )  IS p - n ,eff T1  I 2 Re,eff   I  0.1435 V/K  T1  I 2  4  (2)
Rt ,cond,mod 1.736 K/W

1 (T1  T2 )
q2  (T1  T2 )  IS p -n ,eff T2  I 2 Re ,eff   I  0.1435 V/K  T2  I 2  4  (3)
Rt ,cond,mod 1.736 K/W

For heat transfer by radiation to deep space,

q2  hrW 2 (T2  Tsur )  hr  (0.054 m) 2  (T2  4 K) (4)

where,

hr   (T2  Tsur )(T22  Tsur2 )  0.93  5.67  10 8 W/m 2  K  (T2  4 K)  (T22  (4 K) 2 ) (5)

The electric power produced by all M = 80 modules, Ptot, is related to the power
generated in each module, PN, and the load resistance, Re,load

Ptot  MPN  M  IS p -n ,eff (T1  T2 )  2 I 2 Re,eff   I 2 Re,load

or,
80  I  0.1435 V/K  (T1  T2 )  2 I 2  4    I 2  250  (6)
E g
Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling (cont.)

Upon specification ofE Equation (1) may be solved for q1. Equations (2)
g
through (6) may then be solved simultaneously for T1, T2, I, q2, and hr.

E g (kW) I (A) Ptot (W) T2 (K)  = PN /q1

1 0.10 2.63 534 0.0026
<
10 0.67 114 947 0.011
100 3.99 3990 1671 0.04

COMMENTS: (1) The temperature for the highest thermal energy generation rate is unacceptably
high. (2) The electric power generated is relatively high, but the conversion efficiency, , is low. The
efficiency increases with generation rate because of larger temperature differences across the modules,
which are T = 8, 52, and 310 K for the low, medium, and high generation rates, respectively. (3) What
steps might be taken to increase T and, in turn, increase the conversion efficiency?
Micro- and Nanoscale Conduction

Micro- and Nanoscale Conduction:

Nature and Rationale
• From Chapter 2, conduction may be viewed as a consequence of energy carrier
(molecule, electron, or phonon) motion. The carriers collide with each other
and with physical boundaries, affecting their propagation and heat transfer rates.

Conduction
in a gas

Gas molecule motion between two isothermal solid walls at Ts,1 > Ts,2.
The separation distance between the walls is L1 >> L2. Molecule-wall
collisions become more important as L/mfp becomes small, affecting
heat transfer by conduction through the gas layer, qx.
Conduction in a gas layer

The collision and scattering of a gas molecule with a solid surface is described
by a thermal accommodation coefficient, t.
Molecule temperature
leaving the surface
Ti  Tsc
t 
Molecule temperature Ti  Ts ( 3.130)

prior to collision with Surface temperature

surface
Note:  t  1  Tsc = Ts  t  0  Tsc = Ti

For an ideal gas, the molecule-molecule and molecule-surface collisions may be

associated with thermal resistances:

Ts ,1  Ts ,2 ( 3.131)
qx 
( Rt ,m  m  Rt ,m  s )
where L mfp  2   t   9  5 
Rt ,m  m  and
Rt ,m  s   
( 3.132a,b)
kA kA   t     1 
and   c p / cv
kA mfp
Note: qx  Ts ,1  Ts ,2  as 0
L L
Problem: Conduction through thin gas layers

Problem 3.173: Parallel aluminum plates, 10 mm × 10 mm at Ts,1 = 305 K and

Ts,2 = 295 K. Determine conduction heat transfer through
intervening air layer for plate-plate spacing of L = 1 mm, 1 m,
and 10 nm. Thermal accommodation coefficient of t = 0.92.

Schematic: Air
Ts,1 = 305 K

Ts,2 = 295 K
Aluminum
plates

L = 1 mm, 1 m, or 1 nm
x

Assumptions: (1) Ideal gas.

Properties: Table A.4 (T = 300 K): Air; cp = 1007 J/kg·K, k = 0.0263 W/m·K. Figure 2.8: Air;
M = 28.97 kg/kmol, d = 0.372 × 10-9 m.

Analysis: For air the ideal gas constant, specific heat at constant volume, and ratio of specific heats are:

R 8.315 kJ/kmol  K kJ
R   0.287 ;
M 28.97 kg/kmol kg  K
kJ kJ kJ c p 1.007
cv  c p  R  1.007  0.287  0.720 ;     1.399
kg  K kg  K kg  K cv 0.720
Problem: Conduction through thin gas layers (cont.)

From Equation 2.11 the mean free path of air is:

k BT 1.381 1023 J/K  300 K
mfp    66.5 109 m  66.5 nm
2 d p 2  0.372 × 10 m  1.0133 10 N/m 
2 2
-9 5 2

For L = 1 mm,
L 1 103 m
Rt ,m  m    380.2 K/W
kA 0.0263 W/m  K 10 103 m 10 10 3 m

mfp  2   t   9  5  66.5 10 9 m  2  0.92   9 1.399  5 

Rt ,m  s     
kA   t     1  0.0263 W/m  K 100 10 m  0.92   1.399  1 
6 2 

= 0.09392 K/W

Hence the conduction rate is:

Ts ,1  Ts ,2 305K  295K
qx    0.0263 W <
R t ,m  m  Rt ,m  s  380.2 K/W  0.09392 K/W 

Similarly, for L = 1 m,

Ts ,1  Ts ,2 305K  295K
qx    21.09 W <
 Rt ,mm  Rt ,ms  0.3802 K/W  0.09392 K/W 
And for L = 10 nm,
Ts ,1  Ts ,2 305K  295K <
qx    102.3 W
Rt , m  m  Rt , m  s  0.0038 K/W  0.09392 K/W 
Problem: Conduction through thin gas layers (cont.)

If the molecule-surface interaction and corresponding resistance is neglected, the conduction heat rate
is determined from
kA
qx 
L
Ts,1  Ts,2  ( 1)

The actual conduction heat transfer rates and conduction heat transfer rates calculated from Equation 1
are compared below.

L L/mfp qx (actual) qx (Equation 1)

1 mm 15,000 0.0263 W 0.0263 W

1 m 15 21.09 W 26.3 W

10 nm 0.15 102.3 W 2632 W

COMMENTS: For relatively large plate spacing, molecule-solid resistances may be safely neglected.
However, as L/mfp becomes smaller, such resistances may become important (L = 1 m) or
dominant (L = 10 nm).