Lecture 5.

Building Preliminaries

By: Dinaol

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In this Lecture:
Pre building activities
Wall and roof in General
Work Specification, Material and Construction Estimation

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5.1. Pre building activities

5.1.1 Site Selection

When choosing the location of the planned building; making a survey of any
site from the point of hygiene or orientation (i.e., in relation to the points of
the compass) would be the first job of the planner and of the builder.
Orientation of house (building) means fixing the position of the building
direction wise in the site chosen.
Site is the ground or place where a building is constructed.
In hilly areas, a building should be located at a place over which rain water
may not flow.
Ridge areas are better and safer for construction than valleys or depressions.
The frequency, quantity and direction of rain fall in the area should be known
thus less windows or doors should be provided in the effected walls.
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5.1. Pre building activities …

5.1.1 Site Selection

 The walls will be protected with good plaster and paint. There should be enough projection of
roof. Doors and windows should be provided with shades for protection against rain and sun.
 For very cold areas excess of air or wind is not desirable. For warmer place more air should be
permitted. For more air ventilation (i.e., windows) can be provided.
 For constructional safety, the gable or pent roof in areas with strong winds should not be in the
direction of the wind.
 In areas with cold climates, keep more doors and windows in the east and west direction. In
areas of warm climate, doors and windows should be facing north and south.
 In places lower than high flood level extra precautions should be taken to safe guard
foundations against the action of flood waters.
 If possible site higher than the high flood should be preferred places; which are lower than
water flow, should be avoided.
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5.1. Pre building activities …

5.1.2. Location Plan

When building a house or any other structure must have certain information
available, in order to arrive at the best economical result. The basic information is
the location, size and nature of the plot. This is contained in the location plan, which
shows the plot and the immediate surroundings in scale.
The scale can be 1:20 up to 1:1000 depending on the size of the project. The plan
outlines the shape of the plot and the dimensions of its boundaries, as well as the
location of the future building. It should also show the nature of the area, because it
is very important to know whether the site is sloping or if the ground is uneven.
Roads, drive ways and the positions of the bigger trees are also marked on the
location plan. When the site has been examined thoroughly and all the measurements
and particulars have been obtained, the drawings for the house can be prepared.

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5.1. Pre building activities …

5.1.3 Working Drawings

The working drawings are the drawings which the builder uses before
the construction starts and during the construction; to plan for
materials requirements, to plan the work; and finally to carry out the
construction according to the directions continued in the drawings.
The drawings include, plans, “cross section”, “elevations”, and detail
“drawing”, they are all prepared in scales which are suitable to the
particular drawing.
The first three type of drawing have a scale of between 1:50 and 1:20.

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5.1. Pre building activities …
5.1.4 Plot and Site Clearing
Once the planning work has been completed, the plot and site have to be
prepared for the setting out.
The location plan shows exactly from which areas the trees, bushes, grass and
stones must be removed. The ground is leveled.
The part of the plot which is cleared will be the actual site that the future
building will occupy, including a space of about 5 m all round the building.
One very important measure is to remove all the trees from the site area. If roots
remain, they will sometimes grow again and might damage the structure.
Clearing all the trees on the whole plot is not necessary. Beyond the 5 m clear
space, as many trees as possible should be allowed to remain, because they will
provide shade for the people using the building or living there.
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5.1. Pre building activities …

5.1.5 Setting Out

Once the plot and site clearing is completed, the setting out can be
done. At the beginning of any construction activity the work must be
carefully set out.
This is also known as pegging out or lining out. Setting out means to
put pegs in the ground to mark out an excavation; or to mark on the
floors to locate walls.

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5.1. Pre building activities …

5.1.5 Setting Out …

1) Lining out
Once the positions of the corners and the distances between them are
determined, the positions of the foundations, footings and alls as well as their
thickness must be marked. A simple example of setting out and marking a
foundation.
2) Direct marking
Small buildings or small extensions of houses may be marked directly on the
flat ground, provided that the excavation work can proceed immediately and can
be quickly completed, so that the marking need not be repeated.

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5.1. Pre building activities …

5.1.5 Setting Out …

3) Using the large square
The large square, described in the masonry hand tools, may be used to set out
and mark off the position of inside walls.
This is less time-consuming. Place the large square on the ground with one
side along an already determined line, and mark off the corner on the other
side.
Not only the whole building, but also each room in the building must be
checked for squareness by comparing the diagonals, which have to be equal.

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5.1. Pre building activities …
5.1.6 Profiles
When the positions of the corners of the building are known, and the
distances between them, then we can mark the positions and widths of
the foundations and of the footings and plinth course.
A profile is a simple, temporary structure which maintains the correct
locations of the various marks.
The profile consists of a board nailed flat wise on top of two pegs
which are set in the ground, at a height of about 60 cm. This height is
necessary to lift the line well above the footings, so that later the plinth
course can be marked from the profile.

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5.1.6 Profiles …
If the soil is too hard to drive the wooden pegs, iron pegs designed to
receive a profile board can be used.
At the corners of the building, two boards are used, to mark in two
directions. To mark off the dividing walls, one board is used at each of
the future wall.
Permanent divisions are marked on the boards to indicate the width of
the foundations and the thickness of the rising walls.
The marks may be either saw-cuts or short nails, so that lines can
easily be fixed to them as needed.
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5.1. Pre building activities …
5.1.7 Setting Out on Uneven Ground
Setting out on uneven ground, particularly distances, requires you to
apply some simple geometry.
When we measure distances in setting out, we are actually looking for
the horizontal distances between two points.
We don’t measure the distances along a slope, because the house we
want to build will not slope, it will have level floors and walls.
Since the ground is not flat, and the points are at different heights, the
horizontal distance between them has to be measured indirectly.

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5.2. Roof in General

The roof is a very important part of the building structure. It performs

several functions. It gives shelter to people, provides shade, isolates
the building from the cold and heat, keeps out dust and dirt, protects
the interior of the building, and sheds rainwater.
5.2.1 Roof Types
There are many different types of roofs. We will deal only with the following
four types:
Lean – to roof
Pent roof
Gable roof
Hipped roof
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5.2. Roof in General …

5.2.2 Size of the Roof

The cost of roofing sheets will be an important part of the cost of the
whole building.
Therefore it is the size of the roofing sheets, which will determine the
size and especially the width of the whole building. For this reason we
make an outline design of the roof before we determine the other
measurement of the building.
We cannot design the building first and later pit a roof on it. This outline
design tells use the width that our building should have so that we can fit
a roof on it with out unnecessary and wasteful cutting and trimming of
sheets.
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5.2. Roof in General …

5.2.2 Size of the Roof

To make the outline design of the roof, we need to know:
- The pitch of the roof
- The effective length of the sheets
- The distance of the roof will project past outside walls of the building.
1. Roof pitch
The angle of the slope of the roof is called the pitch. It corrugated sheet
materials are used, the pitch angles should be between 15 and 20 degree

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5.2. Roof in General …

2. Effective length of the sheets

The effective length of roofing sheets is the length of the sheet (x)
minus the over lap(y) between the sheets.
The minimum overlap in the length for corrugated sheeting materials
is 15cm.
Here you need to know the most common length for roofing sheets in
your locality. For our explanation a length for roofing sheets is 2.44 m.

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2. Effective length of the sheets

In order to use the sheets as economically as possible, we use 1, 11/2,

2, 21/2, or 3 corrugations (and so on) sheets to cover the distance from
the highest point of the roof to the lower edge. Thus the effective
length will be:
• For 1 sheet ……. ..2.44m
• For 11/2 sheets ….2.44m +122m ….15cm =3.51m
• For 2 sheets ……..2.44.m+2.44m…..15m = 4.73
• For 3 sheets ……..(2.44x3)-(15cmx2) = 8.02m

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5.2. Roof in General …
Technical terms
• TIE BEAM:
This is the horizontal member of the structure (truss) which ties together the ends (feet) of the rafters
• RAFTERS:
These are the sloping members which give support to the purling.
• BRACES:
These are the member which strengthen the construction
• ROOF TRUSS:
This is the structure made up of the rafters, i.e., beam and braces, which form the main loadcarrying unit in some kinds of
roof.
• RURLINS:
These members lie across the rafters and support the roofing sheets
• RIDGE:
This is the highest point of a roof construction point of the truss and the tie beam. It is from ¼ to 1/10 of
the truss.

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5.2.3 Construction Details

1. Lean-to roof
A lean-to roof is a sloping roof attached to the wall of another building. It is
“leaning” against the building. It is usually used for small store or smaller building
(such as kitchen, toilets, and latrine), which is attached to an existing building. The
main members are: • The wall plate 5x10 to 15cm (This the tie beam)
• The rafters 5x7.5 to 10cm
• The purlins 5x7.5 cm
• The fascia board 2.5x 20 to 30 cm
• The sheet material
The above measurements can be used as guide in selecting timbers for this kind of
work. Round timbers (e.g. Bahrizaf) of the same diameters can be used if lumber is
not available and cost.
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5.2.3 Construction Details …

2. Pent roofs
A pent roof is a roof which slopes to one side (it is also called mono-pitch roof). It
differs from a lean-to roof, in that, it is not attached to the wall of another building
but is supported by its own walls.
There are two types of pent roof: (1) the ordinary pent roof (2) the
enclosed or parapetted pent roof.
1. Ordinary pent roof:
In this roof, the rafters and purlins project beyond the outside walls. One wall in
higher than the other wall (usually the front wall is higher than the back wall so
that rain water drops in the back side of the building). The pitch of this roof will
usually be about 15-degrees. This means that the front wall is about 15cm higher
than the back wall.
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5.2.3 Construction Details …

2. Enclosed vent roof:

In this roof, the higher wall and the two sloping walls enclosed and
protect three sides of the roof. The parts of the parapets. Project
above roof level are called parapets. Parapets help to reduce suction
on the roof and to keep the sheets in place. The pitch of this roof will
be about 15 degree.

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5.2.3 Construction Details …

3. Gable roof
This is a roof, which slopes down on the two sides of the ridge and has a
gable on one or two end walls. The gable is the triangular shaped part of
the end wall where it comes up to the sloping edges of the roof. The
advantage of gable roof over pent roof is that it can be constructed to
permit cross ventilation. It can be used for large or small spans.

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5.2.4.Roof Covering

Alignment of the sheets If possible, always start laying the sheets from
one end of the roof so that the free ends of the sheets face away from the
direction of the wind. This reduces the danger of the sheets being blown
away as they are being installed.
Start laying from one end of the building to the other. As each new sheet
is laid lift the edge of the previous one so that it overlaps the new sheet
by 2 corrugations.

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5.2.4.Roof Covering …

Nailing:
When you nail corrugated roofing sheets to purlins, always nail through the top
of the corrugation and never on the valley. This is so that rain will tend to run
away from the nail. The sheets should be nailed to all the purlins. Nail every
second corrugation in the sheets along the eaves purlin and along the ridge
purlin, and also on the end sheets at the gables, over the rest of the roof, nail at
every third corrugation over the purlins. For estimating purposes, 14 nails are
allowed for one sheet; 4 of the ends, 3 at the middle the 3 rails are accounted for
wastage.

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5.2.4.Roof Covering …

Number of covering sheets

To estimate the number of sheets required to cover a given area of roof first you
have to:
- Know the size (s) of sheet materials sold in the markets in your locality,
- The total length of one rafter in one side of the roof (i.e. in case of gable roof)
- The rise of the roof (this may be ¼ -1/10 of the roof truss span)
- The length of the tie beam
- The side lap and over lap of the sheets and
- The total length of the building

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5.3. Materials and Construction Estimation

For all engineering works it is required to know before hand the probable of
construction known as the estimated cost. In preparing an estimate, the
quantities of different items of work are calculated by simple measurement
method and from these quantities the cost is calculated.
The subject of estimating is simple, nothing much to understand, but
knowledge of drawing is essential. One who understands and can read drawing
may find out the dimensions-lengths, breadths, heights, etc. From the drawing
without difficulty and may calculate the quantities. The calculations mainly
consist of
Length X breadth X height or
Length X breadth X or
Length X height
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5.3. Materials and Construction Estimation …

In preparing an estimate, omission of items, changes in designs,

improper rates, etc. are the reasons for exceeding the estimate, though
increase in the rates is one of the main reasons.
In framing a correct estimate, care should be taken to find out the
dimensions of all the items correctly, and to avoid omissions of any kind
of work or part thereof. The rate of each item should also be reasonable
and workable. The rates in the estimate provide for the complete work,
which consist of the cost of materials, cost of transport, cost of labour,
cost of scaffolding, cost of tools and plants, cost of water, taxes,
establishment and supervision cost, reasonable profit of contractor, etc.

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5.3. Materials and Construction Estimation …

The conventions and units of different items of works vary to some

extent from state to state, though the units of the most of the items are
same. Therefore, knowing the metric system and units is important.
For example, basic SI units:
Units of length – meter (M)
Units of mass – kilogram (kg)
Units of time – second (S)
Units of electric current – Ampere (A) etc

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5.3.1 Method of Estimating

I. Estimate:-
before undertaking the construction of a project it is necessary to know its
probable cost which is worked out by estimating. An estimate is a computation
or calculation of the quantities required and expenditure likely to be incurred in
the construction work.

The primary objective of the estimate is to enable one to know beforehand, the
cost of the work (building, structures, sanitary facilities, etc.). The estimate is
the probable cost of a work and is determined theoretically by mathematical
calculations based on the plans and drawing and current rates. Approximate
estimate may be prepared by various methods but accurate estimate is prepared
by detailed.
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5.3.1 Method of Estimating …

II. Actual cost:-

The actual cost of a work is known at the completion of the work. Account of all
expenditure is maintained day-to day during the execution of work in the account
section and at the end of the completion of the work when the account is
completed, the actual cost is known.
N.B: the actual cost should not differ much from the estimated cost
worked out at the beginning.
III. Detailed estimate:
preparation of detailed estimate consists of working out the quantities of different
items of work and then working out the cost i.e. the estimate is prepared in two
stages:
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5.3.1 Method of Estimating …

1. Details of measurements and calculation of quantities:

The whole work is divided into different items of work as earth work, concrete,
brickwork, etc. And the items are classified and grouped under different sub-
heads, and details of measurement of each item of work are taken out and
quantities under each item are computed in prescribed form details of
measurement form.
2. Abstract of Estimated cost:
The cost under item of work is calculated from the quantities already computed
at workable rate, and the total cost is worked out in a prescribed form:

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5.3.2. Work Specification (main items of work)

Specification describes the nature and the class of the work, materials to
be used in the work, workmanship, etc., and is very important for the
execution of the work. The cost of a work depends much on the
specifications.

Specifications should be clear, and there should not be any ambiguity

anywhere. From the study of the specifications one can easily
understand the nature of the work and what the work shall be. During
writing specifications attempts should be made to express all the
requirements of the work clearly and in a concise form avoiding
repetition.
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5.3.2. Work Specification (main items of work) …

For general idea, the general specifications of common sanitary structures are given
below.
1. Earthwork: -
earth work in excavation and earth work in filling are usually taken out separately under different
items, and quantities are calculated in cubic meter.
2. Concrete in foundation: -
the concrete is taken out in cubic meter by length X breadth X thickness. The length and breadth of
foundation concrete are usually the same as for excavation, only the depth or thickness differs.
Foundation concrete consists of lime concrete or weak cement concrete. The proportion of cement
concrete in foundation may be 1:4:8 or 1:5:10.
3. Soiling: -
when the soil is soft or bad, one layer of dry brick or stone soiling is applied below the foundation
concrete. The soiling layer is computed in square meter (length X breadth) specifying the thickness.

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5.3.2. Work Specification (main items of work) …

4. Damp proof course:-

D.P.C. Usually of 2.5 cm thick rich cement concrete 1:1 ½:3 or 2 cm thick rich
cement mortar 1:2 mixed with standard water proofing materials, is provided at
the plinth level to full width of plinth wall, and the quantities are computed in
square meter (length x breadth).
5. Masonry:-
masonry is computed in cubic meter (length x breadth x height). Foundation and
plinth masonry is taken under one item, and masonry in superstructure is taken
under a separate item. In storey building the masonry in each storey as ground
floor above plinth level, first floor, etc. is computed separately. In taking out
quantities the walls are measured as solid and then deductions are made for
openings as doors, windows, etc. and such other options as necessary.
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5.3.2. Work Specification (main items of work) …

N.B. No deduction is made for the following:

1. Opening each upto 0.1 square meter
2. Ends of beams, posts, rafters, purlins, etc, upto 0.05 gram in section
3. Bed plate, wall plate and the like upto 10 cm depth
4. Bearings of floor and roof slabs are not deducted from all masonry
6. Plastering and pointing
plastering usually 12 mm (1/2 “) thick is calculated in square meter. For walls
the measurements are taken for the whole face of the wall for both sides as solid.

Pointing in walls is calculated in square meter for whole surface

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5.3.3. Units of Measurement in Metric System

The principle for dimensions and measurements is to use millimeters

(mm) for minute dimensions, centimeter (cm) for small dimensions and
meter (m) for big dimensions. Distances are measured in kilometers
(km). The dimensional units for main item of materials and works for
general construction work as used in metric system are as

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5.3.4. Estimation of Construction Cost

It is clear that the cost of materials, equipment and labor differs from
place to place and time to time. It is hoped that this topic will give you a
general over view of estimating the construction cost of some sanitation
projects such as VIPL (ventilated improved pit latrine) of different seat,
and traditional pit latrine which are expected to give service for
individual families and for institutions.

Please read the pdf book “Sanitary Construction Lecture note 2 book”
from page 93 for more details.

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 Review Questions
1) List at least three types of roofs.
2) Explain briefly the difference between a Gable roof and a Lean-to roof.
3) How would you estimate the number of sheets required to cover a given area of roof?
4) Draw a gable roof and show where the wall plate, rafters, purlines and tie beam are
located.
5) What is the difference between setting out and laying out?
6) What methods do you utilize for setting out at uneven ground?

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