Objective 3.0 Tidal 2009 Version 1.0

Tidal hydrographical theory
Objective 3.0 to gain an understanding of wave and tide formation and particle motion
Capt JEH/ 2009/ 1 Tidal

Objective 3.0 to gain an understanding of wave
and tide formation and particle motion
Topics
3.1 to have an understanding of regular and irregular waves

in deep water
3.2 to have an understanding of different types of waves
3.3 to have an understanding of wave deformation in
shallow water
3.4 to have an understanding of the difference between
waves and swell
3.5 to be able to calculate significant wave height
and wave period
3.6 to be able to describe the result of particle motion due to
internal friction
3.7 changes
Capt JEH/ 2009/ 2 of waves in tidal areas Tidal
Topic 3.1 regular and irregular waves in deep
water
• the wavelength of a wave (L) is the horizontal distance between two successive crests; [L] = m.
• the period of a wave (T) is the time required for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point; [T] = s.
• the frequency of a wave (f) is the number of wave crests passing a fixed point per unit of time; [f] = 1/s
• the propagation speed of a wave (C) is the speed at which a wave crest travels, also called phase velocity; [C] = m/s
• the height of a wave (H) is the difference in height between the highest and the lowest point of the wave profile; [H] = m
• the steepness of a wave (S) is the ratio of the wave’s height to the wave’s length; [s]=%
The above, is known as a regular wave

Topic 3.1 regular and irregular waves in deep
water
Irregular wave
• heights of successive waves are unequal

• the periods differ

Topic 3.2 different types of waves Barotropic tidal currents are the
periodic water motions
accompanying the tidal changes
in sea level.
Tidal currents flowing over

topography in a stratified ocean
can give rise to tidal period
oscillations in isopycnals,
known as internal, or baroclinic,
tides.
Internal tidal currents cause

flow to be in different directions
at different depths.
The upper part of the following

schematic of a
two-layer ocean depicts a
barotropic wave;
the lower part depicts a
baroclinic wave.
The direction of flow and the

relative velocities of the
two layers are shown
at the crests and troughs.

Topic 3.2 different types of waves
In some regions, the currents associated with internal tides may be much stronger
than the currents associated with the surface, or barotropic, tide.
The internal tidal currents may not be in phase with the barotropic tidal currents.
Because of this it may not always be true that surface currents are flowing
toward shore during rising, or flood tides, and conversely surface currents
may not always be flowing out towards deeper water during falling, or ebb, tides.
Tidal currents contribute to mixing, in some cases dominating it, and thus influence
distribution of water properties including sound speed.
The variations in depth in coastal areas can result in variations in tidal mixing
which can lead to formation of fronts.
Residual, or mean, circulations can be generated through interaction of tides with topography.

Topic 3.2 different types of waves
Seiches
• A seiche is a stationary wave that oscillates
(changes aspect) without progressing.
• Also called a "standing wave", seiches

are caused by strong winds and / or changes in
barometric pressure which suddenly ceases.
• Found in enclosed / semi-enclosed areas.
• Seiche period is determined by the length

and depth of the water.
• Currents associated with seiches are at

maximum speed near the axis (node)
and minimum speed (or not at all) at either end (loops).

Topic 3.3 wave deformation in shallow water
Waves undergo certain changes in their characteristics

due to the following causes:
• when they come from deep into shallow water

• when they come in an area of non-homogeneous current.
• when they are obstructed by obstacles either or not
protruding above water level.

At the development of a breaker (B) wave back-flow occurs (6).

After some time, the next wave (C) becomes a trochoid (D),
the steepness increases quickly due to back-flow
and bottom friction and a plunging breaker is formed (E).
The water of the breaker creates wave outrun (F).
The water runs upwards against the beach.

Refraction
The speed reduction of the shoreward part

– while the seaward part continues at the same speed this
causes the wave crests on the coast to swerve.

Diffraction or bending
R = reflection = loss of energy
Considering a practical application of the above schematic, one can

see that a peninsula experiences greater forces than the inlet of a bay

original wave
reflecting wave
resulting motion = standing wave

Reflection
approach reflection
• the resulting “standing waves” can also exhibit a doubling

of height and steepness (mentioned previously)

Loss of energy due to friction
• fluctuating pressure on top of i.e. sand, sets the sand grains in motion
= Percolation
The only photo I could find

of sand percolating
www.theriverreturns.org/. ../16_Panfish.jpg

Topic 3.4 the difference between waves and
swell
Wind waves
Wind waves are understood to mean the state of the sea surface
caused by the prevailing wind in a particular area and its surroundings.
Swell
Swell is understood to mean waves – originating from a wind field –
that are no longer affected by the action of the wind, which generated them.

swell
height in
metres
duration
• The local duration of the blowing of the wind is simply

called duration of the wind.
• The longer the wind duration, the more the wave grows.
However, this growth actually stops at a certain moment.
• Wind track, is the distance over which the wind is able to

act upon a water surface. Once again, longer the distance
the greater the wave height… with a maximum value
swell
Wind waves are caused by wind; basically in two ways:

• pressure differences
• drag
Both observations and theoretical considerations lead

to the concept that waves can only be generated if
wind speed U is greater than a certain minimum value.
For this minimum wind speed values were found that

varied between 0,8 and 3 m/s.
For the wavelength of the first small generated waves,

values were found varying between 1,7 and 8 cm.

swell
The origin of swell waves:
As soon as sea waves are no longer influenced by the

action of the wind that has generated them – either
because the wind has died down or because the wind
field has moved or because the waves have travelled
from the wind field – they are called swell waves.
Over a greater distance they then undergo two

gradual changes, loss of height and – in general – the
significant wave length and wave period getting
longer.

swell
as wind blows across the smooth water surface, the friction or drag between
the air and the water tends to stretch the surface, resulting in wrinkles
surface tension acts on these wrinkles to restore the smooth surface
-- these are waves
as waves form, the surface becomes rougher and it is easier for the
wind to grip the roughened water surface and intensify the waves

swell
1. Internal friction: results in a loss of energy
2. Dispersion: swell
Angle can be up to 45º
if you toss a stone into a pond, a band of ripples is produced

-- this band gets wider with increasing distance from the original disturbance
and the ripples of greater wavelength progressively outdistance those with
shorter wavelengths (they outrun the shorter ones) this is dispersion
(separation of waves by their differing rates of travel) and it produces swells
www.marinenet.com
Topic 3.5 significant wave height and wave
period
Official method for describing the wind wave pattern
Significant wave height and wave period
This method is defined as follows:

Of the wave height and wave period recorded in an observation
period the average of the highest third part is taken;
this is called significant wave height and wave period.
For example:
height: 2,0 3,0 3,5 2,5 1,5 2,0 1,5 0,5 1,0 2,0 2,5 1,0m
period: 6 6 8 7 5 6 5 4 5 6 7 6s
Of these 12 waves, the highest - 12/3 = 4

thus, 4 waves are taken with their corresponding period.
This amounts to: (3,0 + 3,5 + 2,5 + 2,5) x ¼ = 2,9m

(6+8+7+7) x ¼ = 7 s

Topic 3.5 wave speed
A useful formula
Physical law :  = C * T
 = wave length in m
c = wave speed in m/sec
T = wave period in sec
Wave speed :
C = 1.56 * T ( m / s)
(C = 3,12 * T ( kn) )
 = 1.56 *T2
Topic 3.6 internal friction
particle A
particle B
time
t0
t1

direction of wave propagation
still water level H
h
gravity also plays a part in this
downward component
negligible water movement below depth of 1/2L

direction of wave propagation
still water level H
When
h < 1/2L
h the form of net forward movement
the wave is called mass transport
changes and occurs when the depth
elliptical path
of the water is ¼ to ½ the
wavelength
www.marinenet.com
at the ocean bottom

the particle can’t rotate
so exhibits a back and forth motion
When height/length > 1/7 the wave will break

also breaks if trough / crest / trough angle is less than 120º
120º
• steepness = ratio between height compared to length
• when steepness exceeds 0.025 (1/40th) the profile of a regular wave

it becomes a trochoid
• trochoids become unstable. They will break if the steepness increases

more than 0.143 (1/7th). At sea normally H/L rarely exceeds 0.1

Topic 3.7 changes of waves in tidal areas

• the tidal sea level amplitude and phase of a given constituent vary over a geographic area
• lines connecting areas of the same phase (cotidal lines) [high tide same time]
and lines or colors showing areas with the same range [amplitute] (corange lines).
When a rotary wave is confined to a basin, amphidromic circulation results.
Amphidromic points/nodes: central points of no vertical displacement (no tide)
Antinodes: points of maximum vertical displacement (greatest tidal range),

rotating around the edge of the system
Cotidal lines: connect all points experiencing the same phase of the tide
(e.g. maximum or minimum), radiating from the central amphidromic point
to the antinodes. Because tide waves do not travel with constant speed,
but instead respond to changing depth, cotidal lines will not be evenly
spaced or consistently shaped.
Corange lines: connect all points with equal tidal range.

They form irregular circles which are concentric about the amphidromic point.
Tidal range increases with distance from the central point.
The tide progresses around the amphidromic node once during each tidal period.
At each point in a basin, water levels vary sinusoidally,
according to a combination of multiple periodic functions.
An amphidromic system is created by each periodic tidal component.

Wave periods, amplitudes, cotidal/corange lines and amphidromic
points will be different for each harmonic.

Amphidronic points: the centre of a rotary wave.
The wave is larger away from the amphidromic points

Refraction of waves in an estuary or sea gate as a result of

differences in current velocity. The dotted lines indicate the current
distribution: the current is weaker where they diverge and stronger where
they converge. In the diagram the waves come from the top.
The left diagram could be: outgoing ebb tide;

The diagram on the right could be: incoming flood tide.

Acknowledgements
www.nbi.ac.uk/home/insight/tidefaq.html
www.nbi.ac.uk/home/insight/tideinfo.html
www.murorum.demon.co.uk/sailing
www.noaa.org
Report of the High-Resolution Ocean Topography

Science Working Group Meeting
Edited by
Dudley B. Chelton
College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
Reference 2001-4
October 2001

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Tidal hydrographical theory

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 1 Tidal

3.1 to have an understanding of regular and irregular waves

The above, is known as a regular wave

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 3 Tidal

• heights of successive waves are unequal

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 4 Tidal

Tidal currents flowing over

Internal tidal currents cause

The upper part of the following

The direction of flow and the

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 5 Tidal

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 6 Tidal

• Also called a "standing wave", seiches

• Found in enclosed / semi-enclosed areas.

• Seiche period is determined by the length

• Currents associated with seiches are at

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 7 Tidal

Waves undergo certain changes in their characteristics

• when they come from deep into shallow water

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 8 Tidal

At the development of a breaker (B) wave back-flow occurs (6).

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 9 Tidal

The speed reduction of the shoreward part

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 10 Tidal

R = reflection = loss of energy

Considering a practical application of the above schematic, one can

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 11 Tidal

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 12 Tidal

• the resulting “standing waves” can also exhibit a doubling

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 13 Tidal

Loss of energy due to friction

The only photo I could find

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 14 Tidal

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 15 Tidal

• The local duration of the blowing of the wind is simply

• Wind track, is the distance over which the wind is able to

Wind waves are caused by wind; basically in two ways:

Both observations and theoretical considerations lead

For this minimum wind speed values were found that

For the wavelength of the first small generated waves,

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 17 Tidal

The origin of swell waves:

As soon as sea waves are no longer influenced by the

Over a greater distance they then undergo two

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 18 Tidal

-- these are waves

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 19 Tidal

if you toss a stone into a pond, a band of ripples is produced

Official method for describing the wind wave pattern

Significant wave height and wave period

This method is defined as follows:

Of these 12 waves, the highest - 12/3 = 4

This amounts to: (3,0 + 3,5 + 2,5 + 2,5) x ¼ = 2,9m

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 21 Tidal

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 23 Tidal

direction of wave propagation

still water level H

negligible water movement below depth of 1/2L

Capt JEH/ 2009/ 24 Tidal

direction of wave propagation

still water level H

at the ocean bottom