CE 772 Module 4

CE 772 Pavement Materials
Module 4: Soil Stabilization Concepts and Methods
Instructor: Prof. Solomon Debbarma, sdebbarma@iitb.ac.in Phone: 8837237899 (M); 7131 (O)
Some images are taken from the internet and used for educational purposes only
What we learned in the last class?
 Subgrade strength and stiffness characterization tests
 Types of shear strength tests
 Direct shear test
 Repeated triaxial load test to determine resilient modulus
 Unconfined compressive tests
 Types of penetration tests on subgrade soil
 California bearing ratio
 Dynamic cone penetrometer tests
 Tests on subgrade soil for rigid pavements
 Plate load test to determine the modulus of subgrade reaction, k
 Importance of MR test on subgrade soil for flexible pavement design
 Correlation between MR and CBR
 Correlation between CBR and DCP
 Correlation between CBR and k-value
 Correlation between CBR, k-value, AASHTO soil classification, ASTM soil classification etc.
 Recommended criteria for CBR value for embankment and subgrade as per Indian standard
 Range of CBR values for different type of soil materials
 How to determine cohesion (C) and angle of friction (ϕ) from direct shear test
 RM test example
 CBR test example
 Other properties (elastic modulus, poisson’s ratio): range and typical values for various types
of pavement materials
16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 2

Why is Soil Stabilization Required?
 The following common terms and definitions will be used in this lecture:
a. Soils: naturally occurring materials that are used for construction of all except the surface
layers of pavements (i.e., concrete and asphalt)
b. Additives: Manufactured commercial products that, when added to the soil in proper
quantities, improve some engineering characteristics of the soil such as strength, texture,
workability, and plasticity.
c. Stabilization: It is the process of blending and mixing materials with a soil to improve certain
properties of the soil. May be mechanical or chemical.
d. Mechanical stabilization: Accomplished by mixing or blending soils of two or more
gradations or mixing soil with aggregates to obtain a material meeting the required
specifications.
e. Chemical Stabilization: Achieved by the addition of proper percentages of additives (e.g.,
cement, lime, fly ash, or combination of these materials to the soil).
f. Modification: It is a stabilization process that results in improvement in some property of the
soil but does not, by design, result in a significant increase in soil strength and durability.

 Some Common Attributes of Soil

Stabilization/Modification
• Better soil gradation, reduction of plasticity index or swelling potential

Quality and increase in durability and strength.
Improvement • In wet weather, stabilization may also be used to provide a working
platform for construction operations.
• These types of sol quality improvement are referred to as soil modification
Thickness • Use of additives to reduce the design thickness of stabilized

Reduction material compared to an un-stabilized or unbound material.
• Traffic, thermal and shrinkage cracks from

pavement layers can cause stabilized layers to
crack.
• Water entry to pavement structure through
Possible cracks
problems • If CO2 is present, stabilization reactions are
reversible and strength of layers can decrease.
• Construction operations require more skills and
control than for equivalent un-stabilized
materials.
 Types of Stabilization Mechanical stabilization Chemical stabilization
• Process to obtain desired gradation and plasticity of

the mix through proportioning of materials (aggregate
and soil).
• Correctly proportioned material is adequately
compacted to form a mechanically stable pavement
layer
• Use of certain additives to stabilized the material.

• Involves set of chemical reactions.
• Selection of additive/stabilizer (depends on type of soil,
purpose of the stabilizer layer to be used, soil improvement
desired, the required strength and durability, cost and
environmental conditions).

Mechanical Stabilization
 Principle of mechanical stabilization a) Proportioning and b) Compaction
 Mixing a granular soil (containing negligible fines) with certain amount of soil can possibly
increase the stability. Vice-versa for fines.
 Mechanical stabilization can be applied for sub-base and base course construction.
 Also, used for surface course for low-cost roads such as village roads when the traffic and
rainfall are low.
Desirable properties • Strength

of soil-aggregate • Incompressibility
mixtures
• Fewer changes in volume and stability with variations in
moisture content
• Good drainage
• Less frost susceptibility
• Ease of compaction
How to improve
stability of soil- • Increase the dry density.
aggregate mixtures? • Hence, proportioning of mixes is done to attain MDD.

 Factors to be considered in the design of mix
 Gradation Most important

 Density
 Index properties
 Stability
The particle size distribution that gives maximum density is generally aimed at.
Fuller’s formula may be used to obtain the theoretical gradation for MDD and is
given by
P = 100 (d/D)1/2 where

• P = per cent finer than diameter 'd' (mm) in
the material
• D = diameter of the largest particle, mm
Base Course Surface Course

Table. Recommended values of the
liquid limit and plastic index for the Liquid Limit 25% max. 35% max.
material passing 425-micron sieve, to
be used for mechanical stabilization. Plasticity Index 6% max. 5 to 10% max.
 How to design mechanically stabilized mixes?
• Let’s say, a few materials are available nearby vicinity of site selected for construction.
• These materials (fine soil, aggregate, and sand) are brought from three deposits or borrow pits.
Soil? Aggregate? Sand?

Mechanical Soil Stabilization
Proportioning of materials
Trial and error method Graphical Methods Analytical methods
• Vary the proportion of • System of equations are

materials until the required • Use of graphs. developed based on
aggregate gradation is • Rothfuch method and gradation of each
achieved. Triangular chart method aggregates, required
• MS excel can be used. • Latter one is used only gradation, and solved by
when three materials are to numerical methods.
be mixed • Computer programing.

Why is Mechanical Soil Stabilization Required?
 Rothfutch method is the most commonly adopted graphical method for proportioning of materials
Sieve size, mm Material A Material B Material C Range as per IS Mid-point

specification
19 100 100 100 100 100
12.5 63 100 100 70-85 78
4.75 19 100 100 40-55 48
2.36 8 93 100 30-42 36
0.3 5 55 100 20-30 25
0.15 3 36 97 12-22 17
0.075 0 3 88 5-11 8

Blending of Materials
 Rothfuch method example

100
Balance Balance line for B

line for C
78
Sieve Mid-
point
Grading C
gB Balance
19 100
line for A A = 66%
din
12.5 78
Gra
4.75 48
48
2.36 36
0.3 25
gA
36
in
0.15 17
ad
Gr
25 0.075 8
17
B = 28%
8
C = 8%
0.075 0.15 0.3 2.36 4.75 12.5 19

How to mechanically stabilize using soft aggregates?
 Stabilization using soft aggregates: Mehra’s method of stabilization

 Hard variety of aggregates is not locally available.
 For soft aggregates have low crushing strength and low aggregate impact value.
 Can be adopted in construction of mechanically stabilized sub-base, base course and even in
wearing course layers.
 Commonly used soft aggregates are kankar, moorum, laterite, and brick aggregates.
 Because of low-strength, these aggregates are likely to break down at their points of contact.
 However, if mixed with suitable proportion of soil, there would not be any problem of
crushing of these aggregates during compaction or under traffic load.
Kankar Moorum Laterite Broken brick

Masses or layers of Fragmented weather Both a soil and rock Obtained by crushing
calcium carbonate rocks with varying type rich in iron and waste bricks.
which is of spongy proportions of silt and aluminum.
nature clay.
 Stabilization using soft aggregates: Mehra’s method of stabilization

 Can be adopted for construction of low-volume rural roads.
 In this method, base course material consists of compacted soil with sand content (of size less
than 0.425 mm and greater than 0.075 mm) being not less than 50% and PI of 5 to 7.
 Wearing course material consisting of brick aggregates and soil is mixed in ratio of 1:2.
 Sand content in soil should be less than 33% and PI between 9 to 12.
 IF bituminous surface treatment is required/desired, the PI should be 8 to 10.
 The method proposed by Prof. S.R. Mehra is as follows:
Soil is collected from approved borrow pits and stacked on roadside
Water is added upto OMC and soil is mixed and spread to desired camber and grade
11.5 cm thick loose base course material (sandy soil) is spread and rolled by 8 tonnes
roller to a compacted thickness of 7.5 cm

 The method proposed by Prof. S.R. Mehra is as follows:
Surface course material (brick aggregate and soil in ratio 1:2) mixed with adequate water
is spread to 11.5 cm loose thickness and the layer is roller by 8 tonnes roller to a
compacted thickness of 7.5 cm.
After rolling, the surface is watered and left overnight. The surface is again rolled and
finished.
The road is closed to traffic for 4-5 days and kept sprinkled with water. For next few days,
only rubber-tyred traffic is allowed and after about 2 weeks, the road is opened to all
traffic.
Note: Mehra’s method of construction can carry 50 tonnes of traffic per day in places of
light rainfall. With bituminous surfacing, the road gives satisfactory service upto 200
tonnes per day even in places with heavy rainfall.

How to design mechanically stabilized mixes: combining two materials based on plasticity?
 Let’s say, soil A and soil B are to be mixed to get desired PI of P.
Step 1: Determine the PI of soil A and soil B. Assume PI of soil A and Soil B are P A and PB.
Step 2: Determine from sieve analysis for each soil, the % of material passing 425 micron
sieve.
Assume: % passing of soil A and soil B are SA and SB
Therefore, the % of Soil A to be mixed with Soil B to get desired PI, i.e., P, is
given by the following equation:
S B( P − PB)
Material A %=
S B ( P − P B ) − S A ( P− P A )

Table Compaction plants for soil materials (min. no. of passes per max. compacted depth)
Type of compaction plant Category Wet cohesive Well-graded granular, dry or Uniformly graded granular
materials stony cohesive materials or silty cohesive materials
D N D N
Smoothed wheeld roller (or vibratory roller kg/m width of roll:

operating without vibraion) >2100-2700 125 8 125 10 125 10a
>2700-5400 125 6 125 8 125 8a
>5400 150 4 150 8 Unsuitable Unsuitable
Grid roller >2700-5400 150 10 Unsuitable Unsuitable 150 10

>5400-8000 150 8 125 12 Unsuitable Unsuitable
Deadweight tamping roller >4000-6000 225 4 150 12 250 4

>6000 300 5 200 12 300 3
Pneumatic tyre roller kg per wheel:

>1000-1500 125 6 Unsuitable Unsuitable 150 10a
>1500-2000 150 5 Unsuitable Unsuitable Unsuitable Unsuitable
Vibratory roller (rolling velocity 1.5 to 2.5 kg/m width of a

km/h) vibratory roll:
>270-450 X X 75 16 150 16
>450-700 X X 75 12 150 12
>700-1300 100 12 125 10 150 6
>1300-1800 125 8 150 8 200 10a
>1800-2300 150 4 150 4 225 12a
>2300-2900 175 4 175 4 250 10a
>2900-3600 220 4 200 4 275 8a
>3600-4300 225 4 225 4 300 8a
>4300-5000 250 4 250 4 300 6a
>5000 275 4 275 4 300 4a
16/01/23Agency, The Manual of Contract Documents

Source: Highways for Highway
CE 772 Pavement Works .| IIT Bombay
Materials 16
Note: D is maximum thickness of compacted layer; N is minimum no. of passes; X unsuitable; a Roller shall be towed by track-laying tractors.
Table contd. Compaction plants for soil materials (min. no. of passes per max. compacted depth)
Type of compaction plant Category Wet cohesive Well-graded granular, dry or Uniformly graded granular
materials stony cohesive materials or silty cohesive materials
D N D N
Vibrating plate compactor kg/m2 of base plate:

>800-1100 X X X X 75 6
>1100-1200 X X 75 10 100 6
>1200-1400 X X 75 6 150 6
>1400-1800 100 6 125 6 150 4
>1800-2100 150 6 150 5 200 4
>2100 200 6 200 5 250 4
Vibro-tamper Mass:
>50-65 kg 100 3 100 3 150 3
>65-75 kg 125 3 125 3 200 3
>75-100 kg 150 3 150 3 225 3
>100 kg 225 3 200 3 225 3
Power rammer >100-500 kg 150 4 150 6 Unsuitable Unsuitable

>500 kg 275 8 275 12 Unsuitable Unsuitable
Dropping weight compactor Mass of rammer >500 kg

weight drop:
>1-2 m 600 4 600 8 450 8
>2 m 600 2 600 8 Unsuitable Unsuitable
Source: Highways Agency, The Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works .
Note: D is maximum thickness of compacted layer; N is minimum no. of passes; X unsuitable; a Roller shall be towed by track-laying tractors.

Soil Stabilization: Chemical Concepts and Methods
Why soils requires chemical stabilization?
 Why soils require chemical stabilization?

 Expansive clay: subgrades of expansive clay exhibit
significant changes in volume in response to changes in
water content.
 What are the issues with expansive soil?
 Volume changes result in severe pavement distresses, (e.g.,
cracking and permanent deformation)
 How moisture changes in field after construction?
 Mostly due to rainfall, lateral seepage through
drains/culverts, some leakages in underground pipe
systems, evaporation etc.
 How to identify expansive soils?
Free swelling PI Particle size

index distribution (less
than 0.002 mm )
Very high >50 >60 >95%

high 35-50 40-60 60-95%  What are the typical locations where
Medium 20-35 20-20 30-60% expansive soils can be found?
• Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Low <20 <20 <30%
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Other advanced tests such as XRD, SEM canPavement
also be used Telangana and Jharkhand
16/01/23 CE 772 Materials | IIT Bombay 18
 Chemical Stabilization:
Selection of additive/stabilizer depends on
• type of soil
• purpose of the stabilizer layer to be used
• soil improvement desired
• the required strength and durability
• cost and environmental conditions
• Soil types and additives – can be more one stabilizer for a particular soil type
• For e.g., portland cement can be used with a variety of soil types; however, since it is
imperative that the cement be mixed intimately with the fines fraction (>0.075 mm sieve),
the more plastic materials should be avoided.
• Generally, well-graded granular materials that possess sufficient fines are best suited for
cement stabilization.
• Lime will react with soils of medium to high plasticity to produce decreased plasticity,
increased workability, reduced swell and increased strength.
• Can be used to stabilize weak subgrade soils, marginal granular base materials (clay-
gravels, dirty gravels)
• Fly-ash reacts with lime in powdered form in presence of water, and almost always in
combination with lime in soils that have little or no plastic fines.

Soil-Lime Stabilization: Chemical Concepts and Methods
 Lime stabilization:
 Lime is often used for soil stabilization.
 Used in different forms in soil stabilization.
 These forms are:
 Hydrated high-calcium lime: Ca(OH)2
 Dihydrated dolomite lime: Ca(OH)2.Mg(OH)2
 Monohydrdated dolomite lime: Ca(OH)2.MgO
 Calcite quicklime: CaO
 Dolomite quicklime: CaOMgO
 Majority of lime stabilization is done using Ca(OH)2
 Only 10% of stabilization is done using CaO
• The addition of lime causes calcium to replace most of the cations (e.g., Na+, K+) in the water
system in clays.
• As a result, the size of water layers between the clay particles is reduced, allowing particles to
form a flocculated structure (edge-to-face association of particles).
• The new soil structure has a smaller volume, higher internal friction (greater strength), and
better workability than the original structure prior to stabilization.
• Lime stabilization promotes long-term gain of strength through reactions with soil silica and soil
alumina.
• When sufficient lime is added to a soil, the pH of the soil-lime mixture increases to about 12.4.
The pH elevation increases the solubilities of silica and alumina.
 Mechanism of soil-lime reaction:
 Cation exchange → Flocculation → Agglomeration → Pozzolanic reaction → Carbonation
cementation
Modification: Plasticity reduction Solidification: Strength gain

Cation exchange Reduces moisture
Exothermic reaction: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + heat Replaces monovalent ions of

soil (weak in nature): leads to
Further breaks interparticle attractive forces
Ca(OH)2 (Calcium Hydrate) → Ca++ + 2[OH]−

Solidification Increase alkalinity of system,
therefore, pH of system will increase
Leads to strength gain
Ca++ + 2[OH]− + SiO2 → CSH (Calcium Silicate Hydrate) Leads to dissolution of

silica and alumina
Ca++ + 2[OH]− + Al2O3 → CAH (Calcium Aluminate Hydrate)
Leads to strength gain
 Mechanism of soil-lime reaction:
Lime+ atmospheric CO2 → CaCO3 Also a cementing product but weak in

nature compared to CSH and CAH
Demerit: Consumes lime → formation of more

desirable CSH or CAH reduces, hence, not
favorable in terms of strength gain
Type of soil Gradation Fraction size PI Organic Sulphate pH

matter content
Clayey soils Well- • passing 425 At least Not more Should 10 or 11

including graded micron not less 10% than 2% not
heavy clays, with Cu than 15%. exceed
moorum and value not • At least 25% 0.2%
other soils less than 5 passing 0.075
met within mm.
alluvial plains • Soil at least
20% clay

Requirement of Fineness for Lime Stabilization (class C hydrated lime as specified in IS 1514
or IS 712)
S. No. Sieve Size (micron) Percentage Passing

1 850 100
2 300 99 (minimum)
3 212 95 (minimum)

 Advantages of lime stabilization:
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Hydrated lime • Can be applied 2 to 3 times • Produces a dust problem that makes it undesirable for
faster than slurry and is use in urban areas
very effective in drying out • Fast drying action of lime requires an excess amount of
soils water during hot, dry weather.
Quicklime • More economical than • Field hydration is less effective.

hydrated lime (contains • Produces a coarser material with poorer distribution in
approximately 25% more soil mass
available lime. • Quicklime requires more water than does hydrated lime
• Faster drying action than for stabilization (may be problem in dry area)
hydrated lime on wet soils. • Greater vulnerability of site personnel to skin and eye
burns
Slurry lime • Dust free application is • Application rates are slower.

more desirable from • High capacity pumps are required
environmental standpoint • Extra equipment is required
• Better distribution is • Cost is higher
achieved with slurry • Extra manipulation may be required for drying purposes
during cool, wet, humid weather.

Soil-Cement Stabilization: Chemical Concepts and Methods
 Cement stabilization:
• Portland cement is added to the soil to produce a hardened mixture, resulting from hydration
reaction.
• Portland cement, which is produced from a mixture of limestone, clay, shales, and iron ore,
contain Ca, Si, and Al, which reacts with water, to produce hydrated calcium silicate or
aluminate.
Oxide composition of Ordinary Portland Cement

Oxide CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO SO3 Others
Percent 60-67 17-25 3.0-8.0 0.5-6.0 0.1-4.0 1.3-3.0 0.4-1.3
The following compounds are formed when these oxides are subjected to high clinkering
temperatures:
Name of Compound Formula Abbreviated Formula Role in concrete

Tricalcium silicate 3 CaO.SiO2 C 3S Early strength
Dicalcium silicate 2 CaO.SiO2 C 2S Later strength
Tricalcium aluminate 3 CaO. Al2O3 C 3A Setting of cement
Tetracalcium 4 CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF Greyish color
aluminoferrite
 During hydration: C3S and C2S are formed → gives strength to concrete
Chemistry terms:
3CaO.SiO2 + H2O → CaO.SiO2.H2O + Ca(OH)2 CaO → C
SiO2 → S
H2 O → H
Balanced equation: 2 (3 CaO.SiO2) + 6H2O → 3 CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 → CH
Al2O3 → A
Can be written as: 2 C3S + 6H → C3S2H3 + 3Ca(OH)2 or C3S + H → CSH + CH
100 24 75 49
Similarly: 2 (2 CaO.SiO2) + 4 H2O → 3 CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + Ca(OH)2
Can be written as: 2 C2S + 4H → C3S2H3 + Ca(OH)2 or C2S + H → CSH + CH
100 21 99 22
Unlike lime, cement-soil reaction does not require external source of Al, and Si, and hence is
more effective in this reaction than lime.
 Cement-stabilized soils can be categorized into a few groups:
1. Soil cement, which consists of a mix of natural soil of low or

marginal quality (such as clay or clayey sand) and cement.
The objective of this stabilization is to make such soils usable
as subgrade soils. The feasibility of using cement becomes and
issue in such cases where the demand for the cement can
exceed 20%. Source: Southeast cement
association
2. Cement treated base (CTB) is a mix of granular materials of
reasonably high quality (often they meet base course
specifications) and cement, used as high-quality stiff base
course in pavements with high loads and traffic volume. The
mix can contain wither crushed or uncrushed base course
aggregate, or with a blend of both materials. The cement
content is generally kept lower than 4% to prevent excessive
reflective cracking in pavements. Source: Zhou et al., 2020
3. Econocrete, which is a mix of low-quality aggregates (natural

or reclaimed aggregates, which do not meet the standard
specifications) and cement, used principally as a subbase
(such as in airport pavements).
Source: Brown 2006 (MS dissertation)

 Cement stabilization:
Following criterion is required for checking the suitability of soils for cement stabilization
Type of soil Gradation PI Not suitable

• Granular free soils • Cu should be • Plasticity product • Highly micaceous soils
of high greater than 5, (PP), expressed as • Soils having organic
concentration of preferably product of PI of content more than 2%.
organic matter or greater than 10. soil and % passing • Soils having sulphate and
deleterious salts. 0.075 mm should carbonate concentration
not exceed 60. greater 0.2%.
Note: Silty or fine sandy materials may exhibit a high liquid limit because of the high surface area of
the particles. This materials generally will not react with lime because of lack of clay particles and
can be stabilized with cement. However, cement stabilization with high doses of cement may tend
to make stabilization uneconomical.
 Lime-fly ash (LF) and lime-cement-fly ash (LCF) stabilization:
• Stabilization of coarse-grained soils having little or no fines can be accomplished by use of LF or

LCF combinations.
• Fly ash, also termed as coal ash, is a mineral residue from the combustion of pulverized coal.

 Lime-fly ash (LF) and lime-cement-fly ash (LCF) stabilization:
• Fly ash (FA) contains reactive silica (Si) and alumina (Al)
compounds.
• These compounds, when mixed with lime and water, form a
hardened cementitious mass capable of obtaining high
compressive strengths, through pozzolanic reaction.
• FA can be of two types:

• Class C-FA (lime content >20%) or self-cementing FA
• Class F-FA (lime content <10%)
• Cannot develop pozzolanic products on its own. Therefore, added in combination
with cement or lime.
 Other non-traditional stabilizer agents:
• Industrial by-products (e.g., cement kiln dust, lime kiln dust, granulated blast furnace slag,
pulverized coal bottom ash, steel slag, mine tailings)
• Other waste products with calcium oxide content (e.g., waste-paper sludge ash), salts,
sulphonated oils, ionic compounds, polymers, enzymes, etc.

 Selection of Stabilizer:
 Based on plasticity and particle size distribution of materials to be treated.
Type of Soil Properties

Stabilization
More than 25% passing the 0.075 mm Less than 25% passing the 0.075 mm
sieve sieve
PI < 10 10 < PI < PI > 20 PI < 6, PI < 10 PI > 10
20 PP < 60
Cement Yes Yes * Yes Yes Yes
Lime - Yes Yes No * Yes
Lime – Yes - No Yes Yes *
Pozzolana
Note: It is especially important to avoid the reaction of soil sulphates with the calcium or the
carbonate present in the stabilizing agents, because they form ettringite and thaumasite, which are
very expansive, and produce swelling.

 Selection of Stabilizer:
• What happens if soil sulphates react with the calcium or the

carbonate present in the stabilizing agents?.
Ca + Soil Sulphate → Ca6.[Al(OH)6]2.(SO4)3.26H2O)
From Such as gypsum

stabilizer and sodium sulfate Ettringite
(contains 26 molecules of water
and is capable of swelling more Schematic of the mineral structure of
than 137% of its volume) Ettringite (Puppala et al. 2018)
Ettringite causes expansive stresses in
soils, thus, exceeding the existing
overburden pressure resulting in heaving
and pavement failures.
When the temperature of the system falls
below 15 °C and carbonates are present in the
system, Ettringite is transformed into
“Thaumasite” (Ca6.[Si(OH)6]2.(SO4).
(CO3)2.24H2O) through a series of reactions.
Both Ettringite and Thaumasite are highly
expansive minerals. Thaumasite has been
reported as the cause of severe heaving of Sulfate-induced pavement failure along US 67, Texas
pavements.
16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials
(Puppala | IITetBombay
al. 2018) 31
 Microscopic Structure of Ettringites:
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images (Debbarma et al. 2020)

 Microscopic Structure of Ettringites:
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images (Debbarma et al. 2020)

 Difference between modification and cementation:
• A stabilized soil: “modified” for subgrade improvement and ”cemented” for use as a sub-base
or base.
• The term ”modification” and “cementation” are used in specifications to describe the degree
and type of treatment.
• The rapid action of lime on soil, which brings about a reduction in plasticity and a marginal
increase in CBR is referred to as Modification.
• If conditions are favorable for pozzolanic action to proceed, the lime stabilized soil will
develop significant compressive and tensile strengths and it is then regarded as a
“cemented” materials
• If very small quantity of cement is added to a soil, the properties may also be modified
without much hardeneing or the development of significant compressive or tensile
strength. In such cases, the degree of cementation is relatively poor, but the properties of a
material can nevertheless be considerably improved in this way. This treatment is also
referred to as “modification”.
• When a material has developed sufficient tensile strength, it is regarded as a cemented

material but there is no clearly defined boundary between modification and the division
between the two is arbitrary. However, it has been suggested (NAASRA 1986) that a 7-day
unconfined compressive strength of 0.8 N/mm 2 could be set as the boundary between the
two.
Soil Stabilization: General Requirements
 Stabilization with Cement:
Table Soil Characteristics for Cement Modified Soil/Improve Subgrade/Capping Layer (IRC: SP:89-2010)
Properties Specified Value

Liquid Limit (%) <45
Plasticity Index <20
Organic content (%) <2
Total SO4 content 0.2% max
Minimum Laboratory CBR at specified density (%) 15
Minimum cement content (%) 2*
Degree of pulverization (%) >60
Temperature for mixing More than 10˚C
Time for completing compaction 2 hrs Max
* In case better mechanical equipment for spreading of cement, for breaking clods and blending is used,
the minimum % of cement for stabilization could be 0.5%. However, extensive lab testing must be done
to arrive at this minimum %. Sample at site of blended loose soil be collected and remoulded in lab to
confirm that the desired CBR can be achieved.

Table Material Characteristics for Cement Modified Granular Materials (IRC: SP:89-2010)

Liquid Limit (%) <45
Plasticity Index <20
Organic content (%) <2
Total SO4 content 0.2%
Water absorption of coarse aggregates <2% (if the value is >2%, the soundness test shall be
carried out on the materials delivered to site as per IS 383
10% fines value when tested as per BS 812 ≥ 50 kN

Table Gradation requirements for cement bound materials for base/sub-bases/capping layer (IRC: SP:89-2010)
Sieve Size Grading I Grading II Grading III Grading IV
75.0 mm - 100 - 100
53.0 mm 100 80-100 100 -
45.0 mm 95-100 - - -
37.5 mm - - - 95-100
26.5 mm - 55-90 70-100 55-75
22.4 mm 60-80 - - -
11.2 mm 40-60 - - -
9.5 mm - 35-65 50-80 -
4.75 mm 25-40 25-55 40-65 10-30
2.36 mm 15-30 20-40 30-50 -
0.600 mm - - - -
0.425 mm 8-22 10-35 15-25 -
0.300 mm - - - -
0.075 mm 0-8 3-10 3-10 0-10
7-days UCS (MPa) for cement bound materials or 28- 12*/6** 7*/4.5** 3*/1.5** 1.5*/0.75**
days strength for lime-fly ash & lime-cement-flyash
bound materials
16/01/23
*Average value of a batch of 5 cubes. **CEmin.
772 Pavement
strengthMaterials | IIT Bombay
of an individual cube within the batch. 37
 Stabilization with Lime:
Table Material Characteristics for Lime/Modified Soils (IRC: SP:89-2010)

Passing 75 mm sieve 100%
Passing 26.5 mm sieve 95-100%
Passing 75 micron sieve 15-100%
Plasticity Index ≥ 10
Organic content < 2%
Minimum lime content 2.5%*
Degree of pulverization (%) >60
Temperature for mixing 10˚C
* In case better mechanical equipment for spreading of cement, for breaking clods and blending is used,
the minimum % of cement for stabilization could be 0.5%. However, extensive lab testing must be done
to arrive at this minimum %. Sample at site of blended loose soil be collected and remoulded in lab to
confirm that the desired CBR can be achieved.

Soil Stabilization: Test Requirements
 Unconfined compressive strength test
Table Suggested size of mould for casting materials samples (IRC: SP:89-2010)
Fine grained material • Cylindrical specimens 100 mm high and 50 mm diameter or

• 150 mm cubic specimens
Medium grained material • Cylindrical specimens 100 mm high and 50 mm diameter
• 150 mm cubic specimens
Coarse-grained material • 150 mm cubic specimens
Note: compressive strength results on identical materials from strength tests on cubical specimens would be
higher than those obtained from cylindrical specimens; and cylindrical specimens with a height/diameter ratio
of 2:1; have lower strength than cylindrical specimens with a height/diameter ratio of 1:1. Allowance therefore
has to be made for this when comparing results obtained with specimens of different shapes.
Table Correction Factors for Various Size and Shape of Test Specimens (IRC: SP:89-2010)
Specimen size Correction factor
150 mm cube 1.00
100 mm cube 0.96
200 mm X 100 mm dia cylinder 1.25
115.5 mm X 105 mm dia cylinder 1.04
127 mm X 152 mm dia cylinder 0.96
Soil Stabilization: Test Requirements
 Durability of stabilized materials
Two methods:
Method 1:
• Prepare two identifcal set (containing 3 specimens each) of UCS specimen which are cured in a
normal manner at constant moisture content for 7 days. At the end of 7-days period one set is
immersed in water while the other set is continued to cure at constant moisture content. When
both sets are 14 days old they are tested for UCS. The strength of the set immersed in water as
a percentage of the strength of set cured at constant moisture content is calculated. This index
is a measure of the resistance to the effect of water on strength. If this value is lower than 80%,
it is considered that the stabilizer content is low and its value should be increased.
Method 2:
• This test is done as per ASTM standard No. ASTM D 559. It is generally known as Wetting and
Drying test for determining durability of stabilized soil mixes, which determines the weight
losses, moisture changes and volume changes (swell and shrinkage) produced by repeated
wetting and drying of hardened stabilized soil specimens. The other is a freezing and thawing
test which follows a similar procedure except that wetting and drying is replaced by cycles of
freezing and thawing.

Soil Stabilization: Use of Geosynthetics
 Use of Geosynthetics
• Geosynthetics (planar products
manufactured from polymeric materials)
are also used for stabilization of
subgrades.
• Of the different types of geosynthetic,
geotextiles and geogrids are primarily
used, either for separation of the
subgrade from the aggregate base (to
avoid contamination of the base with the
subgrade materials) and/or for Ragni et al. 2020
strengthening of the subgrade
(particularly for very poor and/or
organic soils and unpaved roads).
• For strengthening of the subgrade, sufficient stiffness

and good interlock with the surrounding materials is
necessary. Sometimes nonwoven/grids are more
effective than woven geotextiles. Hence, the selection
of the geosynthetic should be done after careful
consideration of the existing soil conditions and
objective of stabilization.

Soil Stabilization: Use of Geosynthetics
 Use of Geosynthetics
• The construction process consists of rolling out the geotextile on the cleaned and leveled subgrade and
pulling out to avoid wrinkles.
• Adjacent rolls are overlapped (by say 76 cm) and the fabrics are kept in place by pins or staples or base
materials.
• A woven or nonwoven geotetxile could be used for strengthening the subgrade, or a geogrid could be used in
conjunction with a separator geotextile.
• The relevant test properties include tensile strength (ASTM D4632 and D4595), tear strength (ASTM D4533),
puncture strength (ASTM D 4833), permittivity (ASTM D4491), apparent opening size (ASTM D4751), and
resistance to ultraviolet light (ASTM D4355).
Tang and Wang 2013
• Geocell is a type of a “three-dimensional” structure formed by welding strips of high-density polyethylene into
a honeycombed structure. Different types of thickness of the material, as well as height and aspect ratio, are
used for geocells, and they can be backfilled with aggregates.
• Geocells are utilized as effective means of improving soil confinement and hence improvement of the bearing
capacity, for example in poor quality subgrade.
• Good information is available from the International Geosynthetic Society (http://geosyntheticssociety.org/)
as 16/01/23
well as from the Geosynthetic Institute
CE 772(http://www.geosynthetic-institute.org/).
Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 42
Examples of equipment used in soil stabilization. (Courtesy of Mike Marshall, Wirtgen GmbH, Windhagen, Germany.)

Thank you!
See you on Thursday (19/1/23)

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CE 772 Pavement Materials

Module 4: Soil Stabilization Concepts and Methods

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 2

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 3

 Some Common Attributes of Soil

• Better soil gradation, reduction of plasticity index or swelling potential

Thickness • Use of additives to reduce the design thickness of stabilized

• Traffic, thermal and shrinkage cracks from

 Types of Stabilization Mechanical stabilization Chemical stabilization

• Process to obtain desired gradation and plasticity of

• Use of certain additives to stabilized the material.

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 5

 Principle of mechanical stabilization a) Proportioning and b) Compaction

Desirable properties • Strength

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 6

 Factors to be considered in the design of mix

 Gradation Most important

P = 100 (d/D)1/2 where

Base Course Surface Course

 How to design mechanically stabilized mixes?

Soil? Aggregate? Sand?

Trial and error method Graphical Methods Analytical methods

• Vary the proportion of • System of equations are

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 9

Sieve size, mm Material A Material B Material C Range as per IS Mid-point

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 10

 Rothfuch method example

Balance Balance line for B

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 11

 Stabilization using soft aggregates: Mehra’s method of stabilization

Kankar Moorum Laterite Broken brick

 Stabilization using soft aggregates: Mehra’s method of stabilization

 The method proposed by Prof. S.R. Mehra is as follows:

Soil is collected from approved borrow pits and stacked on roadside

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 13

 The method proposed by Prof. S.R. Mehra is as follows:

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 14

 Let’s say, soil A and soil B are to be mixed to get desired PI of P.

Assume: % passing of soil A and soil B are SA and SB

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 15

Smoothed wheeld roller (or vibratory roller kg/m width of roll:

Grid roller >2700-5400 150 10 Unsuitable Unsuitable 150 10

Deadweight tamping roller >4000-6000 225 4 150 12 250 4

Pneumatic tyre roller kg per wheel:

Vibratory roller (rolling velocity 1.5 to 2.5 kg/m width of a

16/01/23Agency, The Manual of Contract Documents

Vibrating plate compactor kg/m2 of base plate:

Power rammer >100-500 kg 150 4 150 6 Unsuitable Unsuitable

Dropping weight compactor Mass of rammer >500 kg

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 17

 Why soils require chemical stabilization?

 How to identify expansive soils?

Free swelling PI Particle size

Very high >50 >60 >95%

16/01/23 CE 772 Pavement Materials | IIT Bombay 19

 Mechanism of soil-lime reaction:

 Cation exchange → Flocculation → Agglomeration → Pozzolanic reaction → Carbonation

Modification: Plasticity reduction Solidification: Strength gain

Exothermic reaction: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + heat Replaces monovalent ions of

Ca(OH)2 (Calcium Hydrate) → Ca++ + 2[OH]−

Leads to strength gain

Ca++ + 2[OH]− + SiO2 → CSH (Calcium Silicate Hydrate) Leads to dissolution of

 Mechanism of soil-lime reaction:

Lime+ atmospheric CO2 → CaCO3 Also a cementing product but weak in