FLUID MECHANICS I

ME 2113
OUTLINE OF THE COURSE
 Introduction
 Fluid Static

 Fluid Dynamics

 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude

 Measurement of Fluid Flow

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REFERENCE BOOKS
 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
Bruce Munson, Donald Young, Theodore Okiishi & Wade
Huebsch
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Robert Fox, Alan McDonald & Philip Pritchard

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 INTRODUCTION
4 Dr. Abdullah Al-Faruk
WHAT IS FLUID MECHANICS & FLUID
 Fluid mechanics is the subject that deals with fluids either in
motion or at rest and how it impacts on other objects that are in
contact with it.

 A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously

when acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude

 A shearing stress (force per unit area) is created whenever a

tangential force acts on a surface

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MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLIDS,
LIQUIDS AND GASES
 Contrary to liquids and gases, solid molecules have great
bondage and needs large forces to move them with respect to
each other (deform or bend)
 The amount of deformation of the solid depends on the solid’s
modulus of rigidity G.
 Gases and liquids which are generally fluids; cannot sustain a
shear stress. Their molecules have less bondage and they will
deform i.e. flow when applying the slightest shear stress. For
example, a gentle breath on the face of a lake makes the water
ripples on the surface (moves or flows)
 Deformation of the fluid depends on it’s viscosity
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FLUID VERSUS SOLID
 When a shear stress is applied:
Fluids continuously deform but solids deform or bend
 Shear stress t in solids is proportional to the strain ε
 Shear stress t in fluids is proportional to the rate of strain dε/dt

du
 
dy

Fig: Difference in behaviour of a solid and a fluid due to a shear force

APPLICATIONS OF FLUID MECHANICS
 All means of transportation such as cars, trucks, aeroplanes,
ships, submarines, …
 Design all of fluid machinery such as pumps, turbines,
compressors, …
 Piping systems for transporting water, natural gas, …
 Environmental and energy issues (large-scale wind turbines,
energy generation from ocean waves, aerodynamics of large
buildings)
 Biomechanics (Artificial hearts & liver, Synovial fluid in joints,
respiratory system, circulatory system, urinary system)
 Sports (bicycles and bicycle helmets, skis, and sprinting and 8
swimming clothing; aerodynamics of golf, tennis, soccer ball)
BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID
MECHANICS
 Conservation of mass (Continuity equation)
Mass cannot be created or destroyed
 Conservation of momentum (Momentum equation)
It is obtained from Newton’s 2nd law of motion
Sum of all forces = mass X acceleration
= net rate of change of momentum
 Conservation of angular momentum
Sum of torque = net rate of change of angular momentum

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BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID
MECHANICS
 First law of thermodynamics or Conservation of energy
(Energy equation)
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change form
Change in total energy E of the system
∆E = Q (heat added) – W (work done by the system)
 Second law of thermodynamics
No process is possible whose sole result is the net transfer of heat from
a region of lower temperature to a higher temperature
 Equation of state
Ideal gas law, p = ρRT

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METHODS OF ANALYSIS
SYSTEM VERSUS CONTROL VOLUME

 First step in solving a problem is to define the system like the

free-body diagram in engineering mechanics
 Depending on the problem being studied, a system or a control
volume is used
 Mathematical expressions of the basic laws are then derived
from either system or control volume
 System is a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass
 Heat and work can cross the system boundary
but no mass
 Boundaries may be fixed or
moveable
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Fig: Piston-cylinder assembly

METHODS OF ANALYSIS
SYSTEM VERSUS CONTROL VOLUME

 Control volume is an arbitrary volume (open system) in space

through which fluid flows
 Geometric boundary is called control surface (CS)
 Heat, work and mass can cross the CS
 CS may be real or imaginary
 CS may be at rest or in motion

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Fig: Fluid flow through a pipe junction

METHODS OF ANALYSIS
DIFFERENTIAL VERSUS INTEGRAL APPROACH

 Basic equations formulated in terms of infinitesimal or finite

systems and control volume gives differential or integral
equations, respectively
 Differential approach gives detailed information of the flow
i.e. details of velocities and pressures in the domain
 For example, pressure distribution on a wing surface
 Integral approach gives a gross behaviour of device, such as
flow rate, forces, pressure drop or increase
 For example, the overall lift a wing produces
 Integral formulations, using finite systems or control volumes,
usually are easier to treat analytically
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METHODS OF DESCRIPTION
 Type of analysis depends on the problem under study
 When identifiable elements of mass is easy to keep track,
Lagrangian method of description is used that follows the
particle
 When a particle description becomes unmanageable, Eulerian
method of description is used particularly with control volume
analyses
 Eulerian method focuses on the properties of a flow at a given
point in space as a function of time. That means it follows what
happens at a point in the flow field: V = V(x,y,z,t), p =
p(x,y,z,t)
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DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
 SI units will be used
 Basic dimensions and their SI units
 Length L (m)
 Mass M (kg)
 Time t (s)
 Temperature T (ºC & K)

 Derived dimensions and their SI units

 Speed (m/s)
 Force (N or kg.m/s2)
 Pressure (Pa or N/m2)

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 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
16 Dr. Abdullah Al-Faruk
FLUID AS A CONTINUUM
 It is the basis of classical fluid mechanics
 Fluids are experienced as being ‘smooth’ i.e. continuous
medium. However, fluid mass is concentrated in molecules that
are separated by large regions of empty space, moving at high
speed
 What is the minimum volume for a point must be, so that fluid
property such as density vary smoothly from point to point
(become continuous)

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FLUID AS A CONTINUUM
 For very small volumes density varies greatly, but above a
certain volume it becomes stable
 For example, if the volume is 0.001 mm3, there will be on
average 2.5x1013 molecules and then it can be treated as
continuous medium

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Fig: Definition of density at a point

FLUID AS A CONTINUUM
 In classical fluid mechanics, fluid properties vary smoothly and
continually from point to point
 Not concern with molecular motion. It is rather macroscopic
motion
 As a result of the fluid being continuum its’ properties are
considered to be continuous functions of position and time
f(x,y,z,t) which are called fields
 For example,
 Velocity field, V = V(x,y,z,t), V = ui + vj + wk , where, u , v , w are
in general functions of x, y, z, t
 Density field, ρ = ρ(x,y,z,t)
 Pressure field, p = p(x,y,z,t) 19

 Temperature field, T = T(x,y,z,t)

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
 Density, ρ is defined as the mass per unit volume:
ρ = m / V (kg/m3)
 Specific Gravity SG, is defined as the ratio of the density of the
fluid to the density of water at 4ºC temperature:
SG = ρ / ρWater@4ºC
 Specific Weight, g is defined the weight of the fluid per unit
volume:
g = W / V (N/m3)
 Specific weight is related to density as

g = ρg and SG = g / g Water@4ºC
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TYPES OF FLUIDS
 Newtonian fluids have a linear relationship between shear
stress and velocity gradient
 Non-Newtonian fluids have nonlinear relationship between
shear stress and velocity gradient
 Shear thickening like water-corn starch, quicksand

 Shear thinning like latex paint, some greases, blood, water

suspension of clay, polymer solutions
 Bingham plastic like toothpaste, mayonnaise, asphalt, some
greases, paper pulp

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 Fluid properties (density, pressure, temperature,…) are
considered to be continuous functions of position and time
(continuum) and can be expressed as a function of (x,y,z,t).
 STEADY FLOW: A flow that its properties at every point do
not change with time.
 A flow is classified as one- (x), two- (x,y), three- (x,y,z), or
four-dimensional (x,y,z,t or unsteady three-dimensional).
 UNIFORM FLOW: A flow in which the velocity is constant
throughout the entire floe field

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VISUALIZATION OF FLUID FLOW
 TIMELINE: A line formed by a number of adjacent fluid particles in a
flow field at a given instant.
 PATHLINE: A path or trajectory traced out by a moving fluid
particles.
 STREAKLINE: A line joining particles that pass through a specific
point.
 STREAMLINES: Lines drawn in the flow field so that at a given
instant they are tangent to the direction of flow at every point in the
flow field.
 Timeline: It is the line that a number of adjacent fluid particles form in
a flow filed at a particular instant
 Pathlines: is the trajectory traced by a moving fluid particle
 Streaklines: are lines joining all fluid particles which passed through
one fixed location in space
 Streamlines: are lines drawn in the flow filed so that at a given instant23
they are tangent to the direction of flow at every point in the flow filed
 In steady flow streamlines, streaklines and pathlines coincide
STRESS FIELD
 There are two kinds of forces act on fluid particles,
Surface forces which act on the surface (e.g. pressure,
friction) and body forces which act on the volume (e.g.
gravity).

 Stresses are force per area and divided in two categories,

normal stresses (s) which are normal to the area and
shear stresses (t) which are tangent to the area.

 Two subscripts are required to label the stresses. The

first subscripts the plane on which the stress acts, the
second subscript indicates the direction of the stress ( see
Fig. 2.8, text book).
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STRESS FIELD
 Surface forces: act on the boundaries of a medium
through direct contact
 Body forces: distributed over the volume of the fluid
without physical contact; gravitational and
electromagnetic, etc
 Stresses result from forces acting on some portion of the
medium
 Pressure P; is the normal force i.e. perpendicular to the
surface: P = F / A (N/m2)
– Normal stresses
 – Tangential stresses
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 – Stress tensor
VISCOSITY
 Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
 Newtonian fluids: Fluids in which shear stress is directly
proportional to rate of deformation. Newton’s law of viscosity
is given for one-dimensional flow by,

 Where m is the absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity.

 There are two common units for the absolute viscosity, 1 poise
is g/(cm.s) (C.G.S units) and 1 kg/(m.s)=Pa.s=N.s/m2.

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SURFACE TENSION
 Whenever a liquid is in contact with other liquids or gases, an
interface develops that acts like a stretched elastic membrane,
creating surface tension (e.g. capillary rise). They can be
calculated if you follow what you learnt in the course STATIC
(and using appendix A-2, textbook).

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DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF FLUID MOTIONS
 Inviscid flow is a frictionless flow (low viscosity). In practice, inviscid
flow is a flow that the effects of friction are small in comparison with
other forces.
 Viscous flow is a flow that the effects of the friction cannot be ignored.
 Laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles move in smooth layers.
 Turbulent flow is one in which the fluid particles rapidly mix as they
move along due to random three-dimensional velocity fluctuations.
 Newton’s law of viscosity is not valid for turbulent flows.
 Incompressible flows: Flows in which variations in density are
negligible.
 Compressible flows: Flows in which variations in density are not
negligible.
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DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF FLUID MOTIONS
 Pressure and density changes in liquids are related by the bulk
compressibility modulus, or modulus of elasticity, dp
Ev 
( d /  )
 Barotropic fluid: The density is only a function of pressure.
 Water hammer is caused by acoustic waves propagating and reflecting in
liquid flows.
 Cavitation occurs when vapour pockets form in a liquid flow because of
local reductions in pressure.
 Vapour pressure of a liquid is the partial pressure of the vapour in
contact with the saturated liquid at a given temperature.
 Mach number (M): The ratio of flow speed (V) to the local speed of
sound (c).
 It is a common practice to treat the flow as incompressible when M<0.329
and there is no heat transfer.
DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF FLUID MOTIONS
 Internal flows: Flows completely bounded by solid
surfaces.

 External flows: Flows over bodies immersed in an

unbounded fluid.

 Subsonic flow: M<1,

 Supersonic flow: M>1,

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 Hypersonic flow: M>5.