Lecture 3

Traffic distribution, and assignment

Introduction
• It focuses on the procedure that distributes the trips generated from
or attracted to each zone in the study area.
• In this step, the trip distribution input is the trip generation step’s
output and the interzonal transportation costs.
• Based on the concepts of the gravity model, the trip flows between
each pair of zones can be calculated as an OD matrix.
• The chapter discusses essential concepts and techniques, such as
growth factors and calibration methods.
Introduction
• In other words, trip distribution translates the findings of the first step
into an extensive matrix of origins and destinations in terms of TAZs. It
identifies each pair’s travel impedance (such as travel time or cost).
• The figure 1. below shows trip distribution inputs and outputs
• In terms of methodology, we use several basic methods for the trip
distribution step, such as the gravity model, growth factor models,
and intervening opportunities.
• However, the gravity model is the most common one, based on the
rationales described in this chapter.
Figure 1
Introduction
• Trip distribution is the second step of FSM, through which we
appropriate trip productions to all other zones.
• The results would form a matrix presenting the number of intrazonal
and interzonal trips in a single table.
• The level of attractiveness of a zone depends on several factors..
1. Uniqueness: This factor indicates how unique a service or
employment center is and thus attracts more trips regardless of distance.
2. Distance: the distance between two zones plays an impedance role,
meaning that the further the two zones are from each other, the fewer
trips will be distributed between them.
Introduction
• Closeness to other services: we assume that wherever is more
approximate to other attractive services will attract more trips within
an urban area.
• Urban or rural area: We assume that whether the zone is urban or
rural, the attraction rate for the zone would be different when
controlling for other factors.
Methodology
With a general understanding of the factors affecting trip distribution
from origin and destination, we can now proceed with an introduction
to methodology.
• Uniqueness: This factor indicates how unique a service or
employment center is and thus attracts more trips regardless of
distance.
• Distance: the distance between two zones plays an impedance role,
meaning that the further the two zones are from each other, the
fewer trips will be distributed between them.
Methodology
• Closeness to other services: we assume that wherever is more
approximate to other attractive services will attract more trips within
an urban area.
• Urban or rural area: We assume that whether the zone is urban or
rural, the attraction rate for the zone would be different when
controlling for other factors.
GRAVITY MODEL
• Most common method for Trip distribution is the gravity model.
• Gravity models are easy to understand yet very accurate, and they can also
accommodate different factors such as population, employment, socio-
demographics, and tran
• In contrast, the growth factor model needs additional data about trip
distribution in the base year and an estimate of the number of future trips
in each zone, which is only sometimes available sportation systems.
• The foundation of this model is that the number of trips between two
zones is directly related to the total number of trip attractions in the
destination and is inversely proportional to a function cost represented by
travel time or cost needed to travel between two zones
Gravity Model
• The formula gets its name from Newton’s law of gravity, which states
that the attractiveness between two bodies is related to their mass
(positively) and also to the distance between them (negatively)
(Verlinde, 2011).
• In our case, the masses are trip generation and attraction and the
time distance traveled or travel cost.
• While using the gravity model is straightforward, the major challenge
is finding the best value for the impedance factor.
• This value is very contextual and varies in different conditions.
Gravity Model
• Trips between TAZ1 and TAZ2=Trips prodduced in TAZ1*(Attractiveness
of TAZ2 /Attractiveness of all TAZs …… (1)
• As equation (1) shows, the total trips between zones are equal to the
products of the trips produced in a zone, a ratio of the attractiveness
of the destination zone, and the total attractiveness of all zones.
• We can represent the gravity model in several different ways.
Remodifying equation (1), gravity model is written as:-
Gravity model equation
• Where Tripsij is the number of trips between zone i and zone j,
Productionsi is trip production in zone i, Attractionsj is total trips
attracted to zone j, FFij is the friction factor (travel impedance)
between i and j, and Kij are the socio-economic factors of
zones i and j. These values will be elaborated later in this chapter.
• From the above equations, the mathematical format of gravity model
can be seen in equation (3):
Gravity Model Equation

where:
Tij = number of trips that are produced in zone i and attracted
to zone j
Pi = total number of trips produced in zone i
Aj = number of trips attracted to zone j
Fij = a value which is an inverse function of travel time
Kij = socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange ij
As you know, we determine Pi and Aj values through the trip
generation process.
Friction Factor
• The friction factor or impedance factor is a value that can be varied
for different trip purposes because, with the FSM model, we assume
that travel behavior depends on trip purpose.
• Impedance captures the elements of the spatial separation of two
zones, represented as travel time or travel cost.
• Friction factors can be estimated using different measures. A simple
measure of friction factor is the travel time between the zones.
• Another method is to adopt an exponential formula in which the
friction factor is
1/exp(m × tij).
Friction Factor
• The impedance factor reflects the difficulty of traveling between two
zones.
• The friction factor is higher for easier accessibility between two zones
and would be zero if no individual is willing to travel between two
zones.
• In the process of friction factor estimation, there is also a calibration
step.
• For calibration, trip generation and attraction values are distributed
between O-D pairs using the gravity model.
• Next, we compare the number of trips with a particular amount of
time to the results of the O-D survey (observed data)
Figure 2: Friction factor distribution by trip
purpose
Friction Factor
• In very general terms, a friction factor Fij that is an inverse function of
travel impedance Wij is used in trip distribution to plug in the
travelers’ willingness to travel between zone i and zone j.
K-factor
• In travel demand modeling, several socio-economic factors influence
travel behavior and
• The most cardinal factors in travel demand modeling can be income,
auto ownership, multimodal system availability, age, or job type (Pan
et al., 2020). demand for different purposes.
• The k-factor developed and plugged into the gravity model represents
variation in socio-economic factors and helps adjust interzonal trips
accordingly.
• The K-factor is determined and plugged into the gravity formula to
accommodate such differences.
K-factor
• We can determine K values in the calibration process by comparing
the estimated results and observed data for the base year.
• K numeric value will be above one if the socio-economic factors
contribute t
• Figure 3 shows the mean number of trips for different age groups (K-
factor) and various trip purposes.
• Accordingly, calculating friction factors and K-factors for different
purposes and socio-economic groups yields a better fit to the datao
more travel and below one if otherwise.
Figure 3
Example 1
Let a small area have three zones (TAZs). Table 11.1 shows the trip
generation results for each zone, and Table 11.2 shows the travel time
for each pair of zones. Additionally, the friction factor is also given in
this example as a function of travel time in Table 11.3. The intrazonal
travel time for zone 1 is larger than those of most other inter-zone
times because of the geographical characteristics of the zone and lack
of access within the area. Using this information, please calculate the
number of trips for each pair of zones.