Microgravity Sunreying

NIewDevelopments,
New Capabilities

Larry Barrows, CPG-9I22 and Wendy Weiland - Crow

Introduction
Gravity surveying is a well established geophysical
technique for the invesUgation of geologic structures. The
basic approach first measures differences in the force of
gravity between stations distributed over the surveyed
area. After these values have been corrected for all known
effects, the remaining differences are due to lateral vari-
aUons in subsurface rock density. Interpretation consists
of constructing density models which are consistent with
the geologic control and could produce the observed
gravity differences. Gravity surveys have been used to
search for salt domes, define the configuraUon of sedi-
mentary basins, and explore the deep structure of
Figure l. The Super-G electrostoticolly controlled grovimeter. The
mountains. continents, and oceans. Parasins (I986),
smoll box which is ottoched to the side of the G-meter cose
Telford and others (1976), Nettleton (1976), Robinson
contoins the electronics thot null the beom. The computer finds
and Coruh (1988), and other geophysics texts describe
ond disploysthe tide-corrected, level-corrected, continuous grov-
the gravity survey technique. Hinze (199O) provides a
ity reoding.
detailed review of the engineering and environmental
applications of gravity surveying.
The accuracy of a survey depends on the accuracy of bilitjes which ensure broader use of gravity survqfin! for
the gravimeter and the accuracy of tJ-e correcUons which future engineering, groundwater, and environmental in-
are applied to the obserued values. The accuracy of these vestigations. This article describes these developments
corrections depends on the measured station elevations and some of the survey targets which are now within the
and the focused effort that goes into calculation of the pracUcal range of gravity suwq;ing. A detailed description
terrain corrections. The skill and dedication of the gra- of the data reducUon process and suggestions for field
vimeter operator is another concerrr. Because of these procedures are also included. The purpose of the artjcle
limitations, the final reduced or Bouguer gravity values is to provide a comprehensive review of the basic informa-
have an inherent inaccuracy which must be evaluated tion necessan/ to successfully conduct high precision
during the interpretation. Survey inaccuracy has tradi- gravity surveys. The intent is to help others understand
tionalll' limited the size and types of geologic targets that and use this powerful survey tecturique.
can be reliably mapped with the gravi$ technique. The
relatively high cost of the sun'eys is another factor that
Background
can limit the applications. The Earth's Gravtty Fleld
Recent developments have significantly reduced the Sea level gravity varies between 983 Gals at t-Le Earth's
cost, enhanced the'hccuracy. and simplified the conduct poles to 978 Gals at the equator where one Gal (for Galileo)
of gravily surveys. ihese include electrostatically control- is an acceleraUon of one centjmeter per second squared.
led gravimeters, the global posiUoning satellite system The targets of interest in engineering and environmental
(GPS), and digital elevation models of the topography sun'eys can be as small as O.OOOOlOGals, so we normally
(DEMs). AJong u'ith the new developments come new capa- work with either milliGals or microGals. One microGal

The Professional Geologist . NOVEMBER 1996

 equals 0.001 milliGal or about one part per billion of the
force of gravity. MtcroGals are used in this report.
Gravity data reducflon lncludes the calculatlon of the
theoretical gravity due to all known or predictable effects.
Thls value is calculated for each station in a gravity sunrey
and then subtracted from tl:e observed value. Wittrin the
accuracy of the data, lateral variaHons ln the remaining
residual gravtty can only be due to lateral variaUons in
the subsurface mass distribution. This residual ts called
the Bouguer gravity. Predlctable effects include: station
latitude, staUon elevatlon, the tncreased amount of mate-
rial beneath higher elevatlon stadons, and local topogra-
phv.
Average sea level gravity varies in a systematlc fashion
with latitude because of the Earth's rotation and spheroi-
dal shape. For the North American contlnent, the equaUon
that has been accepted for latitude-dependent sea level
gravity is IGSNTI as modified for the 1967 geodeUc refer-
ence system. Thls equation ls:
go =978,031,846r (t + 0.005278895 sin20+ 0.000023c62 sin4oy
where: go is sea level gravity In microGals, and
0 is lautude in degrees.
At a laUtude of 45o, the latitude dependence equals
0.248 mlcroGals per foot so a four foot locaUon error in a
statlon northing causes a one microGal error ln the gravity
value.
Gravity varles with elevatlon because of the varytng
distance to the Earth's center of gravity. Thls elevaUon
effect is called the free-air correctlon and equals a de-
crease of 94.06 mlcroGal per foot of elevation. We also
need to account for the increased mass of material that
exists beneath stations that are at higher elevations. This
is called the Bouguer slab correctlon and equals eln
lncrease of 12.78 ' p microGals per foot of elevaflon
where p is the Bouguer slab density. An optimum
Bouguer slab density can often be found by flrst reducing
the gravity survey data ustng a variety of different densi-
ties, for example 1.8, 2.O and, 2.2 gm/cc. The density
value for which the processed gravlty values show the
least correlatJon to those topographic features that are
unrelated to underlying density stnrctures ls selected. A
suitable topographic feature might be a geologtcally-
young, incised stream channel. The correct Bouguer slab
denstty reduces the effect of the topographJc features
within the surveyed a,rea. If a comparlson of the site
survey map to a regional gravtty map is destred, then a
near surface reference datum elevatlon needs to be de-
Iined. Find the stngle Bouguer slab correctlon for the
material between the datum and sea level using 2.67
$mlcc. Then add this quantity to the Bouguer slab cor-
recUons for the material between the statlon and tl:e
datum using the local denstty . A density of 2.67 gm/cc
ls generally accepted as beingrepresentatlve of the Earth's
conUnental cnrst and is usually used as the Bouguer slab
density in the constructlon of reglonal gravity maps.
For a Bouguer slab density of 2.O gm/cc, the combina-
tion of the free-alr correction and the Bouguer slab cor-
rectlon yields an elevatlon sensltivity of 68.5 microGal per
foot or I microGal per O.Ol5 foot. This elevation sensiUvity
places Ught limits on the accuracy to whlch statlon
elevatlons must be determined.
The last component of the predictable gravity effect is
the terraln correctlon. Terraln cotrecdons account for the
upward attracilon of topographic features which are
htgher than a survey staUon (hills) and the lack of down-
ward attracdon from open space which ls lower than the
station {valleys). The magnitude of the terrain correcUon
varies from tnconsequential in areas of flat terrain to more
than a thousand microGals tn mountainous areas. Both
the hills and the valleys decrease the force of gravity below
that whlch would exist in flat topography so this corec-
tion always has a posiflve sign.Techniques of calculating
terain corrections €rredescribed ln a later section of this
report..
The net theoretical gravity at a staUon can then be
expressed as:
$ theory= $o0afltude)
+ free-air (elevatlon)
+ Bouguer slab (elevaUon,p )
+ terraln (topography, p )
Grsvlneters
The new capabilities of the gravity survey technique are
dlrectly dependent on the dwelopment of electrostaUcally
controlled gravimeters. One such instrrment, shown in
Figure l, is the Super-G developed by EDCON, Inc. of
Denver, Colorado. This gravimeter ls at least an order of
magritude more accurate than conventional designs and,
equally lmportant, it ls much slmpler to operate. With
conventlonal gravimeters the hnstmment operator has to
have or develop a pardcular "toLrch" or balance between
the way meter adJusbnents are made and the tlme spent
maklng the readtng. Not everyone has the temperament
or abiltty to develop this sldll. With the Super-G gravime-
ter, lt ls possible to use a cook book approach to the
readtngs and any reasonably consciendous. dedicated
lndividual cern master the procedures. The new design
also yields the s€une results with different operators -
which is not always a characteristlc of conventtonal gra-
vlmeters.
The Super-G gravimeter ls actually a modiffcaHon of
the l.aCoste & Romberg Geodeflc (Model-G) meter. The
worklng mechanism of the l.aCoste & Romberg G'meter
is based on the zero-length-spring pendulum ffrst devel-
oped as a long period selsmometer Lr the l93o's (t^a-
Coste, 1934). Figure 2 shows a slmplifled sketch of the
basic mechanism and its mechantcal equatlons. To oper-
ate thls tlpe of gravimeter, the lnstnrment ls first placed
on a stable surface, leveled, the beam is unlocked, and
the mlcrometer screw is adJusted until the mass is tn its
null or speclfled balance position. The posidon of the
micrometer screw is recorded and later transformed with
NOVEMBER 1996 r The Professional Geologlst 7
 Coil e spring beck on irself ro n Jrlotof its force r.cnus Once the screw is locked in place. the null posttion of
length rchtion rrtrepolntcs to \'?n nenr thc origin
the beam is automaUcally obtained using the force due to
a.,small electrostatic positioning voltage (EPV) which is
imposed on the capacltor plates by the gravimeter elec-
forcc=X'(S-Zl
tronics. While the gravimeter is operaUng, the beam
*hcrc X is the spring conslent position is automatlcally monitored and maintained in its
nuU position by electronically controlled adjustrnents to
F orce ?' < Lcngrh(s)
the EPV. Both the micrometer screw poslilon and the EPV
are converted into a gravity reading by the controlling
Put thc spring into rn rdjustrblc mess-rpring-pcndulum rpparetus computer arld the instantaneous gravity reading is con-
The clock*isc torquc rbout the pirot is tinuously dispiayed on the computer screen. This reading
iUgacosg is not constant because of background seismic vibratlons,
'g'
r hcrc is lhe forcc of grrr itr
internal instrument changes like spring relaxaUon or
t Th? countcr-clocluisc torque ls

K(SZ)b sin c
temperature variaUons, and possible site instabilities so
I
Y
Substitute lhr trigonom.tric rcletion
its mean value is determined over a user-selected Ume-
i
Y
sinO = \'/S cose averaged interval, typically 15 or 3O seconds. Normally
thrn lhc countcr-clocknisc torque is tlrree or four of these time-averaged readings are used to
K Y b ( l - Z S ) c o s€ find a final reading for the stailon. Another concern is the
Rotetionrl rtrbilitl rcquirts lhrt th? nct lorquc is zcro difficulty of maintaining an exact instrument level, espe-
l\lga cose = KYb(l-ZS) cose cially on soft ground. The level of both tlle convenHonal
K)'b LaCoste & Romberg G-meter and the Super-G meter is
s= (l-zJsl
tu, measured with internal electronic ievels and adjusted by
Diffcrcntirrion f iclds the operator using leveling screws. With the conventional
Kl'b z
oa= -n_r, as design the leveling is tJ:en complete: with the new design
Then if 'Z' is vcn vcn rmrll. r rmall changc in grer it1
'dg' any off-level changes are conUnually sensed and incorpo-
*ill producr r rehtiveh largr chenge in thc rpring length 'dS' rated into the gravity reading by the computer. This
Tht micromctcr scrch is uscd to bring lhc bcem rnd mrss lo
'null'
computer driven fine-tuning is necessa-ry if microGal
r rpccilied position.
accuracy is to be obtained. The Super-G meter has an
Figure2, Bosicmechonicsof o zero-lengfh-spring grovimeter.By accuracy of one or two microGals.
moking the offset between the plot origin ond the extropoloted Solar and lunar Udes affect tJ:e force of gravity at tl:e
force versuslengrthfunction Q) very very smoll,o smollchonge in Earth's surface by as much as 150 microGals with a rate
grovity (dg) produceso relotivelylorge chonge in springlength of change as large as one microcal per minute. With the
Super-G gravimeter, these Udes are calculated internally
appropriate conversion factors into a station reading in using the computer algorithm published by Longman
microGals. The principle behind the meter is relatively (1959) and the tide correction is automatically applied to
simple. However actual meter performance depends on the gravity readings. Tide calculations require the correct
things like: exactly uniform spring and screw charac- date, time to within one minute, and latitude and longi-
teristics, barometric pressure compensation, tempera- tude to within one tentfl of a degree. Time is normally
ture control, damping of the beam oscillaUons, meter maintained in the gravimeter computer as Greenwich
leveling. and hinge or pivot construction. Gravimeters are Mean Time (GMT) but you can use local Ume if you know
among the most sophisticated geophysical survey instm- your international time zone and local versus daylight
ments in existence but despite the care that goes into their savings Ume.
constrllction. the accuracy of traditional meters is limited Survey Procedures
to about 20 microGals.
The raw data from a gravity survey are the differences
The Super-G design adds a capacitor plate to the end
between the readings at the field stations and the reading
of the mechanica-lbeam and corresponding parallel plates
at a base station. These differences are added to the
to the supporting frame. with this design, the beam is first
absolute gravity at the base stailon to obtain the known
adjusted to its approximate null posiUon using the mi-
absolute gravity values at the field stations. If the sun'ey
crometer screw which is tJlen locked in place. For a small
objective is limited to establishing lateral gravity vari-
site, the micrometer screw adJustment is made once
ations within the site, then any reasonable value can be
during the first base station reading and then left in its assumed for absolute gravity at the base station. One
locked position for the remainder of the survey. For larger approach is to set this value equal to the theoretical
sites or sites with large elevation variations it may be grarrlty. On the final Bouguer gravity contour map the zero
necessary to use several different locked screw posiuons. contour line then passes through the base station. How-
At one screw posiilon the operating range of the Super-G ever, if a site survey is to be merged with other surveys or
gravimeter is 4OO0to 5OOOmicroGals.
lf lt is part of a larger proJect,the base staUon value should

The Professlonal Geologlst o NOVEMBER 1996


be determined through a tie to an absolute base. Absolute
bases are sites scattered around the globe at which the
absolute value of gravity has been established. They are
often located at airports, post offices, and universities.
Wollard and Rose (1963) and the Defense MappingAgency
(1974) provide listings of many of these absolute bases.
Gravimeters drift with time due to spring relaxation and
small temperature changes within the instrument so the
surveys are conducted in a series of closed loops which
begin and end at the base staUon. Gravimeter drift is
assumed to develop linearly with time befween the base
station readlngs so tlee base station value to which a field
reading should be compared is the linear interpolation
between the two base station readings (Figure 3). Base
station ties serve the additional purpose of veriffing that
the instrument has been operating correctly. Problems
occur if the gravimeter is inadvertently bumped or (heaven
forbid!) moved without first locking the beam. If the base
station readings are not approximately equal (e.g. differ-
ences greater than about 20 microGals) the entire loop of
staUons should be repeated. It is generally desirable to
have Ume intervals between base staUon readings no
longer than two hours.
Below are some field procedures that you may want to
consider.
o Consistency is important. Establish a clear and con-
cise field procedure and follow it methodically at every
station.
o Be sure tlte station surveyors are aware that elevation
control is critical. Their surveyed point should be at
ground level and be identical to the one used by the
gravimeter operator. Station elevations are used for
both t}re free-air correction and the Bouguer slab
correcUon and a-n error of oniy O.O15 foot yields a
gravity error of one microGal. Dependir:rg on the type
of surface material, you may want to mark your sta-
Uons with spray paint, chalk, a short stake driven
flush to the ground, a golf tee with ribbon, or (for the
environmentally correct) a handful of crushed shells.
o The height of the gravimeter above the surveyed sta-
tion point should be constant so keep one leveling
screw in a fixed position and use the other two to level
the instrument. This avoids gradually advancing all of
the leveling screws. If the distance befween the meter
and the surveyed ground surface is variable. such as
when using a small platform to get above vegetation or
when tJle legs of tJle leveling plate penetrate the earth
to different depths at different stations. measure this
distance at all stations and add the equivalent free-air
va-luesto all readings. One way to do this is to remove
the bubble level from the leveling plate and use a
narrow ruler to measure the distance between the
plate surface and the elevation control point.
' The gravimeter norrnally sits on a leveling plate with
three bluntly pointed legs. If the ground material yields
under pressure or is soft, like frozen ground near the
cf,
Second base
reading
-r--
L Rrr-t
I m p l i e d b a s es t a t i o n J
I
t
- valuc when the field II
s l a t i o nw a s r e a d
lleter Drift
I
Time that the field I
First base II
reading
station was resd
J
RT
tl
rtlrrrrtlrrrrrlr
e:ff) l r:n)
ii;:
Figure3. Meter drift, The volue to which the reoding ot o field
stotionshouldbe compored isthe lineorinterpolotionbetween
the two bose stotionreoJings.
melting point, asphalt paving in hot weather, or wet
organic soil, tle legs may settle and cause the gravime-
ter level to drift. If this happens, you may want to use
a flat tile instead of the leveling plat.
. Do your best to avoid vibrating or bumping the meter.
if you are going to transport it in an automobile, put
the meter carrying case on a thick slab of foam rubber
on a car seat and use the seatbelt. The leveling screws
protrude from the bottom of tJ.e meter. During the
survey put an additional pad of foam rubber in tle
carrying case so the screws do not pierce the existing
pad and contact the bottom of the case.When shipping
the meter, retract the leveling screws.
. Never move a gravlmeter wlthout B,rst locklng the
bearn! If you do, t].e entire loop of staUons must be
repeated and you may need to reset the micrometer
screw. In extreme cases, you can damage the meter.
o Nearby topographic features such as drainage ditches,
building basements. roadcuts, and small hills will
often not be reflected on the topographic maps or
topographic data bases that are used to find the
terrain corrections (seebelow). However they can have
a significant gravity effect. If you can, avoid them by
locating the stations at distances at lease four times
the height of the feature. Despite the convenience,
locating stations on the berm of a road is also not
advisable, especially if the roadbed involves complex
cut and fill or some staUons are located off the road.
If there is a question about a particular feature, use a
gravity modeling program to find its approximate grav-
ity effect and add Lhis amount to the terrain correcUon.
. Gravimeters are temperature sensitive and have an
internal heating and temperature control system. If
the power is removed from this heating circuit, at least
I2 and preferably 24 hours are needed to reestablish
thermal stabiiity. The Super-G meters are normally
shipped on-heat. They should be placed on a fresh
battery or a power supply as soon as they arrive and
kept on-heat throughout the survey. During tJ.e sur-
vey change to a fresh battery every three to four hours.
A weak battery leads to high meter drift.
\In\rE \4qF. p I OoA . 'Tha D-nfr'qe{nnal flcnlnolsf
o Sunshine can induce thermal gradients in the instru- S p h e r e( c i r c u l a ra n o m a h ' )
ment, so keep the meter out of direct sunlight. When - mlrimum emplilude
operating in sunlight. the operator should position him double helf nidth -, (microcrls)

or herself so their shadow falls on the meter. a wide \

- 0.5 mar. rmplirude
brimmed hat mal'help cast a larger shadow.
o Gravimeters are not waterproof. If you must work in
the rain, use a large umbrella to shield the meter (not
you). Be sure the gravimeter, or emy geophysical in-
strument, is thoroughly dry before putting it awal'. Z = 0.65 ' doublc hrlf *idth

Da ta Reduc t lon a n d In te rp re ta tl o n A .
\-/ [less (lbs) = io.l6 z2(hl . mu. mp.
Both the shallow density structures of interest and
deeper density structures will affect the Bouguer gravity
map that results from a site survey. The deep-seated Horizontal C1'lindar (2-D clongate anomall )
features are generally not of interest but will produce a
regional gradient which needs to be removed before the
double hlwidth ---r - muimum rmplitude
remaining data can be interpreted. One approach to \
(microGds)

removing the regional is to use a computer program, like + - 0.5 mu. emplitude

SURFERR,to fit a continuous polynomial surface to the

gravity data. A first order polynomial (a+bx+cy) or second
ord er p olynomial (a+bx+cy+dx2+ey' *tXy) will often cons ti -
!
tute an appropriate surface. After finding this best fitting Z = 0.5 ' doublc h.lf width

surface, use the coefficients for the polynomial to find and

remove the regional from the data. Then construct the
gravity contour map on the residual. You may want to try
' '
several different polgtomial surfaces to ensure tJlat tJle Mess/lenglh (lbs / ft) = f5.{3 Zlltl mlr.mp.

order of the polynomial does not adversely effect the shape Figure4. Grovityeffect of o sphereond horizontolcylinder,These
of the anomalies of interest. two simplemodelscon often be usedto find the moximumdepth
In general, broader anomalies can be attributed to of o body ond itsexcessor mising moss.
deeper bodies. However, the anomalies due to broad,
shallow bodies will also be broad. The upper limit on tlte
model. Despite this problem, there are some generalities
depth to the source body is inherentJy ambiguous and
which are usually valid.
broad shallow trends over the surveyed area cannot be . Consolidated sediments are more dense than uncon-
distinguished from the regional.
solidated sediments.
For adequately resolved gravity anomalies, there are . Igneous or metamorphic basement rocks are more
some useful models that can help establish the maximum
dense than most sedimentary rocks.
depth to the center of gravity of the causaUve body. Two o Mafic igneous rocks like gabbro are more dense than
of the more useful, shown on Figure 4, are for circular
acidic igneous rocks like granite.
anomalies {the sphere) and elongate two dimensional o Clays exhibit a wide range of densities. The actual
anomalies (horizontal cylinder). When using these rela-
value depends largely on the water content and degree
tions, remember that the middle of the causaUve body
of consolidation.
must be at er above the indicated depth. Once the depths . Glacial till, deposited directly by ice. often has a high
have been determined. the indicated relations can be used
clay content and corresponding wide range of densi-
to find the approximate excess or missing mass.
ties. Glacial alluvium, deposited by melt water, tends
Gravity surveys detect lateral variations in the force of
to have densiUes more representative of unconsoli-
gravity caused by lateral variations in subsurface mass
dated sediments.
density. The density difference between materials is the . Limestone exhibits a wide range of densities depend-
physical property of importance. Figure 5, compiled from
ent on porosity and the extent of the weathering. In
a variety of sources, presents approximate densities and
limestone karst terrains, the degree of weathering is
the range of densities for a variety of materials.
extremely variable.
The broad range of densities evident on Figure 5 indi- o The relaUon between dense anhydrite (CaSOa)and less
cates an inherent ambiguity in tJle interpretaUon of grar'-
dense Srpsum (CaSOa+nHzO)is complex, especially in
ity data. Determination of the actual densities is a
t].e near surface environment.
significant concern and it is generally advisable to con- . There is a predictable relation between density and
sider a family of models which are based on a range of
porostty because air and water are less dense than
possible density contrasts ratJrer than a single unique

r0 T h e P r o f e s s l o n a l G e o l o g i s t o N O V E I V I B E R1 9 9 6
 Denrin (gnr i cc)

mln - lvc - mil

) Figure5. Averoge densitiesond density ronges of geotogic
linconrolidatcd Scdimcnts
moteriols.
Gnvrl t.7-2.O-2.1 -__-=-O__
Srnd t . 1- 2 . 0 - 2 ) -.---|-
sitl ta-t.9-2.2
Clay r.6-:.2-2.6 --------+- aliasing and avoid putting undue emphasis on con-
Srnd & Cley t.7-l.t-z.s
Allurium 1.5-2.0-2.2 toured features that are not supported by actual
latcr l.{-t.6-t.e _-+__
Soil r.2-t.9-2.{
data.
Con3olidrtcd Scdimcnts
Global Posltlonlng Satellites
Sendrlonc 1.6 -2l5 -2.7
Shelc t.r-2..r-J.2 Station coordinates are usually found with con-
Lim.!lonc t.9 - 2J5- 2.9 ---------{-
Dolomitc lJ-7.E-2.9 ventional survey techniques but the Global PosiUon-
Hdirc
Anhydritc
z.r-2-2-2.4
2.9-2.95- 3.0
-4-
ing Satellite (GPS)system can sometimes be used to
Gypsum 2.2 -2J5- 2.6 --.,F-
advantage. GPS was developed by the Department
Corl l.t-tJ-t.t _--#-

Non-velicr.lrr lgneous of Defense to help locate ships, planes, and guns in

Rhyolirc 7J-2.5-2.7 + battle and to provide a reference system for precision
Greniac 2 . s - 2 . 6 5- 2 . r +
Erselt 2.7-J.0-3J guided munitions. The system was rapidly adapted
Grbbro 2.7-J.0-J.5 __+_
Eclogite J.2-J.{-J.6 -___+_ by private and commercial interests and tJresenow
Mcternorphic form the larger portion of the user community. In
Quertirc 2.5-2.6-2.7 + addition to tradiLional surveylng, applications in-
Mrrble 2.6-2.75- 2.e +
Schi!l z.a -2.65- 2.9 + clude hand-held personal locators, air-traffic con-
Gnciss 2.6-l-E-J.0 +
Othcr trol, land surface deformation studies. and
Frrlh Wrtcr 1.0 automobile route maps with real time positioning.
Scr Wetcr 1.03
lcr 0.9 Hurn (1989), Hofmann-Wellenhof and others (1992),
Pc.t t.05
kndnll 0.7 - 0.E - r.{ and Leick (199O) are good GPS references arranged
Avcr.gc ContincntdCrust 2.67
in order of increasing complexity.
t J
The system includes a constellation of 2l satel-
o.nrirt2 1gr. l .ct lites positioned so there are always at least four
above the Earth's horizon at any site. Each satellite
minerals. For water-saturated sediments, an approxi- constantly broadcasts a signal which includes its
mate relation is: orbit and the exact time. The receivers use tl:is informa-
p(gmlcc)=2.7(l-0)+g tion to fine tune their own clocks and find the travel time
where: 2.7 gm/cc is the assumed mineral grain density, to the satellites. Coordinates follow from triangulation on
and 0 is the fractional porosity. pseudo-ranges which are the travel times multiplied by
o Density correlates positively with seismic velocities. tJre speed of light. A variation of this technique uses a
Error E s t lm at lon signal from a fixed second receiver to compensate for the
Always try to estimate your survey error. One error unknown velocity variatlons in the Earth's ionosphere. In
estimate is the sum of 25o/oof the average base station this differential mode, locations can be determined to
drift, 25o/oof the average station elevation closure mulU- about one meter. Without the second reference receiver
plied by 68.5 microGal per foot, and lO% of the average the system accuracy is normally in the 3O to lO0 meter
terrain correctlons. The average station elevaUon closure range.
should be available from the stailon coordinate survey. In The satellite orbit and time signals are modulated or
good conditions these errors can be about five microGals, superimposed on a carrier signal with a wavelength of l9
in optimum conditions they can be smaller than two centimeters. In the more accurate carrier phase mode of
microGals. operation, the receiver locks onto the carrier wave and
Another source of eror results from having the stations essentia-lly counts the number of whole and partial wave-
separated by more than one-half the width of the neurow- lengths for each of tJle tracked satellltes between a fixed
est anomalies, or data aliasing. Fortunately gravity ls less reference base location and the receiver location (Re-
mondi, 1985). This carrier phase mode has an accuracy
suscepUble to aliasing than most other geophysical sur-
of about 1.5 centimeter plus one part per million of the
vey techniques because, with gravify, the effect of large
distant objects is greater than that due to small close base to receiver offset: which is better than or comparable
objects. Optlmum station separation can be established to that normally obtained using conventional survey in-
from an initial calibration survey profile which has the struments. In the right situaUons GPS can providd stalion
staUons relaUvely close together. On a final gravity map, coordinates faster and cheaper than tradiUonal survey-
aliasing is indicated by the occurrence of anomalies that ing. In one survey using GPS in the carrier phase mode,
are the result of only one station. Always post the survey 150 gravity stations were located by one mal in two days:
stations on the Bouguer gravity maps so you can idenUff the base was established during tJle first day and all of
the gravity stations were located on the second day (Riew-

NOVEMBER 1996 . The Professlonal Geoloqlst ll

 erts, I996). Tire principal difficul4' o4* GPS in the carrier
phase mode is t-}.e need to maintain a clear-sky iock on
the satellites which may preclude operaUon in forested or
urban environments. Figure 6 shows a typical deplol.rnent
of the receiver at a gravity station. The equipment is
back-pack portable and does not require a vehicle . Effi-
"
cient GPS operation in the carrier phase mode requires
special training and experience and is normally a con-
tracted service.
Digttal Elevatlon Models and
Terraln Correctlons
Terrain corrections are calculated from some form of
geometricmodel of the actual terrain. One method (Ham-
mer, 1939)is to construct a transparent overlayof con-
centric circles which are each broken into a finite number Figure6. Globol PositioningScrtellitereceiver of o grovity stotion.
of segments. The overiay is centered on the station on a DifferentiolGPSin the corrierphose mode con be usedto locote
topographic map and the average surface elevaUon within grovitystcrtionsif there ore no overheod line-of-sight
obstructionsto
each segment is read off the map and entered into a data the sotellites.
file. The mathematical formula for the vertical attracUon
quads, the elevation data are digitized at 3O meter inter-
of a flat-topped segmented annuli is then used to find the
vals along north-south lines spaced 30 meters apart.
contribution of each segment to the total terrain correc-
Currently about 7Oo/o of the conterminous U.S. is mapped
tion. The Hammer chart method is labor intensive, requir-
by DEMs at this scale and the amount of coverage is
ing about one-half hour per station. Another manual
increaslng rapidly. Full coverage is available at the one-
technique (Barros and Fett, 1991) is to draw equally-
degree and 3O-minute scales.
spaced rays extending out from the station on a topo-
Several computer techniques urreavailable to calculate
graphic map. The range and elevation of each slope break
gravity terrain corrections from digital elevation models.
along each ray Erreread off the map and entered into a
The simplest is to assume that each DEM data point other
data file. Figure 7 is representaUve of the resulting topo-
than the one nearest the station can be represented by a
graphic model along one of the rays. The formula for a
flat-topped rectangular prism. The gravity effect of each
segmented annuli with a slopping top is then used to find
prism is calculated and summed to give a total terrain
the contribution of the each of t]:e blocks between the
correcUon. The accuracy of this technique is limiteci
slope breaks on each of the rays. The manual sloping
because it does not adequately represent the terrain near
wedge technique is more accurate and faster than the
the station. One method of correcting this problem is to
Hammer chart method but lt still requires about twenty
use flat topped rectangular prisms to represent distant
minutes of dedicated effort per station.
features and then approximate the terain near the sta-
tion as a conUnuous polynomial obtained from a least-
squares fit of a conic surface to the digital data. The
contribuUon of t].e near features ls found with numeric
integration of the conic surface (Cogbill, l99O).
Another way to obtain accurate terrain correclions
station from DEMs is similar to the manual sloping wedge tech-
nique except the distances and elevaUons are calculated
Figure7. Terroinmodel used with the slopingwedge technique. by a computer program. The breaks in the wedge surface
Grovityterroincorrectionscon be colculoted by extendingroys are at the intersections of the rays with the square grid
out fromthe stotionon o topogrophicmop ond enteringthe ronge delined by the digital elevation data (Figure 8).An appro-
ond elevotionof the slopebreoksolong the roysinto o computer priate spread-sheet based computer program is available
progrom. in Romanelli (1995). In tests of tJ:e progrEun,convergence
of t]:e calculated tenain corrections was observed to occur
The National Cartographic InformaUon Center of the for 36 or more rays each extending several thousand
U.S. Geological Suwey now distributes digital elevation meters. The accuracy of this computer-driven method is
models (DEMs) of the topography for the conterminous limited by uncertainty in the density that is assumed to
U.S. and Alaska and Hawaii (US. Geological Survey, represent the topography rather than the accuracy of the
1993). These computer data files are formatted as one shape of the model (Romanelli and Barrows, in review).
degree quadrangles, 3O-minute quadrangles, and 7 I /2 Terrain corrections are not always needed butyou need
-minute quadrangles. For the mo_redetailed 7 | /2 -minute to establish that vou do not need them. If you elect not to

12 The Professional Geologist o NOVEMBER I996

 DEI\I Grid
tn terseclrons
Figure8. Slopebreokson o DigitolElevotionModel.A computer
progrom findsthe ronge ond elevqtion of the intersectionsof the
slopingwedge royswith the grid formed from the DEM.
include terrain corrections, then calculate the corrections
for several stations in areas of maximum topography and
accept one half the largest value as your terrain correction
erTor.The largest corrections are usually at the midpoints
of the highest slopes.
C o mput er S uppo rt
High precision gravily surveying is a computer inten-
sive activity and ttre capability to conduct these surveys
requires familiarify with the appropriate systems and
programs. In addition to tJ:ecomputerwhich is an integral
part of the Super-G gravimeter, programs are needed to
prorate meter drift, calculate latitude, free-air, and
Bouguer slab effects, and find the terraln correcUons.
Gravity survey results are usually displayed with a con-
touring package like SURFERR. Also required ts interpre-
tive software that will calcuiate the gravity effect of
different models and display this along with the observed
data. Avariety of modeling software is commercially avail-
able. one is the GMODEL program available from the
LaCoste & Romberg Gravity Meter Company in AusUn,
Texas. This particular prograrn finds the gravity effect of
models assembled from up to 3O spheres, lnfinitely-long
horizontal polygons, finite-length horizontal polygons, or
vertical polygons. The calculaUons may be on, in. or
outside the bodies in the model so it can also be used in
underground surveys (tunnels and mines). A modeling
program is used during survey planning to flnd the
strength and width of the anUcipated signals, during the
survey to lind the terrain effect of questionable features,
and after the survey to find models which fit the observed
gravily data. In addiUon to satisfnng the observed gravity
data, an acceptable model must be consistent with the
available geologic control and be geologically reasonable.
Capabilities
Burled Bedrock Topography
Determiningthe conliguraUonof a bedrock surface
beneath unconsolidated alluvium is a common survey
problem. Applications include designing a foundaUon
which must extend tnto bedrock, developing a geohy-
drologic model for a groundwater contamination problem.
and locating aquifers for a water supply system. In glaci-
ated terrains aquifers often consist of sand and gravel
outwash that was deposited in pre-glacial dralnages be-
fore the landscape was covered by glacial drift.
Unconsolidated alluvium almost always has a lower
density and lower seismic velocity than tJre underlying
bedrock. Exploratory boreholes remain the unequivocal
technique of measurinS depth to bedrock but these are
expensive and relate to single points. Seismic refracUon
soundings zrreuseful for finding the depth and attitude of
the bedrock surface at select locations but these are also
relatively expensive and will not resolve details. Micro-
gravity and especially microgravity coupled with borings
or refraction soundings is usually the most cost efficient
way of solving this problem.
Successful use of gravity for bedrock configuration has
been reported by a variety of authors. Carmichael and
Henry (1977) conducted a survey near Hartford City,
Indiana to help locate additional water supply wells. This
survey helped establish the extent of a buried bedrock
valley and subsequent drilling encountered a productive
sand and gravel aquifer. Denne and others (1984) evalu-
ated the effecliveness of Landsat imagery, shallow earth
temperature, seismic refracUon, electrical resisUvity, and
gravity to resolve buried bedrock valleys in Kansas. For
this problem, they found gravity to be the most effective
technique. Wolfe and Richard [1992) investigated the
ability of various geophysical techniques to resolve the
buried Teays River valley aiong four proliles in Ohio. The
methods i:ncluded gravity, seismic refraction, seismic re-
fection, ground penetrating RADAR, electrical resistivity,
and magnetics. At all four locations gravity demonstrated
the ability to define tJle bedrock conflguration, and the
concluding comments state that gravity used in conjunc-
tion with seismic refraction is the most useful approach.
Adams and Hinze (1990) describe the combined interpre-
taUon of both gravity and geologic data in the interpreta-
tion of a bedrock topography suruey in Indiana. Riewerts
(1996) conducted a high precision gravity survey across
the trend of the now covered ancestral Mississippi River
in Whiteside County, Illinois. The survey employed the
Super-G giravimeter and Global Positioning Satellites in
the carrier phase made and had a maximum error less
than l0 microGals. The valley was clearly resolved as was
a previously unknown bedrock high in the middle of the
channel.
Figure 9 is a theoreLical model of a small, shallow
bedrock valley showing the type of anomaly that should
 Modcl+d Bougutr Grrviq ily anomalies in tJ.e region to support the interpretaUon
of a gravity survey on a proposed landfill site. Figure lO
-T- shows t.Le topography and profile line; Figure I I shows
20 microGels
_J_ obsen'ed and modeled gravify of the anomaly that corre-
lated with the trend of the sinkholes. At this site. approd-
mately I O0 feet of clay-rich glacial drift overlie the
<-- l0o fr--) limestone in which the caves occur. The sinkholes are
interpreted as alluvia-l dolines produced when the drift
i o- washed into the underlying cave system. Shoepac Lake is
5 20-
perched on the glacial drift and is not hydraulically
$o- 2J r vaticd eug3errtion
connected to tJle underlying cave system.
Figure9.Grovitymodel of o buriedbedrockvotley.A highprecision The gravtt5ranomaly on Figure I I is much too large to
grovitysurveyshouldbe oble to resolvethe lorger20ft deep volley be due to an open caverrr. (A water fitled horizontal
ond detect the smollerl0 foot bedrock high ond streomchonnel cylinder fit to this anomaly had a lO0 foot diameter.) The
tholweg. observation that the anomaly ts too large to be attributed
to only open solution cavities is characteristic of gravity
be present. With a five or ten microGal survey accuracy,
anomalies ln karstlands. The interpretaUon is that gravity
the larger twenty-foot deep channel can be easily resolved
anomalies in karstlands result from a combinaUon of
and the smallerten-footridge and stream channel thalweg
open soluUon conduits, older solution conduits that were
are probably detectable.
subsequently filled with sediments, and altered or weath-
Li me sto ne K ar s t So l u ti o n C o n d u l ts ered limestone. When anhydrite is present, the gravity
The ability of gravity to locate solution conduits in karst anomaly would also be partially due to the hydrailon of
terrains has also been noted by a variety of authors. This anhydrite to g,psum.
problem can be important in foundation engineering,
Landftll Cells & Dtfferentlal Compactlon
groundwater polluUon studies, and the development of
Modern solid waste landfills are complex engineered
water supplies. Colley (1963) discussed gravity anomalies
structures that incorporate multiple liners, leachate col-
in an anhydrite karstland in lraq. His examples include
iection systems, stormwater runoff control, impermeable
5O0 to 10O0 microGal anomalies which he attributed to
covers, and methane gas collection. Equally important is
solution caverrrs and the related hydration of anhydrite
controi of the types of material that can be disposed of in
to gSrpsum. Omnes (1977) described the use of micro-
different facilities. Unfortunately older landfills generally
gravity in a limestone karst terrain to locate solution
were not designed to prevent groundwater contamination
caviUes and low density fill ilx local sinks.
He described several examples of sharp
negaUveanomlies of several hundred micro-
Gal that were found by drilting to be associ-
ated with caves or filled sinkholes. Barows
and Fett (1985) describe a high precision
gravity survey of the WIPP radioacilve waste
disposal site in the evaporite strata of the
Delaware Basin in southeastern New Mex-
ico. This survey found negative anomalies of
several hundred microGals that correlated
with closed topographic depressions, lower
seismic velocities, lower gamma-gamma I Sinkhole Trend
borehole densities, and caves. The interpre-
tation included solution removal of halite,
hydration of anhydrite to gypsum, and
caves within carbonate strata. Wenjin and
Jiajian (1990) describe a survey of a con-
struction site in China that successfully
located karst sinkholes and caviUes.
The lead author recently conducted a
profile survey over the trend of a series of
'|0.
karst sinkholes in Presque Isie CountSl, Figure Sinkholetrend ond grovity profile,Theprofilewos surveyedto estoblish
Michigan. The purpose of the profile was to the width ond omplitude of grovity onomoliesossociotedwith korstfeqturesin
establish the characteristics of karstic grav- the region,

I4 The Professlonal Geologlst o NOVEMBER 1996


ShoepacLake Cravitv Prolile
----l-Tr
t i I ' , i
| - + *-,- -'-
if ?t,,
?
t f 1 i
100microGats <- 500 fi->
South
.i
i i
r-rl
open cal'e V \ backfill and
50 x 20 ft ----'/ \- altered limestone
(-1.3 gm/ cc)
(-0.3 gm/ cc)
FigureI L Observedond modeled grovity.Thegrovityonomolyis
much too lorge to be due to only on open solutionconduit or
cove. Sedimentfilledsolutionconduiisond olteredlimestoneore
proboblyolsocontributingto the onomoly.
and there was little or no control over what was deposited.
A major challenge to environmental scientists over the
next couple of decades will be to characterrze, stabilize,
and clean up these abandoned faciliUes. This task re-
quires establishing what is actually down there.
The lateral extent of abandoned landfills can be estab-
lished by magnetic or electromagnetic surveys but at-
tempts to remotely measure their vertical extent have
been less successful. Ground Penetrating RADAR, electri-
cal resistivity, and electromagnetic conductivity are gen-
e ra l l y uns uc c es s f u l b e c a u s e o f th e h e te ro geneous
electrical properties of Lhe fill. Seismic techniques are
compromised because fill material absorbs the higher
frequency energf which is needed for adequate resolution.
Magnetics can provide some depth information but there
remains a lot of ambiguity in the interpretation.
t andfill material typically has densiUes that are much
lower than normal sediments (Figure 5). There is a corre-
sponding negative gravity anomaly that can be measured
and interpreted in terms of the configuration of the fill.
Kick (1993) describes several surveys of landfills in New
England that established the bedrock configuration. He
reported that problems involved in disUnguishing that
part of the gravity anomaly that is due to tJ.e landfill
configuration from that due to geologic density variations
can be handled by careful consideraUon of all available
information. Roberts and others (199O)describe a gravity
survey of a landfill in glacial drift that was used to
establish both the configuration and the mean density of
the lill material.
Another problem is to predict the pattern of subsidence
that will likely occur on the surface of a landfill. This type
of information could help in the design of liners between
piggr-backed landfill cells or tJredevelopment of facilities,
like ski slopes, on abandoned facilities. Theoretical calcu-
lations by the lead author indicate that a high precision
survey should reliably detect areas of lower density within
the fill which should be susceptible to enhanced settling.
Temporal Gravity Surveying
In some instances, the gravity field is not constant with
time and the temporal changes can be diagnostic of an
important process. Examples would be the development
of the gas bubble in a natural Sas storage field or draw-
North
down around a pumping well. A gravity survey to map of
the former could aide in the efficient recovery of injected
gas and in the later case could help define the anisotropic
hydraulic conductivity of the material. Both of these
applications have been shown by modeling to be theoreti-
cally feasible but neither has been applied to an actual
problem. Allis and Hunt (1986) reported on the successful
use of repeated surveys to analyze mass movements in
the Wairakei geothermal field. They observed gravity de-
creases of up to l00O microGals and attributed these to
liquid pressure drawdown and the development of a
stream zone.
Temporal surveying involves repeated gravity measure-
ments at fixed stations. Except for bedrock exposures. the
ground surface is subject to soil moisture variaUons
which can change its density and induce shrink-sweil
disturbances. These introduce additional complexity into
the survey procedures. One approach to the surface
instability problem is to mark the staUons with a piece of
rebar driven to refusal witJrin a four or six foot length of
PVC pipe that has been set in Ern augured boring. The
reference elevation would be the top of the rebar which
would be cut off at or near the ground surface. To
distinguish gravity changes due to density changes from
those due to surface elevation changes, both the gravity
field and the station elevations should be measured dur-
ing each repeat survey. It might also be advisable to
intheapplication
Specialists of
Pressure Technology
Grouting
groundwater
tocontrol flowand
stabilize inkarst
structures terranes.
" TbePressureGroutingSpecialist"
Contact:DaveTaylor 314-828-5858
rr r,^i rrarh . ^rt/: . 6t- - rt-^f---l ^nal l'lcnf nalct I <
measure the depth to tJ-ewater table in monitoring wells
and perhaps t-t.e soil moisture content witJr a neutron
probe.
Un d er gr ound S t o ra g e T a n k s
Federal and state regulations require the removal or
clean closure of abandoned underground storage tanks
(USTs)so they do not leak product into the loca-lground-
water. For some tanks. the actual locaUons are unknowrl.
At outdoor sites, magnetic surveys, ground penetrating
RADAR, or electromagnetic surveys can be used to locate
these tanks.
Occasionally the tanks are iocated beneatJr t-l.efloor of
a building and in a few instances, their locations are also
unknown. The usual survey techniques will generally not Figure12.Grovitysurveyin o deportment store.Thissurveywos
work in these environments but micro$ravity can. A model conducted to eitherlocote on undergroundstorogetonk or estob-
of a 1000 gallon UST in a backlilled tank excavation lishitsobsence.
produced a 12 microGal negaUve gravity anomaly wittr a mounds or excavaUons can be successfully modeled with
double half-width of I1 feet. the previously-mentioned GMODEL program as a se-
The lead author conducted a UST survey ln a wing of a quence of vertical polygons arranged as elevation lnter-
department store that had been constructed over the site vals on a topographic map. First find the density for which
of decommissioned auto service center. removal of an the modeled gravity best fits the observed Bouguer grav-
associated waste oil storage tank had not been docu- ity. The actual mean density of the feature should then
mented and its exact locaUon was unknowrl. The store be the Bouguer slab density used ln data reduction plus
managers were left with the options of showing that the the model density. Depending on the size of the feature,
tank had been removed. showing that it was empfy and details of the model, and accuracy of the gravity measure-
clean, or installing and maintaining a system of ground- ments, resolution car be better tJlan O.O2gm/cc.
water monitoring wells around the store. The gravity
survey was conducted to find if the tank was still present Conclusions
or verify its absence if it had been removed. Figure 12 was Development of electrostaUcally controlled gravime-
taken during the survey and Figure 13 shows tJre result- ters. deploynnent of the Global Positioni.ng Satellite sys-
ing Bouguer contour map. the contour interval is four tem, and availability of Digital ElevaUon Models have
microGals. substantially increased the capabiliUes of high precision
There are several negative anomalies on Figure 13 that gravity surveying. These suweys can now be applied to a
could result from a UST and our initial plans
were to further explore these with small diame-
ter borings. However during the survey, a store
employee explained that she had witnessed tfre
tank removal from the location identified on
Figure 13 as anomaly "A". Presumably the nega-
tive anomaly at this location is a result of the
backlilled tank excavation. The combination of
the eye witness account and the negative gravity
anomaly at her indicated location was sufficient
to satisS the regulators that the tank had been
removed.
De n si t y Det er m ina tl o n s
The average density of a ridge, mound, or ?b

excavation can be found by measuring its grav- 5Z

. {s
ity field and thenconstructing a detailed com-
1,1
puter model of the feature. Complex topographic 40

5b
Figure13.Bouguergrovityin the deportmentstore.The
3Z
negotive onomoly of 'An wos identified by o store
employee os the locotion from which the tonk hod
been previously
removed.

l6 The Professlonal Geologist r NOVEMBER i996

 broad variety of environmental, civil engineerin(, and
hydrologic problems.
unfortunately there is still a lot of misunderstanding
about the actual capabilities and limitations of gravity
surveying and there are a variety of pitfalls that can catch
the unwary. The surveys must be carefully conducted,
data reduction parameters can affect the final results.
terrain correcuons a-reoften important, and all surveys
should include an estimate of the accuracy. Fortunately
these problems can be handled if they are adequately
understood.
This review might appear to be a bit lengthy. However,
we tried to cover all of the basic material that is needed
to conduct a gravity survey. The individual tasks of learn-
ing the necessan/ computer programs and instrument
operations are not parLicularly difficult and can be mas-
tered with a modest dedicated effort. Hopefully this review
will help erplain what is possible and assist others in tl.e
development of a successful gravity suryey capability.
R e fer enc es
Adams,J.M., and W.J. Hirue, lggo, The gravity-geologrtech-
nique of mappingburied bedrocktopographyur Ward, S.H.
(ed.) Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics: Society
of Exploration Geophyslclsts, Tulsa, Oklahoma , p. ZS-126.
Allis. R.G. and r.M. Hunt, 1986, Analysis of exploitauon-induced
gravity changes at the Wairakei geothermal field: Geophys-
l c s .v . 5 1 , n o . 8 . p . 1 6 4 7 - 1 6 6 0 .
Barrows. Larry and J.D. Fett, l9BS, A high-precision gravity
survey in tjre Delaware Basin of southeastern New Mexico:
Geophyslcs, v. 50, no. 5, p. 825-833.
Barrows, tarry and J.D. Fett. 1991, A sloping wedge technique
for calculaUng gravity terrain corrections. Geophysics, v. 56,
no.7, p. IO6l-I063.
Bogli. A., 1980. Karst Hydrotogr and physical Speotogy: Sprin-
ger-Verlag, New York.
Carmichael. R.S. and George Henry, Jr.. lg77, Gravity explora-
Uon for groundwater and bedrock topography in glaciated
areas: Geophysics. v. 42. p. 85O-8S9.
Cogbill. A.H., 1990, Gravity terain correcUons calculated using
digital elevaUon models: Geophyslcs. v. 55, p. lO2-106.
Colley, G.C., 1963. The detecUon of caves by gravity measure-
ments: Geophysical Prospectlug, v. I I, p. l- I l.
Defense Mapping Agency, L974, World Relatlve Gravlty Refer-
ence Network Part l, North Americe. Aero Space Center,
St. l,ouis Airforce StaUon, St. lnuis. MO. v. 2.
Denne, J.E. and others, 1984. Remote sensing and geophvsical
invesUgaUons of glacial buried valleys in northeastern Kan-
sas: Groundwater, v.22. no. I, p. 56-65.
Hammer, S., 1939, Terrain corrections for gravimeter station:
G e o p h y s l c s ,v . 4 , p . 1 8 4 - 1 9 4 .
Hienze, W.J.. 1990, The role if gravity and magneUc methods in
engineering and environmental studies in Ward, S.H. (ed.)
Geotechnical and Enrrironmental Geophysics: Soclety of
Erploratlon Geophyslcists, Tulsa, Oklahoma, p. TS-126.
Hofmann-Wellenhof, B. and others, LggZ. GpS: Theory and
Practice: Springer-Verlag Wien, New York, 326 p.
Hurn, Jeff, 1989, GPS: A Gutde to the Next Utillty: Trtmble
Navigation, Sunnlwale, California, 76 p.
Keck, J.F.. 1993. Landfill invesugations in New England using
gravity methods: symposium on the Applications of Geo-
physics to Engineering and En'rironmental problems, socl-
ety of Envlronmental and Englneerlng Geophysical
Society.
Lacoste, Lucien J.B.. 1934. A new type long period verLical
seismograph:Physlcs, v. 5, no. Z.
kick, Alfred. 1990. GPS Sateltlte Surveylng: John Wiley &
S o n s .N e w Y o r k . 3 5 2 p .
l.ongman, I.M., 1959, Formulas for compuung the tidal accelera-
tions due to the moon and sun: Jourual of Geophysical
R e s e a r c h :v . 6 4 . p . 2 3 5 1 - 2 3 5 5 .
Nettleton, L.L., 1976, Gravity and Magnetics in Oil prospect-
lng: McGraw-Hill, New York, 464 p.
omnes, G., 1977, High accuracy gravity applied to the detection
of karsUc ca',rities yr Tolson, J.S. and F.L. Doyle (eds.),
Proceedings of the Twelfth Internauonal conference on Karst
Hydrology: Unlversity of Alaba'na press, Huntsville, Ala-
bama.
Parasins, D.S., 1986. Principles of Applled Geophyslcs: Chap-
man and Hall, london. England.
Remondi, 8.W.. 1995, Global posltioning System Carrier
Phase: Descriptlon and Use: NOAA Technical Memoran-
dum NOS NGS-42.
Riewerts.8.M., 1996. Assessment of microgravity to delineate a
buried bedrock valley: Illtnois State Universlty, Master's
Thesis.
Roberts, R.L., W.J. Hinze. and D.l. lcap, lgg0, ApplicaLion of the
gravity method to invesUgation of a landfill in glaciated
midcontinent. U.S.A. rr Ward. S.H. (ed.) Geotechnical and
Environmental Geophysics: Soclety of Erploration Geo-
physicists, Tulsa. Oklahoma. P. 2Sg-259.
Robinson, E.S. and Cahit Coruh, Ig8B, Basic Erploraflon Geo-
physics: John Wiley and Sons. New york.
Romanelli. A.J.. 1995, Gravity terrain corrections from digital
;*'
elevaUon models uUlizing the sloping-wedge technique: trU-
nols State Universlty, Master's Thesis.
Romanelli, A.J. and Larry Barrows, in review, Gravity terrain
corrections from digitai elevaUon models: Geophysics.
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