Transformer Protection

Transformer Protection
Introduction
The development of modern power systems has been reflected in the advances in transformer design. This has result in a wide range of transformers with sizes ranging from a few kVA to several hundred MVA being available for use in a wide varity of applications. The considerations for a transformer protection package vary with the application and importance of the transformers.
Introduction
Small distribution transformers can be protected satisfactorily, from both technical and economic considerations, by thee use of fuse or overcurrent relays. This result in time-delayed protection. However, time-delayed fault clearance is unacceptable on larger power transformers, due to system operation/stability and cost.
Introduction
Transformer faults are generally classified in to five categories:
Winding and terminal faults Core faults Tank and transformer accessory faults On-load tap changer faults OnAbnormal operation conditions Sustained or uncleared external faults
Winding and terminal Core Tank and accessories OLTC
Transformer faults
Winding fault A fault on transformer winding is controlled in magnitude by the following factor:
Source impedance Neutral earthing impedance Transformer leakage reactance Fault voltage Winding connection
Transformer faults
Star-Connected Winding with Neutral Point Earthed through an impedance
The winding earth fault current depends on the earthing impedance value and is also proportional to the distance of the fault from neutral point, since the fault voltage will be directly proportional to this distance.
Transformer faults
X I primary
Earth fault current in resistance-earth star winding
Transformer faults
IF as multiple of IFL 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 .1 .2 Star side Delta side
.3 .4 .5 .6
.7 .8 .9
1.0
X p.u.
- Star-connected winding with neutral point earthed through an impedance
Transformer faults
Star-Connected Winding with Neutral Point Earthed through an impedance For fault on transformer secondary winding, the corresponding primary current will depend on the transformation ratio between the primary winding and short-circuited secondary turns. Faults in the lower third of the winding produce very little current in the primary winding, making fault detection by primary current measurement difficult.
Transformer faults
Star-Connected Winding With Neutral Point Solidly Earthed The fault current is controlled mainly by the leakage reactance of the winding, which varies in a complex manner with position of the fault. For faults close to the neutral end of winding the reactance is very low, and results in the highest fault current.
Transformer faults
Current ( per unit ) 15 Fault current 10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Distance of fault from neutral (percentage of winding)
Primary current
Earth fault current in solidly earthed star winding
Transformer faults
Star-Connected Winding With Neutral Point Solidly Earthed The primary winding fault current is determined by the variable transformation ratio; as the secondary fault current magnitude stays high throughout the winding, the primary fault current is large for most points along the winding.
Transformer faults
Delta connected winding No part of a delta-connected winding operates with a voltage to earth of less than 50% of the phase voltage, and the impedance of a delta winding is particularly high to fault currents flowing to a centrally placed fault on one leg. The earth fault current may be no more than the rated current, or even less than this value if the source or system earthing impedance is appreciable.
Transformer faults Delta connected winding

The current will flow to the fault from each side to the two half windings, and will be divided between two phases of the system. The individual phase currents may therefore be relatively low, resulting in difficulties in providing protection.
Transformer faults
Phase to Phase Fault Fault between phases with in transformer are relative rare; if such a fault does occur if will give rise to a substantial current comparable to earth fault currents.
Transformer faults
Interturn faults In low voltage transformers, interturn insulation breakdown is unlikely to occur unless the mechanical force on winding due to external short circuits has caused insulation degradation, or insulating oil has caused contaminated by moisture. In high voltage transformers, connected to an overhead transmission system will be subjected to steep fronted impulse voltages, arising from lightning strikes, faults and switching operations, caused interturn isolation breakdown.
Transformer faults
Interturn faults A short circuit of a few turns of winding will give rise to a heavy fault current in the short-circuited loop, but the terminal current will be small, because of high ratio of transformer between the whole winding and the short-circuited turns.
Transformer faults
100 80 Fault current in short circuited turns 10 8 6 Primary input current
70 60 40
10
15
20
25
Turns short circuited (% of winding)
Shows the corresponding data for a typical transformer 3.25% impedance with the short-circuited shortturns symmetrically located in the centre of the winding
Primary current (multiples of rated current)
Fault current (multiples of rated current)
Transformer faults
Core faults A conducting bridge across the laminated structures of the core can permit sufficient eddycurrent to flow to cause serious overheating. The bolts that clamp the core together are always insulated to avoid this trouble. If any portion of the core insulation become defective, the resultant heating may reach a magnitude sufficient to damage the winding. The additional core loss, although causing severe local heating.
Transformer faults
Tank faults Loss of oil through tank leaks will ultimately produce a dangerous condition, either because of a reduction in winding insulation or because of overheating on load due to the loss of cooling.
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Transformer faults
Externally Applied Conditions
Sources of abnormal stress in a transformer are
Overload System faults Over voltage Reduced system frequency
Transformer faults
Overload Overload causes increased copper loss and a consequent temperature rise. System faults System short circuits produce a relatively intense rate of heating of the feeding transformers, the copper loss increasing in proportion to square of the per unit fault current.
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Transformer faults
Transformer reactance (%) 4 5 6 7 Fault current (Multiple of rating) 25 20 16.6 14.2 Permitted fault duration (seconds) 2 2 2 2
The typical duration of external short-circuits that a transformer can sustain without damage if the current is limited only by the self-reactance is shown in table.
Transformer faults
Over voltage
Transient surge voltages Transient overvoltages arise from faults, switching and lightning disturbances and are liable to cause interturn faults. Power frequency overvoltage Power frequency overvoltage causes both an increase in stress on the insulation and a proportionate increase in the working flux, this lead to a rapid temperature rise in the bolts, destroying their insulation if the condition continues.
12
Transformer faults
Reduced system frequency Reduction of system frequency has an effect with regard to flux density, similar to that of overvoltage. overvoltage. If follows that a transformer can operate with some degree of overvoltage with a corresponding increase in frequency, but operation must not be continued with a high voltage input and low frequency. Operation can not be sustained when the ratio of voltage to frequency with these quantities given values in per unit of their rated valued, exceeds unity by more than a small amount, for instance if V/f = 1.1
Transformer faults
Magnetising inrush current The phenomenon of magnetising inrush is a transient condition that occurs primarily when a transformer is energized. It is not a fault condition, and therefore transformer protection must remain stable during the inrush transient.
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Transformer faults
Magnetising inrush current
Transient flux 80% residual at switching Flux Normal peak flux Flux and Voltage Transient flux no residual at switching Steady state flux
Magnetizing current
Time
Typical magnetising characteristic
Steady and maximum offset fluxes
Transformer faults
Transient flux 80% residual at switching Transient flux no residual at switching Steady state flux
Flux and Voltage
Time
Magnetising inrush current Under normal steady-state conditions the magnetising current associated with the operation flux level is relative small.
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Transformer faults
Transient flux 80% residual at switching
Flux and Voltage
Transient flux no residual at switching
Steady state flux
Time
Magnetising inrush current However, if a transformer winding is energized at a voltage zero, with no remanent flux, the flux level during the first voltage cycle (2* normal flux) will result in core saturation and a high non-sinusoidal magnetising current waveform.
Transformer faults
Slow decrement
Zero axis
Typical inrush current
Magnetising inrush current The energizing conditions that result in an offset current produce a waveform that is asymmetrical. Such a wave typically contains both even and odd harmonics.
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Transformer faults
Slow decrement
Zero axis

Harmonic content Component typical value DC 55% 2nd 63% 3rd 26.8% 4th 5.1% 5th 4.1% 6th 3.7% 7th 2.4%
Magnetising inrush current Typical inrush currents contain substantial amounts of second and third harmonics and diminishing amounts of higher order.
Transformer faults
Slow decrement
Zero axis
Magnetising inrush current This current is referred to as magnetising inrush and may persist for several cycles.
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The problems relating to transformers require some means of protection. protection. In the table, summaries the problems and the possible form of possible protection that may be used. Fault Type
Primary winding Phase-phase fault PhasePrimary winding Phase-earth fault PhaseSecondary winding Phase-phase fault PhaseSecondary winding Phase-earth fault PhaseInterturn Fault Core Fault Tank Fault Overfluxing Overheating
Protection Used
Differential; Overcurrent Differential; Overcurrent Differential Differential; Restricted Earth Fault Differential; Buchholz Differential; Buchholz Differential; Buchholz; Tank-Earth TankOverfluxing Thermal
Transformer over current protection Fuses: Fuses commonly protect small distribution transformers typically up to ratings of 1 MVA at distribution voltages.
The fuse must have a rating well above the maximum transformer load current in order to withstand the short duration overloads that may occur. Also, the fuses must withstand the magnetising inrush currents drawn when power transformers are energized.
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Transformer over current protection Overcurrent relays: overcurrent relays are also used on larger transformers provided withstand circuit breaker control. The time delay characteristic should be chosen to discriminate with circuit protection on the secondary side.
Restricted earth fault protection This is particularly the case for a starconnected winding with an impedance-earthed neutral, because of faults in the winding produce very little current in the primary winding, making fault detection by primary current measurement difficult. This is a unit protection scheme for one winding of the transformer. If can be of the high impedance type or of the biased low impedance type.
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>
High Impedance relay
Restricted earth fault protection

For the high-impedance type, the residual current of three current transformers is balance against the output of current transformer in neutral conductor.
Restricted earth fault protection In the biased low-impedance version, the three phase currents and neutral current become the bias inputs to a differential element. The system is operative for faults with in the region between current transformers, that is, for faults on the star winding in question. The system remain stable for all faults outside this zone.
19
Differential protection
A differential system can be arranged to cover the complete transformer.
Id >
The principle, current transformers on the primary and secondary sides are connected to form a circulating current system.
Id >
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In applying the principles of differential protection to transformers, a variety of considerations have to be taken to account. Correction for possible phase shift across the transformer winding. (phase correction) The effects of the variety of earthing and winding arrangements. (filter of zero sequence currents) Correction for possible unbalance of signals from CTs on either side of the winding. (ratio correction) The effect of magnetising inrush during initial energization. The possible occurrence of overfluxing.
Phase correction Correct operation of transformer differential protection requires that the transformer primary and secondary currents, are measured by the relay, are in phase. If the transformer is connected delta/star, balance three-phase through current suffers a phase change of 30 degree. If left uncorrected, this phase difference would lead to the relay seeing through current as an unbalanced fault current, and result in relay operation.
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Phase correction
Id >
Id >
Id >
Differential protection for two-winding delta/star transformer
Phase correction
Electromechanical and static relays use appropriate CT/ICT connections to ensure that the primary and secondary current applied to the relay are in phase. For digital and numerical relays, it is common to use star-connected line CTs on all windings of the transformer and compensate for the winding phase shift in software. Depending on relay design, the only data required in such circumstances may be the transformer vector group designation. Phase compensation is then performed automatically.
22
Filtering of zero sequence current The differential protection will see zero sequence differential current for an external fault and if could incorrectly operate as a result. This is to ensure that out-of-zone earth faults are not seen by the transformer protection as an in-zone-fault. This is achieved by use of delta-connected line CTs or interposing CTs for older relays. For digital/numerical relays, the required filtering is applied in relay software.
Ratio correction Correct operation of the differential element requires that currents in the differential element balance under load and through fault conditions. As the primary and secondary line CTs ratios may not exactly match the transformer rated winding currents, digital/numerical relays are provided with ratio connection factors for each of CT inputs. The connection factors may be calculated automatically by the relay from knowledge of the line CT ratios and the transformer MVA rating.
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Bias setting
Bias is applied to transformer differential protection for the same reasons as any unit protection scheme to ensure stability for external faults while allowing sensitive settings to pick up internal faults. Some relays use a bias characteristic with three sections. The first section is set higher than the transformer magnetising current. The second section is set to allow for off-nominal tap settings, while the third has a larger bias slope beginning well above rated current to cater for heavy through-fault condition.
Bias setting
Differential current (*Id) 3 Operate 2
30% s lop e
Setting range (0.1-0.5Id)
Restrain 1 2 3 4 5 6
Effective bias (*In) Typical bias characteristic
70 %
sl
op e
24
Transformer with multiple winding
The unit protection principle remains valid for a system having more than two connections, so a transformer with three or more windings can still be protected by the same application.
Id >

When the power transformer has only one of its three winding connected to a source of supply with the other two winding feeding loads, a relay with only two sets of CT inputs can be used.
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Id >

When more than one source of fault current infeed exists, These is a danger in the scheme of current circulating between the two paralleled sets of CTs without producing any bias it is therefore important a relay is used with separate CT input for the two secondaries.
Y Y
Id >

When the third winding consists of a delta-connected tertiary with no connections brought out, the transformer may be regarded as a two winding transformer for protection purpose and protected.
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Stabilisation during magnetising inrush condition The inrush current, although generally resembling an in-zone fault current, differs greatly when the waveforms are compared. The difference in the waveforms can be used to distinguish between the conditions. Normal fault currents do not contain second or other even harmonics. The output of a CT that is energized into steady state saturation will contain odd harmonics but not even harmonics.
Stabilisation during magnetising inrush condition The second harmonic is therefore an attractive basis for a stabilising bias against inrush effects. The differential current is passed through a filter that extracts the second harmonics. This component is then applied to produce a restraining quantity sufficient to overcome the operating tendency due to the whole of the inrush current that flows in the operating circuit.
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Overfluxing protection Overfluxing arises principally from the following system conditions.
High system voltage Low system frequency Geomagnetic disturbances
The latter result in low frequency earth currents circulating through a transmission system.
Overfluxing protection Since momentary system disturbances can cause transient overfluxing that is not dangerous time delay tripping is required. The protection is initiated if a defined V/f threshold is exceeded. Geomagnetic disturbance may result in overfluxing without the V/f threshold being exceeded. Some relays provide a 5th harmonic detection feature, which can be used to detect such a condition, as levels of this harmonic rise under overfluxing conditions.
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Oil and gas device
All faults below oil on an oil-immersed transformer result in localised heating and breakdown of the oil; some degree of arcing will always take place in a winding fault and the resulting decomposition of the oil will release gases.
Buchholz protection
Buchholz protection is normally provided on all transformers fitted with a conservator. A typical Buchholz relay will have two sets of contacts. One is arranged to operate for slow accumulations of gas, the other for bulk displacement of oil in the event of a heavy internal fault.
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Buchholz protection
Conservator
76mm typical Transformer
Buchholz relay mounting arrangement
Buchholz protection The device will therefore give an alarm for following fault conditions, all of which are of a low order of urgency.
Hot spots on the core due to short circuit of lamination insulation. Core bolt insulation failure Faulty joints Interturn faults or other winding faults involving only lower power infeeds Loss of oil due to leakage
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Buchholz protection
When a major winding fault occurs, this causes a surge of oil, which displaces the lower float and thus cause isolation of transformer. This action will take place for All severe winding faults, either to earth or interphase. Loss of oil if allowed to continue to a dangerous degree.
Neutral displacement An earth fault occurring on the feeder connected to an unearthed transformer winding should be cleared by the feeder circuit, but if there is also a source of supply on the other side of the transformer, the feeder may be still live. The feeder will then be a local unearthed system, and if the earth fault continues in an arcing condition, dangerous overvoltages may occur.
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Ursd
Residual voltage relay
Neutral displacement
A voltage relay is energized from the broken-delta connected secondary brokenwinding of a voltage transformer on the high voltage line, and receives an input receives proportion to the zero sequence voltage of the line, that is, to any displacement of the neutral point.
Neutral displacement
Ursd
Residual voltage relay
The relay normally ,receives zero voltage but, in the presence of an earth fault, the broken-delta voltage will rise to three times the brokenphase voltage.
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Example of transformer protection setting
Primary CTs Secondary CTs
Id >
Primary ICTs Unit protection relay Secondary ICTs
A delta-star Dyn1, 25 MVA 115/22 kV transformer with the deltadifferential relay without phase and ratio compensation software implemented.
Phase compensation
0
Yy0
-30 Y
Yy0
0
Yy0 Primary ICTs
0 Id >
Unit protection relay Yd11 Secondary ICTs
For simplicity, the CTs on the primary and secondary windings of the CT transformer are connected in star. Selection of Yy0 connection for the primary side ICTs and Yd11 (+30 ) for the ICT secondary side ICTs provides the required phase shift and the zero-sequence trap ICT zeroon the secondary side.
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Ratio correction
Primary CTs Yy0 300/5 Secondary CTs Yy0 1200/5
Yy0
Primary ICTs
Id >
Unit protection relay
Yd11
Secondary ICTs
Ratio correction
High side full load current on secondary of main CTs is CT
25 MVA 3 * 115 kV * 5 300
= 2.0919 Amp. Select full load current via ICTs (Yy0) to relay nearest 3 Amp. So, select turn ratio of ICTs Yy0 = 62/42 Turns So, full load current to relay is = 2.0919 * 62 42
= 3.0881 Amp.
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Ratio correction
Low side full load current on secondary of main CTs is CT
25 MVA 3 * 22 kV * 5 1200
= 2.7337 Amp. Select full load current via ICTs (Yd11) to relay nearest 3 Amp. So, select turn ratio of ICTs Yd11 = 31/48 Turns So, full load current to relay is = 2.7337 * 31 * 3 48
= 3.0579 Amp.
Bias setting
Primary CTs Yy0 300/5 Secondary CTs Yy0 1200/5
Yy0 62/42 T Id >

Primary ICTs Unit protection relay
Yd11 31/48 T
Secondary ICTs
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Bias setting
% Mismatch of full load current between two side of transformer is
3.0881 3.0579 3.0881 + 3.0579 2 = 0.98064 % * 100 %
% of CTs error approximately 10 % CT % of on load tap change of transformer approximate 10 % % of Total mismatch = 20.98 % of 3.073 Amp If relay rated 5 Amp so = 12.897 % of In.
A current setting of 20% of rated relay current is recommended. The most relay have a dual slope bias characteristic with fixed bias slope setting about 20% up to rated rated current and about 80% above that level.
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Transformer Protection

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Transformer Protection

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Transformer Protection

Winding and terminal Core Tank and accessories OLTC

Earth fault current in resistance-earth star winding

- Star-connected winding with neutral point earthed through an impedance

Earth fault current in solidly earthed star winding

Transformer faults Delta connected winding

Turns short circuited (% of winding)

Primary current (multiples of rated current)

Fault current (multiples of rated current)

Typical magnetising characteristic

Steady and maximum offset fluxes

Flux and Voltage

Flux and Voltage

Transient flux no residual at switching

Steady state flux

Typical inrush current

Typical inrush current

Typical inrush current

High Impedance relay

Restricted earth fault protection

Differential protection for two-winding delta/star transformer

Setting range (0.1-0.5Id)

Effective bias (*In) Typical bias characteristic

Transformer with multiple winding

Transformer with multiple winding

Transformer with multiple winding

76mm typical Transformer

Buchholz relay mounting arrangement

Residual voltage relay

Residual voltage relay

Yy0 62/42 T Id >

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